GREG LEWIS

PHOTOJOURNALISM
- -s T E N T & T E C H N I Q U E
.M W i ' : ^ . A K ^ j . s 1 M-sri
Second Edition
PHOTOJOURNALISM
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2011

http://www.archive.org/details/photojournalismcOOIewi
P H OTOJ O URNALIS M
C O N T E N T & T E C H N I Q U E

Second Edition

GREG LEWIS
California State University, Fresno

TO Brown &
Benchmark
P U B L I S H _ ! _ R _ _ S

Madison. Wisconsin* Dubuque. Iowa

Book Team
Editor StanSioga
Developmental Editor Kassi Radomski
Production Editor Robin Storm
Art Editor Tina Flanagan
Production M a n a g e r Beth Kundert
Visuals/Design Freelance Specialist Mary L. Christianson
M a r k e t i n g M a n a g e r Pamela S. Cooper

WCB Brown &

Benchmark
A Division of W m . C . Brown Communications. Inc.

Executive Vice President/General M a n a g e r Thomas E. Doran

Vicc President/Editor in Chief Edgar J. Laube
Vice President/Marketing and Sales S y s t e m s Eric Ziegler
Vice President/Production Vickie Putman
National Sales Manager Boh McLaughlin

Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc.

President and Chief Executive O f f i c e r G. Franklin Lewis
Senior Vice President. Operations James H Highy
C o r p o r a t e Senior Vice President and President of Manufacturing Roger Mevcr
C o r p o r a t e Senior Vice Presideni and Chief Financial O f f i c e r Robert Chesterman

Cover and interior openers designed by Kay Fulton

Cover photograph by © Robert Gauthier

Copyedited by Jeff P u t n a m

Copyright © 1991. 1995 by W m . C. B r o w n C o m m u n i c a t i o n s . Inc.

All rights reserved

A T i m e s Mirror C o m p a n y

Library of C o n g r e s s Catalog Card Number: 9 4 - 7 1 3 9 9

ISBN 0 - 6 9 7 - 1 4 6 2 9 - 4

i." >t this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

r transmitted, in a n y f o r m or by a n y m e a n s , electronic,
nitx i. j hotocopying. recording, or otherwise, without the
pr;» : o permission of the publisher

! States oi America by W m . C . Brown C o m m u n i c a t i o n s . Inc..

2460 k r i ' n u l o u r d . D u b u q u e . IA 5 2 0 0 1

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is dedicated to my
family, who put up with so
much during its preparation; to
my students, from whom I have
learned so much; and to the
memory of Earl Theisen. Some-
day I hope to he at least half the
teacher he was.
Table of Preface xi

3
Contents Part I Film and Exposure 41
Film 42
Introduction 3 Exposure 46
Light Meters 49
Summary 5 5
i
Photojournalism: A Visual
Mass Medium 5
4 '
Lenses 57
The Nature of
Photojournalism 6 Why Lenses are Needed 58
Photojournalism in Practice 11 Lens Characteristics 59
Summary 16 Depth of Field 66
Zoom Lenses and Special-Purpose
Part II
Lenses 68
The Professionals' Choice 70
Tools 19 Filters 71
Summary 75

2
Cameras 21 5
Understanding the Tools 22
The Black-and-White
Viewing Systems 22
Darkroom 77
Focusing Systems 25
Shutters 27 Film Processing 78
Controlling Your Camera 29 The Print 84
The Shutter, Aperture, Darkroom Cleanliness
and Safety 92
and Exposure $ 2
Summary 93
The Shutter and Aperture as
Creative Controls 3 2
Other Controls on Your
Camera 3 5 6
The Professionals' Choice 37 Light 95
Summary 3 8
Light: A Fascinating
Phenomenon 96
Characteristics of Light 9 7
Light in the Photograph 99
Using Light: Natural, Available.
and Artificial 103
Summary 109
Part III
10
Techniques 113 Studio Photography 17/
A Different Approach 178

i Equipment for Studio

Photography
Basic Tips for Studio
178
Composition: Arranging the
Photography 180
I m a g e to C o m m u n i c a t e 115
Making a Formal Portrait 180
Composition: A Photographic
A Basic Tabletop Shot 183
Language 116
Illustrative Photography 186
Elements and Principles
Special Considerations: Food and
of Composition 118
Common Errors in Fashion 188
Composition 132 Summary 191
Summary 134

8 n
The Photo Story 193
N e w s and Features 135
Story or Essay? 194
News or Features: What's the
Shooting the Story 196
Difference? 136
Editing the Pictures and Designing
Covering an Assignment 136
The Three Basic Shots of the Page 198
Case Histories 199
Photojournalism 138
Summary 207
News 140
Survival Guide to Cliche
Events
Features 150
146
12
Caption Information 154 P h o t o Editing 209
Summary 156 Selecting Photos for
Publication 210

9
Sports 157
Sorting Through the Shoot
Cropping
Captions 222
216
210

Summary 223
The Challenge of Sports
Photography 158
The Big Three: Football. Baseball,
and Basketball 163
Other Sports 169
Summary / 75
Part IV
Beyond the Camera 16 18
225 A Brief History of Introduction to Digital
Photojournalism 273 Photography 307

13
Ethics 227
Establishing Roles in t h e 19th
Century
Transition Years
274
278
Digital Photograph)
Image Capture
Image Input 311
308
308

The 1920s 282 The Digital Darkroom 312

No Easy Answers 228 The 1950s 285 File Formats 315
Conflicts of Interest 228 War 288 Photo CD 316
Unpublished Photos 22V Troubles Decades 291 Transmission 316
Pictures that Lie 229 Photojournalism Revived 292 To the Press 3 / 7
Grief, Suffering, Violence, and the What's Next? 294 Summary 3 IS
Private Moment 234
Summary 242
Part V Appendix 319
Advanced Techniques S e c t i o n 1: P r o c e s s i n g T i m e /
14 25>7 Temperature Charts f o r
C o m m o n Black-and-
T h e Legal L i m i t s 245
w h i t e Films 320
The First Amendment: Not
Unlimited
Access to the News
246
246
17
I n t r o d u c t i o n to Color 299
Section 2: P u s h P r o c e s s i n g
S e c t i o n 3: H o w t o M a k e
320

Taking t h e Photo 249 Portfolio Slides 322

Color in Photojournalism 300
Invasion of Privacy 251
Light and Color 300 S e c t i o n 4: R e c l a i m i n g S i l v e r
Libel 256
Dealing with Color Balance 300 f r o m Fixer 323
Acquisition by Authorities 257
Color Films for
Summary 260 S e c t i o n 5: P r o f e s s i o n a l
Photojournalism 302 Organizations 324
Processing Color Film 303

15 Tips and Techniques for Advanced

Photographers 303
Bibliography

Index 329
525

Education and Careers 261 Communicating in Color 304

Your Education 262 Summary 305
The Photojournalism
Personality 262
Building a Portfolio 262
Internships 265
Job Hunting 266
Freelancing 267
Summary 271
Preface T h i s b o o k is i n t e n d e d f o r first- For t h e b e g i n n e r , I believe it
a n d s e c o n d - s e m e s t e r c o u r s e s in is i m p o r t a n t t o s t a r t s h o o t i n g
photojournalism. Because each right away; t h e r e f o r e . I have p r e -
i n s t r u c t o r o r g a n i z e s his o r h e r s e n t e d c a m e r a s , film, and e x p o -
c o u r s e d i f f e r e n t l y , it is i m p o s s i - sure before taking up the topic
b l e t o c r e a t e a text that e v e r y o n e of l e n s e s . B e c a u s e d a r k r o o m
c a n f o l l o w straight t h r o u g h f r o m t i m e is at a p r e m i u m in a begin-
beginning to end. I jump around ning course, the n e w photogra-
in e v e r y t e x t b o o k I use, a n d this p h e r can at least start s h o o t i n g as
o n e is n o e x c e p t i o n . I have, h o w - e a r l y in t h e c o u r s e as p o s s i b l e ,
ever, tried t o g r o u p r e l a t e d mate- saving t h e details of l e n s e s f o r a
rial t o g e t h e r , y e t t o m a k e e a c h f e w w e e k s . I p l a c e d t h e all-im-
c h a p t e r an i n d e p e n d e n t u n i t s o portant section on p u s h process-
instructors can mix t h e m up to i n g in t h e a p p e n d i x t o a v o i d
suit t h e i r n e e d s . T h i s s e c o n d edi- confusing beginners with too
tion reflects the technical m a n y o p t i o n s at o n c e . I strongly
changes that have occurred since believe that conventional meth-
t h e first, i n c l u d i n g i m p o r t a n t ad- ods should be mastered before
v a n c e s in digital p h o t o g r a p h y . trying t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s .

T h e b o o k is o r g a n i z e d i n t o Part III a t t e m p t s t o d e a l w i t h
five s e c t i o n s . Part I, t h e i n t r o d u c - i m a g e c o n t e n t , t h e m e a t of p h o -
t i o n , a t t e m p t s a d e f i n i t i o n of t o j o u r n a l i s m . It b e g i n s w i t h
photojournalism and explains some thoughts on composition,
the differences between pictures a t o p i c t h a t is a s i m p o r t a n t t o
m a d e for publication and those t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r as s y n t a x is t o
made for personal purposes. t h e w r i t e r . T h e s e b a s i c s are fol-
Part II is f o r t h o s e w h o a r e lowed by specific a p p r o a c h e s
l e a r n i n g t h e t o o l s of p h o t o g r a - f o r n e w s , f e a t u r e s , s p o r t s , stu-
p h y : c a m e r a s , film, l e n s e s , dark- dio, t h e p h o t o story, a n d finally,
room p r o c e d u r e s , and light. editing the picture. The editing
Classes starting from ground c h a p t e r , h o w e v e r , is i n t e n d e d t o
zero will h a v e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n b e o n l y an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a s u b -
t h e y n e e d right u p f r o n t . For pro- j e c t t h a t c o u l d b e an e n t i r e
grams that require students to b o o k in itself.
t a k e a b a s i c p h o t o c o u r s e else- In p a r t IV are t h o s e e l e m e n t s
w h e r e . this i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e a of p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m that go be-
h a n d y review. y o n d t h e d e t a i l s of m a k i n g t h e
p h o t o e t h i c a l a n d legal ques- A l t h o u g h this b o o k c o n t a i n s
tions. e d u c a t i o n and c a r e e r s , and considerable technical informa-
an overview of p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m s t i o n , it is i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e stu-
history. dent to r e m e m b e r that technique
Part V i n t r o d u c e s c o l o r a n d is only a m e a n s , n o t t h e e n d , of
digital imaging. Several u s e r s photojournalism. When photog-
have suggested that the c h a p t e r r a p h e r s gather, t h e y o f t e n talk
o n c o l o r p r e v i o u s l y p l a c e d in a b o u t c a m e r a s a n d lenses, yet as
p a r t II, b e m o v e d h e r e s i n c e it is p h o t o e d i t o r S a n d r a Eisert says,
t r e a t e d as an a d v a n c e d t o p i c at you must k n o w the reason w h y
m a n y s c h o o l s . Please let m e you are making pictures and
k n o w if you t h i n k this w o r k s . Be- w h a t y o u a r e t r y i n g t o say. T h i s
c a u s e digital t e c h n o l o g y is still book does not pretend to be the
evolving and s o m e w h a t experi- last o r m o s t c o m p l e t e w o r d o n
mental. it p r o p e r l y b e l o n g s h e r e . t h i s s u b j e c t , a n d as I h a v e writ-
t e n in t h e c h a p t e r o n e d u c a t i o n
Most p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t s will
a n d c a r e e r s , I e n c o u r a g e all stu-
not go t o e x o t i c places a n d s h o o t
dents to broaden their knowl-
u n u s u a l events. T h e r e f o r e . I h a v e
e d g e b y t a k i n g as m a n y c o u r s e s
tried t o b a l a n c e c o n t e s t - w i n n i n g
in t h e liberal arts as t i m e a n d fi-
p h o t o s w i t h t h e k i n d s of pic-
n a n c e s will allow.
t u r e s and situations a p h o t o j o u r -
n a l i s t w i l l deal w i t h o n a daily I o w e a great deal to the
basis. I t h i n k that every p h o t o g - many generous photographers
r a p h e r should strive to do t h e w h o have loaned photographs.
best j o b possible, and s o m e t i m e s Without their help, this book
t h e b e s t j o b is a s t r a i g h t - would have been impossible. I
f o r w a r d o n e . I a g r e e w i t h Rich wish there was space here to
C l a r k s o n . w h o h a s said: "[RJou- n a m e e a c h o n e individually, b u t
tine visual r e p o r t i n g is called for y o u will find t h e i r n a m e s adja-
in s o m e c a s e s — e v e r y p o t e n t i a l c e n t to t h e i r w o r k . Almost o n e -
p i c t u r e c a n n o t and should not third of t h e p h o t o s a r e t h e w o r k
b e a d r a m a t i c a n d g r a p h i c mas- of s t u d e n t s o r r e c e n t g r a d u a t e s .
t e r p i e c e . S i m p l e r e p o r t i n g is Photos not credited are by the
sometimes t h e best solution to author.
i n f o r m i n g t h e reader." W h e r e ap-
A s p e c i a l t h a n k y o u is d u e
propri.u case histories arc u s e d
R o b e r t H a n a s h i r o of USA Today
t o illustrate t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of a
for his h e l p w i t h t h e c h a p t e r o n
concept
s p o r t s . I w o u l d also like to
thank my c o n t r i b u t o r s for the job. iMike M o r s e laid t h e g r o u n d -
chapters on law and the history w o r k f o r t h e c h a p t e r o n digital
of p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m . I d r o v e p h o t o g r a p h y w i t h his a u t h o r -
J o h n Z e l e z n y m a d w i t h m y re- s h i p in t h e first e d i t i o n , a n d it is
quests that t h e law c h a p t e r be o n that foundation this current
as s p e c i f i c as p o s s i b l e in s p i t e of c h a p t e r rests. T h a n k s , Mike, f o r
h i s p r o t e s t a t i o n s t h a t t h e l a w is your continued support.
never absolute. I thank him for Finally, I w o u l d like t o t h a n k
an e x c e l l e n t c h a p t e r . Beverly those reviewers who offered
Bethune faced the almost impos- thoughtful suggestions for this
s i b l e t a s k of c o m p r e s s i n g 1 5 0 s e c o n d e d i t i o n text: Richard Hill,
y e a r s of h i s t o r y i n t o s o f e w St. C l o u d State University; W a y n e
pages. She agonized over w h a t Kelly, California State University,
t o c u t in o r d e r t o k e e p t h e c h a p - Long Beach; and B o b b i e McKen-
ter w i t h i n our s p a c e limits. I zie, U n i v e r s i t y of N e b r a s k a -
t h i n k she did an e x c e p t i o n a l Kearney.
PHOTOJOURNALISM
 part
r
I

Introduction

Vietnamese gang members are cheeked

out by police. (Paul Kiiroda/Orange
County Register)
 Photojournalism:
A Visual Mass
Medium
OlTLINE

The Nature of Photojournalism Photojournalism in Practice

We Are Visual Communicators Photojournalism in Newspapers
Photography Is a Universal The Fhotojournalist: A
Language Photographer with Many Skills
The Word Photojournalism Wire Services
Photography and Photojournalism Agencies
The Interpretive Statement Magazines
Pictures and Words Together Other Publications
Expand Your Talents
Summary

T H E R E WERE T W O T H I N G S I W A N T E D T O D O .

I W A N T E D T O S H O W T H E T H I N G S THAT H A D T O BE C O R R E C T E D .

I W A N T E D T O S H O W T H E T H I N G S T H A T H A D TO BE A P P R E C I A T E D .

— L E W I S H I N E , EARLY 2 0 T H CENTURY DOCUMENTARY

PHOTOGRAPHER A N D SOCIAL REFORMER.

tt_
T H E ART OE P H O T O G R A P H Y IS A D Y N A M I C P R O C E S S O F GIVING

FORM TO I D E A S A N D EXPLAINING M A N T O M E N .

— E D W A R D STEICHEN, EARLY 2 ( ) T H CENTURY COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHER,

PHOTOGRAPHIC ARTIST, DIRECTOR OF N A V Y PHOTOGRAPHY
DURING W O R L D W A R I I , A N D DIRECTOR OF PHOTOGRAPHY
AT THE M U S E U M OF M O D E R N A R T IN N E W Y O R K .
The Nature o f P h o t o j o u r n a l i s m We Are Visual Communicators
We have always been more of a visual species than a
\\ h.u is photojournalism? According to my dictionary, verbal one. Look at the earliest remnants of our species'
otojournalism is "Journalism in which a high propor- hand on prehistoric cave walls and in ancient tombs
uon of pictorial presentation is used. But a thorough and scriptures. (Wouldn't it be a laugh if those prehis-
definition of photojournalism is more complex. I be- toric cave paintings turned out to be nothing more than
lieve that p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m is a c o m b i n a t i o n of t w o Cro-Magnon graffiti!) In the hieroglyphs of the ancient
mediums, words and pictures, and that these two ele- Egyptians and t h e Aztecs and the symbols of Chinese
ments communicate facts and information to all of our languages you'll find complicated visual structures, but
perceptive faculties. The photographic part of this pair the underlying idea is the same: these are visual symbols
i> the focus of this book. And that part needs to be de- that represent thoughts and ideas.
fined carefully, for there is more to photojournalism
We still use visual languages. Graphic street signs
than just taking pictures. It is a tricky task, however, to
are one example. Musical scores are visual languages
define something as broad and flexible as photojournal-
that translate into an auditory language that is not at all
ism. because this genre of visual communication en-
verbal. We all know some body language, which, com-
c o m p a s s e s bits and p i e c e s of all o t h e r parts of t h e
medium of photography. bined with certain gang colors, could be very threaten-
ing without a word being spoken. Marketing experts

Figure 1-1 boy. in an English class in Lublin, Poland, is learning a

j a g e But there is another language, a visual one. that b r i n g s
m o o d in this photo. Visual l a n g u a g e is often more powerful
jes. (Steve Pnngle)
 Figure 1-2 This p h o t o g r a p h is an excellent
e x a m p l e of the universal nature of visual
images. (N R Farbman. Life Magazine© Time, Inc.)

k n o w that illustrated catalogs sell more merchandise what is happening at the moment of exposure; it can
than a mere product listing. Stop and think about what only allude to what happened before and after that in-
you see first w h e n reading any publication—the pic- stant. And just as there is verbal literacy, there is visual
tures. Think back to t h e b o o k s of y o u r c h i l d h o o d . literacy—a visual language that, w h e n l e a r n e d , en-
Weren't the first ones picture books? hances your understanding and enjoyment of the image.
So w e are a visual species. As t h e Industrial Revolu- As you move through this book, you will begin to grasp
tion progressed, photography became a primary tool of some of this language.
our visual language. Here's something to think about: the invention of
the printing press in the early 15th century was a turn-
Photography Is a Universal Language ing p o i n t in t h e s p r e a d of k n o w l e d g e and c u l t u r e .
I'll bet you could s h o w the p h o t o in figure 1-2 to a gar- Gutenberg's machine, however, r e p r o d u c e d only the
ment worker in Malaysia and an investment banker in k n o w l e d g e and culture that could be described with
New York and, although the differences in their cul- words. It was four centuries before p h o t o s could be
tures and backgrounds might change its impact slightly, p r i n t e d o n a press. What w o u l d w e study and h o w
the underlying message of the p h o t o would be the same would w e think today if the camera had had a 400-year
for both persons. head start on the printing press?
When looking at a photograph, there is no particu-
lar order to the way your eyes move within it. However, T h e Word Photojournalism
our other tool of communication, words, requires a lin- W h e n w e define photojournalism, w e must be sure
ear presentation. For w o r d s t o make any sense, you that w e don't use "news photography, publications
have to take them in the order the writer wrote them. p h o t o g r a p h y , " or a h y p h e n a t e d "photo-journalism."
Words also depend on shared meanings. Hot may mean N e w s p h o t o g r a p h y is a p a r t of p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m ,
one thing to you and another to me (it's 104° as I write and publications photography includes all sorts of pho-
this). The b a n k e r and the garment w o r k e r will have tos that d o n ' t include t h e second half of t h e w o r d :
widely different meanings of the word work. However, journalism.
in figure 1-2 there would be no question in the minds A journalism educator, Frank Luther Mott, coined
of either person about what is happening. the word photojournalism in 1942.' Before h e gave
On the o t h e r hand, photography is not a perfect a c a d e m i c credibility to it, most p h o t o g r a p h y w a s a
language. A person brings his or h e r notions and ideas s t e p - c h i l d t o t h e w r i t t e n w o r d . Life m a g a z i n e and
to an image when interpreting it. The image only shows others w e r e some notable exceptions, but most n e w s
photo— made just to show thai the newspa-
per h. e on the scene. Artistic quality had little
value ntense competition among newspapers
me;«:. -»1 was to get a picture and get it into
t! ; the crosstown rival.-
ion meant a change in the importance
ibility of t h e n e w s p h o t o g r a p h . T h e
v gan to b e r e c o g n i z e d as m o r e t h a n a
people could study it at the university level.
>ns began to treat the p h o t o g r a p h as m o r e
'pace filler or graphic device. Over the years,
..iions everywhere have realized the importance
visual communication and have added editors and
managers w h o are responsible for the visual elements of
the publication.

Photography and Photojournalism

Mathematics, for example, has a rather rigid and precise Figure 1-3 Many personal photos have meaning only
structure. Numbers are hard-edged units—four is not for the people involved; the photo triggers their memories
three. Photography, on the other hand, is not as pre- of the event. But a good journalistic photo includes story-
telling elements that anyone can understand.
cise. Where do you draw the line between one type of
photography and another? Are your friend's w e d d i n g
pictures a form of photojournalism? How about adver-
tising photos that make products look better than they happened. You sat on an uncomfortable couch for sev-
are? (Does a frozen pizza ever look like the one on the eral hours while you were taken to London one minute,
cover of the box?) What about the pictures you took on Rome the next, and then b o u n c e d back to England,
last summer's vacation? w h i c h w a s out of focus. And more than likely, each
Under the broad umbrella of photography lie these p h o t o included the photographer's aunt (or whomever)
kinds of pictures as well as those w e label photojournal- looking at the camera while standing in front of some
ism As we sort out these genres, photojournalism finds grotesque monument. Of course, each picture required
itself in a special category. Photojournalism informs a five-minute explanation. While you w e r e bored out
us. motivates us. and gives us facts and information at of your wits, the photographer was excitedly reliving
our first look These are nonfiction pictures. Created in the trip.
reality, photojournalism s images maintain a strong con- Now, don't misunderstand. There is nothing wrong
nection with it. They are not explorations of the pho- with making personal images, as long as you recognize
tographer's inner personality or personal viewpoint. them as such and don't expect them to have the same
This last idea needs emphasis because you probably meaning for others as they have for you.
have pictures in your scrapbook that, if we ended our
definition here, would quality as photojournalism. Yet The Interpretive Statement
news publications aren't going to print those snapshots Although vacation photos and the like serve as private
for e v e r y o n e to see. They are personal images, and visual notes for the photographer, there is another type
there is an important difference between these and the of personal photo. It is an image that represents the
ones classified as photojournalism. Personal photos are maker's private thoughts or feelings. Sometimes these
the ones you take at parties, on vacations, and during pictures make obvious statements; sometimes they pre-
family events. They are your records of the occasion. sent us with a mystery or riddle. They are similar to lit-
These kinds of p h o t o s are visual notes that serve as erature that explores the depths of the author's mind or
memory triggers. When you see the photo, you remem- personal point of view. These kinds of photos, which
ber what h a p p e n e d at t h e event, even though those can be eloquent statements and insightful uses of the
memories may not be represented by something in the medium, are often seen in galleries and museums and
photo itself. represent the application of photography as fine art.
:<th such pictures mean nothing to anyone But the images made for others, the ones w e label
c|st
i ever had t o sit through someone else's photojournalism, must contain strong story-telling fea-
v
acati« >r worse, videos)? I'll bet I know what tures. They need a main object and a focal point, and
Figure 1 - 4 Photojournalists try to present facts a n d information in their
photos, a n d their s u b j e c t matter is often quite different from what w e p h o t o g r a p h
for our personal visual notebooks. (Terry Pterson/The Fresno Bee)

should show us something w e can't ordinarily see for proximity, nearby events; timeliness, a current situa-
ourselves. These photos reveal new information at first tion: and finally, the bizarre, the unusual, the curious,
look and more information on the second. They answer or t h e amusing. You d o n ' t need all these values in
some of the classic questions of journalism: who. what, every situation. If just o n e is there, though, chances are
w h e n , w h y . w h e r e , and h o w . T h e y go right to t h e good that the event is interesting to many people.
point, w i t h o u t ambiguity. They are not p h o t o g r a p h s Here's h o w Tom Kennedy, director of photogra-
that reveal the photographer's inner thoughts, but im- p h y at National Geographic magazine, d e f i n e s t h e
ages of what happened before the lens. They arc most medium: 3
frequently, as others have said, pictures of people doing
interesting things. (Photojournalism is J visual information that makes a
difference in the lives of readers who see it. Implicit is an
How can you recognize an interesting journalistic assumption that such information has value and serves a
photo? Apply the classic values of a newsworthy event: social good. If done in the right spirit, photojournalism
consequence, an event that affects many people; con- can be a powerful tool for explaining the larger world by
flict, a clash b e t w e e n p e o p l e or institutions; promi- conveying essential truths about the human condition.
nence, an event involving well-known personalities;
Figure 1 - 5 Photojournalism is also w o r d s a n d pictures w o r k i n g together. This
photo gains more impact when you learn that the c e m e t e r y rejected the
h o m e m a d e cross this homeless m a n p l a c e d on his mother's u n m a r k e d grave.
(Mark Mirko/"> •; °alm Beach Post)

Pictures cnid Words Together many specific things: a person's age. address, or what
As I said a few paragraphs back, photojournalism is not he or she did yesterday. Words can describe attitudes,
just pictures. It is pictures and words working together. p u t things into a t i m e c o n t e x t , and relate s e p a r a t e
Wilson Hicks, executive editor of Life magazine during e v e n t s t o e a c h o t h e r . H i c k s said w o r d s c a n deal
the late 1940s, explained in his book. Words and Pic- with cause and effect, while the p h o t o deals only with
tures, how each has a separate yet important job. and w h a t a p p e a r e d b e f o r e t h e camera. The p h o t o g r a p h
that to reach their potential, they must work together. -4 captures time, freezes motion, and reveals the details
Hicks said that pictures deal with what happened at of i n n e r and o u t e r s p a c e with u n m a t c h a b l e reality.
the moment of exposure and can only suggest connec- I suspect our ideas about time were greatly altered by
tions with the past and future. They cannot directly ex- the magic little box w e call a camera.
press the subject's hidden feelings, the sounds or smells Photojournalism, then, is words and pictures, in-
and the details of fact that e s c a p e t h e lens. Unlike tended for reproduction, that try to produce an honest
words, pictures are read all at once and communicate in visual report of what happened in a form understand-
a l.ir.L'ii.ige quite different from words. able to others. While the personal p h o t o is for the pri-
H ever, just as p h o t o g r a p h s can be p r e c i s e , vate use of t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r , the journalistic p h o t o
w rc precise in their own way. Words can tell us must convey facts and information. The best photojour-
nalism will arouse the viewer s emotions and stimulate
 Photojournalism in Newspapers
UlicUirginian-llilot The n e w s p a p e r industry is the largest user of photo-
journalism today. Almost any paper you pick up o n a
TMeLedger-Slar given day will have at least o n e p h o t o g r a p h on t h e
State denies Partly «t mon** Reagan, Bush front page and other pictures inside (The Wall Street
bid to raise
electric bills subpoenaed for Journal being a notable e x c e p t i o n ) . Staff photogra-
C irJi*T(cn> ki n»
jhu SJ North defense p h e r s take most of t h e photos, but n e w s p a p e r s buy
Justice MAN some of the pictures, usually those about national or
t o prevent
overseas stories, from wire services and picture agen-
cies. These companies specialize in supplying photos
to publications.
Although t h e exact procedure varies, a p h o t o as-
signment usually begins with a request by a reporter
or an editor. The request may go directly to the photo
department, but sometimes it goes to a graphics desk
where an editor coordinates the entire visual presenta-
IY-ninsula village tion of the paper, including photos, artwork, and page
on l^ntagon hit list design. In the photo department, a chief photographer
IhaNne fx cfeaNed kin laws.»
usually arranges the schedules and assignments of staff
photographers.
If you were a photojournalist, your day would begin
with a check-in at the photo desk w h e r e you'd receive
your assignments. Four to six assignments is about all
you'd have time for in o n e shift. After shooting the as-
signments, you'd process the film and select the shots
Ih=§5= Cremation case escalates into burning scandal
that tell the story best. At some papers, a p h o t o editor
will decide what shots to use after discussing the pic-
tures with you.
Then you'd print the negs or scan them into a com-
puter. Depending on the method used at your paper,

