UNIT- II: JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow through it in only one
direction. Diodes have two active electrodes (Anode and Cathode) between which the
signal flow, and most are used for their unidirectional electric current property .
Symbol:

The arrow of the symbol of diode indicates the current flows from the anode side to the
cathode side whenever the diode is forward biased.

1. JUNCTION THEORY
The most important characteristic of a PN-junction is its ability to conduct current in one
direction only. In the other (reverse) direction it offers very high resistance.
1.1. Pn Junction with no external voltage
The figure (a) shows a PN-junction just immediately after it is formed. The P region has
holes and negatively charged immobile ions. The N region has free electrons and
positively charged immobile ions. Holes and electrons are the mobile charges, but the
ions are immobile. The sample as a whole is electrically neutral.
• Holes from the P region diffuse into the N region. They then combine with the free
electrons in the N region.
• Free electrons from the N region diffuse into the P region. These electrons combine
with the holes.
• The diffusion of holes (from P region to N region) and electrons (from N region to P
region) takes place because there is a difference in their concentrations in the two
regions. The P region has more holes and the N region has more free electrons.
• The diffusion of holes and free electrons across the junction occurs for a very short
time. After a few recombinations of holes and electrons in the immediate neighborhood
of the junction, a restraining force is set up automatically. This force is called a barrier.
Further diffusion of holes and electrons from one side to the other is stopped by this
barrier.
 Fig.a:PN-junction when just formed. Fig.b: Space-charge region or depletion region
is formed in the vicinity of the junction

Fig.c: Forward Biased PN-junction. Fig.d: Reverse Biased PN-junction.

• The region containing the uncompensated acceptor and donor ions is called depletion
region. That is, there is a depletion of mobile charges (holes and free electrons) in this
region. Since this region has immobile (fixed) ions which are electrically charged it is also
referred to as the space-charge region. The electric field between the acceptor and the
donor ions is called a barrier.
• The physical distance from one side of the barrier to the other is referred to as the
width of the barrier. The difference of potential from one side of the barrier to the other
side is referred to as the height of the barrier.
• For a silicon PN-junction, the barrier potential is about 0.7 V, whereas for a
germanium PN-junction it is approximately 0.3 V.
• The barrier discourages the diffusion of majority carriers across the Junction. The
barrier helps the minority carriers to drift across the junction. The minority carriers are
constantly generated due to thermal energy. The drift of minority carriers across the
junction is counterbalanced by the diffusion of the same number of majority carriers
across the junction. The barrier height adjusts itself so that the flow of minority carriers is
exactly balanced by the flow of majority carriers across the junction.
1.2. FORWARD BIAS
• A PN junction is
said to be forward-
biased, if the positive
terminal of the battery
is connected to the P-
side and the negative
terminal to the N-side,
as shown in Fig.c.
• When the PN-
junction is forward-
biased, the holes are
Fig.: V-I characteristics of PN-junction.
repelled from the
positive terminal of the battery and move towards the junction. The electrons are repelled
from the negative terminal of the battery and drift towards the junction. Because of their
acquired energy, some of the holes and the free electrons penetrate the depletion region.
This reduces the potential barrier. The width of the depletion region reduces and so does
the barrier height. As a result of this, more majority carriers diffuse across the junction.
These carriers recombine and cause movement of charge carriers in the space-charge
region.
• For each recombination of free electron and hole that occurs, an electron from the
negative terminal of the battery enters the N-type material. It then drifts towards the
junction. Similarly, in the P-type material near the positive terminal of the battery, an
electron breaks a bond in the crystal and enters the positive terminal of the battery. For
each electron that breaks its bond, a hole is created. This hole drifts towards the junction.
Note that there is a continuous electron current in the external circuit. The current in the
P-type material is due to the movement of holes. The current in the N-type material is due
to the movement of electrons. The current continues as long as the battery is in the circuit.
If the battery voltage is increased, the barrier potential is further reduced. More majority
carriers diffuse across the junction. This results in an increased current through the PN-
junction.
• Cutin voltage (V): It is the forward voltage after which the forward current of the

diode increases rapidly (in an exponential manner). V is approximately 0.2 V for

germanium and 0.6 V for silicon.