® m m .
you'd send the print or digital image back to the photo
editor, w h o forwards it on to the editor w h o designs
t h e page. When the page is complete, all the p a r t s -
photos, text, headlines and art—are sent to the back-
Figure 1 - 6 The n e w s p a p e r industry is p e r h a p s the
shop w h e r e the printing plates are made.
largest user of p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m t o d a y . (Courtesy The
Virginian-Pilot and The Ledger-Star) As the photographer, you are responsible for cap-
tion information, and you might write the finished cap-
tion. On small p a p e r s t h e r e may be m o r e o v e r l a p
between writing and photograph}'; writers might take
photos, and you might write an occasional story.
thought and action. The goal of the photojournalist is to
On all sizes of newspapers, finding your own story
tell t h e reader w h a t was there, clearly, quickly, and
ideas is part of the job. Further, while traveling to as-
without mystery, confusion, or riddle. signments, and o n t h e f e w slow days \\ hen there is
spare time, you'll need to find feature photos that can
P h o t o j o u r n a l i s m i n Practice b e used with only a brief caption. Sometimes called
wild art, free art. or enterprise or evergreen material,
If w e also define photojournalism as nonfiction photog- these pictures are the "slice of life shots that provide a
raphy, w e can find many uses for the medium. News- chuckle or an interesting look at something readers can
papers and news magazines come immediately to mind, empathize with. Wild art does not mean a crazy shot,
a l t h o u g h s o m e t i m e s that could be true. Wild art is
but you'll find word and picture combinations in a wide
more like a card player's wild card. It can be used any
range of publications, including special-interest maga-
place in the paper and, because it is not connected to a
zines, books, and even annual reports.
specific story, it will stay fresh for several days.
Figure 1-7 A v, d art photo is o n e that c a n run any time in the next few d a y s
a n d still b e fresh a n d interesting. (Gary Kazanjian/Hanford Sentinel)

The Photojournalism A Photographer stories. Illustrative photography is a relatively n e w area

with Many Skills for the newspaper photojournalist. although magazine
On many n e w s p a p e r s , the photojournalist shoots all p h o t o g r a p h e r s have been using these techniques for
types of assignments, including news, features, sports, years.
and illustrations. News photos include, of course, the Many n e w s p a p e r s also publish their o w n Sunday
traffic accident and the fire, but they also include just magazines and special sections. The Sunday magazine
about anything. The photo might tell most of the story, may have an entirely separate staff including a photogra-
with only a f e w words of explanation, or it might en- p h e r assigned exclusively to the magazine for several
hance or clarify a story that is told primarily with words. weeks or months. Special sections vary widely in con-
The feature p h o t o is a broad category without a concise tent You might find a paper producing one for an up-
definition. A feature is just about anything that isn't a c o m i n g s p o r t i n g e v e n t , c o m m u n i t y c e l e b r a t i o n , or
news r sports p h o t o . Features include the wild-art serious social issue that needs in-depth coverage. For
SIK ; previously mentioned, as well as fashion, food, example, the section s h o w n in figure 1 - 9 is about a
pcr^ ulity profiles, and in-depth stories. boy's losing battle with leukemia.
''' is are highly controlled photos in which On some papers photographers also take ad photos.
e v e n clement is selected, placed, and lit to convey a Large papers may have a staff position or separate de-
specific K - concept. Illustrations range from food partment just for this, but on a small daily or weekly the
and fashion ures to images that symbolize complex staff p h o t o g r a p h e r usually handles these tasks along
with regular assignments.
(C) (d)
Figure 1-8 While other professional p h o t o g r a p h e r s often specialize in o n e
area of p h o t o g r a p h y , the photojournalist is e x p e c t e d to b e able to handle any
t y p e of a s s i g n m e n t , f r o m fashion a n d illustration to sports, features, a n d news.
These four p h o t o s show s o m e of the versatility of photojournalist Mike Penn.
(Michael Penn/Anchorage Daily News)

Wire Services Reuters News Pictures Service. These s e n ices collect

Almost all daily newspapers subscribe to wire services p h o t o s from their o w n staffers as well as n e w s p a p e r
for pictures from outside their immediate geographic photographers and free-lancers throughout the world.
area. These services supply hundreds of photos every Pictures related to major stories are fed through a cen-
tral editing c e n t e r w h e r e they are re-transmitted to
day from sources around the world. Originally, the pho-
client newspapers. Wire services have bureaus in major
tos were transmitted over telephone wires to special re-
cities and an extensive network of contacts for photos.
ceivers in n e w s p a p e r offices, h e n c e the n a m e "wire
service/' Today, nearly the only wire left in the system
Agencies
connects c o m p u t e r terminals inside buildings to satel-
lite antennas o n the buildings' roofs. A g e n c i e s a r e similar to w i r e s e r v i c e s in t h a t t h e y
The most common wire service credit lines seen in provide photos from worldwide sources, but they dif-
the United States are Associated Press (AP), United Press fer f r o m t h e w i r e s in their s t r u c t u r e and coverage.
International (UPI), Agence France Presse (AFP), and Agcncics have very small staffs compared to the wire
 ««*c--ttwrr come from agencies such as The Image Bank, Woodfin-
Camp, or the Bettman Archive. Because the business is
so competitive, agencies tend to specialize in certain
types of photos, subjects, or photographic styles. It is
impossible to list all the agencies here, but you can find
picture agencies listed in the Yellow Pages directory of
almost even 1 large city.
A very few p h o t o g r a p h e r s work exclusively
through o n e agency, with the agency handling sales,
billing, filing, and darkroom work for the photographer.
T h e n u m b e r of p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t s in this c a t e g o r y is
small—you could probably assemble t h e m all in o n e
room. On the o t h e r hand, free-lancers may deal with
several agencies, sending pictures of one type to agency
A and pictures of another type to agency B.
While wire service p h o t o g r a p h e r s receive assign-
AGAINST THE ments from the service editors, agency photographers
generate almost all their o w n story ideas. This type of
DYING OF THE
p h o t o g r a p h y is p e r h a p s t h e most difficult, b e c a u s e
these photojournalists must have a sixth-sense ability to
anticipate w h e n and w h e r e something is going to hap-
LIGHT
Sean Zukowski'sfightfor life
pen and an understanding about the marketability of
the pictures from that event. If a photographer's ideas
don't pan out and the pictures don't sell, he or she will
soon be looking for a n e w line of work.
Figure 1 - 9 This special section w a s d e v o t e d to a b o y ' s
losing battle with leukemia. The sixteen-page section w a s
Magazines
written by Mark Petix a n d p h o t o g r a p h e d by Robert
Gauthier. (Escondido Times Advocate)
There are so many different categories of magazines and
their methods of getting photos are so varied that it is
hard to generalize. News magazines such as Time and
Newsweek have a few staff photographers, but they also
services. ire more like brokers in that they receive rely on wire services, agencies, and free-lancers for pho-
material frorr vitographers and sell it to publications, tos. They deal in timely material, use color almost exclu-
taking part of the revenue as their commission. Differ- sively, and pay fairly well for pictures used. Because of
ences among agencies lie in the types of material they the pay, and the limited space available for photos in
deal with and how the relate to the p h o t o g r a p h e r . the magazines, competition among photojournalists in
Some agencies handle < \ breaking news. Photogra- this market is intense.
phers working exclusively through these agencies use A b r o a d c a t e g o r y of m a g a z i n e s w e c o u l d call
their wits and intuition to keep themselves in the center general-interest magazines might include titles such as
of major world events. These agencies are in constant I.ife and National Geographic, which present a variety
contact with clients all over the world, transmitting pic- of stories to a large general audience. National Geo-
tures electronically. Credit lines you may see from some graphic probably has the largest staff of photographers,
of these agencies include Sygma. Sipa. and Contact and their talent is well known. They have the rare lux-
Press Images. ury of large expense accounts, generous deadlines, and
Other types of agencies emphasize in-depth stories considerable technical support. The free-lancer w h o
and follow-ups o n events. Still o t h e r s specialize in lands an assignment w i t h this magazine has quite a
stock photos, which are pictures that aren't keyed to plum, indeed.
a dated n e w s event. T h e r e are stock a g e n c i e s that Another category of magazines that uses photojour-
deal in specific subjects such as agricultural images, nalism is special-interest magazines. Most of these publi-
anima or historical photos. Even the wire services cations do not use n e w s p h o t o s (unless that is their
sell pi >tos from their files; a given p h o t o can some- special area). Examples of large-circulation special inter-
times more in stock sales than it did for its origi- est magazines include Sports Illustrated, Ebony, and
nal use Rolling Stone.
< that you may sec with in-depth cover- There are literally thousands of o t h e r magazines
age incli; , ar and Magnum. Stock photos might that use photos, including publications for almost every
 Figure 1-10 Freelancers often work alone, a n d
must have a sixth sense about what to p h o t o g r a p h
a n d w h e r e the pictures c a n b e sold. While it m a y
seem glamorous, it is a lot of work a n d only a few
p h o t o g r a p h e r s are s u c c e s s f u l at it.

Figure 1 - 1 1 Markets for

photojournalism extend
beyond newspapers and
m a g a z i n e s to include annual
reports, books, a n d c o r p o r a t e
publications s u c h as these.
(Courtesy Union Pacific Railroad
and Aramco Services Company)

trade, profession, hobby, or special interest. We Model Books use many stock photos, and, depending on the
Railroader, Home Shop Machinist and USA Gymnas- book s topic, may include news pictures. This text is
tics are just a few examples. Most of these magazines do one example.
not have staff photographers, but rely on freelance sub- Annual reports have become a premium vehicle for
missions and stock photos. corporations to display themselves to the public, and
some report designers prefer the spontaneous look of
Other Publications photojournalism. Annual report photos are sometimes a
Other uses of photojournalism include books, annual re- mixture of photojournalism, illustration, advertising,
ports, audiovisual programs, company newsletters and and public relations.
n e w s p a p e r s , and many public relations publications.
 Slid trams. which combine 35mm slides crosses cultures, political divisions, and time. Whereas
with a r u sound track, used to be popular in in- words are open to differing interpretations and require
dustry < id training. Although this format has a certain level of literacy for their use. photographs can
give \\ leo, it is still easier and cheaper to pro- be understood by anyone, regardless of verbal literacy.
j, .in \ icotape Most likely a newer medium, in- The p o w e r of this p h o t o g r a p h i c language is demon-
tivi will b e c o m e t h e key m e d i u m f o r strated by the fact that restrictions on taking pictures
,'iing and communication Interactive CD are more common than limits on taking notes.
o r rill photos with audio and video images on The photograph captures time, freezes motion, and
>m! disks that you can play t h r o u g h your com- reveals the invisible with unmatchable reality. The goal
You can s o n through the material at your o w n of the photojournalist is to tell the reader what was
p: ind jump around just as you would with a book there, clearly, quickly, and without mystery, confusion,
but with the advantage of audio and video presentation. or riddle.
Many c o m p a n i e s p u b l i s h h a n d s o m e e m p l o y e e The photographs used in photojournalism are dif-
newsletters and periodicals intended for their clients ferent from those we might take for ourselves. Journalis-
and the public. Some of these reach quality standards as tic p h o t o s are intended to convey facts and informa-
high as any well-known major magazine or newspaper. tion, not the personal feelings or inner thoughts of the
Because these special uses of photojournalism are photographer.
created to promote corporate interests, don't expect to The cultivation of a news sense is important for the
find much investigative journalism. Corporate editors p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t . It begins w i t h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
arc likely to reject negative news and any image that basic news values: prominence, proximity, timeliness,
might show the company in a bad light. Even so, the consequence, conflict, and the bizarre.
spontaneous, direct style of photojournalism is common The pictures w e take and the words that go with
in corporate publishing, and photojournalists should them are used in many ways. The most common and ob-
consider these potential markets for their work. vious is the daily newspaper. Papers have staffs of pho-
tographers w h o satisfy an unending appetite for fresh,
Expand Your Talents timely material. Other users include n e w s magazines,
In conclusion, the word photojournalism also indicates special-interest magazines, and the thousands of other
what is required of you. You must be both a photogra- publications that need "nonfiction" photos, from trade
pher and a journalist. You must be a master of the tech- magazines to textbooks and company publications.
nical and visual m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h a All of these users depend, in varying degrees, on
camera, and you must also have the instincts of a re- wire services and picture agencies for material. Wire
porter for news value, emphasis, and significance. And, services have large staffs of photographers, and they
ideally, you should be able to use both communicative supply newspapers with a daily stream of photos from
tools: words and pictures. Although this book will em- around the world. Picture agencies have smaller staffs
phasize the development of your visual skills, I urge you and tend to specialize in their coverage.
to become a total communicator and expand your ver-
bal skills, too. It is extremely difficult to wear two hats
while reporting a story, but you should know the re- Endnotes
quirements of both the writer and photographer, the
strengths and limitations of w o r d s and pictures, and 1. Clifton C. Edom, Photojournalism: Principles and
how both elements are created and used. Practices, 2d ed. (Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown,
1980), 41.
2. Wilson Hicks, Words and Pictures (New York:
Summary Harper, 1952), 26.
3. In Photo Manager, January 1989. An NPPA
Photojournalism c a n n o t be defined in o n e tidy sen-
management report.
tence It is the interplay of words, doing the job only
words can do, against the photograph, which speaks to 4. Hicks. Words and Pictures, 26.
us with a universal visual language. This visual language
 Tools

P h o t o g r a p h e r David Grubbs found this

scene as school was about to o p e n in
the fall. He said the m a n at the far
right is carrying a dictionary. (David
Grubbs Corva!lis Gazette-Times)
 ! c h a p t e r

v 2
V

Cameras
OlJTIJNE

U n d e r s t a n d i n g the Tools The Shutter, Aperture, and

Viewing Systems Exposure

The Reflex System T h e S h u t t e r a n d A p e r t u r e as

Creative Controls
The Viewfinder System
The Shutter and Motion
The Direct-View System
The Aperture and Depth of Field
Focusing Systems
Other Controls on Your Camera
Ground-Glass Focusing
Rangefinder Focusing Camera Accessories

Automatic Focusing Camera Handling

Camera Maintenance
Shutters
Focal-Plane Shutters The Professionals' Choice

Leaf Shutters The Electronic Camera

The Iris Diaphragm The Importance of Backup
Equipment
Controlling Your Camera
Summary
Shutter Speeds
The Aperture

The Logic Behind F-Numbers

T o BE A PHOTOGRAPHER: Y o u NEED A HEART, AN EYE, A M I N D , A N D A

MAGIC B O X .

— C A R I . M Y D A N S , ONE OF FOUR ORIGINAL LIFE MAGAZINE PHOTOGRAPHERS

Under*-1 the Tools

In iht a photographer you also had to be a

nut chemist, and mechanic Today, automa-
k e r many of the technical problems, giv-
rnalists m o r e t i m e t o c o n c e n t r a t e on
perfect moment: but just as the computer
.iced a writer s need for a good vocabulary,
er controlled cameras will never take over all
itographer's decisions. The first order of busi-
:hen. is to understand the tools and learn to oper-
c them with confidence.
There are five important p a n s of a camera: its view-
ing system, focusing system, shutter, aperture, and lens.
You will find the first four covered here. The last, the
Figure 2-1 Pinhole camera.
lens, is covered in the next chapter.
The simplest camera is a box with a pinhole in one
side and a piece of film at the other (fig. 2-1). in fact,
accessories available to help you do the best job possi-
you can make a workable pinhole camera out of a shoe
ble. The most c o m m o n SLR cameras use film that is
box or oatmeal carton. Use a piece of photo print paper
35 mm wide, but s o m e SLR cameras take o t h e r film
instead of film. However, the pinhole camera is to mod-
sizes such as the fairly c o m m o n 120 size roll film.
ern photography what Henry Ford's first sputtering lit-
tle car is to the modern automobile. A photojournalist's Early SLRs w e r e bulkier and noisier than viewfinder
camera is a sophisticated instrument indeed. cameras, but modern designs have, for the most part,
eliminated t h e s e d r a w b a c k s . For t h e versatility and
quick response needed by the photojournalist, there is
Viewing Systems no better instrument than a good SLR.

The first of these refinements is a viewing system that The Viewfinder System
will help you aim the camera's lens accurately. There T h e second type of viewing system is the viewfinder.
are three common viewing systems: reflex, viewfinder, One way to define a viewfinder is to compare it with a
and direct view. sight on a rifle. The simplest viewfinder is a t u b e or
frame aligned with t h e camera's lens. Pocket cameras
The Reflex S \ >>n such as the Instamatic are the most common examples
In a camera equipped with a reflex viewing system, a of this type.
mirror sits behind the picture-taking lens, as in figure Unfortunately, viewfinders do not see exactly what
2 - 2 . T h e mirror reflects t h e image o n t o a focusing t h e lens sees. If you look at figure 2 - 3 b , you'll s e e
screen. When you press the button to take the picture, why—the viewfinder is offset from the lens. The tech-
the mirror swings quickly out of the way so the image nical term for this problem is parallax error, and many
can pass through to the film, and then flops d o w n again of us have suffered the embarrassment of cutting off
so you can continue viewing through the lens. Cameras someone's head in a p h o t o because of this problem. So-
so equipped are called single-lens reflex (Sl.R) cameras. phisticated cameras include mechanisms for adjusting
In modern SLR cameras, the large prism on top of the viewfinder as you focus on close objects. Although
the camera reflects the image on the focusing screen to this a d j u s t m e n t o v e r c o m e s m a n y parallax problems,
your eye. In some SLR cameras, the prism is removable most viewfinder cameras have a close-up limit of about
so you can look directly at t h e f o c u s i n g s c r e e n — a three feet.
handy option when shooting from extremely low an- An additional p r o b l e m with v i e w f i n d e r c a m e r a s
gles In most professional camera models, you can arises w h e n you attach a wide-angle or telephoto lens.
remove the focusing screen and replace it with special- To accurately frame your photos, you must have the
purpose screens useful with certain lenses. equivalent of a wide-angle or telephoto viewfinder. In
The single-lens reflex camera is the most popular some cameras, the built-in viewfinder automatically ad-
earner .,m<>ng photojournalists today. Because you use justs to certain lenses; in other cases, you must buy a
the sanif . ns for both viewing and photographing, you special add-on viewfinder matched to the lens you plan
can attach many different lenses without concern for to use. In any event, viewfinder cameras are difficult, if
special view hnders. and there are literally hundreds of not impossible, to use with the long focal length lenses
(a) (b)
Figure 2-2 (a) This Nikon F4 has reflex viewing, w h i c h screen to your eye. The mirror s w i n g s out of the way at the
permits you to see through the image-forming lens up to m o m e n t of e x p o s u r e so the i m a g e c a n p a s s on to the film.
the m o m e n t of exposure. (Courtesy Nikon lnc.){b) In a reflex Not s h o w n is the shutter, w h i c h sits just in front of the film
c a m e r a , the mirror reflects the i m a g e u p to the focusing plane.
screen, a n d the prism reflects the i m a g e from the focusing

(a)
F i g u r e 2—3 (a) The viewfinder w i n d o w in this c a m e r a is illustration of viewfinder viewing. The viewfinder sits atop
the large o n e at the right. The center w i n d o w is for the light the c a m e r a a n d works similar to a g u n s i g h f Thus, you d o
meter a n d the one on the left is for the rangefinder. This is a not s e e exactly what the image-forming lens sees.
Leica, a c a m e r a that is popular with photojournalists. (b) An
 frequently used tor sports pnotograpliy. Accurate trani-
ing and focusing of fasi action requires the ability to see
through the picture-taking lens, something best done
with reflex cameras.
However, there are many advantages to viewfinder
cameras, including their light weight, simple construc-
tion. and bright viewfinder image. This latter feature
makes these cameras a favorite with many photojournal-
ists w h e n shooting in dim light. The I.eica is a popular
brand because of its quality design, quiet operation, inter-
changeable lenses, and accurate viewfinder. You may see
viewfinder cameras made for any number of film sizes
from small 110 cartridges up to 4 x 5-inch sheet film.

The Direct-View System

Figure 2 - 4 In a d i r e c t - v i e w focusing system, the i m a g e
The direct-view method is the oldest and perhaps the sim-
is projected onto a p i e c e of frosted or g r o u n d glass that
sits at the film frame The film is loaded in special holders plest. In a direct-view system, you will see the image on a
that are inserted one shot at a time in front of the ground piece of frosted or ground glass in the back of a camera
glass exactly as it is projected by the taking lens (fig. 2-4).
Direct viewing is useful w h e n you need extreme ac-
curacy or t h e special features of v i e w cameras (see
fig. 2-6). Direct viewing is not practical for typical pho-
tojournalism assignments because it is slow and awk-
ward. The image appears upside d o w n on the ground
glass, and because you must view the image through
the back of the camera, you must remove and replace
the film for each shot. Also, because the film blocks the
ground glass, you can't be sure what is happening in
the lens' field of view, so you have to mount the camera
on a tripod and limit yourself to static subjects.
Cameras that use direct-view systems are called
view cameras (fig. 2 - 5 ) . These large, bulky cameras
were common in the early days of the medium and you
can see them in pictures of 19th-century photographers
at work.
Although rarely used by photojournalists, commer-
cial and architectural photographers use view cameras
today w h e n they need the high-quality images produced
by large negatives. Also, view cameras can control dis-
tortion. which is important in much architectural and
commercial work (fig. 2-6).
Studio illustrations and technical or scientific sub-
Figure 2-5 Notice that the lens a n d film b a c k on this jects are t h e most likely uses of view cameras by the
view c a m e r a c a n b e s w u n g a n d tilted. This permits the
photojournalist. The most c o m m o n film size for view
photographer to control distortion a n d depth of field.
cameras is 4 x 5 inches, but 5 x 7-inch and 8 x 10-inch
(Courtesy Calumet Photographic)
sizes are also available. Each piece of film is carried in a
special holder about as thick as a slice of bread, and the
film is inserted one shot at a time. The well-known artist
and commercial p h o t o g r a p h e r Ansel Adams used an
8 x 1 0 view camera for many of his most famous images.
W orking with a view camera can be fun because there is
a certain magic to large negatives. If you ever have the
opportunity to use a view camera. I urge you to try it.
(a) <b)
Figure 2 - 6 The vertical lines in the left photo seem to adjustments of the view camera have been usee *•" >;eep
converge and the building looks as though it is tipping the building's lines straight.
away from the camera, but in the photo on the right the

TABLE 2-1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Viewing Systems

Viewing System Advantages Disadvantages
Reflex Wide variety of lenses and accessories Viewing system blocked out at moment of
Precise viewing through taking lens exposure

Hard to f o c u s in low light or with w i d e -

angle lenses

Viewfinder Quick to operate Lens selection limited

Bright viewfinder useful in low light Parallax problem
Quiet operation useful in sensitive
situations

Direct View Precise viewing through lens Heavy and slow to use; must use tripod,
Control of image distortion cannot be used for moving subjects
Can use many lenses Image seen on ground glass upside down

Focusing Systems onto the screen by the camera's lens. When you look at
t h e image p r o j e c t e d o n t o t h e ground-glass viewing
The inexpensive cameras found at variety stores have screen, all you need to do is focus the lens until the
lenses that are prefocused at the factor) , but the cameras image is sharp.
you are likely to use as a photojournalist will use ground- Modern ground-glass screens in 35mm cameras in-
glass, rangefinder. or automatic focusing systems. clude focusing aids such as the split image, a micro-
prism, or both (fig. 2-7). The illustrations s h o w h o w
Ground-Glass Focusing your image will look w h e n it is in or out of focus. When
If you remove the lens from a 35mm SLR camera and looking into the viewing system of a 35mm camera, you
look up at an angle into the lens cavity, you will see the may also see various styles of lights, numbers, or point-
tiny translucent focusing screen. View cameras also use ers around the edge of the frame. These arc not focus-
ground-glass focusing, and you can see the ground glass ing aids but a r e e x p o s u r e r e a d o u t s , w h i c h will be
in figure 2 - 4 . In b o t h cases, the image is p r o j e c t e d explained in chapter 3
 O u t of f o c u s In f o c u s

Figure 2 - 7 a This is a split-image focusing screen. When halves in the top and bottom of the circle appear offset.
the subject in the center circle is out of focus, the image When the image is in focus, the image halves match.

O u t of f o c u s In f o c u s

Figure 2 - 7 b On a microprism focusing screen, the

image in the center focusing spot appears to shimmer
when out of focus.

Ra iigefinder Focusing to the rangefinder. W h e n you focus the lens, gears or

Rangefinder focusing uses a separate mechanism to levers inside t h e c a m e r a c a u s e t h e m i r r o r s in t h e
show you when the lens is focused on your subject. To rangefinder to pivot until the two images in t h e view-
understand how to use a rangefinder look at figure 2-8. ing w i n d o w merge.
Wht n you look into the rangefinder window, your field Rangefinders are usually used in viewfinder cam-
of view is split and you see two images. When the lens eras because they can be built into the viewfinder. Be
is out us the images will be distinctly separate, sure not to confuse the term viewfinder with the term
but when the- lens is in focus, the images coincide rangefinder. Remember that the former is a viewing sys-
L<" f i g u r e 2 - 8 to s e e h o w a r a n g e f i n d e r tem, the latter a focusing system.
works * u ra s lens is mechanically c o n n e c t e d
 O u t of f o c u s In f o c u s

Figure 2 - 8 When a rangefinder system is out of focus, you'll see a double image
in the focusing spot in the center of the frame. When focused, the images coincide.

Automatic Focusing
Automatic focusing systems arc controlled by tiny com-
puter chips that use complicated methods lor focusing
the lens. Some use infrared sensors that judge the dis-
tance to the subject. Others analyze the image and ad-
just focus until t h e contrast within the focusing spot is
as high as it will go. Just a f e w years ago, auto-focus sys-
tems weren't fast enough for professional use. but n o w
professional photojournalists use them regularly. When
using an auto-focusing system, you will need to check
the camera's instruction manual to find the viewfinder s
focusing spot. Early auto-focus cameras only focused on
the ccnter of the frame, but because many photos are
c o m p o s e d with the main subject off-center, sophisti-
cated camcras allow you to change the focusing spot to
various places within the field of view. Canon makes a Figure 2 - 9 This focal-plane shutter is partially closed.
camera that senses where your eye is looking and ad- The bottom curtain is opening while the top curtain is
justs its auto-focus point to match! closing a fraction of a second later. At high shutter speeds,
the second curtain, made of thin cloth or metal, begins to
As with any automatic device, there will be times close before the first curtain has fully opened.
w h e n t h e r e is no substitute for h u m a n thinking and
control, so be sure you k n o w h o w to bypass your auto-
focus system. Sometimes the auto-system will simply be
confused by w h a t it sees; o t h e r times, you'll want to and close in a fraction of a second, and the exact time is
focus on something outside the camera s focusing spot. set by the photographer or the camera's exposure system.
C o m m o n p r o b l e m s c e n e s for auto-focus systems in- There are two types of shutters: focal-plane and leaf.
clude reflections, windows and large areas without de-
tail, such as a plain wall. Some amateur model cameras Focal-Plane Shutters
do not permit you to focus manually and, as you will
Focal-plane shutters are mounted in the camera just in
sec in later chapters, thus limit your photographic op-
front of the film. They operate like a pair of w i n d o w
tions. While they are fine instruments for personal snap-
shades, each mounted at opposite edges of the frame.
shots, they are not recommended for photojournalism.
When the shutter release is pressed, one curtain opens,
exposing the film. The second curtain closes w h e n the
exposure is complete. Figure 2 - 9 shows a focal-plane
Shutters s h u t t e r in mid-travel. Very high s h u t t e r s p e e d s are
possible with this type of shutter, and 1/4000 second is
A shutter is a device inside the camera that controls the not unusual.
amount of time the film is exposed to light. Shutters open
 A d v a n t a g e s and Disadvantages
o f Shutter Types

Shut' Advantages Disadvantages

Use with flash Top speed
at any speed limited to
Quiet c o m p a r e d 1/500 second
to focal-plane Must buy lens
shutters and shutter
together

f\ocat-Plane High shutter Shutter speeds

Shutter s p e e d s can limited when
be used using flash
Lenses need Noisier than leaf
not include shutters
shutters
Allows camera
to be used
with any lens

Figure 2 - 1 0 A leaf shutter is inside the lens and

consists of overlapping blades shaped like shark fins. This
shutter is half open.

On the other hand, this design is a disadvantage

when using electronic flash. At high speeds, the second
curtain must start to close before the first one is fully close. Leaf shutters are c o m m o n in inexpensive cam-
open. Thus the shutter is scanning, or "wiping," the eras. and many view and viewfinder cameras use them
image across the film and the light from the flash will as well.
have come and gone before the shutter has completed An advantage of leaf shutters is their compatibility
its travel across the frame. In figure 2-9. you can see with electronic flash. When the shutter opens, it trips a
that the second curtain has started to close before the switch that fires t h e flash. Because t h e burst of light
first one reached the opposite edge of the film. Re- from the flash is so short (about 1/1000 second), the
gardless of w h e n the flash fires, only a small portion of flash light passes through t h e shutter before it has a
the film will be exposed to the flash light. c h a n c e to close. This w o r k s even at the fast shutter
This explains wh\ you might have photos in your speed of 1/500 second. As you will see in chapter 6,
scrapbook that shoo - half the image. You w e r e this is very useful w h e n combining light from an elec-
using a focal-plane shuttc -t-t at too fast a shutter speed tronic flash with other light sources such as daylight.
for flash. Leaf shutters can be a disadvantage to the photogra-
The solution to this problem is to use slower shut- pher w h o must buy several lenses. Because the shutters
ter speeds where the first curtain has a chance to com- are m o u n t e d in the lenses, t h e cost of each lens in-
pletely open before the second curtain begins to close. cludes the cost of a complete shutter. The solution to
At these slower speeds, the camera triggers the flash this problem is to mount a shutter in the camera body,
when the whole frame is exposed. Virtually all focal- and the most practical way to do this is to use a focal-
plane shutters will synchronize with electronic flash at plane shutter.
1/60 second. Many cameras will synchronize at shutter
speeds of 1/200 and higher. The Iris Diaphragm
The iris diaphragm is a set of overlapping blades inside
Leaf Shutters the lens similar to the blades of a leaf shutter. The iris
Leaf shutters consist of a set of o v e r l a p p i n g blades diaphragm serves the same function as the iris in your
shaped like shark fins. Figure 2 - 1 0 shows a partially eye—it controls light intensity. All cameras beyond the
open le. slutter. When you press the shutter release. most simple p o c k e t m o d e l s have a d j u s t a b l e iris di-
lhc
i outward from the center, exposing the aphragms. The adjustment can be made by turning a
entire fr < film at once. When the blades reach the ring on the lens, but it is usually controlled automati-
limit of ci i they quickly reverse direction and cally by the camera's exposure system.
 TABLE 2-3 Camera Systems R e v i e w

\c,ogaku Viewing Systems

Reflex Viewfinder View

Look through Look through Look straight

taking lens via separate through taking
mirror viewer lens; can
control
distortion

Focusing Systems
Rangefinder Ground-Glass

Does not look through Views image projected on

taking lens; uses ground-glass by taking
separate mechanism lens or through special
geared to lens viewing lens

Shutters
Leaf Focal-Plane
Figure 2 - 1 1 The hexagon-shaped opening in the center Inside lens; overlapping Inside camera body;
of this lens is the aperture in its iris diaphragm. The iris blades; any speed with similar to window
diaphragm serves the same light-controlling function as the flash shades, limited speeds
iris in your eye.
with flash

Aperture
Opening in iris diaphragm inside every
The hole in t h e diaphragm is called the aperture lens; operates like iris in your eye to
(see fig. 2 - 1 1 ) , and t h e sizes of this aperture arc re- control light. Numbers that indicate
ferred to as f-stops. Apertures and shutter speeds are im- size of opening run backwards to
portant for both exposure and creative control, a topic common sense.
for chapter 3-

Controlling Your Camera

Shutter Speeds
Your first look at a full-featured camera may be bewil- Shutter speeds control h o w much light reaches the film
dering. There are numerous dials, rings, and windows, by controlling e x p o s u r e time—a long e x p o s u r e will
all of w h i c h contain n u m b e r s , pointers, or plus and admit more light than a short one. Somewhere on a full-
minus signs. One set of numbers indicates the shutter featured camera, you should see a set of numbers like
speed. Another set indicates t h e lens aperture. Most these:
likely, there will also be controls for programming the
light-metering system and possibly a batten-test indica- B, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 125, 250, 500. 1000
tor. There is also the depth-of-field scale, the film-speed You might find these shutter speed numbers on a
dial, and auto-focus adjustments. If > ou are confused by- ring around the lens or o n a small dial on top of the
all this technology, you aren't alone. Even with my 30 camera near the film-advance lever, as in figure 2-13-
years of experience. I sometimes need the manual to Increasingly, shutter speeds are displayed as digital read-
decode a modern camera system Something that helps outs in a tiny w i n d o w on top of the camera.
c o n f u s e t h e b e g i n n e r is a digital r e a d o u t that d o e s
The numbers represent fractions of a second; how-
double-duty, displaying shutter speeds, f-stop numbers,
ever, t h e numeral 1 means o n e second. The setting
and other information depending on how the camera is
marked with a letter B will keep the shutter open as
set. Don't be intimidated. It isn't hard to learn what
long as you hold the release button down. This is use-
these controls are and how they work if you take them
ful for the long time exposures sometimes needed for
on one at a time. Figure 2-12 shows a common 35mm
night photography, certain scientific imaging, or some
SI.R and its major controls.
special effects. You may occasionally see a camera with
 Shutter-

Film speed
dial
advance
lever
Shutter
release

Sell-
timer

Figure 2-12 The major controls of most cameras are similar. B e sure you can
find the shutter-speed, aperture, a n d focus controls on your camera.

a T setting, w h i c h is also for time e x p o s u r e s . Also,

many cameras offer shutter speeds of several seconds.
On t h e s h u t t e r s p e e d dial, t h e s e l o n g e r s p e e d s are
marked with either a contrasting color or style.
You'll notice that each listed shutter speed is half as
fast or twice as fast as the speed next to it. There are
t w o exceptions: 1/15 second is not quite twice as fast
as 1/8. and 1/125 second is a bit more than twice the
speed of 1/60, but for practical purposes photographers
consider them to have the same relationship as the rest.
Some cameras d o not have shutter-speed dials or
controls; the shutter speed is set by the exposure sys-
tem. If you have such a camera, it is still important to
understand shutter speeds. There are times w h e n you
will need to override automatic exposure systems and
other times w h e n you may find yourself using a camera
without an automatic exposure system. Somewhere on
your camera, possibly in the viewing system's window,
you should be able to see the shutter speed chosen by
the exposure system. If you can't find it, ask an experi-
enced photographer to show it to you.
You will find exposure explained in detail in chap-
ter 3. but for n o w , c o n c e n t r a t e o n learning shutter-
speed and aperture controls and the meanings of the
numbers on them.

Figure 2-13 Shutter-speed dial The Aperture

In a d d i t i o n to t h e s h u t t e r s p e e d s f o u n d on a full-
featured camera, you will also see a set of numbers like
these:
1.4, 2. 2.8. 4. 5.6, 8. 11, 16, 22
These f-stop numbers are usually on the lens barrel,
but they may also appear in the viewfinder window or
 I/

f/16 f/11 f'5 6

f/4 f/2 8 f/1 4

F i g u r e 2—14 A small f/stop would be f/16. while a large between the numbers a n d the aperture sizes seems to run
one would be f/1.4. Don't get confused; the relationship counter to c o m m o n sense. Memorize this illustration if
necessary.

as a digital readout. The numbers indicate the sizes of slot in the barrel of the lens. Each slide had a different
the opening in the iris diaphragm inside the lens. size hole in it and. quite logically, because they stopped
Remember, the aperture in the iris diaphragm regu- the extra light, the term stop was used. It may also help
lates the intensity of the light reaching the film. As with to remember the f-numbers if you note that even' other
shutter speeds, each adjacent aperture setting admits ei- one is a double. The only exception is the jump from
ther half as m u c h light or twice as much light as the one 5.6 to 11.
next to it. This concept is important in understanding When you look at a particular lens, you may sec an
exposure, and because the f-numbers don't have a logi- odd f-number for the maximum aperture. F-numbers
cal sequence like the shutter speeds, be sure you under- 1.2. 1.8, 2.5, and 3-5 are not uncommon. These num-
s t a n d this h a l f - a s - m u c h / t w i c e - a s - m u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p bers indicate the widest aperture available on that lens.
(fig. 2-14). T h e y are not full f-stops—that is, they do not admit
At f i r s t , y o u m a y b e c o n f u s e d b e c a u s e t h e twice the amount of light as the next stop on the lens
f-numbers seem to run backwards to c o m m o n sense. barrel. The reason lens makers mark their lenses this
When dealing with f-stops. the larger numbers refer to way is so you will knowr the maximum light-gathering
the smaller apertures and vice versa. It might be a good power of the lens, an important feature when shooting
idea to memorize figure 2-14. It is important to remem- in dim light.
ber that f/22 refers to a small aperture and f/2 refers to
a large one. Avoid the trap of thinking of 2 as a small The Logic Behind F-X umbers
f-number and 22 as a large f-number. Professional pho- There is a reason behind these unusual f-numbers. They
tographers never refer to them tills way. You'll confuse are found mathematically by dividing the diameter of
others if you use this incorrect terminology, and you the aperture into the focal length of the lens. Here is
may c o n f u s e yourself. Learn to think of these f-stops the formula:
correctly: 2 is large and 22 is small. When a photogra-
pher says "Stop down," it means adjust the aperture to- focal
f-number = ' ^ h of lens
ward f / 2 2 . W h e n a p h o t o g r a p h e r says "Open up." it diameter of aperture
means move the aperture toward f/2.
The numbers, which represent the diameter of the
Here is a tip to help you remember: Think of f-stops aperture, increase or decrease by a factor of about 1.4.
as devices for stopping the light entering the lens. F/22 To double the amount of light passing through the aper-
stops more light than f/2. In fact, in the early days of ture, you must d o u b l e t h e area of t h e o p e n i n g , and
photography, photographers inserted metal slides into a w h e n you d o u b l e t h e area of a circle, t h e d i a m e t e r
 Shutter speed (seconds)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1000 500 250 | 125 60 30 15 8 4 2

1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 22

o O O O O O

O o
P
f/stop

Figure 2-15 This diagram shows the various shutter one particular light situation. As the aperture b e c o m e s
speed and aperture combinations that are possible in smaller, the time must increase in order to achieve the
same exposure.

changes by a factor of about 1.4. Therefore, each dou- an exposure combination of 1/125 second at f/8. Any
bling of the size of the aperture increases its diameter of the equivalent combinations in figure 2 - 1 5 will pro-
by roughly 1.4. vide the same exposure. The technical term for this re-
If the mathematics of f-stops confuses you, don't l a t i o n s h i p is reciprocal exposure or t h e law of
worry. There are many successful photographers w h o reciprocity.
aren't skilled mathematicians. You will be able to mas-
ter the concept if you memorize the numbers and their
relative aperture sizes and r e m e m b e r that each s t o p The Shutter and Aperture
doubles or halves the transmitted light. as Creative Controls

Besides controlling exposure, the shutter and aperture

T h e .Shutter, A p e r t u r e , a n d E x p o s u r e each contribute to the p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s visual vocabu-
lary. The creative photojournalist knows w h e n to by-
The shutter and aperture must work together to pro- pass a u t o m a t i c s y s t e m s and u s e s h u t t e r s p e e d s and
vide the correct amount of light needed by the film. Re- a p e r t u r e s to i n c r e a s e t h e story-telling value of t h e
member. the shutter controls exposure time and t h e photo.
aperture controls the volume of light reaching the film.
If you increase the time by using a longer shutter speed, The Shutter and Motion
or increase the volume by opening the aperture, more Along with controlling the amount of time the film is
light will strike the film. Of course, decreasing the time exposed to light, the shutter also influences h o w your
or aperture will decrease the exposure. camera captures motion. It should be fairly obvious that
It is also possible to change the shutter and aper- a one-second exposure will allow moving subjects to
ture in such a way that they counteract each other and blur, and that a 1/1000 second exposure will stop mo-
the total amount of light reaching the film remains the tion. In figure 2 - l 6 a , the motion is stopped, and the
same. If you increase one and decrease the other, the shot catches the peak m o m e n t of this event. On t h e
exposure remains constant. This idea is important w h e n other hand, the blur of figure 2 - l 6 b captures the feel-
using the shutter and aperture as creative controls. ing of motion, and conveys the atmosphere and the idea
Here's a useful analogy: Think of light as water and of movement. Although the subjects of most news pho-
the aperture as a valve. You can open the valve and fill a tos must be sharp and blur-free, you should learn how
bucket in a certain amount of time. If you open the to create blur w h e n it would be the best way to report
valve w i d e r , you'll n e e d less time to get t h e s a m e the event.
amount of water. If you open the valve twice as wide, To create a stop-action p h o t o such as figure 2-16a,
you'll fill your container in half as much time. c h o o s e an f-stop and shutter-speed combination that
In your camera, each smaller aperture reduces the i n c l u d e s a s p e e d of 1 / 2 5 0 s e c o n d o r f a s t e r . T h e
intensity by half, so doubling the amount of time is the blurred image in figure 2 - 1 6 b was created by choosing
perfect counteraction to keep the total exposure con- an f-stop and shutter-speed combination that included
stant For example, suppose the meter recommended 1/30 second.
 Figure 2—16a A high
shutter s p e e d s u c h as
1/1000 of a s e c o n d freezes
the players, the ball, a n d
even the bits of dirt. (Glenn
Moore/Turlock Journal)

Figure 2 - 1 6 b
Photographer J o h n Walker
used a slow shutter s p e e d
for this shot so the biker
kick-starting his bike w o u l d
blur. (John Walker/The Fresno
Bee)

Figure 2-16c By using a slow shutter s p e e d a n d p a n n i n g

with the subject, the b a c k g r o u n d b e c o m e s blurry.
Figure 2 - 1 7 a A w i d e - a n g l e lens u s e d with a small Figure 2 - 1 7 b A wide aperture c o m b i n e d with a
apertu r C's j c h as f/16 allowed p h o t o g r a p h e r Gary telephoto lens will result in a narrow d e p t h of field. Notice
Kazan \ keep both the f o r e g r o u n d a n d b a c k g r o u n d how the b a c k g r o u n d is thrown out of focus. (Brian Davies/
sharp. The ..as about a d r o u g h t , a n d it w a s important Appeal-Democrat)
to include the b o y s in the b a c k g r o u n d to give the i m a g e a
h u m a n element as we ! i as a sense of scale.
(Gary Kazanjian/Han'ord Sentinel)

Blur is not limited to the subject, however. In figure allows you to control what your viewer sees. If the back-
2 - 1 6 c , t h e s u b j e c t is s o m e w h a t sharp but the back- ground is vital to your message, you can keep it sharp; if
ground is blurry. This technique is an effective way to the background is distracting, you can focus only on your
tell your audience that the subject is in motion. You can s u b j e c t and r e d u c e t h e b a c k g r o u n d to a blur. (See
create this effect by selecting an aperture and shutter- fig. 2-17a and b.)
speed combination that includes a slow shutter speed. The aperture in your lens controls depth of field.
If you follow t h e subject with the camera as you take The sharp background in figure 2-17a was created by
the picture, the subject will be sharp but, because you using a small a p e r t u r e such as f/16, which produces
are p a n n i n g the camera across t h e background, t h e more depth of field. T h e example in figure 2 - 1 7 b is
background will be blurry. Panning works best w h e n s o m e t i m e s called selective f o c u s and was created by
you arc close to your subject or use a telephoto lens. using a wide aperture such as f/2.
When you try these techniques, write down your To regulate depth of field, check your exposure sys-
exposures. Then check your notes w h e n looking at the tem and select an f-stop and shutter-speed combination
results to get an idea of which shutter speeds best con- that includes an aperture that will p r o d u c e the results
tribute to the final effect. you want. Remember, to include backgrounds, use a
shutter speed and aperture combination that calls for a
7 he Aperture and Depth of Field small aperture such as f/16 or f/22. To drop out back-
Depth of field i^ the spread between the closest object in grounds. use an exposure combination that includes a
focus to the most distant object in focus. Depth of field, wide aperture such as f/2. O n c e again, keep the termi-
often mislabeled depth of J'ocns, is important because it nology straight. Small apertures are those such as f/22,
and large (or wide) ones are those such as f/2.
 Some cameras have a depth-of-field preview button
or lever. By pressing this button, you can stop the lens
down to the taking aperture and can see the depth of
field produced by that aperture. It is hard to see this ef-
fect when using small apertures, however, because the
image on the focusing screen becomes quite dark

Other Controls o n Your Camera

On most modern cameras there is some way to connect

a flash. You may find a tiny socket, a flash shoe, or both.
The flash shoe allows you to slip a small electronic flash
onto t h e camera. The flash unit will have a matching
foot that fits snugly into the camera's shoe. Because the
flash must fire at precisely the right instant, the shoe
and foot will usually include the electrical connections
needed between the camera and flash. As you will see
in later chapters, many lighting effects require you to
use the flash away from the camera. In this case, you
must c o n n e c t t h e flash to the camera by means of a
wire that plugs into a tiny socket on the camera body.
T h e r e may also be a self-timing feature on your
camera, w h i c h delays t h e tripping of the shutter by
twenty seconds or so. This gadget will give you time to
run around in front of the lens and get into the photo,
and it is also useful in helping prevent camera move-
ment w h e n making time exposures. Just set the camera
on a firm support, gently start the self-timer, and let go
of the camera.
Also found on modern cameras are light-meter con-
trols. The light-metering system needs to know what
film is in the camera before it can set the aperture and
shutter speed. Some cameras read film speed from a
coded patch on the film cassette, but you might have to Figure 2-18 A monopod. which is nothing more than a
enter this information yourself. You might also find a single leg from a tripod, is a great camera-steadying
dial or w i n d o w with + and - indications that permit you device when you must move quickly from place to place.
to intentionally over- or underexpose the film. Chapter
3 will explain these controls and h o w to use them.
and s h o o t five or six f r a m e s of e v e r y image. T h i s
Camera Accessories method not only wastes film but also results in p o o r
Some of the most popular accessories today are motor coverage. Motor drives can mislead beginning photogra-
drives and auto winders. Auto winders advance the film phers into thinking they shot a lot of film on a subject,
quickly so you are ready for the next shot, w h e r e a s yet many frames are duplicates. A section in the chapter
motor drives will keep making pictures automatically as on sports covers good motor-drive technique. Invest
long as you hold the button down. first in a iclephoto and a wide-angle lens and learn to
use them well before adding a motor to your inventory.
Be careful using a motor drive, though. Don't ex-
pect it to replace good timing on your part. Too often, Tripods and m o n o p o d s are camera-steadying de-
beginners press the button on a motor drive with the vices. Tripods are useful for holding the camera in exact
idea that o n e of t h e resulting f r a m e s will be g o o d . position, either for long time exposures or remote oper-
When you watch professionals, it looks as if that is what ation. When using a camera on a tripod, attach a cable
they are doing. Chances are good, however, that the release to the shutter button to prevent your hand from
peak moment will come w h e n the motor is cycling the moving the camera.
camera, and you'll miss the shot. Pros wait for the peak- Monopods (fig. 2-18) are a bit more portable than
moment and use the motor to catch the subsequent ac- tripods and are useful for reducing camera shake, partic-
tion. Furthermore, I see an increasing amount of film ularly w h e n using heavy telephoto lenses of the type
from beginners w h o hold d o w n the button on a motor often needed on sports assignments.
Figure 2 - 1 9 When loading film, be sure the s p r o c K e i
holes are e n g a g e d in the drive gear at the far right b e f o r e
closing the camera back

Camera I lane/ling
When loading film in the camera, first be sure the film
chamber is clean. Get a rubber car syringe from a phar-
macy and use it to gently b l o w out dust or chips of
film. When threading the film through the camera, be Figure 2-20 How to hold a 35mm camera.
sure the take-up spool catches the film end securely
and the s p r o c k e t drive w h e e l engages t h e s p r o c k e t
holes in the film (fig. 2-19). Before closing t h e camera Operating your camera should be a reflex action.
back, click the shutter and wind the film once just to Learn how to change lenses and reload without unnec-
be sure the take-up spool has caught the film and the essary' delay. Practice shooting "dry" with an e m p t y
sprockets are engaged in the drive wheel. Then close camera until you can operate all the controls without
the camera and advance the film twice to get past the looking at them. When you carry your camera with you.
end that was exposed during loading. A common prob- watch for that fleeting photo that may last for only an
lem is for the film to slip off this mechanism and fail to instant. You may have no time to p r e p a r e , so avoid
wind through the camera. So double-check by watch- form-fitting cases that slow your response, and keep
ing t h e film r e w i n d k n o b w h e n you a d v a n c e each your camera loaded and the shutter cocked. Adjust your
frame. If t h e knob doesn't turn, the film is not going shutter and aperture for average conditions or set your
through the camera Open the camera and re-attach the exposure system on automatic and focus the lens on
leader to the take-up spool If your camera is motorized about 12 feet.
and docs not have a rewind knob, check your camera's
instruction manual to see if t h e camera is e q u i p p e d
with a film-advance indicator. Camera Maintenance
A photojournalist can t risk losing a shot because of
Some p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t s have w i s h e d t h e y could equipment failure. Keep your lens clean. The oil from
merely thread a roll of film through their ears and blink your fingers leaves greasy marks that can decrease sharp-
their e y e s to make p i c t u r e s . Camera handling isn't ness in your photos and may even eat into the lens coat-
quite that easy. Figure 2 - 2 0 s h o w s h o w to hold a ing. You'd be surprised h o w easy it is to get finger marks
35mm camera for comfort and steadiness. By holding on a lens, so check often. Use an ear syringe to blow dirt
the camera this way. you can operate the aperture ring and dust off the lens. Then use a soft cotton cloth or spe-
and the focus ring with your left hand while your right cial lens tissue to wipe the lens clean. (Be sure the cloth
hand operates the film advance lever and the shutter- is pure cotton. Synthetic fabrics may feel soft yet the
speed tli.il The camera sits in the palm of your left fibers may have sharp, abrasive edges.) Remove stub-
hand. 1 you should tuck your elbows into your sides born smears by placing a drop or two of lens cleaner on
for firm era support. Squeeze the shutter release the lens tissue, then wipe with a circular motion from
slowh Punt hing it quickly could jerk the camera and the center to the edge of the lens. Do not put the clean-
cause unintv ;.ii«>nal blur. ing fluid directly on the lens. It may run d o w n inside and
 camera, consider how long it may have sat on a ware-
house shelf, the batteries losing power all the while
There may be a battery test indicator on your camera,
but if not. take the batteries to a camera store for test-
ing. Clean the ends of the batteries and the contacts in-
side the battery compartment with a pencil eraser.
Finally, check any tiny screws visible on the camera
and lens. If necessary, tighten them with a jeweler's
screwdriver. Refer any problem more involved than this
to a camera repair service.