1.3. REVERSE BIAS

• If the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type material and the
positive terminal of the battery to the N-type material, then PN junction is said o be reverse
biased. The holes in the P region are attracted towards the negative terminal of the
battery. The electrons in the N region are attracted to the positive terminal of the battery.
Thus the majority carriers are drawn away from the junction. This action widens the
depletion region and increases the barrier potential (compare this with the unbiased PN-
junction of Fig. b).
• The increased barrier potential makes it more difficult for the majority carriers to diffuse
across the junction. However, this barrier potential is helpful to the minority carriers in
crossing the junction. In fact, as soon as a minority carrier is generated, it is swept (or
drifted) across the junction because of the barrier potential. The rate of generation of
minority carriers depends upon temperature. If the temperature is fixed, the rate of
generation of minority carriers remains constant. Therefore, the current due to the flow of
minority carriers remains the same whether the battery voltage is low or high. For this
reason, this current is called reverse saturation current. This current is very small as the
number of minority carriers is small. It is of the order of nano amperes in silicon diodes
and microamperes in germanium diodes.

• Note: For every 10c rise in temperature, reverse saturation current will be
doubled.
2. ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM OF A P-N JUNCTION UNDER OPEN-CIRCUIT
CONDITIONS

Fig: Band diagram for a p-n junction under open-circuit conditions.

When P and n-type material are put together, Fermi level re-adjusts due to movements
of charge carriers initially. At equilibrium Fermi level is same in both P & n-side. However
EF closer to EC in N type material and closer to Ev in P type material. Conduction band in

P type is at a higher level compared to that in n-type. This creates a Energy Hill or Energy
Barrier, for the electrons on n-side, denoted by Eo and given by:

EF – EVP = ½EG - E1 and ECn – EF = ½EG - E2

Adding these two equations,
EO= E1 + E2 =EG - (ECn - EF) - (EF - EVp)
We know that,
 
 EC  E F / kT  E F  E / kT
n  NC e p  N e
So
 
 N C N v e   EG  / kT
 EC  EV / kT
np  ni2  N C N v e
 

We know that,

Using these equations

3. DIODE CURRENT EQUATION:

Let us derive the

expression for the total
current as a function of
applied voltage
assuming that the
width of the depletion
region is zero. When
the recombination at
the junction are zero
then the hole
concentration at the
junction boundary of P
– region is equal to the
hole concentration at Fig: The hole and electron-current diffusion
components vs. distance in a p-n junction diode.
the junction boundary
of n – region. When
the recombination starts the hole concentration in n-region decreases and becomes zero.
Therefore Drift current is also zero. Drift current due to hole is
dqP
JP = PqpE – q D P
dx
dqP
 0 = Pq pE – q D P
dx
dqP
Pq pE = q D P
dx
DP 1 dP
 E=
 p P dx
According to Einstein’s equation

DP Dn
 VT ;
p n
VT dP  dV VT dP   dV 
E= E  E  
P dx dx P dx  dx 
dV  dP

VT P

Let Pno be the hole concentration near the junction in n- region for an unbiased diode
and Pn(o) be the hole concentration near the junction in n- region when the diode is
biased.
Pn(o) is higher than Pno

v p n 0 
 ln p  p n o 
1 1 V
 VT dV  
p
dP 
o p no
P VT no

V ln Pn o   Pno  
 ln pn o   ln pno  
V
  ln  
VT VT lnPno   Pno 

pno   pno eV / VT

This is termed as the law of junction

dP dP
JP Diffusion =  q Dp ; IP = JP Diffusion. A = -q Dp A
dx dx

Let pno  is the excess hole concentration when it is forward bias.

pno  = pno   pno
Let Lp be the diffusion current and at Lp the effective hole concentration is zero (i.e., x 2
= 0)

dp P2  P1 O  pno   pno    pn o   qDpA

    I P  qDpA  
 ( pn o   pn )
dx x2  x1 Lp  O Lp  Lp  Lp
 
pno   pno   pno  pno eV / VT  pno  Pn o   Pno eV / VT  1

IP 
Lp
e 
AqDp pno V / VT
1 
Let npo be the electron concentration near the junction in p- region for an unbiased
diode.