The Professionals' Choice

In photojournalism, the 35mm single-lens reflex is most

popular because of its versatility. Professionals seem to
prefer Nikon and Canon, although there are many other
brands of equal quality. If you use the same brand that
professionals in your area use, you may be able to rent
Figure 2 - 2 1 Shots like this m o m e n t at a gay rights rally
or borrow a special lens or accessory' locally. On the
won't wait, so you must b e a b l e to react in a fraction of a
other hand, if you are the only person in town using a
s e c o n d . K e e p your c a m e r a set to a v e r a g e conditions a n d
particular brand of camera, you might find it difficult to
learn to operate the controls by reflex action. (ThorSwift)
get accessories you need. This drawback is no small
consideration for p h o t o g r a p h e r s w h o need a special
telephoto lens to shoot a sporting event. These lenses
cause more problems. Be sure to use photographic lens can cost several thousand dollars; renting or borrowing
fluid, not cleaners made for eyeglasses or windows. is sometimes the only practical way to get them.
Because a p h o t ojournalist's equipment is subject to When looking at specific camera models, be sure to
rough handling, you should protcct the front elements choosc one with manually adjustable f-stop and shutter-
of your lenses with skylight or haze filters. These filters speed controls. Automatic exposure is fine, but as you'll
look like clear glass and are cheap insurance against a see in chapter 3, there will be times w h e n you'll need
damaged lens. Clean them as you would a lens. to override the meter system.
Use the ear syringe to blow dust out of the inside of Also, be sure the camera you choose accepts inter-
t h e camera. Look in t h e back of t h e camcra for film changeable lenses. You'll soon want to add telephoto
chips that could land on the rear lens element or jam and wide-angle lenses to your inventory, and in photo-
t h e m e c h a n i s m , and get rid of any dust or grit that journalism you can't cover some assignments without
could scratch the film. The metal blades in some shut- these lenses. Auto-focus camcras arc extremely popular
ters are so thin that they bend at the slightest touch, so even with pros, but automatic focusing is not foolproof.
keep your fingers away from them. As with any automatic feature, be sure you can override
If the lens is removable, take it off and blow out the it manually.
front chamber of the camera. Never touch a reflex mir- Higher prices generally mean more features and in-
ror with anything—including lens tissue. The reflective creased durability, and the busy professional may need
coating on the front surface is extremely delicate; any the extras offered by the top-of-the-line camera. But for
dirt that w o n ' t blow off with the syringe is unlikely to the price of a top-of-the-line camera you might be able
cause a problem. Have extremely dirty mirrors cleaned to get a lower-priced c a m e r a body and a c o u p l e of
by a camera technician. If you turn a reflex camera up- lenses, too. This option would give you extra tools for
side down, you can look inside the front cavity and see expanding your photographic vision. Beware, however,
the bottom side of the focusing screen. Specks in your of the low-end offerings. These cameras are designed
field of view w h e n you look through the viewing sys- for casual amateur shooting and are unlikely to have the
tem are most likely o n this screen and, although they features and durability a serious photographer needs.
are annoying, will not affect your photos. Blow the dust
Sometimes you can find a good deal on a used cam-
off the screen with the syringe.
era, and there is no reason to shy away from used equip-
Your camera probably uses batteries for its various ment if it is in good condition and not obsolete. Check
systems. Be sure to check these batteries and replace for visible signs of damage or abuse, test all the con-
t h e m at least o n c e a year. If you just bought a n e w trols, and shoot a test roll if possible.
 The Ele<. i. Camera equipment, including at least one extra camera body
and lens, and complete flash unit. If you can't borrow
\ewspajn experimenting with electronic cam-
something from a friend, you can sometimes rent gear
era*. < . use film at all. The images are recorded
from camera stores. Most major cities have rental shops
clear l\ and transferred to computers w h e r e they
that will even ship e q u i p m e n t to the hinterlands. Be
.in en retouched and adjusted for the printing
sure your backup gear is working, particularly if it is
- I are two types of electronic still cameras:
borrowed or rented and you don't know its history.
K! digital. Still video cameras use the same
prim ip . > as TV cameras. The images are r e c o r d e d The weakest item in a photojournalism bag is the
ike a video r e c o r d i n g is made, in an analog flash sync cord. The connection between the wire and
; k on a magnetic medium similar to videotape. Ana- the molded plug usually breaks inside the insulation.
_ recordings are continuous streams of signals that The only cure is to bun* the cord. They are not expen-
depend on varying their strength or frequency for cap- sive, so you should have at least t w o spares handy.
turing the information. Other weak spots are flash and camera batteries that die
without warning. Always keep spares in your bag.
I n l i k e analog still video cameras, digital cameras
record their images as a series of numbers in the same Finally, regardless of t h e camera you use, your
manner as computers record information. Some digital equipment should be transparent. That is, it should not
cameras even use tiny floppy disks that fit into the cam- interfere with the relationship between you and your
era. Digital images can be sent directly into a computer, subject. Don't get so caught up in equipment that your
but analog video must be converted into digital informa- photos are meaningless. Equipment is the means, not
tion first. the end. of photojournalism.
Digital cameras have great interest for the news in-
dustry because the images arc ready for use as soon as Summary
the shutter button is pressed. In a matter of minutes, a
photojournalist in a remote location can connect a digi- The simplest camera is nothing more than a light-tight
tal camera to a laptop c o m p u t e r and send the image box with a pinhole in one end and a piece of film in the
through telephone lines to the newspaper office. There, other. Practical cameras, h o w e v e r , have viewing sys-
t h e image can be sent directly to t h e m a c h i n e that tems. focusing systems, shutters, and iris diaphragms, all
makes the plates for the printing press. of which give you control over the final image.
Aside from t h e way they record t h e image, elec- There are three types of viewing systems: reflex,
tronic cameras have the same key features as cameras viewfinder, and direct view. Reflex is the most common
that use film: viewing systems, focusing systems, aper- among photojournalists. When looking into a single-lens
tures. and lenses. Some have shutters; some do not. Al- reflex (SLR) camera, a mirror reflects your line of sight
though the mechanical details may b e different, t h e through the image-making lens. A great advantage of
operation of these cameras follows the same principles this viewing system is that you can attach many differ-
as c o n v e n t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t . T h e digital c a m e r a s in- ent types of lenses to t h e camera and always see the
tended for professional use are quite expensive, and it lens' effects.
is unlikely that, as a beginner, you will have a chance to
In a viewfinder camera you look through a separate
use one. You may. however, find lower-priced digital or
optical system. V i e w f i n d e r s are s o m e w h a t like gun
still-video cameras becoming more common as the mar-
sights—you don't see exactly what the lens sees.
ket grows. There are several drawbacks to electronic
cameras that will be covered in chapter 18; until these The most accurate viewing system is direct-viewing,
problems are solved, their use by photojournalists will which allows you to see the image on a piece of ground
be limited. 1 recommend against buying one until they glass exactly as projected by the image-forming lens. In-
arc firmly established in the industn serting t h e film blocks t h e ground glass, however, so
this system is not practical for moving subjects.
There are t w o focusing systems that aid your quest
Ihe Importance of Backup Equipment
for s h a r p pictures: r a n g e f i n d c r focusing or ground-
Professionals n e v e r embark on an important assign-
glass focusing. The rangefindcr is vaguely similar to a
ment without backup equipment. It is common on an
v i e w f i n d e r ( b e w a r e of c o n f u s i n g t h e s e t w o similar
e x t e n d e d overseas assignment to carry six or eight
terms) e x c e p t that it presents two images. When the
cameras a dozen lenses, five or six small flash units lens is in focus, the two images coincide. The second
and related paraphernalia. Although your first experi- system, ground-glass focusing, projects the image onto
ences in p h o t o g r a p h y will probably be with limited a piece of ground glass or matte plastic, and focusing
e q u i p m e n t — o n e lens and o n e c a m e r a — b r e a k d o w n s is simply a matter of adjusting the lens until the image
do occur II \<>u are being paid to cover an assignment, is sharp.
you s h o u l d think c a r e f u l l y a b o u t c a r r y i n g b a c k u p
 Another important item is the shutter. Shutters are photographers o p e n up" their lenses to wide apertures
like small doors that control the light entering the cam- such as f/2 and "stop down" their lenses to small ones
era. Leaf shutters are inside the lens, where they open such as f/22.
outward from the center to expose the film all at once. You'll find controls on the camera that set the shut-
You can use these s h u t t e r s with flash at any shutter ter speed and aperture. Whereas the shutter controls
speed. Leaf shutters are c o m m o n in low-priced pocket exposure time, the aperture controls the brightness of
cameras and in a f e w of t h e most e x p e n s i v e profes- the exposing light. These two settings work together to
sional models. Focal-plane shutters are inside the cam- control the total amount of light that reaches the film.
era just in front of the film. They are similar to a set of The analogy of filling a bucket with water is useful to
window shades, o n e rolled at the t o p of the w i n d o w help form a mental picture of what happens during ex-
and one rolled at the bottom. One shade is closed, and posure. If the water faucet is open wide, the bucket fills
when the shutter fires, it opens, revealing the film. The in a short time; if the faucet drips, the bucket will take a
second s h a d e follows quickly, closing over the film long time to fill. Transferring this analogy to your cam-
Focal-plane shutters are capable of much higher speeds era. a wide aperture will allow a short exposure time,
than leaf s h u t t e r s but they c a n n o t b e used at high but a small aperture requires a longer exposure time.
speeds with electronic flash because of the way they
scan across t h e film. The shutter is also responsible for the control of
motion in the photo, short times freezing action and
The iris diaphragm is inside the lens where it does long times p e r m i t t i n g moving s u b j e c t s to blur. The
the same job as the iris in your eye: controlling light in- aperture also contributes by affecting d e p t h of field
tensity. The lens' iris opens and closes as you turn the Depth of field is the range of sharpness between near
f-stop ring on the lens; in most modern cameras it is also and distant o b j e c t s . Small a p e r t u r e s p r o d u c e great
controlled automatically by the camera's exposure sys- depth of field, while wide apertures produce very nar-
tem. The opening in the diaphragm is called the aper- row depth of field.
mre, and the sizes of the opening are called f-stops. The The most versatile camera for photojournalism is
f-stops are numbered in an unexpected way, f/2 being a the 35mm single-lens reflex. Useful accessories include
large opening and f/22 being small. The progression of motor drives, skylight filters (to protect lenses), and
numbers does not seem to make sense, but it is based steadying devices such as tripods and monopods. You
on doubling the area of the opening. Remember, each never know when a photo may present itself, so keep
f-stop c h a n g e doubles or halves t h e amount of light your camera clean, loaded, and ready to use at a mo-
entering the lens. Be sure to learn the terminology— ment's notice.
 Film and
Exposure
OUTLINE

Film Light Meters

Characteristics of Film Meters in Cameras
Films f o r Photojournalism Controlling Motion and Depth of
Storing and Handling Film Field with Auto-Exposure Systems
Exposure I Iand-I leld Light Meters
T h e Bucket of Water Analogy Metering Abnormal Scenes
The Exposure Ruler The Rule-of-Thumb Exposure
Film Speed and the Term Stops Summary

G O O D PHOTOGRAPHS START WITH PERCEPTIVE MINDS RATHER THAN WITH MERELY

99
PERCEPTIVE EYES.

— D A V I D YARNOLD, FORMER PHOTOJOURNALISM ASSISTANT MANAGING EDITOR,

SAX JOSE MERCURY NF.\VS
Film ISO 100 and 400, and slow-speed films are rated at ISO
100 or less. For most assignments shot in black and
For a photographer in the last half of the 1800s. making white, photojournalists use ISO 400 film because this
photographs was a bit of an ordeal. Photographic film film can be used easily for photographing both bright
did not exist as w e k n o w it today. Sheets of glass had to outdoor sccncs and dimly lit interiors. When shooting
be sensitized on the spot with messy liquid chemicals, color film, the options depend on many factors, includ-
then exposed and processed before the emulsion coat- ing the ty pe of lighting at the sccne and the processes
ing dried. Today, the roll of film you put in your camera used by t h e publisher to p r e p a r e the p h o t o for t h e
works on the same basic principles, but technological printing press.
changes have increased efficiency, quality, and case of There are extremely high-speed films in both black
use a thousandfold. and white and color that have speeds of ISO 3200. Under
Instead of a plate of glass, m o d e m film is a plastic special circumstances, Kodak's P3200 black-and-white
strip coated by the manufacturer with light-sensitive sil- film can be used with an ISO rating of 12,500, a speed
ver salts. When the film is exposed, the silver salts af- photographers only dreamed about just a few years ago.
fected by the light form an invisible latent image. When These extremely fast films are great for photographing in
the film is developed, the latent image is converted to places w h e r e light is yveak, and have opened up many
crystals of metallic silver. Figure 3 - 1 s h o w s a cross- n e w opportunities for photojournalists.
section of a ty pical piece of film.
Grain Notice the speckled look of figure 3-2. This ef-
Characteristics of Film fect is called grain, and the specks are the clumps of sil-
Photographic film is a complex product, and t h e scien- ver that form t h e image in t h e negative. High-speed
tists concerned with its manufacture can spend entire films h a v e c o a r s e grain c o m p a r e d w i t h s l o w - s p e e d
careers delving into its mysteries. For us, however, only films. Compare the coarse grain in figure 3 - 2 to the al-
a few characteristics are important. most invisible grain in figure 3-3-
Although fast films have c o a r s e grain and slow
Film Speed When photographers use the term film films fine grain, o t h e r factors influence t h e appear-
speed. they are talking about h o w fast the film reacts to ance of grain. O n e of these is the degree of enlarge-
light. High-speed films react very quickly, and therefore m e n t . W h e n you make an 8 x 10-inch print from a
require relatively little light to record an image. Con- 35mm negative, you enlarge the image roughly eight
versely, slow-speed films react very slowly and need times. Because the grain is part of the negative, it will
much more light for proper exposure. be enlarged also. Other factors affecting grain are the
Film speeds are marked on film packages and may choice of developers and processing techniques, dis-
be preceded by three letters: ASA. ISO. or DIN. The ini- cussed in c h a p t e r 5. Generally, care in processing will
tials stand for various standards and testing associations. minimize grain.
The photo industry is converting to t h e ISO designation,
so for the next several years you may see any of these Contrast In photography, the term contrast means
initials w>ciated with film speed. Also, filmmakers frc- the number of intermediate gray tones between black
quent include the film speed in the name of the film. and white. At one extreme, the highest contrast image
Ektaprc - o n Plus is one example.
is one that contains only black and white (fig. 3-4). At
I iln r.iu-d ai ISO 400 or higher a r e considered the o t h e r extreme, a low-contrast image may contain
high-spc Medium-speed films are rated between only gray tones (fig. 3-5).
F i g u r e 3—2 This photo w a s shot with a h i g h - s p e e d film.
The c l u m p s of silver in the negative are large e n o u g h to be
visible a s s p e c k s in the m i d d l e tones. In a n e w s shot s u c h
as this, the i m p a c t of the m o m e n t o u t w e i g h s any objections
to the grain. These p e o p l e are w a t c h i n g rescue crews
attend to two youths c a u g h t in a cave-in. (Pat Davison/
Albuquerque Tribune)

Figure 3 - 3 C o m p a r e this portrait with the photo in

figure 3 - 2 . This i m a g e w a s shot on a fine-grain film
a n d the grain is nearly impossible to see. (Lane Turner/
The Boston Globe)

Figure 3 - 5 L a c k i n g strong black-and-white tones a n d a

full r a n g e of mid-tones, this low-contrast image e m p h a s i z e s
the story: these p e o p l e w e r e e v i c t e d f r o m their home on
this foggy winter day a n d are m o v i n g their things to a pile
across the street. (Paul Kuroda/The Fresno Bee)

Figure 3 - 4 This silhouette is a high-contrast image—it

contains only b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e tones. (Glenn Moore)
 T h e s e contrast e x t r e m e s , and various levels of
contrast in between, can be partially the result of t h e
film Manx spec ial films used in the printing industry',
for e x a m p l e a r e extremely high contrast. These mate-
rials arc not used for normal photography, but if you
p h o t o g r a p h e d an o r d i n a r y s c e n e w i t h this t y p e of
film, the tones would be recorded by the film as ei-
t h e r black or w h i t e , as in figure 3 - 4 . Your p h o t o
dealer may have o n e of these high-contrast films (a
common o n e is Kodalith) in 35mm. They are useful
: photographing pen-and-ink drawings or lettering
for slide shows.
On the other hand, films commonly used by photo-
journalists produce more realistic results. The contrast
in these films varies, although you may find it hard at
first to see the difference. In general, high-speed films
are lower in contrast than slow-speed films. Other fac-
tors are involved in the contrast of the negative, how-
ever. and in the section on printmaking you'll see w h y
film contrast is important to photojoumalists.
F i g u r e 3 - 6 Infrared film is sensitive to invisible infrared
rays. Paul Kuroda used this film and a flash with an infrared
Color Sensitivity Although you expect color film to filter over the flashlamp to photograph illegal night time
be color sensitive, black-and-white films are also sensi- border crossing along the California-Mexico border.
tive to color, but in different ways. Because the filter made the light from the flash invisible
Panchromatic films arc the ones most used by pho- Kuroda was able to work without being detected by
tojoumalists and are sensitive to all colors of light. Or- officials. (Paul Kuroda/Orarige County Register)
thochromatic films are not sensitive to red light, and.
therefore, can be handled in the photo lab under a red
safelight. Because they are rarely used in conventional t h e film, and be sure to make several exposures at dif-
photography, you will not e n c o u n t e r orthochromatic f e r e n t settings. Both black-and-white and c o l o r in-
films unless y ou specifically ask for them. Many of the frared films are available.
special-purpose, high-contrast films mentioned in t h e
last section are orthochromatic. Color Rendition Color films vary in their color rendi-
Color sensitivity can also vary in subtle ways. For tion. Some films favor reds, some favor blues. Some are
example. Kodak makes two varieties of Tri-X film in 120 higher in color saturation than others. For example, Ek-
size, one labeled Tri-X Pan and the other marked Tri-X tachrome traditionally has been on the cool side, while
Professional. The latter film has extended red sensitivity Kodachrome has been praised for its vibrancy and fi-
for use under studio floodlights, which emit more red delity. Fujichrome has gained popularity with photo-
light than sunlight does. You 11 have to look closely to journalists because of its high color saturation. The ISO
see it. but this slight difference is important to portrait 1600 to 3200 films have been noted for softer colors.
and other studio photographers.
Color rendition is much a matter of taste, so try a vari-
Infrared film has a special sensitivity to infrared ety of films and rely on your own preferences.
light. When used for ordinary photography, the results
are often unpredictable, and t h e p h o t o s are always a Exposure Latitude The capacity of film to produce
surprise. Infrared film is used only rarely by photojour- a usable image over a range of exposures is known as
nalism. but medical and scientific photographers use it exposure latitude. For example, Tri-X, the old standby,
often. Scientific uses include astronomy, plant pathol- can be over- or underexposed by several stops and still
ogy. and aerial surveys. The example in Figure 3 - 6 was yield a u s a b l e n e g a t i v e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , Ko-
made with a flash that had an infrared filter over the dachrome 25, the standard by which most color films
flashlamp P h o t o g r a p h e r Paul Kuroda n e e d e d to be are judged, has a very narrow latitude. Exposures made
able to p h o t o g r a p h illegal border crossings at night, on this color transparency (slide) material should be
but his subjects would not c o o p e r a t e if his actions within a half-stop range.
would draw the attention of t h e Border Patrol. Light
from the infrared flash was invisible and allowed him Generally speaking, negative films have more lati-
to work undetected If you try infrared film, remember tude than transparency materials, and high-speed films
that you cannot measure the exposure as the film will a r e m o r e f o r g i v i n g than s l o w - s p e e d o n e s . Color is
record it. so use the exposure guidelines packed with fussier than black and white. Although there is no sub-
stitute for the correct exposure, the importance of film
latitude is not lost on photojournalists. who may not When choosing film, be sure you select one that is
have time to set e x p o s u r e s accurately during a fast- readily available. Some less-popular brands may be hard
breaking news event. to find if an assignment should send you to an out-of-
the-way place. Use only one or two films until you fully
Film Size There are many film sizes; the most com- understand what they will do for you. and never shoot
mon one is 35 mm wide. This format was introduced in an important assignment on film you haven't previously
the early twentieth century with the idea of using m o tested. Don't get too worked up over film brands and
tion picture film in still cameras. Photos made on 35mm types. You'll hear photographers talk about which film
film measure 24 mm x 36 mm or about 1 x 1-1/2 inches. is best, but in the end it is the content of your pictures,
Another common film size is 120 roll film. This film is not the film they arc made on, that counts.
about 2 inches wide and comes in a paper-backed roll
Image format d e p e n d s on the camera: some are Storing and Handling Film
2 1/4 inches square, others are 6 x 4 . 5 cm. and 6 x 7
Film is quite durable, and it is amazing that it will record
cm. You might also encounter sheet film Loaded in spe-
images under conditions ranging from the hot. humid
cial holders, these sheets arc inserted one at a time into
tropics to the frozen arctic. Nevertheless, heat can dam-
the camera. Common professional sizes measure 4 x 5
age film, and you should avoid leaving it in your car on
inches and 8 x 1 0 inches.
a hot day. Although the film w o n ' t be complcteh de-
stroyed in one afternoon, grain and contrast will be af-
Fil ms for Photojou rnal ism f e c t e d . In e x t r e m e c a s e s , h e a t c a n c a u s e f o g or
Most photojournalists use ISO 400 film because it can odd-looking streaks to appear in the processed emul-
be used easily both indoors and out. It can also be de- sion. Objectionable color shifts can occur in color film.
veloped in special chemicals that help the film capture I o n c e had a box of film damaged during a cross-country
images under very dim light (see Appendix). I suggest trip because the film was on the floor of the car. right
you stan with these ISO 400 films and learn their char- over the muffler. I hadn't realized h o w warm that spot
acteristics thoroughly. In black and white, Kodak s Tri-X could get after a f e w hours' driving.
is the old-time standard, although Kodak's T-Max 400 is A small picnic cooler is a hand)' place to keep film
also popular. Ilford's entry in this category is HP-5. and w h e n you are shooting in hot weather. If you plan to
Fuji offers Ncopan 400. store film for a long time, however, keep the rolls (in
An i m p o r t a n t b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e film is K o d a k s their original f a c t o r y p a c k a g e s ) in a r e f r i g e r a t o r or
P3200. This film has a speed of 3200 and can. with spe- freezer. Be sure to let the packages warm up to room
cial processing, b e used at speeds of 12,500. This capa- temperanire before opening them. Otherwise, condensa-
bility is extremely valuable for low-light photography. tion could form on the film, causing its own type of dam-
At sports events held at night, the high film speed per- age. Cold weather poses no threat to the image-recording
mits faster shutter speeds. abilities of film, but under extreme conditions the film
In color p h o t o g r a p h y , b o t h print and slide films can become brittle. If you find yourself shooting in the
with ISO speeds from 25 to 3200 arc used. Your exact freezing cold, o p e r a t e t h e film a d v a n c e and rewind
choice will d e p e n d o n a n u m b e r of factors, including slowly and avoid the use of motor drives if possible.
the nature of the assignment and the processes that will Some color films have the w o r d professional as
be used to prepare the p h o t o for publication. part of their name. Intended for critical work, these
Color print films arc usually called negative films, films are designed for precise color rendition w h e n
while films for slides arc called transparency films. Most used and processed promptly and should be kept in a
of these films can b e processed quickly and without refrigerator. Films not marked this way are made so
special equipment; Kodachrome. an excellent film, re- they will "ripen'" by the time they find their way to your
quires elaborate processing that is not suited to short- camera. There is no reason not to use these films under
d e a d l i n e w o r k . C h e c k t h e film p a c k a g e f o r t h e normal circumstances.
processing required. If you see the phrase "Process Airport X rays are another hazard to avoid. In spite
E6," (used for transparency films) or "Process C41." of some claims to the contrary, radiation from baggage
(used for negative films), the film can be processed by screening equipment can cause damage. Keep film in a
many newspapers and local processing labs. Obviously, separate carry-on bag and ask for a hand search. Airports
if you have an assignment in color, you must c h e c k in the United States are required to hand-search bags if
with the editors to see what t y p e of film should be so requested, but foreign airports are a different matter.
used. Some use high-level X-ray equipment, and some foreign
airport inspectors will not pass any object through the
Polaroid instant-picture films are available in a wide
boarding gate without a successful X ray. At camera
variety of sizes, including 35mm. They are used fre-
stores you can get lead-lined bags that are made to pro-
quently in studio situations to check lighting and com-
tect film from X rays, but they are not fail-safe. The best
position, but are rarely used by p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t s to
solution is to keep film away from X-ray machines.
produce the final image.
 W a t e r p r e s s u r e = L i g h t l e v e l of s c e n e

Valve = Lens aperture

Time = Shutter s p e e d

B u c k e t = Film s p e e C

The correct exposure

is a full b u c k e t

Figure 3 - 7 The bucket of water analogy. See the text for an explanation.

Exposure is a large aperture setting, and a large f-number, such as

22, is a small aperture setting. Review that section n o w
Understanding e x p o s u r e is an important part of be- if necessary.
c o m i n g a photojournalism because p h o t o g r a p h y de- The easiest way to understand exposure is to think
p e n d s o n both c o n t e n t and t e c h n i q u e . Without t h e of light as water. Other factors such as aperture, shutter
correct technique, the content will be lost. If t h e nega- speed, film speed, and the light level of the scene be-
tive is not correctly exposed, image quality will suffer; come parts of your water system (fig. 3-7). Think of
if t h e exposure is too far afield, there will be no usable
image at all. Furthermore, understanding exposure can • the aperture as the valve on a water line
h e l p you improve c o n t e n t , because t h e camera fea- • the shutter speed as the time the valve is left open
tures that control exposure also contribute to impor- • the light level of the scene as the water pressure in
tant d e p t h - o f - f i e l d a n d m o t i o n e f f e c t s t h a t c a r r y the line
m e s s a g e s a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t . Although you may b e
• the film speed as the size of the bucket to be filled.
tempted to let automatic systems set exposure for you,
you should k n o w h o w t h e s e s y s t e m s w o r k so you In figure 3-7, you have a bucket of a specific size
won't be stranded w h e n they fail, and so you, not a (film speed). You must fill the bucket with just enough
machine, can make the creative decisions. water. The correct e x p o s u r e is a full bucket. It can't
overflow by one drop, or be less than full by one drop.
- c ket of Water A nalogy To fill the bucket, you must set the proper valve open-
ing and hold it open for the proper amount of time.
:o record an image properly, the film must re-
iv the right amount of light. As discussed in In filling the bucket, you have some choices. You
cha; >oth the shutter and a p e r t u r e control the could o p e n t h e valve just a small a m o u n t , say, just
arn< enough to let the water drip through. If you hold the
aching the film. I recommended then
valve open for a long time the bucket will eventually fill.
tf^t y . c • he aperture and shutter-speed num-
bers
On the other hand, you could open the valve all the way
Pa that a small f-number, such as 2, and hold it open for a short time and also fill the bucket.
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1000 500 250 125 1
60 30 15 8 4 2

O
1.4 2 2.8 4

O
5.6 8 11 16

O
22

O o o o O O

f/stop

Figure 3 - 8 The top strip represents shutter speeds and the bottom one
represents f/stops. The ruler can be used to find equivalent exposures as
explained in the text.

Shutter speed (seconds)

l
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1000 500 250 | 125 60 30 15 8 4 2

O
1.4

o o o O O O
2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16
O
22
o

f/stop

Figure 3 - 9 If your light meter recommended an exposure of 1/8 second at

f/8, any of these f/stop and shutter-speed combinations will pass the same
amount of light through to the film.

W h e n making p h o t o g r a p h i c exposures, the same The top strip s h o w s all the c o m m o n shutter speeds,
principles are true. You can use a small aperture and a while the bottom strip shows c o m m o n f-stops. Some
long time, or a wide aperture and a short time; and ei- shutters and lenses may go beyond what's shown in
ther combination will provide the correct exposure. As this example.
with the bucket of water, if you increase o n e factor
(such as t h e aperture), you must decrease the other Using the Exposure Ruler Light meters are devices
(shutter speed) to keep the total effect the same. This that measure the brightness of the light and then calcu-
relationship is the law of reciprocity that was intro- late f-stops and shutter speeds. Light meters will be
duced in chapter 2. thoroughly covered in the next section, but for now,
assume that you took a light-meter reading and the rec-
The Exposure Ruler o m m e n d e d e x p o s u r e was 1/8 s e c o n d at f / 8 . If you
The exposure ruler presented in figure 3 - 8 will help align t h e exposure ruler so that 1/8 second is opposite
you work with this c o n c e p t of reciprocity, or equiva- f/8, as in figure 3-9, the ruler will s h o w you a complete
lent exposure. You can make your o w n exposure ruler range of exposure combinations, all of which will re-
by copying these two strips and pasting the copies on sult in the same exposure. One second at f/22 fills the
separate pieces of file card. You can use the ruler to fig- bucket just as well as 1/250 second at f/1.4.
ure almost any combination of equivalent exposures.
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1000 500 250 125 60 30 15 8 4 2

1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 22

OOo o O o o O o

f/stop

Figure 3 - 1 0 Here are the combinations that result if the meter recommends
1/30 second at f/8.

Shutter speed (seconds)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1000 500 250 125 60 30 15 8 4 2

1.4

o o O O O2
O 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 22
O

OO
f/stop

F i g u r e 3 - 1 1 In this example, the meter recommended an exposure of f/8 at

1/4 second. Note that there is no shutter speed that matches f/22 and no
apertures that match speeds over 1/125.

Here is another example. Assume you took a meter At this point, you may be wondering h o w to decide
reading of a different scene, and the recommended ex- which exposure combination to use. The answer stems
posure was 1/30 second at f/8. There is more light in from chapter 2, w h e r e w e discussed h o w the shutter
this n e w scene, and in terms of our water-system anal- speed controls the appearance of motion in the photo
ogy, the water pressure is higher. Therefore, you need and the aperture controls depth of field. An exposure
either a smaller valve opening or a shorter time to pre- combination with a small aperture will increase depth
vent the bucket from overflowing. In Figure 3-10, the of field; whereas a combination with a wide aperture
ruler shows you all shutter and aperture combinations will decrease depth of field. Fast shutter speeds stop ac-
that are correct for this particular scene. tion; slow ones permit blur. Review those sections on
Moving in t h e o t h e r direction, a s s u m e that t h e motion and depth of field in chapter 2, if necessary.
scene has less light, and the meter recommended an ex- You can sec by looking at the exposure ruler that
posure of f / 8 at 1/4 second. The exposure ruler in fig- c o m p r o m i s e s must be made in many e x p o s u r e situa-
ure 3 - 1 1 s h o w s all e x p o s u r e combinations that will tions. In figure 3-11- the exposure combination with
result in a correct exposure for this hypothetical scene. the fastest shutter speed is 1/125 second at f/1.4. This
Notice that f/22 is too small an opening for the speeds combination is not quite fast enough to stop most fast-
available on the ruler. Also, 1/1000 second is too fast for moving subjects, yet it will permit minimum depth of
the widest opening available. You are always limited to field. At the other extreme, you could use 1 second at
f-stop and shutter-speed combinations that are paired f/16. This combination would provide maximum depth
on the ruler. If you w e r e to use 1/1000 second anyway, of field, yet any moving objects would be very blurred
the film would be incorrectly exposed. If you choose a at this slow shutter speed. At a news event, the need for
shutter speed and f-stop that do not match u p on the blur-free photos limits your practical choices to combi-
ruler, you will get an incorrect exposure. nations with higher shutter speeds.
 1 1 1 1
1000 500 250 125 60 30 15

1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 22

Oo o O O O
o O O

f/stop

Figure 3 - 1 2 A typical sunny-day exposure for 400-speed film is 1/500

second at f/11. In this case, you are quite limited as to shutter s p e e d and f/stop
combinations.

In the previous example, you could have used any Differences between film-speed ratings can also be
o n e of eight f - s t o p / s h u t t e r - s p e e d combinations, but referred to by the word stops. A film with an ISO rating
many times you will have fewer choices. For example, a of 200 requires twice the exposure of a film rated at 400.
common exposure for ISO 400 film in daylight is 1/500 Because twice the exposure requires either one more
second at f/16. Figure 3 - 1 2 shows the options available, f-stop or the next slowest shutter speed, the 200-specd
and there is no exposure combination that will produce film is one stop slower than the 400-speed film.
extremely narrow depth of field.
If you are confused by the c o n c e p t of equivalent
exposure, make an exposure ruler, flash cards, or any- Light M e t e r s
other devices that will help you. Avoid relying solely on
automatic exposure systems, which may let you d o w n A light meter is a device that measures the brightness of
at a critical moment. If the battery goes dead or you are the light and translates that into f-stops and shutter
faced with one of the meter-fooling situations discussed s p e e d s for t h e correct exposure. Most cameras have
in the next section on light meters, you could lose the light meters built in, but there are also separate hand-
shot. (I have a friend w h o went on a three-month tour held meters.
of Europe. He did not k n o w h o w to control exposure,
and his camera's battery was dead. He came home with Meters in Cameras
44 rolls of blank film!) Also, if you leave the creative de- The light receptors for meters in modern cameras are
cisions about depth of field and motion control to an au- arranged s o they can s e e right t h r o u g h t h e picture-
tomatic exposure system, you forfeit important aspects taking lens. When the camera's exposure system is set
of visual communication to a machine. Learn about ex- on automatic, the shutter speed, aperture, or both may-
posure and expand your photographic vocabulary. be set by t h e meter. When you look into the viewfinder.
you will see some sort of exposure indicator that will
Film S p e e d a n d t h e T e r m Stops tell you w h e n the exposure is correctly set. Figure 3 - 1 3
As you have learned, the term stops means the sizes of shows some typical viewfinder displays.
the aperture in the lens' iris diaphragm. But photogra-
phers also use this term w h e n talking about any change Using ln-Catnera Metering Systems There are four
types of metering systems in cameras: manual, aperture-
in exposure. As you remember from chapter 2, if you
priority. shutter-priority, and programmed. Because me-
o p e n your lens, say f r o m f / 8 to f / 5 . 6 , you have in-
tering systems are becoming increasingly sophisticated,
creased the exposure by twice as much, or one f-stop.
what follows is a general guide. Your camera may offer
Hut if you shifted to a slower shutter speed, you would
more options, so be sure to study the camera's instruc-
also have doubled t h e e x p o s u r e by t h e equivalent of tion manual. Don't be bashful about asking your instruc-
one f-stop. Photographers commonly refer to any means tor for help.
of changing exposure in terms of "stops" regardless of
Before using your metering system, first check the
h o w t h e c h a n g e was made. "Give it o n e more stop"
battery, which you should do from time to time any-
could mean use either a w i d e r a p e r t u r e or a slower
way. A weak battery could result in incorrect readings.
shutter speed.
Second, get in the habit of setting the meter to match
 (a) (b)

11 M

(C) (d)
F i g u r e 3 - 1 3 The viewfinder displays in (a) a n d (b) are with an automatic exposure system. There are many
typical of older cameras with manual exposure systems. varieties of exposure readouts; the viewfinders in highly
The displays in (c) and (d) are similar to what you will find sophisticated cameras are likely to contain much more
information.

your film speed as soon as you load the film. This step Automatic System Operation of automatic systems
might be done with a small dial on top of the camera or depends on the system you have.
by setting a digital readout. Check your camera's in-
struction manual for details. Increasingly, modern cam- 1. Aperture-priority: You choose the aperture; the
eras include sensors that read the speed coding on the meter automatically sets the corresponding shutter
film cartridge, but you should know h o w to set this fea- speed.
ture manually. Then aim t h e camera at your subject and 2. Shutter-priority; You choose the shutter speed; the
use o n e of t h e following m e t h o d s d e p e n d i n g u p o n meter sets the corresponding aperture.
your system. 3. Programmed: Both shutter and aperture are set by
the meter. These systems are designed to make
Manna! System In manual systems the meter simply exposure-ruler choices for you by striking a balance
provides a r e a d o u t i n t h e v i e w f i n d e r that tells you between high shutter speeds for reduced blur, and
w h e n \ ou have set t h e correct a p e r t u r e and shutter small apertures for maximum depth of field. In
s p e e d S e l e c t a s h u t t e r s p e e d , a n d l o o k at t h e some cameras, the program favors higher shutter
viewfinder display. Turn t h e aperture ring on the lens speeds; in others, small apertures are given
until the display indicates that you have the correct set- preference. Top-of-the-line cameras may have
ting. You can. of course, set the aperture first and then several options.
adjust the shutter speed.
 Remember that on the e x p o s u r e ruler discussed
earlier, your exposure combinations arc sometimes lim-
ited. Auto-exposure cameras warn you if you go past
this limit. The warning will be some sort of indication in
the viewfinder (a red light, or a small plus or minus
sign) telling you that you have asked for a shutter speed
or aperture that cannot be matched with an appropriate
counterpart. There are too many types to list here, but
your instructor can help you if you are not sure h o w to
read your viewfinder display.

Controlling Motion and Depth of Field with

Auto-Exposure Systems
Although auto-exposure systems set f-stops and shutter
speeds for you, the system may not select exactly what
you want for depth of field or motion control. If you al-
ways let the system decide what settings to use. you
may get more or less depth of field than you need, or
blur may appear w h e n you don't want it. This situation
can be compared to a word processor that insists you
use only certain words in your writing. To use the cam-
era to its fullest, you must be able to select an exposure
that will match your creative needs.

Aperture-Priority Systems Controlling depth of

field is a simple matter with aperture-priority systems.
Because the aperture controls depth of field, just set the
aperture you want and the meter will select the correct
shutter speed. It bears repeating, h o w e v e r , that you
must watch the viewfinder display for indications that
the aperture you have chosen can be mated with an
available shutter speed. And be sure that shutter speed
isn't so slow that unwanted blur will occur.
When controlling motion with an aperture-priority Figure 3 - 1 4 This h a n d - h e l d light meter can be u s e d as
system, your goal is to m a k e t h e camera select t h e an incident meter or, by sliding the tiny d o m e at the top out
shutter speed you want. You can do this by changing f r o m in front of the light receptor, as a reflected meter.
t h e a p e r t u r e and w a t c h i n g t h e e x p o s u r e r e a d o u t . (Courtesy Bogen Photo Corp.)
O p e n i n g the a p e r t u r e will result in a higher shutter
s p e e d ; c l o s i n g t h e a p e r t u r e will c a u s e t h e s h u t t e r
speed to slow d o w n . Hand-Held I.ight Meters
Hand-held light meters are about the size of a large elec-
Shutter-Priority Systems Controlling motion with tronic belt-pager. Figure 3-14 is a p h o t o of a typical
shutter-priority systems is easy. Set the shutter for the hand-held meter. All meters have a receptor cell that re-
speed you want and watch your viewfinder to be sure ceives the light, which is read on the meter's scale. Digi-
the system can m a t c h your c h o i c e with the correct tal m e t e r s provide e x p o s u r e information directly in
aperture. If you want to create minimum depth of field, f-stops and shutter speeds. Analog meters (ones with
use a high shutter speed to force t h e meter to set a needles that point on a scale, like the one illustrated)
w i d e a p e r t u r e . For m a x i m u m d e p t h of field, a slow have a calculator dial that translates the meter reading
shutter speed will force the exposure system to select a into f-stops and shutter speeds.
narrow aperture. Again, watch the viewfinder window Hand-held light meters measure light in one of two
to be sure you have not exceeded the span of possible ways. The first is by measuring t h e light falling on the
exposure combinations. scene; the second is by measuring the light reflected
back to the camera from the subject.
Figure 3 - 1 5 Commercial photographer Richard Eissler
T.a* ^ 3 an extreme c^ose-up of a pair of wire cutters. He
: ~:s an - o d e n t ghi meter just n "'ont of the cutters a n d
aims the meter's light receptor dome toward the light
? ~ j r c e The front of h s view camera is just visible in the
o-ver right.

Incident light Meters You can recognize an inci-

dent light meter by the small w h i t e d o m e that is the
Figure 3 - 1 6 A reflected meter is aimed at the subject
light receptor Incident meters measure the light as it
from the camera position.
c o m e s from its s o u r c e (fig. 3 - 1 5 ) . Hold the m e t e r in
In nt « : the subject and aim the m e t e r ' s light receptor
t o w a r d t h e light s o u r c e Be s u r e you d o n ' t cast a
shail >\\ m t h e m e t e r s r e c e p t o r d o m e . IT you c a n ' t
placi e meter near the subject, you can take a reading test again. Some hand-held meters do not have
from - tsition as long as the light tailing on batteries, but if yours does, d o n ' t expect it to last
both thi he subject is the same. forever—treat your meter to a n e w o n e once a year.
Becaus it meters measure light as it c o m e s 1 Set the meter for the correct film speed. Before
from its source they are not affected by bright or dark using any light meter, you must tell it w h a t film
subjects or t h e o t h e r a b n o r m a l s c e n e c o n d i t i o n s dis- speed you are using. On meters with calculator
cussed in the following sections For this reason, inci- dials, you will find a small w i n d o w or index mark
d e n t m e t e r s a r e ta\ \ many professionals. on the calculator dial labeled ASA or ISO or both
However, incident meters can't be conveniently built Set the film speed opposite the index mark or
Into cameras, and their chief drawback is that you must rotate the dial so that the film speed n u m b e r shows
e a r n them as separate tools in w h a t may be an already in the w i n d o w Digital meters are set by pressing a
crowded camera bag. Often, there is not time to juggle button until the film speed readout is correct.
a meter and a camera, too.
3. Aim the meter and note the reading on the scale.
Remember, reflected meters are aimed toward the
Reflected Light Meters Reflected m e t e r s m e a s u r e
subject: incident meters are held at the subject and
light reflected back from the scene (Fig 3-16). This
aimed toward the light source The meter reading
'' meter is used in cameras, w h e r e it o f t e n NCI^
will be on a scale underneath the pointer needle
nutter speed or a p e r t u r e (or both) for you. To use
(If your meter uses a digital readout, you w o n ' t
Id reflected meter, simply aim the meter at
have a scale The reading you get will be in f-stops
the subject
and shutter speeds. Displays vary, so be sure to
check the meter's instruction manual.)
I sin I Held Light Meters
\ Set the meter s calculator dial. (Digital meters need
'»• hattcry There may be a battery test not be set ) Set the reading from the pointer's scale
ch If the battery check shows the into the calculator dial. There should be a w i n d o w
remove the battery Clean it and or index mark on the dial w h e r e this reading is to
du . he meter with a pencil eraser and be set.
Figure 3 - 1 7 This photo w a s a difficult e x p o s u r e p r o b l e m b e c a u s e the boy's
f a c e w a s in s h a d o w , yet the b a c k g r o u n d w a s extremely bright. The text
d i s c u s s e s p o s s i b l e solutions. (Gary Kazanjian/Hanford Sentinel)

5. Note the recommended f-stops and shutter speeds Here's why: Light meters don't see specific details
and set the camera. Decide which f-siop and the way a camera does. Meters only see a conglomera-
shutter-speed combination to use based on your tion of brightnesses, and their makers calibrate them
needs for depth of field and motion control. If for average conditions. If you added u p t h e bright-
neither of these is particularly important, use an nesses of all the tones in a typical scene, they would
exposure combination that includes a blur-reducing average out to b e a m e d i u m gray. If t h e s c e n e con-
shutter speed of 1/250 second or higher. tains large bright or dark areas around your primary
subject, or if the subject is unusually light or dark, the
If the shutter speeds don't match up perfectly with meter is likely to be confused and give you the wrong
t h e f-stops. you can set your camera for in-between information.
aperture settings even though the f-stop ring on the lens
For example, in figure 3 - 1 7 the subject's face is in
wants to click into place at each stop. Shutter speeds,
the shadows, although the background is very bright. If
however, must be set at the specified speeds. you used the exposure recommended by the meter, the
Because it is impractical to illustrate every possible boy's face would be too dark. A similar problem would
style of meter display, you may need to read your me- arise with an extremely dark background, such as a per-
ter's instruction manual or ask your instructor for help former on a dark stage lit by a spotlight. In these cases,
with an unfamiliar meter. take a close-up reading of your subject if you can. Just
be sure you don't get so close that you cast a shadow
Metering Abnormal Scenes on t h e area you are metering. If you couldn't take a
When working with incident meters, you'll have little close-up reading of the boy. you could just make an ed-
problem with t h e abnormal situations discussed here. ucated guess and open up the lens two or three f-stops.
As mentioned, incident meters measure the light as it This method would probably work fine in black and
comes from its source and are not affected by variations white, but color film requires more precise exposure.
in the brightness or reflectance of the subject. How- In that case, you must take a substitution reading, or use
ever. reflected meters, including those installed in your the backlight switch, both of which are discussed in the
camera, can be fooled by subject variations as well as by next section.
unusually bright or dark backgrounds.
 An< non meter-fooling situation is a wide TABLE 3-1 Meter-Fooling Situations
s
view th lot of sky Skies that are hazy but
brigK iarly troublesome. Aiming the meter Problem Solution
\ ud will prevent the sky from being too Bright or dark Take close-up reading of
meter's calculations, background subject
r may also be fooled w h e n your subject is
:; r dark. A bride in a white dress against a Unusually light or dark Take reading from
:> one example. Because the meter thinks it is subject palm of your hand
_ - r a \ . the exposure settings recommended to you
meter are for a gray subject, not a white one. In Wide-angle view including Aim camera down
.•us case, you must take a substitution rending. lots of sky slightly, set exposure
a n d recompose

Substitution Readings A substitution reading is sim-

ply a light meter reading taken from something other
than the scene you are photographing. You could take a
substitution reading to avoid the problems explained in
the previous section. Camera stores sell special gray-
cards that are designed to be used as targets for substi-
tution readings. But it is hard for fast-working photo-
journalists to use gray cards, and there is a convenient
alternative readily available at the end of your ami. The
palm of your hand can be used as a target for substitu-
tion readings. Hold your hand about a foot away from
the meter (or camera if using an in-camera meter—it's
not necessary to focus the lens) and open u p the lens
one f-stop from the reading obtained. This extra expo-
sure is n e e d e d b e c a u s e y o u r h a n d is not t h e s a m e
brightness as the gray card.

Substitution readings arc also useful w h e n you need

to make a close-up reading but can't get close to the sub-
ject ^ u can take a reading from a similar object as long
as that object is in the same type of light as your subject.
Be careful w h e n making substitution readings with
an automatic exposure system in a camera. Unless you Figure 3 - 1 8 Underneath the rewind knob on this
bypass the automatic system, the camera will reset it- camera is the exposure compensation dial. The plus a n d
self w h e n you step back to your s h o o t i n g position. minus numbers to the right of the knob indicate the amount
You'll see h o w to override in-camera m e t e r s in t h e of exposure change in f/stops. For example. +1 is one
additional stop of exposure.
next section.
Backlight Switch. If your camera is so equipped,
Overriding In-Catnera Meters W hen taking substi- pressing this button w h e n shooting backlit scenes such
tution or close-up readings, f-stop and shutter-speed set- as figure 3 - 1 " increases t h e exposure to compensate
tings must be locked in or the meter system will change for the backlight.
them w h e n you step back to your shooting position.
If your metering system is manual only, you'll have Memory Lock. This override method allows you to
no problem because the meter doesn't change the cam- lock in aperture and shutter-speed settings by pressing a
eras settings—you do. Just make the reading, set the button on the camera. Take your close-up or substitution
camera, and ignore the viewfinder indications w h e n reading, press the memory-lock button on the camera,
you step back to shoot. and the settings are locked in until you release them.
Automatic e x p o s u r e systems in c a m e r a s usually Then just move to your shooting position and fire away.
have one or more of the following control devices.
Exposure Compensation Dial. On the top of your
Exposure Mode. With this feature, a switch allows camera body, you may find a dial marked +1. +2. - 1 and
you to choose between manual and automatic exposure - 2 . Turning this dial will allow you to change the expo-
control. It is a simple matter to override the automatic sure that is automatically set by the meter (fig. 3-18).
modes by using the manual mode. Then you can take a The + numbers increase the exposure; the - numbers
close-up or substitution reading, set the camera, step decrease it.
back to your original shooting position, and shoot.
 TABLE 3-2 Rule-of-Thumb ISO for Tri-X is 400. Because shutters do not have a sel-
Exposure Guide ling of 1/400 s e c o n d , use i h e next closest s p e e d —
1/500 I he basic exposure then is 1/500 at f/16. To use
Scene Change from Basic Exposure another example, if you were using T-Max 100. which
has an ISO of 100. your basic exposure would be 1/125
Bright sun Basic exposure = Set shutter to
at f/16.
match ISO
and use f/16 From this basic exposure, increase or decrease your
e x p o s u r e d e p e n d i n g o n the conditions. As table 3 - 2
Backlight + 2 - 3 stops shows, darker lighting conditions or backlit subjects re-
Sidelight + 1/2-1 stop quire increasing t h e exposure, sometimes as much as
Slight overcast + 1 stop four f-stops or their equivalent. Extra bright conditions,
Heavy overcast + 2 - 3 stops such as at the beach or on c o n c r e t e pavement on a
Dark storm + 4 stops sunny day. require decreasing the exposure.
Open shade (such + 2 stops The basic e x p o s u r e can also be used as a rough
as under a large means to test a light meter. Take a meter reading of a
tree)
subject in bright sun. If the recommended settings arc
Extra bright - 1 - 2 stops
more than one f-stop away from the basic rule-;l-thumb
Office interiors + 8 stops
exposure, have the meter accurately tested by a camera
(fluorescent light)
repair shop.

Summary

Film-Speed Dial. If you must use a camera with Film has several characteristics that are important to pho-
none of the previously listed override features, you can tojournalists. Film speeds, called ISO ratings, tell us how
still control the exposure system by King to the cam- fast the film will react to light. An ISO 400-speed film is
era's light meter. That is, you can force a change in ex- high speed, ISO 200-speed films arc medium speed, and
posure by changing the meter's ISO setting. If you cut films slower than 100 are called slow-speed films.
the film speed in half, you increase the exposure by one Grain is a n o t h e r important characteristic. Slow-
stop: if you double the film speed, you decrease the ex- speed films have extremely fine grain, and the grain is
posure by one stop. sometimes hard to see. In high-speed films, however,
grain is usually easy to see as a speckled look in the mid-
Bracketing Bracketing is a form of exposure insur- dle gray tones. In spite of this effect, photojournalists
ance that you can use in difficult situations. To bracket, usually use ISO 400 or faster films because these films
make one shot at t h e m e t e r ' s recommendation, then can be used both indoors and out. in bright light or dim.
make one or more shots with increased exposure, and Choosing which color film to use can be difficult and
o n e or m o r e s h o t s w i t h d e c r e a s e d e x p o s u r e . With depends on the lighting available at the scene and the
black-and-white film, bracketing by one full f-stop over printer's requirements. Although film is quite durable, it
and under t h e meter reading is usually adequate. With should be kept away from heat and X rays.
color transparency film, bracketing is usually done in Getting the right exposure is the major technical
half-stop intervals. goal in photography. If the scene is not recorded on
t h e film, no magic can save t h e photo. Exposure is a
The Rule-of-Thumb Exposure lot like filling a bucket with w a t e r The aperture in
There may b e times w h e n you just can't take a meter the lens is similar to the w a t e r faucet, the light level
reading. Perhaps the meter quit working, you need a in t h e s c e n e is like t h e w a t e r pressure in t h e pipe,
substitute reading but can't take one. or maybe there and the size of the bucket is like the film speed. The
just isn't time. In these cases, you can use the rule-of- shutter speed is equal to the time the water valve is
thumb exposure system. It starts with a basic exposure, open. You can fill the bucket quickly by opening the
which you either use as is or modify, depending on the valve wide, or you can take a lot of time by letting the
conditions. Table 3 - 2 lists a complete rule-of-thumb ex- w a t e r drip f r o m t h e faucet. P h o t o g r a p h i c e x p o s u r e
posure system. It might be a good idea to copy the chart w o r k s t h e same way. but you can't let your p h o t o -
and tuck it in a pockct of your camera bag—just in case. graphic bucket, the film, overflow or come u p short,
not by a single drop. However, you can change the
T h e basic e x p o s u r e is found by using the shutter time and the valve opening any way you want as long
speed closest to the film's ISO number. Then, in the as t h e bucket is filled perfectly.
bright sun the aperture will be f/16. For example, the
 This i nponant because the camera controls must take a s u b s t i t u t i o n or close-up reading so t h e
that an- ire, the shutter and aperture, also af- meter w o n ' t be misled by the unusual brightnesses.
fect v 1a CIS of the photo. The shutter can stop Meters in cameras are always reflected meters. They
ni blur, and the aperture can increase or may help you set the lens aperture and shutter speed
decrease depth of field. yourself, or they may be mechanically connected to one
rate exposures, you must use a light meter or both of these controls. In order to maintain control
;cl! ou which f-stop and shutter-speed settings to over depth of field and motion in your photo, you can
use. he meter takes into account the film speed and force these automatic systems to use the shutter speeds
; ;luness of the light at the scene. It also gives you or apertures that you need. The exact method depends
ure combinations of aperture and shutter speed on the specific exposure system, but basically you must
that will result in a correct exposure. operate one of the controls while watching the expo-
Light m e t e r s are of t w o types. Incident m e t e r s sure readout until it displays the setting needed.
measure the light falling on the scene; reflected meters Regardless of the meter you use, hand-held or in-
measure light that is reflected back to the camera from camera, be sure you set it to match your film's ISC) rat-
the subject. Incident meters aren't fooled by variations ing. Be sure, too, that t h e m e t e r ' s b a t t e n ' is in good
in the scene, but they must be held at the subject's po- condition.
sition. which often can be a difficult task in photojour- In case of meter failure, the rule-of-thumb exposure
nalism. To use a reflected meter, simply aim it at the system is a useful estimating method. Just set your shut-
subject. But remember, these meters can be fooled if ter for a speed that matches the film's ISO number, and
the subject includes very bright or dark backgrounds use f/16 in the bright sun. For other lighting conditions,
or light-or dark-colored subjects. In these cases, you increase or decrease the exposure as necessary.
 c h a p t e r

A
4
Lenses
OUTLINE

W h y Lenses Are Needed Z o o m L e n s e s a n d Special-

H o w Lenses Work P u r p o s e Lenses
Lens Characteristics Fishcyc Lenses
Focal Length Lens Extenders
Space Distortion Close-Up Lenses
Shape Distortion Extension Tubes and Bellows Units
Normal Focal Length Lenses Lens Hoods
Wide-Anglc Lenses The Professionals' Choice
T e l e p h o t o Lenses Filters
Maximum Aperture and Lens Haze and Ultraviolet Filters
Speed Neutral-Density Filters
T h e "Look" of the Lens Polarizing Filters
D e p t h of Field Filters for Color
Focusing Techniques: Using Depth Filter Factors
of Field Summary

I F I N D IT H A R D TO BELIEVE THAT T H E R E IS A N Y O N E FULLY U N A B L E TO SAY

S O M E T H I N G A B O I T T H E W O R L D THAT IS IMAGED L \ H I S M I N D A N D HEART.

— A N S E L A D A M S , RENOWNED PHOTOGRAPHER A N D MASTER CRAFTSMAN

 \ \
rr f - — - — -
4-
; .-/*-•
tlliliil'i i. milliliter /
(c) (d)
Figure 4 - 1 (a) No image would be formed on the film in enlarged to admit more light, the image would blur.
this camera with its front end cut open. Light rays bouncing Adjacent points would create overlapping circles on the
from all parts of the image would strike all over the film, film, (d) If a lens is installed in the camera, it will collect
(b) A small pinhole in the front of this camera would admit more light rays and focus them on the film to create a
just a few light rays from each point on the subject, and an sharper image.
image would form on the film, (c) If the pinhole was

W h y L e n s e s Are N e e d e d film in bright sunlight, an exposure for such a tiny aper-

ture would be somewhere between 2 and 6 seconds—
Although you can make photos with pinhole cameras useless for stopping moving subjects.
like the one shown in chapter 2, lenses increase your To shorten this exposure time, you could increase
photographic vocabulary They offer you a way to edit the size of the hole. But figure 4 - l c shows what hap-
the photo, allowing you to include or exclude subject pens then. All t h e points of light reflecting from t h e
matter, magnify or diminish objects, and control what subject b e c o m e overlapping circles on t h e film, and
your viewer sees. the image becomes blurry. But if you put a lens into an
The primary purpose of a lens is to gather the light even larger hole, the lens would bend the light rays to-
rays being reflected by the subject and focus them onto gether and direct more of t h e m to t h e same spot on
the film. To understand how this works, let's start with the film. A brighter and sharper image would result
the pinhole camera from chapter 2. If you were to make (fig. 4 - I d ) .
a camera like the one in figure 4 - l a , you would not get
a recognizable image b e c a u s e light is b o u n c i n g off How Lenses Work
even point on your subject and hitting every point on Lenses work because light bends w h e n it passes at an
the film If you made a pinhole camera like the one in angle from one transparent medium to another. You
figure 4 - l b , though, only a few light rays would pass have seen this effect if you ever poked a stick into a
through the hole and strike the film. The extraneous pool of w a t e r and n o t i c e d h o w t h e stick appears to
rays would be blocked by the front panel of the camera. b e n d w h e r e it e n t e r s t h e w a t e r . Physicists like t o
The big drawback to a pinhole camera is that the demonstrate this refraction with a prism, as shown in
tiny hole doesn't admit enough light for the fast shutter figure 4-2. When light passes into the prism it is bent,
speeds needed by a photojournalism Using 400-speed and it is bent again on leaving the prism.
Figure 4 - 2 When a light ray passes from one medium Figure 4 - 3 If two prisms were placed base-to-base, the
such as air into another medium such as glass, it is bent. light rays passing through them would converge
This is the fundamental principle on which lenses bend
light rays to form images on film.

Figure 4 - 4 If the surfaces of the two prisms in figure Figure 4 - 5 Concave lenses cause light rays to diverge.
4 - 3 were smoothed out to form a convex lens such as this, They are used in combination with convex lenses to correct
all the light rays from a particular source c o u l d be made to aberrations in the convex lenses that would otherwise
converge at the same point. d e g r a d e the image.