In 
AqDn n po
Ln
e V / VT

1

Total current  I = IP + In

 Aq Dp p no AqDn n po  V / VT
I    e  1
 Lp Ln 


I  I o eV / VT  1 
Aq Dp pno Aq Dn n po
Where Io is the reverse saturation current Io  
Lp Ln


I  I o eV / VT  1 
Where I = diode current; Io=diode reverse saturation current
V= external voltage applied to the diode
 = a constant; for Germanium =1
for Silicon =2
kT T
V T=  ( Thermal Voltage); k=Boltzman’s constant ( 1.38033 x 10 -23 J/k)
q 11,600
q=Charge of the election ( 1.60219 x 10-19C);
T = Temperature of the diode junction (ok)
4. Diode Equivalent Circuit:
1) Ideal Diode

2) Diode with Cut in voltage V or Vo or VF

3) Diode with Cut in voltage and Forward Resistance

4) Diode with Cut in voltage , Forward Resistance and Reverse resistance

5. STATIC AND DYNAMIC RESISTANCES OF DIODE
a) DC or Static Resistance:
The static resistance Rf is defined as the ratio of the d.c. voltage applied across
thc p-n junction to the d.c. current flowing through the p-n unction.
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑓 =
𝐼𝐷
The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance levels
obtained for the vertical rise section of the characteristics. Rf is independent of the shape
of the characteristic in the region surrounding the point of interest.

b) AC or Dynamic Resistance
The resistance offered by the p-n junction under a.c. conditions is called Dynamic
Resistance.
The Dynamic Resistance is reciprocal of the slope of the forward characteristics (Dynamic
Forward Resistance) or Reverse characteristics (Dynamic Reverse Resistance).
𝑑𝑉
𝑅𝑑 =
𝑑𝐼
Where dV, dI signifies a finite change in the quantity.
dV VT VT VT
Rd    
dI V
VT
I  Io I
Ioe

VT
Dynamic Resistance of a Diode Rd 
I
kT
Where VT = Thermal equilibrium Voltage , V T = ,
q
At room Temperature VT = 26 mv and for η = 1 for Ge , η = 2 for Si .
26
Rd 
I
For lesser values of I , η = 2 for Si and Rd must be multiplied by a factor of 2.
6. Effect of Temperature on Diodes
VGo
VT
The dependence of Io on temperature (T) is given by, I o  KT em

Where K = Constant independent of Temperature (Not the Boltzmann’s Constant)

m=2 for Ge and 1.5 for Si
VGo =Forbidden Energy gap at 0oK = 0.785V for Ge and 1.21V for Si.
 Ideally the reverse saturation current increases approximately 11% per oC for Ge and
8% per oC for Si. Experimentally, It is found that the reverse saturation current
increases approximately 7% per oC for both Ge and Si.(or) the reverse saturation
current doubles for every 10 oC rise in temperature.
 The Cutin voltage (V) decreases by an amount of 2.5mV for every 1oC rise in
temperature.

7. TRANSITION CAPACITANCE (CT) OF A STEP GRADED JUNCTION

When the diode is reverse biased we
observe the transition capacitance.
dQ
It is give by CT 
dV
Where dQ is the increase in charge caused
by change in voltage dV . Consider a step-
graded junction i.e., one region is heavily
doped and another region is lightly doped.

Suppose that p-region is heavily doped and

n- region is lightly doped.( NA>> ND, ND =
Donor ion concentration, NA = Acceptor ion
concentration).
Since the barrier is always neutral, then
Wp NA = Wn ND --------- (1)
Fig. (a) A reverse biased p-n step-graded
If NA >> ND, then Wp<< Wn ≈W. junction. (b) The charge density. (c) The
field intensity. (d) The potential variation
with distance x.
 The relationship between potential and charge density is given by the poisson’s
equation
d 2V  q N D

dx 2 
Where V= applied reverse voltage,  is permittivity of semiconductor, q = charge,
x = width. By integrating we get,
x
dV q ND
 dx
dx w 

dV q N D
  W  x 
dx 
q ND
V=  W  x  dx

q ND  x2 
 V= Wx  
  2 

Suppose that at a reverse voltage V, the barrier width is, x=W

q ND  2 W 2  q ND W 2 
V= W    V=   --- (2)
  2    2 
Let Q be the total charge within the barrier ;
Total charge Q = q ND AW n  Q = q ND AW ----- (3) (  W  Wn)
where A is the area of cross section of the barrier.
dQ dW
Transition capacitance CT =  qN D A ----- (4)
dV dV
We know that from equation - 2
q ND W 2  dV qN DW
V=     -------- - (5)
  2  dW 
 A
From equation (5) CT = qN D A .  CT =
qN DW W

A
 The transition capacitance is given by CT = .
W

Note: The relation between barrier width (W) and Voltage (V) is given by W V
Where V is reverse voltage.
Barrier Potential VB = VJ-V. VJ – internally developed junction potential. As Vj is small,
magnitude of VB = magnitude of V.

8. DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE ( CD)

The capacitance that exists in a forward biased junction is called a diffusion or storage
capacitance CD, whose value is usually much large then CT, which exists in a reverse
biased junction.
Diffusion capacitance CD is defined as the rate of change of injected charge with applied
dQ
voltage i.e., C D  where, dQ represents the change in the number of minority
dV
carriers stored outside the depletion region when a change in voltage across the diode
dV, is applied.
Calculation of CD :-
Q
We know that I   = life time of carriers i.e., holes & electrons

dQ dQ dI
dI  We know that CD   .
 dV dV

The pn diode current equation is I = IO eV / VT  1   IO . eV / VT = I+ IO.

dI I O eV / VT I  IO
  =
dV VT VT
Here I indicates the diode current and IO Reverse saturation current.
dI I dI I
As I >> IO    CD = . 
dV VT dV VT

Diffusion capacitance CD increases exponentially with forward bias or proportional to

diode forwards current. The values of CD range from 10 to 1000 PF, the large values
being associated with the diode carrying a larger anode current, I.
Note:
 The relation between Diffusion length (Lp), Diffusion Constant (Dp) and mean carrier
life time () is given by L p  D p

 The diode time constant is given by  = Rf.CD. where Rf is diode forward resistance
and CD is Diffusion capacitance.
 UNIT- II:SPECIAL DIODES
1. DIODE BREAKDOWN MECHANISMS
When a diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer increases to set up a large potential
barrier which prevents diffusion of majority carriers from one side to other. Thus there is
no current due to the majority carriers. The breakdown mechanisms are of two types.
1) Avalanche breakdown 2) Zener breakdown.

Avalanche Breakdown
This occurs in lightly doped diodes where the depletion region is very wide and electric
field is very low. As the applied reverse bias increases, the field across the junction
increases correspondingly. The reverse voltage applied give high energy to the minority
carriers.
The minority carriers with sufficient kinetic energy break up covalent bonds in the
crystal thus releasing a hole-electron pair. This process is called “Impact Ionization”. The
newly released minority carriers gain enough energy to breakup other covalent bonds.
This process is known as Avalanche multiplication. In the avalanche breakdown
temperature coefficient is +ve. The breakdown voltage increases if the junction
temperature increases.

Zener breakdown
This occurs in heavily doped diodes. In these diodes depletion region is very narrow. In
a very thin (less than 100°A) depletion layer width, the electric field becomes as high as
2X107V/m with small applied reverse bias voltages (of order 4 Volts or so), and the bands
in the transition region are steeply tilted. It then becomes possible for some electrons to
jump across the barrier from the valence band in P material to some of the unfilled
conductive levels in N material. This processing is known as tunneling through the barrier
and is purely a quantum mechanical effect attributed to the wavelike properties of the
electrons. This is also known as the Internal field emission or Zener break down.
2. ZENER DIODE
Zener diode is a heavily doped diode with doping
concentration of 1 in 105. In this diode depletion
region is very narrow. Zener diode just acts like an
ordinary pn Junction diode when it is forward biased
which is shown in the V—I characteristics of Zener
diode. Whereas under reverse biased condition,
breakdown of the junction occurs. The breakdown Fig: V-I Characteristics of
voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the Zener Diode Diode
diode is heavily doped, depletion layer will be thin
and, consequently, breakdown occurs at lower reverse voltage and further, the
breakdown voltage is sharp, whereas a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown
voltage. Thus breakdown voltage can be selected with the amount of doping. Zener diode
is a bidirectional diode as the current flows in both directions (when it is forward biased
or reverse biased).

2.1 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator:

From the characteristics of Zener diode shown in Fig. under the reverse bias condition,
the voltage across the diode remains
almost constant although the current
through the diode increases as shown in
region AB. Thus, the voltage across the
Zener diode serves as a reference
voltage. Hence, the diode can be used
as a voltage regulator.
In Fig.2 it is required to provide constant
Fig.2. Zener diode. (a) symbol and (b) as
voltage across load resistance RL,
a voltage regulator
whereas the input voltage may be
varying over a range. As shown, Zener diode is reverse biased and as long as the input
voltage does not fall below V (Zener breakdown voltage), the voltage across the diode
will be constant and hence the load voltage will also be constant.
3. VARACTOR DIODE:
The barrier width of the space region of any
diode is inversely proportional to the applied
Reverse voltage. The transition capacitance
exists under reverse bias can be expressed as
A
C ,
W
1
where W = width of depletion region W  Fig. Varactor diode. (a) symbol and (b)
VRn
Equivalent Circuit
Where n = ½ for Step Graded Junction,
n= 1/3 for Linear graded junction.
Thus the capacitance of the diode is inversely with Reverse Bias Voltage. The diode which
works on this principle is Varicap or Varactor Diode.
For a varactor diode, the transition capacitance in terms of applied reverse bias voltage
is given by,