If two prisms arc placed base to base, the light rays and some negative, so that their aberrations cancel each
will converge, as in figure 4-3- Expanding on this idea, other out. For this reason, all photographic lenses con-
we can curve the sides of the prisms and blend their sist of several elements.
bases to crcatc a lens, as in figure 4-4.
This con vex shape is a positive lens. The simple
Lens Characteristics
magnifying glasses you can buy in a variety store arc
positive lenses. W h e n light ravs leave a positive lens,
they converge and can be focused on a surface such as When you look at a lens, the first things you might no-
a piece of film. There are also negative lenses, which tice are its size and weight. Two other characteristics
have concave surfaces and cause light rays to diverge, as are more important to photographers, however One is
in figure 4-5. Images from negative lenses cannot be fo- the lens' focal length; the other is its widest aperture.
cused on a surface.
Focal Length
If you w e r e to make your o w n lens from a simple
The focal length of a lens is t h e distance from the op-
magnifying glass and t w o pieces of telescoping card-
tical c e n t e r of the lens to the film plane w h e n the lens
board tube, you would get usable p h o t o s from it (try
is focused on infinity. Some of you have already ex-
this—it works!). H o w e v e r , the images would not be
p e r i m e n t e d with lens focal lengths w h e n you tried
sharp due to imperfections in the lens. These imperfec-
b u r n i n g h o l e s in leaves o r b u g s w i t h m a g n i f y i n g
tions, called aberrations, are reduced by grouping sev-
glasses. You focused the lens on infinity (well, the sun
eral individual lens elements together, some positive
is n o t q u i t e at i n f i n i t y , but c l o s e e n o u g h f o r o u r
Figure 4 - 6 This is a g o o d e x a m p l e of s p a c e distortion right w a s c a r r y i n g a dictionary. (David Grubbs/Corvallis
Photographer D a v i d G r u b b s found this s c e n e as s c h o o l Gazette-Times)
was about to o p e n in the fall. He said the m a n at the far

purpose here). All you need to do is measure t h e dis- Figure 4 - 6 was made with a wide-angle lens, while figure
tance from the lens to the hapless bug and you'll have 4 - 7 was made with a telephoto lens. Notice h o w the ob-
t h e focal length jects near t h e camera in the wide-angle shot seem so
You can't do this with complex lenses because the much bigger than the objects in the background. There
optical center of such a lens may not be at the physical seems to be a great distance between them. Also notice
center. Anyway, we need not measure focal lengths be- h o w the foreground seems to curve d o w n toward the
cause lens makers engrave them on the lens barrels, camera. The letters on the pavement seem to lean to-
usually on the ring that surrounds the front element. ward each other, even though they are parallel on the
The engraving may simply read -50mm," but it may also pavement.
read u f = 5 0 m m . " In this case, t h e f stands f o r focal Yet in figure 4 - 7 , the figures in t h e f o r e g r o u n d
length, not f-stops, and the mm stands for millimeters. seem stacked right on t o p of t h e background, even
In photography, we classify lenses as normal, short, though the background is slightly out of focus. Over-
or long focal length. You will hear short focal length all, t h e w i d e - a n g l e s h o t s e e m s t o b e m o r e t h r e e -
lenses called wide-angle lenses and long focal length dimensional, while the telephoto shot has a flat, pan-
lenses called telephoto lenses. Technically, the terms caked look.
wide-angle and telephoto are not as accurate as short Figure 4 - 8 is also a good example of the compres-
and long focal length, but photographers commonly use sion of space that can occur with telephoto lenses. In
the terms interchangeably, which I will do here. figure 4 - 8 a , you can s e e t h a t t h e w o m a n is a b o u t
12 feet from the car, but in figure 4-8b, shot with a tele-
Space Distortion p h o t o lens, she looks as though s h e is sitting m u c h
Space distortion is an interesting and useful phenomenon closer to the car.
associated with lenses. Compare figures 4 - 6 and 4-7.
Figure 4 - 7 This p h o t o w a s m a d e with a telephoto lens
W h e n c o m p a r e d with figure 4 - 6 , the spatial relationships
b e t w e e n the subject a n d the b a c k g r o u n d are completely
different. (Terry Pierson)

Figure 4 - 8 (a) Here w e c a n s e e that the w o m a n is

a b o u t 12 feet from the car, but in (b) she s e e m s quite close
to it. (Robert Gauthier/Escondido Times-Advocate)
 A normal focal length is determined by measuring
the distance across the diagonal of the image on the film.
For example, the diagonal of a piece of 4 x 5-inch film is
about 6 inches, so a normal focal length lens for this size
film would be 6 inches, or 152 mm. A normal focal
length lens for 35mm cameras is about 50 mm. There is
some leeway in focal lengths, and you might find normal
lens focal lengths anywhere from 42 mm to 55 mm. Most
photographic optics are measured by the metric system,
but you may find a few older lenses for view cameras
whose focal lengths arc measured in inches.
Because the 35mm camera is the predominant tool
} igure 4 - 9 A 21mm wide-angle lens was used to create
m e distorted lines in this building
in photojournalism, the focal lengths mentioned below
and in the accompanying illustrations are for that film
format, but the principles are the same for any film size.
Shape Distortion
Another t y p e of d i s t o r t i o n , o n e you can s e e easily Wicle-Angle Lenses
with wide-angle lenses, could be called shape distor- Any lens w i t h a focal length shorter than normal is a
tion Notice h o w the building in figure 4 - 9 appears wide-angle lens. Common wide-angle lenses for 35mm
smaller at t h e top. almost as t h o u g h it w e r e falling cameras include 35mm. 28mm, 24mm. and 20mm. Wide-
over backwards. Figure 4 - 1 0 s h o w s a n o t h e r type of angle lenses have a wide field of view, which you can see
s h a p e distortion f r o m wide-angle lenses. Some ex- compared with other focal lengths in figure 4-12.
treme wide-angle lenses create barrel distortion, as in C o m p a r e d with normal lenses, wide-angle lenses
figure 4 - 2 0 . make subjects seem smaller and farther away, with much
Sharp readers will notice that I qualify many of my distance between foreground and background. Depth of
statements with the words appears and seems. Techni- field appears much greater. Shape and space distortion
cally. perspective and depth of field aren't distorted by are quite pronounced, and objects at the very comers of
these lenses, but they appear that way because of h o w the image can become quite distorted (fig. 4-11).
we use the lenses. If you held the finished print at the Photojournalists use wide-angle lenses w h e n they
proper distance from your eye. the scene would appear need to include a wide angle of view, emphasize the
normal You would need to hold wide-angle p h o t o s subject in its environment, or provide wide depth of
quite close IO your eye: telephoto shots would have to field. The extreme depth of field allows you to show el-
be held at some distance from your eye.) But because ements in the foreground and background with equal
we rarely look at photos this way. distortion occurs and sharpness, and the wide angle of view enables you to
w e ascribe that to the lens. make overall views w h e n working close to your subject.
You can see this distortion with your own eye. If A prime example of the latter is w h e n you're shoot-
you hold your t h u m b about an inch f r o m your eye. ing in a crowd, such as at a press conference, rally, or
you'll n o t i c e that it is g r o t e s q u e l y larger t h a n t h e even a traffic accident. The wide-angle lens allows you
b a c k g r o u n d o b j e c t s ( e v e n t h o u g h y o u r t h u m b is to work in front of the spectators for an unobstructed
blurry)—an effect similar to the one in figure 4 - 1 0 b . view of the action. If you had only a normal lens, you
And if you look off into the distance at t w o objects, might need to step back to show the overall scene, and
you'll see a spatial relationship similar t o that s h o w n other people would end up between you and the center
in figure 4 - 7 . We aren't normally aware of this distor- of interest. Then all you would have in your photos is
tion b e c a u s e our brains k e e p providing interpreta- the backs of the spectators' heads.
tions of what w e see.
Telephoto Lenses
tal Focal Length Lenses Any lens with a focal length longer than normal is a
A normal focal length lens is o n e that p r o d u c e s an t e l e p h o t o lens. C o m m o n t e l e p h o t o lenses i n c l u d e
image thai looks very much like what you see with your 8 5 m m . 105mm. 135mm. 180mm, and 300mm. Tele-
eyes Perspective seems normal, and there is very little photo lenses have a narrow field of view, as illustrated
space and shape distortion. in f i g u r e 4 - 1 3 . and t h e y t e n d t o c o m p r e s s s p a c e .
 Figure 4 - 1 0 The shape
distortion in the p h o t o on the
right is quite evident w h e n you
c o m p a r e it to the one on the
left The distorted image w a s
m a d e with a w i d e - a n g l e lens
while the other w a s m a d e with
a m e d i u m focal length
telephoto lens. (Steve Pringle)

Figure 4 - 1 1 A m a n known as the p h a n t o m c u r b painter The photo w a s m a d e with a wide-angle lens, which makes
painted the curb at Fresno City Hall during a controversy over the vertical lines tip inward a n d the parking meter seem to
the size of the numbers used for house numbers on curbs. loom over the building. (Ryan Miles Marty/The Fresno Bee)
 30Cmm 8 50mm 46 24mm 84"

Figure 4 - 1 2 Fields of view with various focal length lenses on 3 5 m m format.

Perhaps one of the most common uses of the tele-

p h o t o lens is in sports photography. Here, the photo-
journalist must reach out visually to magnify the action
so w e can see the peak moment and the expressions on
the players' faces. There are many other times, though,
w h e n you can't get close to the action, and a telephoto
lens is the only way to get an image on the film that is
large enough to see.
Telephoto lenses also help eliminate a confusing or
distracting background. Their limited d e p t h of field
helps blur t h e b a c k g r o u n d , and w h e n used at w i d e
apertures, backgrounds sometimes can be dropped out
completely, as in figure 4-13.

Maximum Aperture and Lens Speed

The maximum aperture of a lens is very important to
photojournalists. Because many news events happen in
low light levels, w e need lenses that will capture as
m u c h of that light as possible. In terms of the water
analogy mentioned in the last chapter, the pressure in
the p i p e is low, and w e need the widest valve opening
w e can get so the bucket w o n ' t take too long to fill.
Figure 4-13 W h e n u s e d at w i d e apertures, telephoto
When shooting in low light, photojournalists prefer
lenses blur b a c k g r o u n d s . (Glenn Moore/Turlock Journal) lenses w h o s e w i d e s t a p e r t u r e s are at least f/2.8, al-
though f/2 or even f/1.4 are better. Check back to your
exposure ruler and assume that you are shooting a bas-
ketball game in a high school gym. Let's say the meter
Their shape distortion is more subtle, giving the image recommended an exposure of 1/60 second at f/4. This
a flat, two-dimensional look, and they can have a very shutter speed is way too slow to use for the fast action
narrow depth of lield. of a basketball game. But if your lens has a maximum
 Figure 4 - 1 4 Don't
expect telephoto lenses to
always blur backgrounds.
In this case, the lens was
focused on distant objects,
so the foreground is
somewhat blurry. (Ron
Holman/Visalia Times-Delta)

TABLE 4-1 Lens Characteristics and U s e s ( 3 5 m m Format)

Wide-Angle Normal Telephoto

Focal Length Up to about 40mm 40mm-55mm 85mm and up
Space Distortion Increases distance between Distortion not readily apparent. Decreases distance between near
near and far objects. Makes and far objects. Foreground and
foreground objects seem background objects seem similar
bigger. Creates strong in size. Creates two-dimensional
three-dimensional look. look.

Shape Distortion Causes lines to tilt and Distortion not readily apparent. Keeps lines straight; causes
shapes to bend or bulge shapes to flatten.
Depth-of-Field Maximum Moderate Minimum
Uses To include background; For normal perspective To isolate subject from
create feeling of being background; reach out to distant
close to subject; capture subjects; compress depth
wide field of view. perspective.

aperture of f/2, you could use that aperture at 1/250 sive. We could call it the "look" of the lens. There is a
second, which would b e fast enough to stop the action. certain feeling to p h o t o s made with long-focal-length
Sometimes you will hear a photographer talk about lenses and those made with short ones. For example,
lens speed or say that a particular lens is a "fast lens." there is a feeling of closeness between the subject and
The photographer is talking about the lens' maximum viewer in figure 4-15. In figure 4-16, even though w e
aperture. A fast lens has a w i d e maximum aperture. see less of the scene, w e have a feeling of watching
"Fast lens" is an odd phrase, to be sure, but the lens' from a distance. The subject isolation created by the
w i d e a p e r t u r e lets light in quickly, so t h e r e is s o m e long lens makes a different statement than the inclusive
logic to the term. view of the wide angle. Deciding which approach to
take is but one of the many creative decisions a photo-
The "Look" of the Lens journalist must make.
The lens characteristics discussed so far—field of view,
image size, space distortion, and depth of field—all add
up to a concept that is visually precise but verbally elu-
 •

Figure 4-15 W e feel closer to the s u b j e c t s in a photo

m a d e with a w i d e - a n g l e lens. C o m p a r e this with the
D e p t h o f Field telephoto effect in figure 4 - 1 6 . (Robert Gauthier/Escondido
Times-A dvocate)
As you will recall from chapter 2, depth of field is t h e
spread between nearest and farthest objects in focus.
Depth of field is an important creative tool. To be sure
you understand h o w to control it. we must consider all
of its controlling factors—aperture, lens focal length,
and lens-to-subject distance—together.
The aperture's role in depth of field was explained
on page 34. A wide aperture decreases depth of field
while a small one increases it. But remember, the aper-
ture also controls exposure. If you change the aperture
to control depth of field, you must find a shutter speed
that will complement your n e w f-stop. Otherwise your
exposure will be incorrect. Review the exposure ruler
in chapter 3 if necessary.
Focal length is the second factor that affects depth
of field. As s h o w n in figures 4 - 1 1 , 4 - 1 3 . and 4-14,
wide-angle lenses seem to increase depth of field, while
telephoto lenses seem to decrease it.
The third factor affecting depth of field is the dis-
tance from the camera to the subject. As you move closer
to your subject, depth of field decreases. When making
extreme close-ups, depth of field can be so narrow that
only one point in the image is perfectly sharp (fig. 4-17).
When studying depth of field, you'll notice that it is a
continuum. You won't find a point in the image w h e r e
sharpness suddenly ends; instead, things appear to lose
sharpness as they advance or recede from the point of
Figure 4 - 1 6 In a p h o t o m a d e with a telephoto lens,
critical focus The exact depth of field under any situation
there is a feeling of distance b e t w e e n the c a m e r a a n d the
is dependent on what your own eyes will accept as sharp.
subject. C o m p a r e this photo with figure 4 - 1 5 . (Thor Swift)
 Focusing Techniques: I sing Depth of Field
In photojournalism, your subject is often on the move
Getting sharp pictures is always a challenge, and 011
some assignments there is little time for focusing. How-
ever, certain techniques can increase your chances of
getting your subject in focus. By focusing your lens so
the action will fall s o m e w h e r e in t h e middle of t h e
depth of field, you II have some leeway for error and
better chances of getting a sharp picture
To check depth of field, look for a depth-of-field scale
on the barrel of your lens, which has index marks or num-
bers that match the f-stop numbers on the aperture ring
(fig. 4-18). This scale shows you the depth of field for any
given aperture and focus setting. This scale, as explained
below, is very handy when you know how to use it

Hyperfocal Focusing Simple pocket cameras usu-

ally have lenses that are prefocused at the factor} Be-
cause the focus can't be adjusted by the photographer,
the manufacturer sets the lens' focus to encompass the
greatest depth of field. This distance is called t h e hyper-
focal distance. This is a good spot to set your lens when
you may not have time to focus carefully. Things may
be happening too fast, or perhaps you need to concen-
trate on timing your shot for the peak moment.
You can easily set adjustable-focus lenses to the hy-
perfocal distance. Look at figures 4 - 1 8 and 4 - 1 9 . On
the focusing ring is an infinity symbol (a sideways nu-
meral 8). You will also see a diamond or. on this lens, a
Figure 4 - 1 7 As you move closer to your subject, depth round black spot, which is the index mark. The index
of field d e c r e a s e s . C o m p a r e the s h a r p n e s s of the mark is the "pointer" that aligns with the f-stop in use
b a c k g r o u n d in these two photos. (John Krii) and the distance focuscd on. Also visible is the depth-of-
field scale, which is the series of small lines on either
side of the index mark. The lens in figure 4 - 1 8 is fo-
cuscd on infinity, and the one in figure 4 - 1 9 is focused
Sometimes you have little choice about the depth on about 15 feet.
of field. As explained in c h a p t e r 3. the exposure re- To set your lens for the hyperfocal distance, rotate
quired may force maximum or minimum depth of field the ring so the infinity symbol is opposite the depth-of-
on you. Other times, it may be the lens or camera-to- field mark for the aperture you are using (fig. 4-19) The
subject distance that does not provide the depth of field distance at the index mark is the hyperfocal distance.
you w o u l d p r e f e r . In still o t h e r cases, it s e e m s as The other f-stop mark on the depth-of-field scale will be
though all three factors combine to prevent you from opposite the close limit. Anything that falls within this
getting the result you want. zone will be in focus. Remember, because the aperture
I cannot overemphasize the importance of depth of is also a factor in depth of field, the exact hyperfocal dis-
field as a part of your visual vocabulary. It is a primary tance depends on the f-stop you are using.
tool for controlling what your reader sees in the photo.
You can use it to emphasize a foreground object and Zone Focusing Zone focusing is a modification of
connect it with its environment, or to allow your reader the technique described above and is used for events
to see all elements of a scene with equal emphasis. On that happen closer to the camera and do not require
the other hand, you can isolate an object or event, sepa- s h a r p n e s s to infinity. F o c u s your lens o n t h e s p o t
rating it from a confusing or distracting background. w h e r e you e x p e c t the action to happen. Then check
This technique is known as selective focus. Study the the depth-of-field scale to sec what the safe limits of
photos in this book and elsewhere to sec h o w this tech- the d e p t h of field are. Remember, the depth of field
nique contributes to the photographic message will vary d e p e n d i n g on t h e a p e r t u r e you c h o o s e .
 systems allow you to turn off the focusing feature so you
can focus by hand. You'll need to do this when the sub-
ject cannot be placed in the camera's focusing spot.
Skillful use of auto-focus e q u i p m e n t takes some
practice. In some a/f cameras, there is a small central
area of t h e viewfinder that is t h e focusing spot, indi-
cated by a small rectangle in the viewfinder. You'll have
no problem with this system if your subject is always
centered in the frame. But as you'll see in chapter 7,
you won't always want your subject in the center of the
i \ lire 4 - 1 8 The small lines on either side of the
picture. T h e r e f o r e , you must aim t h e camera so the
.-.-.g mark on this lens are depth-of-field indicators. On
focus spot is on your subject, lock in the focus setting
15 brand of lens, they are color-coded to match f-stop
and then re-compose the image to your liking. This can
r bers; on other brands, the marks may be tiny f-stop
be tricky in fast-moving situations but, with practice,
numbers
you'll gain skill with the procedure.
Other a/f cameras can follow your eye as you look
in various areas of the viewfinder and adjust the focus
according to what you are looking at. These systems are
highly reliable, but you should be aware of h o w they
w r ork so you'll k n o w w h e n they need to be manually
overridden. Because there are a number of new a/f sys-
tems being developed, you should check your camera's
instruction manual for details.

Figure 4 - 1 9 This lens is set for maximum depth of field Z o o m Lenses and Special-Purpose Lenses
at f/22. The infinity mark on the focusing scale is placed
opposite the f/22 mark on the depth-of-field scale. The Zoom lenses are lenses with variable focal lengths. By
hyperfocal distance is opposite the focusing index mark, turning a ring on the lens barrel, you can shift the focal
and the near limit of the depth of field is opposite the other length to any point within the range of the lens. A pop-
f/22 mark on the depth-of-field scale. ular telephoto zoom range is 80 mm to 200 mm. Wide-
angle to telephoto zooms are available that zoom from
You'll notice that one-third of the depth of field extends 28 mm to about 135 mm, and I have seen some that go
in front of the subject and two-thirds lies behind it. all the way to 200 mm. A wide-angle zoom that is popu-
Another tactic to r e m e m b e r w h e n shooting fast- lar with photojournalists is the 20-35mm zoom. In addi-
moving subjects is to follow-focus. Just k e e p adjusting tion. many zooms offer close focusing (often
the focus as the subject moves, trying to keep the image erroneously called macro-focusing), which allows ex-
sharp. If your focus should be a bit off w h e n you shoot, treme close-ups of small objects.
depth of Field may save the shot for you. Zooms are useful w h e n you want to reduce your
equipment load as much as possible. By carrying one or
Depth-of-Field Preview The aperture of an SLR lens t w o zoom lenses, you can have almost any focal length
must stay w i d e open during focusing so you can see you are likely to need for c o m m o n assignments. You
through it. However, at the moment of exposure, the can also zoom to frame your photo precisely.
aperture stops down to the f-stop you have called for. A true zoom lens will maintain focus as you zoom
Therefore, the depth-of-field you see w h e n focusing is from one end of the range to the other. There is an-
always the minimum. But you can see the depth of field other type of lens that is often called a zoom, but it is
you will get at other apertures by using the depth-of- really a variable focal length lens. It is the same as a
field preview lever or b u t t o n , w h i c h stops the lens zoom except that you must refocus this lens after any
down to the taking aperture. The lever is usually on the adjustment of focal length. The advent of auto-focus
front of the camera. It takes a bit of practice to see the cameras has made this less of a concern, however.
depth of field at small apertures because the focusing
If you decide to buy a zoom lens, shop carefully.
screen gets quite dark.
There are many varieties of zoom lenses on the market,
but not all of them have the features working profes-
Auto-Focusing Auto-focusing cameras are explained in sionals need. For details, be sure to read the Profession-
chapter 2. Auto-focus systems require both a camera and als' Choice section that follows.
a lens designed to work together. Most auto-focus ( a / f )
Figure 4 - 2 0 Fisheye lenses p r o d u c e an interesting type of distortion
Because of their short focal length, depth of field can range from a few inches in
front of the lens to infinity.

Fisheye Lenses The second type, supplementary lenses, are some-

These special optics arc extreme wide-angle lenses that times called plus or diopter lenses. They look similar
produce results like those in figure 4-20. The distortion to a magnifying glass, and they simply screw on the
caused by these lenses is bizarre and can be used to ad- front of your normal lens. They p r o d u c e results similar
to macro lenses, and at a much lower cost. How r ever.
vantage w h e n the effect contributes to your visual mes-
they are not as sharp as m a c r o lenses. Use diopters
sage. Fisheye lenses arc used regularly in industry for
only for those assignments w h e r e optical perfection is
jobs such as inspection of pipe interiors and horizon-to-
not necessary.
horizon weather photos.

Lens Extenders Extension Tubes and Bellows Units

'ITiese devices are not lenses, but close-up accessories that
These accessories fit between the lens and camera body
are appropriate to mention here briefly (fig. 4-21). By at-
and double or triple the focal length of the lens. For ex-
ample, an 85mm lens could become a 170mm lens if cou- taching your lens to one end of the bellows or tube and
pled to an extender. There is a trade-off, however. The the camera to the other, you can make greatly magnified
extender reduces the light transmission of the lens by two images, as much as ten times life-size. Bellows units can
or three stops, and sharpness often suffers. There are be expanded or collapsed to adjust the image size, while
some high-quality extenders that produce sharp images extension tubes offer only limited degrees of magnifica-
when matched to specific lenses, but the light loss makes tion. A photojournalist might find this equipment impor-
extenders almost impossible to use in low-light situations. tant when illustrating a technical, medical, or scientific
In spite of this drawback, extenders do offer an inexpen- story.
sive way to add more focal lengths to your lens inventory.
Lens Hoods
Close-Up Lenses Lens hoods prevent stray light from striking the front el-
ement of the lens and causing flare, as in figure 4-22.
If you want to make p h o t o s of small objects, such as
Usually flare is more subtle, and the result is a mysteri-
postage stamps, coins, or even bugs, a close-up lens is the
ous loss of contrast in the negative. I recommend you
tool to use. There are two types of close-up lenses. The
use lens hoods always. Be sure the hood you use is de-
first is a complete lens with a focusing ring and iris di-
signed for the focal length of your lens because a tele-
aphragm. These lenses are often called macro lenses, al- p h o t o hood used on a wide-angle lens will show in the
though the term is technically correct only when the lens corners of the pictures.
can be focused to produce a life-size image on the film.
Figure 4 - 2 1 Bellows attachments (left) a n d extension
tubes fit b e t w e e n the lens a n d the c a m e r a b o d y . Extreme
close-ups. s u c h as pictures of bugs, c a n b e m a d e with
these accessories.

The Professionals' Choice

For the beginner, the plethora of lenses available can be

overwhelming. If you already have a normal focal length
lens, it will serve you well while you learn the basics of
technique and content. Thousands of p h o t o g r a p h e r s
have made outstanding photos with normal lenses. It is
image content, not special optics, that is the key to a
successful photo. When it comes time to move beyond
Figure 4 - 2 2 The c i r c u l a r - s h a p e d bright spots below the
the normal focal length lens, however, decisions about
sun are c a u s e d by lens flare. In this case, a lens h o o d
which lenses to use can be difficult. As with choosing a
w o u l d not prevent the flare since the light s o u r c e is in the
camera, ask local professionals what lenses they have picture. Lens h o o d s c a n be effective against similar flare
found useful. The) base their choices on practical need c a u s e d by light sources just outside the field of view. (Denis
and experience, rather than advertising claims. McElroy/Sacramento Union)
Because selecting lenses is also quite personal, I
make r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s knowing that they may pro- prefer the 85mm as it allows you to work closer to your
duce screams from those w h o disagree. I have based subject. The results from the 105mm are just as good,
these recommendations on experience as well as dis- h o w e v e r . Both are useful w h e n s h o o t i n g basketball
cussions with a number of working professionals. To re- from behind the basket (some photographers prefer the
solve the question for yourself, borrow or rent a lens of normal lens for this position), and they can be used to
the focal length you are considering and give it a good drop out backgrounds and create the compressed tele-
workout before you commit money to it. p h o t o effect discussed previously. Again, you should
Your first two lenses should probably be a 24mm consider at least an f/2 or faster.
wide-angle and an 85mm or 105mm telephoto lens. The After you have added a wide angle and a moderate
former is a favorite among news photographers because it focal length telephoto. your next step should probably be
enables them to work in very tight quarters, and it has a lens in the 180mm range. This lens is extremely useful
tremendous depth of field. You can focus this lens on for shooting close-ups of speakers and isolating subjects
about 8 feet and, at 1711. everything will be sharp from f r o m backgrounds. It can be used for many types of
about four feet to infinity. This is a great asset when shoot- sports and news shots as well. For serious sports photog-
ing sp- new - Be sure to get a lens with a maximum aper- raphy. you will also want a 300mm. Professionals use this
ture oi ;. si r/2 for shooting in low-light simations. lens for baseball and football because it brings the action
For a m o d e r a t e focal length t e l e p h o t o . o p i n i o n closer and isolates it from confusing backgrounds. The
among those consulted is split between the 85mm and 180mm and the 300mm are possibly the most frequently
the 105mm. I hese lenses arc useful for portraits, and I used telephoto lenses in photojournalism.
 In the first edition of this book 1 warned camera Color plate 23 shows these three primaries in rela-
buyers away from zoom lenses. I mil reccnth zooms tion to three other colors known as secondaries Tin
had several drawbacks that slowed their adoption by secondaries are yellow, cyan, and magenta. Cyan is a
professionals. First, they w e r e big. heavy and slow to light blue that looks slightly greenish, and magenta is a
use. You had to set the zoom control and then move purplish red that you might want to call hot pink.
your hand to the focusing ring, a delay that could result
One of the peculiarities of light is that a filter of a
in missed photos. Lenses that used a single ring for both
particular color will block, or filter out, its complemen-
zoom and focus took practice to use. Second, thev were
tary color. In color plate 23 the primaries are placed
not as sharp as their fixcd-focal-length brethercn. Third,
opposite their complements on the diagram. Any color
they had m a x i m u m a p e r t u r e s of b e t w e e n f / 3 . 5 and
along the wheel, even those between the ones named,
f/4.5. which made them difficult, if not impossible, to
will block the color on the opposite side of the wheel.
use under the low-light situations so often faced in pho-
tojournalism. An easy way to see h o w filters work is to look at
t h e Sunday comics through pieces of deeply colored
But many m o d e r n z o o m s h a v e o v e r c o m e t h e s e acetate. D o n ' t stare at the p a g e through t h e filters.
problems. With the introduction of auto-focus cameras, Hold t h e filters c l o s e t o y o u r eye and m o v e t h e m
zooms have b e c o m e m u c h easier to handle, and n e w quickly in and out of your field of view so your eye
materials have made them rugged and lightweight. Pop- w o n ' t have time to adapt to t h e color of t h e filter. The
ular zooms include the 80-200mm and the 20-35mm. extent of the effect will depend on the strength of the
These lenses are available with maximum apertures of colors in the filters you use. You will notice that cer
2.8. which is fast enough for many assignments. I must tain colors on the comics page lighten and appear the
still caution you. h o w e v e r , against buying a budget- same or almost t h e same as t h e white newsprint. Some
priced zoom. You get w h a t you pay for. and c h e a p colors may even disappear, yet o t h e r colors darken.
lenses just w o n ' t deliver. I'd also stay away from older T h e basic rule is that a filter lightens its o w n color and
used zoom lenses. If you decidc to buy a zoom, find out darkens its c o m p l e m e n t a r y color. The colors on t h e
what brands t h e professionals in your area are using. comics page that lighten are the same, or almost the
They k n o w what lenses will meet the demands of the same, as the color of the filter. The colors that darken
working photographer. are that filter's complements.
A final word on lenses: rushing out and buying a Let's return to our s c e n e with t h e blue sky and
bag full of optics will not make you a great photogra- puffy white clouds. The red filter blocks the light from
pher. I suggest that, unless you have a specific need, the blue sky. If the light is blocked from the film, that
you learn w h a t each lens will do b e f o r e adding t o part of the image will record darker than normal. The
your inventory. white clouds, however, contain red light, which passes
easily through the filter and is seen by the film as white.
In black-and-white photography, darkening skies is
Filters
a common task for filters. If skies are too light, the top
edges of the print might not show in the finished publi-
Filters are discs of glass that attach to your lens. They
cation, creating an awkward blend betw-een the photo
are called filters because they filter t h e light passing
and other elements on the page. For this reason, I often
through the lens on its way to t h e film. In doing so, fil-
u s e a yellow or o r a n g e filter to darken skies w h e n
ters remove some colors of the light while transmitting
shooting overall views outdoors. These filters produce
others. The result is a change in the way various tones
less dramatic effects than the red filter, which can make
are recorded on the film and in the subsequent print.
skies almost black.
For example, you might photograph a scene that in-
Those of you w h o are thinking ahead will see an-
cludes puffy clouds set off against a bright blue sky. Yet
other application for filters with black-and-white film. If
in a black-and-white print, the clouds and sky appear as
you had a fashion assignment to photograph a red shirt,
similar dull shades of gray. This effect occurs because
a green jacket, and gray pants, you could use filters to
black-and-white film does not transform even color into
prevent the three items from appearing the same shade
a different shade of gray; it sees some colors the same.
of gray. A red filter would lighten the red shirt and
In this case, the film saw t h e blue sky and t h e w h i t e
darken the green jacket, while a green filter would do
clouds as almost the same shade of light gray But a red
the opposite. The gray pants would not be affected be-
filter placed over the lens will cause the sky to darken,
cause gray is really only dark white, and contains all
emphasizing the white clouds, as in figure 4-23-
three primary colors (fig. 4-24).
To understand how filters work, we must first look You can find out which color filter to use for any
at t h e n a t u r e of t h e light t h e s e filters are going to situation by checking the color wheel in plate 23- Re-
change. White light consists of three primary colors: red. member. a filter lightens its o w n color and darkens its
blue, and green. (You'll notice that yellow is not a pri- complementary color.
mary color of light, although it is a primary for pigment.)
(a) (b)

Figure 4 - 2 3 (a) Compare the differences between the foreground in these two photos. This shot was made
tones in the sky. the truck, a n d the skin of the man in the without a filter, while (b) was made through a red filter.

Haze and Ultraviolet Filters In practice, this effect allows you to use large aper-
Haze is a common problem with distant landscapes. Be- tures or slow shutter speeds in bright light. For example,
cause haze is bluish, a light yellow haze filter blocks a common exposure for Tri-X film in sunlight is 1/500
that blue light while allowing yellow light from distant second at f/16. This exposure will stop motion and pro-
objects to be recorded by the film. duce a relatively wide depth of field. But a neutral-density
There can also be a great deal of ultraviolet CUV) filter that reduces the light by three f-stops would let you
light in distant scenes. Although you can t see this light, shoot at 1/500 second at f/5.6 (or 1/1000 at f/4) to re-
film is highly sensitive to it. Ultraviolet filters, which duce depth of field. You could also create blur by shoot-
look like clear glass, reduce some of the ultraviolet light ing at 1/60 second at f/16. Check this information on the
that both black-and-white and color film will record. exposure ruler you made w h e n studying chapter 3-
Also, many p h o t o g r a p h e r s k e e p UV filters o n their If you have a camera with an automatic exposure
lenses to protect the front lens element from damage. system, your camera's light meter will c o m p e n s a t e for
I nfortunately, there is no smog filter. The yellow- t h e ND filter automatically. If you don't have an in-
brown murk that hangs over so many cities often in- camera meter, look at the engraving on the filter ring
cludes small particles of smoke or dust. These particles to see h o w m u c h additional e x p o s u r e you need. An
block and scatter light, and because they are physical ND2 r e q u i r e s o n e e x t r a f-stop, an ND4 n e e d s t w o
obstructions. the> can't be optically filtered away. extra stops, and an ND8 n e e d s three stops additional
exposure.
Neutral-Do: •: > Filters
Neutral-den sit \ \ D ) filters do for film what sunglasses Folanzing Filters
do for your o < s — t h e \ < t down on the light entering Polarizing filters block light just as other filters do. but
the lens wit tin ting the color of the image. they have an interesting cffcct on light reflected from
 (b)

mmaarnm
(c)
Figure 4 - 2 4 These three shots show how subject tones darkened slightly, while the gray w o o d remains the same.
can be c h a n g e d by the use of filters. In (a), no filter was The photo in (c) was made through a green filter that
used. In (b). a red filter was used. Notice how the apples lightened the peppers and darkened the apples
are lightened, the peppers a n d the hazy light blue sky

smooth surfaces. Polarizers block the reflective glare, light rays. If the bars and the rays are both oriented in
enhancing t h e colors underneath. the same direction, the light rays pass through.
This g l a r e is p o l a r i z e d light, w h i c h is c r e a t e d Polarizers are simple to use because you can see the
w h e n light is r e f l e c t e d at an angle f r o m a surface. effect with your eye. The filter is usually in a rotating
W h e n light rays leave a source, they vibrate in all di- mount that you can turn once it is on the lens. All you
rections. When t h e light rays are reflected by a smooth need do is look through the finder and rotate the filter
surface, the vibrations are limited t o o n e direction, and until you get the effect you want. Figure 4 - 2 6 is an ex-
this light is n o w polarized (fig. 4-25). This light is the ample of reflection control with a polarizing filter. Be-
kind that reflects back off the pavement into your eyes c a u s e almost every s c e n e c o n t a i n s s o m e polarized
w h e n you are driving toward the sun. All sorts of sur- reflections, polarizing filters increase color saturation by-
faces can polarize light, including leaves, glass, wood, reducing these stray reflections. Polarizing filters also
and plastics. darken skies if the camera is aimed at about 90° to the
sun. To c o r r e c t y o u r e x p o s u r e t h r o u g h a polarizer,
Polarizing filters block this polarized light. Think of
meter through the filter or simply increase the exposure
the filter as a set of optical jail bars. When the bars are
by one and a half to t w o stops.
at right angles to the vibrating light rays, they block t h e
Figure 4 - 2 5 When light rays leave a source, they are by a smooth surface, the vibrations are polarized, or limited
vibrating in all directions. When the light rays are reflected to vibrating in one direction.

(a) (b)
Figure 4 - 2 6 F v ng filters cut glare a n d reflections caused by polarized
light. Photo (a) w a d e without the filter, photo (b) was made through the
filter.
Filters for Color
TABLE 4-2 Filter Factors
Both polarizing and neutral-density filters are useful
when working in color, but there arc also some special Filter Effect Factor Stops
filters designed solely for color film. Briefh these filters Increase
arc designed to match the color of the light to the sensi-
Yellow Cuts haze slightly,
tivity of t h e film. This matching is important w h e n
natural rendition of
shooting i n d o o r s u n d e r tungsten light (from regular
tones
light bulbs) as well as fluorescent (long tubes such as
those found in classrooms) and o t h e r artificial light Orange Darkens skies, makes
sources because these lights are not the same color as clouds stand out.
daylight. Your eye docs not notice this difference but emphasizes texture
color film will see it and. if not corrected, off-color pho- of snow and sand
tos will result.
Red Darkens skies
dramatically (almost
Filter Factors black)
A filter factor is a number that tells you the exposure in- Polarizing Removes reflections, 2.5
crease needed by a particular filter. Although you can rely darkens skies,
on your camera's exposure system to compensate for the increases color
light loss in ND and polarizing filters, it is not a good idea saturation
to take meter readings through other types of filters. The
meters do not respond to color changes the same wav
film does, and an erroneous reading could result. Instead,
take a meter reading before placing the filter on your lens, But telephoto lenses also create interesting visual ef-
then increase the exposure by the filter factor. fects, c o m p r e s s i n g d e p t h p e r s p e c t i v e and r e d u c i n g
depth of field. Wide-angle lenses have the opposite ef-
To use filter factors, multiply your exposure by the
fect. providing a wide angle of view and making things
factor. A factor of 2 means double the amount of expo-
look farther away. They also create some interesting
sure. As you recall from the section on exposure, dou-
shape and size distortions, tilting vertical lines and. in
bling the exposure would mean opening the lens one
extreme eases, distorting shapes in a bizarre fashion.
stop or using the next slowest shutter speed. If the fac-
tor was 4, you would need two stops more: a factor of 8 You can use these lens characteristics—angle of
requires three stops additional exposure. If this last step view, space and shape distortion, and depth of field—to
in the progression is confusing, remember that each in- add to the visual impact of the photo. Wide-angle lenses
crease doubles the exposure. O p e n i n g o n e stop pro- used close to the subject tend to make the viewer feel
vides twice as much as t h e original exposure, opening close to the action. Such lenses are also a tool for in-
two stops provides four times as much, opening three cluding as much of the scene as possible, an important
stops provides eight times as much, and opening four consideration w h e n the various elements of an event
stops provides sixteen times as much. If you opened the must be related to each other.
aperture one more time, it would be a total of thirty-two On the other hand, telephoto lenses isolate subject
times the original exposure! matter, sometimes separating it from the background
while compressing the space b e t w e e n objects in the
scene. Although telephoto lenses can bring the subject
Summary close to the viewer, the feeling is not as intimate as it is
w h e n shot at close range with a wide-angle lens.
Lenses are to the photographer what paint brushes arc The maximum aperture of a lens is its widest f-stop.
to the artist. Different features offered by different types The maximum aperture is an important consideration
increase your creative options as well as your technical w h e n selecting a lens for an assignment, because photo-
flexibility. The fundamental task of a lens is to collect journalists often shoot under low-light conditions. Thus,
the light rays into a coherent image and project it onto the lens must gather as much light as possible. When re-
the film. ferring to a lens that has a wide maximum aperture,
The focal length of a lens is the distance between photographers often use the term fast tens.
the optical center of the lens and the film w h e n the lens Although depth of field is controlled by the aper-
is focused on infinity. Lenses with normal focal lengths ture. two other factors influence this variable: lens-to-
produce images similar to what w e see with our eyes s u b j e c t d i s t a n c e and focal l e n g t h . As you r e d u c e
Shooting through a telephoto lens is similar to look- lens-to-subject distance by moving closer to your sub-
ing through a telescope—distant objects are magnified. ject. depth of field decreases, and close-ups may have
extreme depth of field. But depth of field is Hyperfocal and zone focusing are t w o tocusing
also ch;t n focal length changes. Depth of field techniques you can use to take advantage of depth of
appi .ise with telephoto lenses and increase field. Hyperfocal focusing provides the greatest depth
wit! i o lenses. If you c o m b i n e all three fac- of field for the aperture in use, while zone focusing pro-
r, le ngth, a p e r t u r e , and lens-to-subject dis- vides a closer area of sharpness.
c considerable control over d e p t h of Filters can change the final p h o t o by influencing
inn telephoto, used to make a close-up at a which colors of light reach the film. There are also spe-
u< * id-reducing aperture of f/2.8, would cut the cial p u r p o s e filters that reduce haze and ultraviolet
de ; >f field to almost nothing. Only t h e point of light and polarizers that are useful for reducing reflec-
- .vould be acceptably sharp. On the other hand, a tions. Because filters cut down t h e light entering the
c angle lens, used at f / 1 6 and its hyperfocal dis- lens, an exposure increase is necessary. Although you
ncc. would produce a sharp image from several feet can take light meter readings through polarizers and
away to infinity. neutral-density filters, filter factors should be used to
figure exposure w h e n using other types of filters.
 / c h a p t e r

V 5

The Black-and-White
Darkroom
OUTLINE

Film Processing Machine-Processed Paper

Chemicals for Film Processing and Chemicals
Stop Bath Printing Equipment
Fixer Making a Print

Wash The Contact Sheet

Making an Enlargement
Wetting Agent
Equipment for Film Processing Darkroom Cleanliness
a n d Safety
Processing Film
Mixing Chemicals
The Print
Stock and Working Solutions
Photographic Paper
Chemical Safety
Print Chemicals
Summary7

u
T H E ULTIMATE E N D , T H E PRINT, IS B I T A DUPLICATION OF ALL T H A T I SAW A N D

FELT T H R O U G H MY C A M E R A .

— E D W A R D W E S T O N , FINE ART PHOTOGRAPHER,

CONTEMPORARY OF ANSEL A D A M S
Film P r o L-ssing school or professional lab. \ ou will probably use the de-
veloper supplied by the lab or be told what formula to
Col, v»'?n;»utcrs arc rapidly taking over in p h o t o buy. If you must buy your own. stick with one devel-
*< - daih newspapers shoot color regularly. oper until you have the skill to recognize the differ-
U VL-IV. and have converted to digital image
ences between various brands. A good c h o i c e is
- _ .stead of traditional chemical-based print- Kodak's common D-76 formula.
Mi.iKir.u This began in the late 1980s and early 1990s, In use. a developer loses strength. Therefore, use it
and Mispect that by the end of the century, most news- once and throw it away, or rejuvenate it by adding a s o
ill have replaced their darkrooms with comput- lution called replenishes Add a half ounce or so of re-
\cn in the wet-chemical darkroom of today, film is plenisher to the used developer after the film has been
n processed by machine and printmaking is a u t o processed. If > ou work in a shared lab that replenishes
m a t e d . But there are important things to learn about
film developer, be sure to follow the lab s replenish-
technical quality that are best learned by hand. Also, be- ment procedure.
cause many smaller publications have not made t h e Many labs u s e o n e - s h o t d e v e l o p e r s , w h i c h are
switch, black-and-white darkroom skills remain impor- mixed just before use and poured d o w n the drain after-
tant. And in spite of the changing technology, no com- ward. I recommend these if you are buying your o w n
puterized system can ever replace the magic behind an since you'll always have fresh chemicals. D-76 mixed
image that suddenly appears on a blank piece of paper with an equal amount of water is common, as are Ed-
while you watch under the glow of a dim yellow light. wal's FG-7, Kodak's HC-110. T-Max. and many others.
If you can follow the directions on a box of cake Although one-shot developers are slightly more expen-
mix. you shouldn't have any problems processing film. sive than replenishing developers, t h e g u a r a n t e e of
Printmaking is a little more involved because subjective fresh developer is worth the small additional cost.
decisions must be made—decisions that are guided only
by experience. Stop Bath
Film processing is a simple task,that can be done al- H i e purpose of the stop bath is to stop the development
most anywhere, and the equipment and chemicals arc action. Plain water works fine for film processing. Al-
so inexpensive that you can easily equip yourself for though I don't think it is necessary, you may use a weak
this basic operation. acetic acid solution, and there are a number of commer-
Processing begins by loading t h e film into a pro- cial stop bath formulas available. The time in the stop
cessing tank. Then a developer is poured in. which con- bath is not critical—a minute or so will do—but keep
verts t h e e x p o s e d film into a visible i m a g e . After the stop bath at the same temperature as the developer.
development, stop bath stops the development action,
and fixer removes the undeveloped silver halide. The Fixer
film is then washed, treated in a wetting agent t o re- Fixer (sometimes called hypo) removes t h e undevel-
duce water spots and hung to dry. oped silver salts from the emulsion, making the image
Although the sieps of film processing are simple, insensitive to light. Fixer also removes the opaque back-
>ou must strive for a c c u r a o and consistency. Most p r o ing layer found on most films. When fixing is complete,
ccssing problems are due to simple mistakes or chemi- the edges and other unexposed areas of the film will be
cal contamination caused by sloppy lab p r o c e d u r e s . clear, and the image will be visible.
Monitor solution temperatures, keep your equipment Fix your film for at least twice the time it takes the
clean, follow the p r o c e d u r e cxacth and standardize film to clear. If the unexposed area at the end of the roll
even detail. turns clear in one minute, fix the film for two minutes.
Kodak's T-Max films require longer fixing times and
Chemicals for Film Processing more agitation in the fixer than other films. Kodak rec-
The three most important chemicals used in black-and- ommends at least three to five minutes in a rapid fixer
white film processing are: developer, stop bath. and with frequent agitation. After fixing, check to see if the
fixer. These are normally followed by a wash and a wet- film has a pinkish color in the clear areas. If so. it needs
ting agent, the latter to prevent water spots when the more fixing. Fixing baths can be saved and reused for
film dries. many rolls of film—you should be able to fix about 100
The job of the developer is to convert the latent rolls in a gallon. The silver compounds that are removed
image on t h e e x p o s e d film into a visible o n e Mam from the film build up in the solution, and this silver
can be reclaimed. The appendix provides directions for
b r a n d s of d e v e l o p e r s a r e available, and c h o i c e of a
reclaiming silver from used fixer.
developer is often based on personal preference. In a
 Wash There are several varieties of processing tanks, but
You must wash away t h e fixer that has hcc-n absorbed the ones most used by professionals are the stainless
into the emulsion or the film will stain and fade with steel ones shown in the processing illustrations in this
time. When on tight deadlines, photojournalists often section Stainless steel resists rust and corrosion and
skip the wash and just rinse the fixer off the film and transfers heat quickly.
dry it. No harm will be d o n e if t h e film is w a s h e d The processing reels used in stainless steel tanks are
properly after the prints have been made. If you have spirals of wire, as shown in figure 5-1. I he spirals sepa-
one of the plastic w a s h i n g devices s h o w n in figure rate each layer of film from the next as it wraps around
5-2f, the washing time is about 4 minutes. Although the reel, allowing developer to How through and reach
conventional wisdom calls for 20-minute wash times, all parts of the film.
the 4-minute wash time for the plastic film washers is
r e c o m m e n d e d by o n e of their makers, as well as the Loading Spiral Processing Reels Before you start
a u t h o r of a t e c h n i c a l manual p u b l i s h e d by IIford. I to load t h e film on the processing reel, be sure t h e
have 20-year-old negatives washed this way that show reel is not bent. Check to see that the spirals are fiat
no signs of fading, and chemical tests bear out this and parallel to each other. Practice loading the reel
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n . If you d o n ' t h a v e such a gadget, with some scrap film until you are confident you can
w a s h t h e film in t h e p r o c e s s i n g tank by letting the d o it w h e n t h e lights a r e out. W h e n loading film,
s t r e a m of w a t e r f r o m t h e sink f a u c e t f l o w d o w n there can be no darkroom safelights o n and no light
through t h e c e n t e r of t h e processing reel. With this leaking u n d e r t h e d o o r . T h e g l o w f r o m d a r k r o o m
method, a half-hour wash is r e c o m m e n d e d for maxi- t i m e r s is n o t bright e n o u g h to d a m a g e 4 0 0 - s p e e d
mum p e r m a n e n c e . films, but Kodak r e c o m m e n d s turning the face of the
t i m e r t o w a r d t h e wall w h e n loading T-Max P 3 2 0 0
If you prefer, washing aids can speed t h e removal
high-speed film.
of fixer and s h o r t e n w a s h times. Just rinse t h e film,
placc it in the washing aid, and then give it a final wash. Open the film cassette by prying off the end with a
Exact limes vary from brand to brand so refer to the in- bottle opener as in figure 5 - l a . Pull t h e plastic spool
structions provided with the product. out of the cassette and cut or tear off the end so it is
straight (fig. 5 - l b ) . Then, holding the film in one hand
Wetting Agent and the reel in the other, make sure the end of the wire
The last chemical step is the wetting agent. which pre- spiral is pointing toward the hand that is holding the
vents water spots from forming as the film dries. Mix film (fig. 5 - l c ) . Wind the film on the reel from the cen-
the wetting agent carefully; too strong a solution will ter out. Bend the film so it arcs slightly, as in figure
leave streaks on the film. I prefer to mix it to half the 5 - I d . and slide it under the center clip. Feel the edges
manufacturer's r e c o m m e n d e d strength. Also, dirt in the of the film as in the illustration to be sure the film is
water will stick to the film as it dries, resulting in white centered between the two spirals of the reel. Then set
specks or streaks in the final print. If you have problems the reel on the counter and turn it as shown in figure
with grit or minerals in your tap water, consider mixing 5 - l e , allowing the reel lo pull the film onto itself. When
the wetting agent with distilled water. you get to the end, cut or tear the film to remove the
plastic spool (fig. 5 - I f ) .

Equipment for Film Processing The most common error in loading these reels is
Surprisingly little equipment is needed for film process- allowing one layer to skip off the spiral and touch the
ing. You will need at least a thermometer, timer, film layer underneath. You can check for this problem as
processing tank and reel, and a couplc of jugs to hold you lurn the reel by listening carefully If you hear a
chemicals. p o p p i n g n o i s e as you t u r n t h e reel, t h e film has
skipped to the track below. You can also feel the film
T e m p e r a t u r e i n f l u c n c c s both d e v e l o p m e n t time
pull to o n e side with the hand that is guiding it. Un-
and negative quality, so b e sure to get an a c c u r a t e
wind a f e w inches and try again. When you are done,
t h e r m o m e t e r . P r o c e s s i n g is usually d o n e b e t w e e n
another check is to feel the sides of the reel as in fig-
65° F and 80° F, so select an instrument that s h o w s ure 5 - l g . If you feel t h e sharp edges of the film stick-
each degree clearly. ing out from the spirals, that is a sure sign the film is
Any timer that will accurately measure 10 minutes off track.
or so will do. There will probably be a timer in the lab
you are using, but you can use your watch if the face is When you finish, d r o p the reel into the tank and
graduated in minutes. Digital w a t c h e s are ideal pro- put the c a p on. Then you can turn on the lights and
cessing timers. start processing.
 the fiim c a s s e t t e with a c a n (D) Cut the e n d of the film s q u a r e so it (c) B e sure y o u are h o l d i n g the
- a n d remove the film c a n be fitted into the p r o c e s s i n g reel. p r o c e s s i n g reel s o the e n d of the wire
spiral points t o w a r d the h a n d h o l d i n g
the film. In this e x a m p l e , the
p h o t o g r a p h e r is h o l d i n g the film in his
right h a n d .

(d > Squeeze the e d g e s of the film (e) Turn the reel with o n e h a n d while (f) W h e n the e n d of the film is
slight / s - 1 b e t w e e n the w i r e g u i d i n g the film o n t o the reel with the
r e a c h e d , cut off the plastic spool.
spirals a- • l s e r t the e n d of the film other h a n d . U s e your t h u m b a n d first
into the c p a: the center of the reel. finger exactly as s h o w n t o g u i d e the
film.

(g) To c h e c k for m i s t h r e a d e d film, feel

the sides of the w i r e spirals. If you
d e t e c t any s h a r p e d g e s p r o t r u d i n g
b e y o n d the flat spirals, b a c k the film
off the reel a n d try again. If the film
Figure 5-1 How to load a spiral film p r o c e s s i n g b e c o m e s kinked at the first few turns,
(Randy Dorta-Dovdic1
start f r o m the spool e n d .
Processing Film In many news situations, there is not time to wait
Although the illustrations in figure 5 - 2 present a basic for film to air dry; therefore, various drying devices arc
processing p r o c e d u r e , you may find variations in indi- used. Cabinets with blowers that push filtered hot air
vidual p h o t o labs. Some photographers prefer different past the film are c o m m o n . A variation is a device similar
brands of chemicals, w h i c h may require different pro- to an oversize hair dryer. T h e film reel is put into the
cessing times, and o t h e r types of processing equipment end of the t u b e w h e r e it gets hot air from a blower. As
may be in use. In addition, you may e n c o u n t e r shortcuts an alternative to this special equipment, simply hold the
that seem to go against the p r o c e d u r e s described here. 1 processing reel in your hand and aim an ordinary hair
must emphasize, h o w e v e r , that there is almost always dryer at it. Be sure to let the dryer run for a minute to
s o m e c o m p r o m i s e w i t h quality w h e n s h o r t c u t s are blow the dust out before using it on the film, and k e e p
taken. Learn these standard techniques and the reasons the heat set on low o r medium Don't over-dry the film
behind t h e m before you try to cut corners. or it will take on the curl of the processing reel. Four or
five minutes under a hair dryer is about right

Development Time and Temperature Development

time d e p e n d s on the developer temperature. The com- Negative Handling and Filing Handle your nega-
mon processing temperature for black-and-white film is tives with great care. Damaged negs are often not re-
68° F. As t e m p e r a t u r e increases, p r o c e s s i n g time de- pairable, and s c r a t c h e s , fingerprints, and d i n , the
creases. The appendix includes time/temperature charts negatives will s h o w u p in the prints. Be sure to hold
for several c o m m o n film/developer combinations. A mis- negatives by the edges only. File them in special nega
take in development time can have a noticeable effect tive envelopes, w h i c h are available in a variety of styles
on the negative, so be sure to check the developer tem- from camera shops.
perature and use the correct processing time. A convenient way to file negatives is to make a con-
The t e m p e r a t u r e of all t h e processing solutions, in- tact sheet (see page 87), attach the negative envelope to
cluding t h e wash w a t e r and the wetting agent, should it, and file t h e m together in old print paper boxes or file
be the same. Aim for a difference of no more than o n e folders. N e w s p a p e r s o f t e n file news p h o t o s by the date
degree. By keeping all solution temperatures the same, of the event, sometimes cross-indexing by type or cate-
you'll h e l p guarantee consistent results and minimize gory of event and p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s name. I file n e w s
the a p p e a r a n c e of grain in the negative. events by date, but file personal photos by subject mat-
ter: family, Yosemite, railroads, and so on. Use any filing
order that makes sense to you, but avoid the tendency
Agitation As the film develops, the d e v e l o p e r that
to let negs pile u p because, as fate will have it, the ones
t o u c h e s t h e film b e c o m e s c o n t a m i n a t e d with process-
you lose will be your favorites.
ing b y p r o d u c t s and loses its strength. To get even re-
sults and k e e p f r e s h d e v e l o p e r in c o n t a c t w i t h the
film, you need to agitate t h e Film during processing—a Checking Negative Quality A c r u d e way to check
simple matter of turning the tank upside d o w n t w o or the technical quality of your negatives is to lay them on
three times every so often. I agitate by inverting the a p i e c e of n e w s p r i n t . You should just barely see the
printing underneath. If the negs are almost clear, or so
tank three times every 30 seconds. Agitation d o e s in-
dark that you c a n ' t see t h e p r i n t i n g t h r o u g h t h e m ,
f l u e n c e d e v e l o p m e n t , so try n o t to vary your proce-
something w e n t wrong.
d u r e f r o m roll to roll. You should also agitate during
stop bath and fixer treatments. After t h e wash, a 10- to It is difficult to s h o w t h e subtle differences in neg-
15-second dip in the w e t t i n g agent is adequate. ative quality in a b o o k because of the variables of the
printing press, but I have tried to illustrate some of the
most c o m m o n p r o b l e m s in figure 5 - 3 The most com-
Drying After dipping the film in the wetting agent,
m o n p r o b l e m I have f o u n d in beginners negs is under-
hang it to dry in a dust-free place. Airborne dust that
e x p o s u r e . Seriously u n d e r e x p o s e d negatives look
lands on the film will stick and s h o w u p as w h i t e specks
s o m e w h a t faint or almost clear, as in the top strip in
in the print. You can use clothespins to hold the film to f i g u r e 5 - 3 a . This p r o b l e m is c a u s e d by i n s u f f i c i e n t
a piece of wire or string stretched out like a clothesline. light reaching the negative, either the f-stop w a s too
Put a clothespin o n the bottom end of the roll to k e e p it small o r the shutter speed too high, or both. To t h e be-
f r o m c u r l i n g w h i l e it dries. Be s u r e t h e film is com- ginner, u n d e r e x p o s e d negatives look similar to under-
pletely dry b e f o r e handling it. If the film is bent in a developed ones, so be s u r e to ask your instructor to
large arc from top to bottom as it hangs, it is still slightly- c h e c k your negs. T h e second strip is properly e x p o s e d
wet and must not be touched. as a comparison.
 Develop* Stop Bat Fixer, Photo Flo.