where K = Constant depends on semiconductor material and construction technique

VJ = Junction potential; VR = Magnitude of reverse bias vo1tge
n = 1/2 for the alloy Junctions
= 1/3 for the diffused junctions
At the zero bias condition the capacitance is C(0). In terms of C(0), the transition
capacitance is given by,

Applications of Varactor Diode

The main application of varactor diodes is LC
Fig. Use of varactor diode in LC
tuned circuits. The Fig. shows how varactor
tuned circuit
diode can be connected in a LC tuned circuits.
The resonance frequency for a parallel LC tuned circuit is given by,
As varactor diode is connected in parallel, the resultant capacitance becomes C 1 + C2.
Hence the resonance frequency becomes,

where C2 is transition capacitance of varactor diode. The value of C2 can be changed by

controlling the voltage applied to the circuit. Hence circuit can be tuned by changing
voltage applied at a resonance frequency, this is called electrical tuning.
The various other applications of varactor diodes are,
1. Tuned circuits 2. FM modulators 3. Automatic frequency control devices
4. Adjustable bandpass filters 5. Parametric amplifiers 6. Television receivers

4.PHOTO DIODE
When the pn-junction is reverse biased, a reverse saturation current flows due to
thermally generated holes and electrons being swept across the junction as minority
carriers. Increasing the junction temperature will generate more hole-electron pairs, and
so the minority carriers (reverse) current will be increased. The same effect occurs if
the junction is illuminated. Hole-electrons pairs are generated by the incident light
energy, and minority charge carriers are swept across the junction. Increasing the level
of illumination increases the number of charge carriers generated, and thus increases the
level of reverse current flowing. Increasing the reverse voltage does not increase the
reverse current significantly, because all available charge carriers are already being
swept across the junction. Even when the applied external bias is reduced to zero, the
available minority carriers are swept across the junction by the junction barrier potential.
To reduce the current to zero, it is necessary to forward bias the junction by an amount
equal to the barrier potential. The resistance has changed by a factor of approximately
20, and it is seen that the photodiode can be employed as a photoconductive device.
When the reverse-bias voltage across a photodiode is removed, minority charge carriers
will continue to swept across the junction while the diode illuminated. This has the effect
of increasing the number of holes in the p-side and the number of electrons in the n-side.
But the barrier potential is negative on the p-side and positive on the n-side, and was
produced by holes
flowing from p’ to ‘n’ and
electrons from ‘n’ to ‘p’
during fabrication of the
junction. Therefore, the
minority carrier flow tends
to reduce the barrier
potential. When an
external circuit is Fig. Circuit symbol and Illumination characteristics of photo
diode.
connected across the
diode terminals, the minority carriers will return to the original side via the external circuit.
The electrons which crossed the junction from ‘p’ to ‘n’ will now flow out through the n-
terminal and into the p-terminal. This means that the device is behaving as a voltage cell
with n-side being the negative terminal and the p-side the positive terminal. In fact, a
voltage can be measured at the photodiode terminal, positive on the p-side and negative
on the n-side. Thus the photodiode is a photovoltaic device as well as a photoconductive
device.
Typical silicon photodiode illumination characteristics are shown in Fig. When the device
operates with a reverse voltage applied, it functions as a photoconductive device. When
operating without the reverse voltage, it operates a photovoltaic device. It is also possible
to arrange for a photodiode to change from the photoconductive mode to the photovoltaic
mode. The circuit symbol for the device is also shown in Fig.

5. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

The LED is an optical diode, which emits light when forward biased.
The Fig. shows the symbol of LED. The two arrows indicates that
the device emits the light energy.
Basic Operation
Whenever an ordinary diode is forward biased, the electrons cross Symbol of LED
the junction from the n-region and recombine with the holes in the
p-region. The free electrons are in the conduction band while the holes are present in
the valence band. Thus the free electrons are
at higher energy level with respect to the holes.
When a free electron recombines with hole, it
falls from conduction band to a valence band.
Thus the energy level associated with it
changes from higher value to lower value. The Fig.: Process of Electroluminescence

energy corresponding to the difference between higher level and lower level is released
by an electron while travelling from the conduction band to the valence band. In normal
diodes, this energy released is in the form of heat. But LED is made up some special
material which releases this energy in the form of photons which emit the light energy.
Hence such diodes are called light emitting diodes. This process is called
Electroluminescence.
The energy released in the form of light depends on the energy corresponding to the
forbidden energy gap. This determines the wavelength of the emitted light. The
wavelength determines the color of the light and also determines whether the light is
visible or invisible (infrared). Various impurities are added during the doping process to
control the wavelength and color of the emitted light. For normal silicon diode, the
forbidden energy gap is 1.1 eV and wavelength of the emitted light energy corresponds
to that of infrared light spectrum. Hence in normal diodes, the light is not visible. The
infrared Light is not visible.
The LEDs use the materials like gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium arsenide phosphide
(GaAsP) or gallium phosphide (GaP). These are the mixtures of the elements gallium,
arsenic and phosphorus. GaAs LEDs emit light radiations which are infrared hence
invisible. GaAsP produces red or yellow visible light while GaP emits red or green visible
light. Some LEDs emit blue and orange light too.
Advantages :
1) Lower energy consumption, 2)longer lifetime, 3)improved robustness, 4) smaller
size 5)faster switching.
6. TUNNEL DIODE (or) ESAKI DIODE
A tunnel diode or Esaki diodes is a heavily doped
p–n junction having very narrow barrier (1oA). The doping
concentration in Tunnel diode is 1 in 103. Tunnel diodes are
Symbol of Tunnel diode
constructed with germanium or gallium arsenide.
Normally an electron or hole must have energy greater than or equal to potential
energy barrier, to move to other side of the barrier. As the barrier is very thin in this diode,
instead of crossing the barrier, carriers will tunnel through the barrier which is called as
“Tunneling”.

Fig.: Energy bands in a heavi1 doped p-n diode (a) under open circuited conditions and (b) with
an applied reverse bias.
Reverse Bias:
By reverse biasing the tunnel diode, barrier height increases as shown in fig. (b). Fermi
level on N side is lowered. Electrons in the valence band on the p side are directly
opposite to empty states in the conduction band on the n side. Electrons tunnel directly
from the p region into the n region. The reverse-bias current increases monotonically and
rapidly with reverse-bias voltage.
Forward Bias:
When forward bias is applied, the potential barrier is decreased below E 0. Hence the n-
side levels must shift upward with respect to those on the p-side, and the energy- band
picture for this situation is indicated in Fig.a.
There are occupied states in the conduction band of the material (the heavily shaded
levels) which are at the same energy as allowed empty states (holes) in the valence band
of the p side. Hence electrons will tunnel from the n to the p material, giving rise to the
forward current.
As the forward bias is increased further, the condition shown in Fig. b is reached. Now
the maximum number of electrons can leave occupied states on the right side of the

Fig.: The energy-band pictures in a Tunnel diode for forward bias. As the bias is increased, the band
structure changes progressively from (a) to (d).

junction, and tunnel through the barrier to empty states on the left side, giving rise to the
maximum current IP as shown in Fig..
If still more forward bias is applied, the situation in Fig. c is obtained, and the tunneling
current decreases. Finally, at an even larger forward bias, the band structure of Fig. d is
valid. Since now there are no empty allowed states on one side of the junction at the
same energy as occupied states on the other side, the tunneling current must drop to
zero. Now the carriers will move as in a normal forward biased pn junction diode.
Characteristics: From the characteristics
of tunnel diode, we see that the tunnel
diode is an excellent conductor in the
reverse direction (the p side of the junction
negative with respect to the n side). Also,
for small forward voltages (up to 50 mV for
Ge), the resistance remains small (of the
order of 5 ). At the peak current IP,
corresponding to the voltage VP the slope
dI/dV of the characteristic is zero. If V is Fig. characteristics of Tunnel Diode
increased beyond VP, then the current
decreases. The tunnel diode exhibits a negative-resistance characteristic between the
peak current IP and the minimum value IV, called the valley current. At the valley voltage
VV, at which I=IV, the conductance is again zero, and beyond this point the resistance
becomes and remains positive. At the so-called peak forward voltage VF the current again
reaches the value IP. For larger voltages the current increases beyond this value.