. se: out all the c h e m i c a l s you will need: developer, stop bath (water is
(b) Pour in the developer. Use the
. 3 for film p r o c e s s i n g ) , f i x e r a n d a wetting solution s u c h as Photo Flo. Be
p r o c e s s i n g time required by your film
: :e temperature for all solutions, i n c l u d i n g wash water, is the s a m e .
a n d d e v e l o p e r c o m b i n a t i o n a s listed
in the A p p e n d i x .

(c A -j ~ the film in the d e v e l o p e r by (d) Pour in the s t o p bath. Agitation is (e) Pour in the fixer. B e sure to agitate
inven j - Agitate continuously the s a m e as for developer. W h e n the film while it is in the fixer. With
for the " s t ~ - jte; then for five using water for a stop bath, give rapid fixers, three minutes in fresh
s e c o n d s eve'y • " / s e c o n d s several rinses. solution is e n o u g h time for most films;
thereafter. Whe v e time is up, pour T-Max films m a y t a k e longer. The rule-
the developer down me drain. of-thumb is to fix for twice the time it
takes for the film to turn clear.

(:> After fix ng. wash the film to remove

the fixer. If a washer s u c h a s this is (g) After the wash, soak the film in a
used, a four-minute wash is sufficient. wetting a g e n t for a few s e c o n d s . The
wetting a g e n t prevents water spots
from forming on the film as it dries.
Figure 5-2 F> p-ocessing procedure Then h a n g the film in a dust-free p l a c e
(Randy [X a-Do\. . to dry.
 Figure 5 - 3 c The crescent-shaped mark in this enlarged
Figure 5 - 3 a Although it is extremely difficult to show the
portion of a negative was caused by squeezing the film so
variations in negative quality within the limits of textbook
much that it kinked as it was threaded on to the processing
reproduction, these examples represent some of the
reel. The white squiggles are dust a n d lint on the negative.
common errors. See the text for a complete explanation.

The third strip is overexposed, which looks similar

to overdevelopment. Again, get an expert interpretation
of your work. The blotch on the fourth strip is the re-
sult of cross-threading the processing reel. The fifth
strip has edge numbers but no images, which means the
film was p r o c e s s e d but no images w e r e on the film.
More than likely, the roll was not properly threaded on
the camera's take-up spool and did not go through the
camera. If your film comes out blank with no edge num-
bers, as in the sixth strip, the film was not developed at
all before it was placed in the fixer Either the devel-
oper was defective or the chemicals were poured into
the processing tank out of the proper sequence.
Figures 5 - 3 b and 5 - 3 c show two negative defects
that are easier to sec after a print is made. The dark cir-
Figure 5 - 3 b The dark spots in the sky may look like cles in figure 5 - 3 b are caused by air bubbles clinging to
UFOs, but they are the result of air bubbles that clung to the film during development. Be sure to dislodge these
the film during development. To prevent this, tap the tank bubbles by tapping the bottom of the tank with t h e
with the heel of your hand after adding developer. heel of your hand several times as soon as you have
poured eloper The light mark that looks like asked to use another type; avoid heavily textured papers
a crcv , n figure 5 - 3 c is caused by kinking the because the texture can show up in the reproduction.
film v :
. iding the processing reel. Don't squeeze Image tone is a combination of the color of the pa-
; lv between your t h u m b and first finger p e r ' s base and the subtle color of the emulsion. Some-
. en ioading processing reels. papers arc a neutral black-and-white, while others have a
: : vhite squiggles in figure 5 - 3 c are bits of lint cream or ivory base and a brownish image. When print-
.)i the negative. If they landed on the film after it was ing p h o t o s for r e p r o d u c t i o n , do not use p a p e r s with
dry. ti can be blown off with an ear syringe. If they tones other than clean black-and-white because they can
i.;nde<i on the film while it w a s wet, more than likely c o m p l i c a t e the r e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s . Nevertheless,
c ..re stuck to the film. The only remedies are to re- these papers can do exciting things to an image, and I
... the print with spotting dye and a 6-aught brush urge you to try some of them for your personal photos.
scan it into a c o m p u t e r and use image-editing soft-
ware to take out the spots. Paper Contrast Contrast is a difference b e t w e e n the
lightest and d a r k e s t s h a d e s of gray. A low c o n t r a s t
image is mostly gray. However, if the image is mostly
The Print blacks and whites, with f e w middle grays, it is high con-
trast (fig. 5-7).
Although black-and-white printing is nearly obsolete at
Photographic contrast is t h e result of a n u m b e r of
large daily newspapers, many smaller publications and
factors, including the contrast of the scene and its light-
schools still operate black-and-white p h o t o labs. Also,
ing, the e x p o s u r e and development of the negative, and
photographers everywhere need prints for portfolios and
the print p a p e r used. The goal is to make a print with a
display. And since you can't make a good print from a bad
full range of tones from black to white. To do so, you
negative, making your o w n prints is an excellent way to
must find the print p a p e r contrast that c o m p l e m e n t s
learn h o w to evaluate negative quality. You'll also learn
the contrast of the negative. If your negative is low con-
the conscquences of technical mistakes w h e n shooting.
trast, you must o f f s e t that by using a h i g h - c o n t r a s t
Making the print gives you considerable control over paper, and vice versa.
the image. Many aspects of printing are similar to editing
There are t w o ways to control paper contrast. O n e
a written story: deciding what to include or exclude, and
is by using paper made to a specific contrast level. This
what to emphasize or de-emphasize. Technically, print-
type of p a p e r is k n o w n as graded paper. The contrast
making involves projecting the image of t h e negative
of graded p a p e r is commonly numbered from 1 to 5. A
onto a piece of photo paper, which is then processed in
n u m b e r 1 contrast p a p e r is low contrast and is used
chemicals that are similar to film processing chemicals.
w h e n p r i n t i n g h i g h - c o n t r a s t negatives. A n u m b e r 5
p a p e r is very high contrast and is used w h e n printing
Photographic Paper l o w - c o n t r a s t n e g a t i v e s . T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of g r a d e d
Like film, p h o t o g r a p h i c p a p e r is c o a t e d w i t h light- p a p e r is that you must have a box of each grade avail-
sensitive silver salts, and also like film, there arc many able w h e n printing.
varieties. Paper characteristics include the base p a p e r it-
self (resin-coated [RC] or fiber), surface, contrast, and T h e second way to control print contrast is with
image tone. variable-contrast paper. Filters in the enlarger control
the contrast, so you only need one box of paper for all
Resin-coated p a p e r is coated with a polyethylene
levels of contrast. I he filters are numbered from 1 to 5
resin. This waterproof plastic coating keeps chemicals
in half steps. W h e n using e i t h e r g r a d e d or variable-
out of the paper core, which makes RC p a p e r s ideal for
contrast paper, the best place to start is with a n u m b e r
the rapid processing required in photojournalism. Some
2 p a p e r or filter.
brands have development chemicals added and can be
processed completely in minutes. The second type of
the more traditional fiber-based paper, is not wa- Print Size T h e most c o m m o n size for print p a p e r in
and therefore requires longer processing times photojournalism is 8 x 10 inches. This size is easy to
ise of c h e m i c a l a b s o r p t i o n b y t h e p a p e r . T h e handle, is close to c o m m o n reproduction sizes, and fits
c h e n r als must be w a s h e d out, and wash times ap- conveniently into standard filing systems. On occasion,
pi ne hour. Fiber-based papers have been used by prints are m a d e on 11 x 14-inch paper, particularly if
ph"t " is for over a hundred years, and most pho- the p h o t o is likely to be reproduced m u c h larger than
tograpi s prefer the look of fiber papers w h e n print- 8 x 1 0 . Another c o m m o n p a p e r size is 16 x 20, but that
ing for a i »ortfolio or display. is usually used only for display prints. If you are on a
tight budget, you might try 7 x 9 or 6V1 x S'/i-inch paper.
Print p a p e r is also available in several surface fin- These sizes are available by special order and can save
ishes. s -vry common, but matte, pearl, and lus- you considerable money: 7 x 9 p a p e r is about 30 per-
ter finishes i-«- available as well. W h e n printing for c e n t less e x p e n s i v e t h a n 8 x 1 0 , yet might fill y o u r
reproduction .1 . or pearl surface unless you arc- needs just as well.
 In conclusion, unless you are told to bu> a specific willing to wait a day for the paper to dry. Beware: some
paper, I recommend resin-coated, glossy or pearl finish, types of print dryers designed for fiber papers will melt
variable-contrast p a p e r in either 8 x 10- or 7 x 9-inch resin coatings, ruining the print and possibly the dryer.
size. Be sure to shop for the best price, and consider the A final note about print chemicals: be very careful
savings in sharing a 250-sheet box with a friend about contaminating the print developer with stop bath
or fixer. Very small amounts of either stop bath or fixer
Print Chemicals can reduce the alkalinity of the developer and cut its
Print chemicals are essentially the same as film process- strength. The process moves from the developer to the
ing chemicals: developer, stop bath, fixer, and wash stop bath and fixer. Never take anything from the stop
Sometimes a washing aid is used, but it is not necessarv bath or fixer and move it to the developer, including
with resin-coated papers. your hands, which should always be rinsed in water and
A common print developer is Dektol, which should dried before returning to the enlarger
be kept in a closed container and diluted with water
just before use. Developer that has been sitting out in a Machine-Processed Paper and Chemicals
tray for more than a day is surely oxidized and will not An alternative to the above method is machine process-
deliver top-quality prints. T h e t e m p e r a t u r e of print ing. Some resin-coated papers can be processed in large
chemicals is not as critical as it is for film processing. If machines, which are usually found only in professional
the print chemicals are at a room temperature that is p h o t o labs w h e r e they are cost-effective. Machine
comfortable for you, they are suitable for printmaking. processed resin-coated prints are considered as perma-
Although water works as a stop bath for film pro- nent as conventionally processed resin-coated prints.
cessing, use an acid stop bath for prints. The acid stop In small labs, stabilization machines are common.
bath is i m p o r t a n t in p r i n t m a k i n g because t h e print About the size of a stereo receiver, these machines feed
paper is more likely to absorb and retain developer. If special stabilization p a p e r into an activator bath and
the developer is not neutralized by a stop bath, incon- then into a stabilizer. The print is not washed, but is
sistent processing could result, and developer could be squeegeed by a set of rollers before it emerges from the
carried into the fixer, spoiling its acidity. One ounce of machine. These damp-dry prints are ready for use in
glacial acetic acid (available at camera stores) added to a seconds, but because they still contain a lot of chemi-
gallon of w a t e r makes an inexpensive stop bath. Be cals. they will not last more than a few months. Stabi-
careful—glacial acetic acid is strong. Do not breathe its lized prints, which are printed on a fiber base, can be
fumes, and be sure to add the acid to the water—never fixed, washed, and dried using the procedures for fiber
add water to concentrated acid. Stop bath formulas are paper if permanence is needed.
available that change color w h e n exhausted; however,
acetic acid is so cheap that I recommend it and suggest Printing Equipment
making fresh stop bath for each print session.
Equipment for printmaking includes an enlarger and a
Fixer for printmaking is essentially the same for- timer, an easel to hold the paper, trays for the chemi-
mula used for film, but it is usually diluted to about half cals, a safe light, and dodging and burning tools. The en-
the film concentration. Exact mixing d e p e n d s o n the larger is the basic printmaking tool. It works like a slide
brand. In many n e w s p a p e r p h o t o labs, fixer intended projector, except that it is attached to a vertical column
for printing is mixed to the dilution used for film. This and is aimed down at the counter instead of against the
concentration shortens fixing time to about 30 seconds wall. And, as with a projector, you can make the image
compared to t h e typical 2- to 5-minute treatment; how- bigger or smaller by moving the enlarger head closer to
ever, you must not over-fix prints in such a strong bath or farther from the counter top. Figure 5 - 4 shows a typ-
or the image may bleach out. There is some question ical enlarger.
about the longevity of prints fixed this way, but one Exposing print p a p e r is similar to exposing film;
p a p e r m a n u f a c t u r e r r e c o m m e n d s this m e t h o d for you must control both the f-stop of the lens and the ex
archival permanence. If you work in a lab where chemi- posure time. Therefore, while you could control print
cals are provided, be sure to find out what fixing limes exposure times by watching a stopwatch, an enlarging
should be used. timer is the only practical way to work. The enlarger
Resin-coated papers need only a two-minute wash. plugs into the timer, which in turn plugs into the wall
In fact, longer wash times are not recommended. RC pa- outlet. Typical enlarger timers have a range from a sec-
pers can be heat- or air-dried in minutes, and a variety of ond to a minute or more.
dry ing machines are available. But because fiber papers The print easel is a simple device similar to a pic-
a b s o r b c h e m i c a l s , t h e y must h a v e a b o u t an h o u r s ture frame. It holds the paper in place under the en-
worth of washing unless you use a washing aid. Fiber larger. T h e r e are several types of easels, some with
p a p e r s are most often dried with specially designed adjustments for any size print, and some that will take
print dryers, although they can be air dried if you are only one size (fig. 5-4).
 that neg in the enlarger and project its image o n t o a
piece of print paper. After processing the paper, you'll
examine the print for exposure and contrast corrections
and make a corrected print if necessary.

The Contact Sheet

Briefly, a contact sheet is made by putting all the negs
from o n e roll of film on a piece of p h o t o paper. The
negs are p r e s s e d against t h e p a p e r w i t h a s h e e t of
glass, and this sandwich is exposed to light from the
enlarger. The paper is then processed and dried. A sam-
ple c o n t a c t s h e e t and t h e s t e p s in m a k i n g o n e are
shown in figure 5-5.
To make a contact sheet, either get a piece of glass
a little larger t h a n 8 x 1 0 i n c h e s , or use a c o n t a c t
printer, as in the illustration. Lay a piece of photo paper
on t h e baseboard under the enlarger or on t h e foam
side of t h e c o n t a c t printer, emulsion side u p . (The
emulsion side is the shiny side of glossy surface paper.
With other papers, you may need to sacrifice a piece to
find the emulsion side under normal lights.)
Then put your negative strips on the paper, emul-
sion side down. The emulsion side of the film is the dull
side, and film almost always curls toward the emulsion
side. Put the glass over the negs to press them against
the p a p e r . Stop the enlarging lens d o w n about t w o
stops and expose for about 8 to 10 seconds.
T h e n put the paper face up into the developer tray.
Get it under the developer quickly and evenly. The de-
Figure 5 - 4 Basic printmaking e q u i p m e n t : enlarger.
velopment time for rapid-processing, resin-coated paper
timer, safelight. easel, a n d d o d g i n g a n d b u r n i n g tools.
in c o m m o n p r i n t d e v e l o p e r s is o n e m i n u t e . (Some
(Randy Dotta-Dovidio)
non-rapid-processing papers require 2 minutes. Check
the data sheet inside the paper box.) During this time,
agitate the print by rocking the tray slightly. Agitation in
Safeiights are special colored lights that do not af- print processing is important for the same reason it is in
fect p r i n t p a p e r . Be sure t o u s e t h e c o r r e c t b u l b film processing. Don't be tempted to pull the print out
wattage. The use of too bright a bulb can cause fog- of the developer before the minute is up. Prints often
ging of t h e p a p e r and possible heat d a m a g e to t h e look fine under the safelight. but show the effects of im-
safelight or its filter. Also, no safelight is totally safe, proper processing when examined in normal light.
and your p a p e r can fog after too much safelight expo- After a minute, drain the developer off the print by-
sure. Therefore, don't leave a stack of p a p e r o n the holding it by one corner, and then move it to the stop
counter; keep it in its original box until you are ready bath tray. About 5 seconds is enough time to stop devel-
for it. This habit is also good insurance against loss if opment in RC prints. Drain again and transfer the print
someone accidentally o p e n s t h e door or turns on the to the fixer.
room lights.
Fixing time for RC paper is about two minutes in
Dodging and burning tools, easily m a d e f r o m ordinary p a p e r fixer, but some labs use film-strength
s c r a p s of t h i n c a r d b o a r d , a r e u s e d to m a k e local fixer, which fixes paper in 30 seconds. After about half
changes in print exposure. You can see what they look the fixing time has passed, you can examine the print
like and how to use them in figure 5 - 6 g and 5-6h. under white lights, but be sure to return the print to the
fixer to complete the process. When the fixing time is
Making a Print up, wash t h e print for 2 minutes in a tray of running
The basic steps in printmaking begin with a contact water, wipe it off and dry it, either by hanging it from a
sheet, a p it that shows all the shots on the roll. By- line or using a print dryer. If the finished contact sheet
looking at the intact sheet, or proof sheet, you can is too dark, make another with less exposure. If it is too
choose the shot you want to enlarge. You'll then put light, use more exposure.
Figure 5 - 5 (a) To make
a contact sheet, p l a c e a
p i e c e of print paper f a c e u p
in a c o n t a c t print frame,
then put the negatives on
the paper with the
negative's emulsion (dull)
side down, (b) After the
negatives are in place,
p r e s s the glass d o w n on the
n e g s to hold them tight
against the paper a n d
e x p o s e the c o n t a c t sheet for
a b o u t eight s e c o n d s at f/8.
If the d e v e l o p e d sheet is too
light or dark, make another
with more or less e x p o s u r e
If you don't have a contact
frame like this, a p i e c e of
w i n d o w glass will d o . Just
set the paper on the
enlarger b a s e b o a r d , put the
negs on top a n d cover them
with the glass, (c) The
finished contact sheet.
((a) & (b): Randy Dotla-Dovidio)
(a) Put the negative in the negative (b) O p e n the enlarger lens all the w a y (c) Adjust c r o p p i n g a n d carefully
carrier, then blow the dust off the n e g before f o c u s i n g . f o c u s the enlarger.
with an ear syringe a n d put the carrier
in the enlarger.

Figure 5-6 Making a print. (f) The finished test print should look like this. The lightest
((a)-(e). (g). & (h): Randy Dotta-Dovidio) stripe is the shortest exposure.

if you are using fiber-based paper, the procedure is the performance. It is true that, as with music, there are
the same except the processing times are longer. Devel- many ways to interpret a particular negative, and it is
opment is typically 2 minutes, stop bath is 30 seconds, also true that, just as learning to play an instrument
and fix is about 5 minutes (except the extra-strength takes practice, so too does learning to print. Although
mixture, which fixes fiber papers in the same 30 sec- the illustrations here will help you get started, there is
o n d s as RC paper). Wash times for fiber p a p e r s ap- no substitute for time spent at the enlarger.
proach an hour, but you can use a washing aid, which First, be sure your enlarger is fitted with the correct
helps remove the fixer from the paper base, reducing lens. Use a 50mm lens for enlarging 35mm film, and a
wash times to 20 minutes or so. 75mm or 90mm lens for 120-size film. Put the negative
When looking at t h e images on c o n t a c t s h e e t s , in the negative carrier emulsion side (dull side) down,
check your shots for message c o n t e n t , composition, and dust it off with a large ear syringe or soft brush. Put
and major technical errors. Do not reject a shot merely t h e carrier in the enlarger and turn on t h e enlarger
because it looks slightly light or dark—slight density lamp. O p e n the enlarger lens all the way and focus the
variations on a contact sheet may be well within nor- lens. Adjust the enlarger height for the image size you
mal limits. want, moving the print easel under the enlarger to crop
out distracting areas of the image.
Making an Enlargement
Cropping is a form of visual editing that allows you
Noted photographer Ansel Adams said that the negative to cut irrelevant material from your photo, much like
is similar to a composer's musical score and the print is deleting unnecessary paragraphs from a written story.
 (d) Stop the lens d o w n two or three (e) Make an exposure test.
stops.

(g) D o d g i n g is a means of lightening (h) Burning is a way to darken a

a small area of a print. Dodging is specific area of a print. It is done by
done during the main exposure. giving additional exposure to the area
after the main exposure is complete.

In t h e d a r k r o o m , c r o p p i n g is d o n e by moving t h e If you use graded paper, start with a grade number 2. If

easel u n d e r t h e enlarger so only certain parts of t h e you use variable-contrast paper, put a number 2 contrast
image fall o n the paper. Deciding what to c r o p is a filter into the enlarger.
c r e a t i v e d e c i s i o n you must make. Eliminate every- Give the paper a 3-second exposure. Then cover
thing f r o m the p h o t o that d o e s not c o n t r i b u t e : dis- about V/i inches of the edge of the print with the card-
t r a c t i n g f o r e g r o u n d s , u n n e c e s s a r y material at t h e board and give the paper another 3-second shot. Repeat
s i d e s , a n d e x c e s s s k y . C r o p also t o i m p r o v e t h e this procedure until you have worked your way to the
graphic aspects of t h e image, including composition other side of the print. The exposure will build in each
and balance. uncovered stripe. In the illustration, the last stripe to be
Next, you must find the right print exposure. Expo- exposed received four 3-second shots for a total of 12
sure is controlled by a combination of f-stop and time, seconds.
just as it is with film. But, although light meters help you Then process the exposure test the same way you
set exposure in the camera, meters arc rarely found in processed t h e c o n t a c t sheet. After the test is in t h e
photo labs. The best way to find the right print exposure fixer, you can turn on the lights and check the results.
is to make a test print. As figure 5-6f shows, a test print Find the stripe that looks the best, set the time on the
is a series of stripes made by moving a piece of card- enlarger timer accordingly, and make a trial print.
board across the p a p e r while you make a n u m b e r of This first print is called a trial print because you'll
short exposures. As a starting place, stop the enlarging probably have to make some minor adjustments to ex-
lens down two stops and set the timer for 3 seconds. posure and contrast after seeing the entire image.
 Correct density

Correct
contrast

Contrast
too low

Figure 5 - 7 This series of photos shows differences in contrast a n d density.

The center image is correct. The top row is too contrasty while the bottom row is
too fiat. The column on the left is too light; the column on the right is too dark.

Improving the Trial Print When you look at your You might find that the print is fine except for a
trial print, check the overall range of grays, comparing few small areas that are too light or dark. Burning and
t h e n A ith the examples in figure 5-~ If the print is low dodging are m e t h o d s used to correct these local de-
con- xr i n c r e a s e t h e c o n t r a s t by u s i n g a h i g h e r - fects. Burning is most often done to darken the corners
numbcrrd p. r>er or contrast filter. With some older con- of the print as shown in figure 5-8. but you can also use
trast filter you may need to make a n e w exposure test the technique to shift emphasis away from distractions.
with each cnanuc of filter. Contrast can be hard to rec- D o d g i n g l i g h t e n s areas that arc t o o dark. Faces in
ognize at first Most beginners print too light and too shadow are common areas that need dodging. Dodging
flat. For your I r fev. prints it's best to have an experi- only lightens an area slightly; it w o n ' t put sunshine
enced printer • r \ ur work in progress. where it did not exist in the original scene.
 Too dark

(b)
Figure 5 - 8 (a) This is a straight print (no d o d g i n g a n d
burning) of the photo in (b). Notice how d o d g i n g a n d
burning c h a n g e s the impact of the image, (b) The main
e x p o s u r e in this print w a s set for the victim on the g r o u n d
His f a c e w a s d o d g e d slightly, then the fence in the upper
right w a s b u r n e d in, as w a s the arrow on the pavement, the
light area on the m e d i c ' s shoulder, the highlight or, the
victim's leg a n d hand, a n d the medic's b a g in the lower left.
(Kurt Hegre/GHroy Dispatch)

Burning and dodging is quite simple. See figures that identify1 where it begins and ends. A very light sky,
5-6g and 5-6h. By using the burning and dodging tools for example, might not show up at all on the page, and
mentioned previously, or your hands (which many print- the main subject would appear to be floating about in
ers prefer), you cast shadows on the print during the ex- that space. In many o t h e r cases, photographers burn
posure. By shielding a specific area of the print, you can areas of a print to reduce visual distractions. Figure 5 - 8
make the spot lighter, and by giving additional exposure is an example of a photo that has been improved consid-
to certain areas of the print, you can make them darker. erably by good burning technique.
Almost all prints need some burning in the corners. The final step is to make a print with the appropri-
When a p h o t o is r e p r o d u c e d on a printed page along ate contrast and burning and dodging, wash it for 2 min-
with headlines, type and other graphics, it needs borders utes (RC paper), and dry it. Then check it for small
while sj - by dust specks on the negative, YOU TABLE 5-1 P r o b l e m s in P r i n t s
can ret spots with spotting dye and a fine
4- spotting brush (available from a earn- Problem Cause
er reject print to practice on. I prefer to
Print Too Light Not enough exposure—
dry Put a d r o p of dye on the inside of a
use larger aperture or
in lid and let it dry. Then, using a brush
increase exposure time
narely damp, pick u p a minute a m o u n t of
•>uch it to the w h i t e speck on the print. Make Print Too Dark Too much e x p o s u r e -
i with the brush, working your way across the decrease aperture or
>on't paint the dye on. Just use a polka-dot tech- use less time
u q u e i building the d y e u p slowly until t h e d e n s i t y
Overall Gray Look Contrast too low—use
atches the surrounding area. higher number contrast
filter or paper
Checking Print Quality Aside f r o m s p o t s , o t h e r
problems that may a p p e a r in the finished print include Harsh, Soot and Chalk Contrast too high—use
yellow or b r o w n stains. These stains are the result of Look lower number contrast
filter or paper
sloppy darkroom technique—chemicals on your hands
while handling dry paper, failure to get the p a p e r com- Brown or Yellow Stains Chemicals splashed on
pletely under the chemical bath, splashing chemicals on print; exhausted or
the print, or s o m e similar cause. Gray o r black areas contaminated chemicals
around the edges of the print (or overall) suggest fog-
ging, that is, e x p o s u r e of the p a p e r to extraneous light. Fingerprints Appear on Chemicals on hands
Print after Processing when handling paper
Perhaps the b o x top w a s not scaled tightly w h e n you
last had the p a p e r b o x in w h i t e light. Light may have Print Fades after Drying Inadequate fixing
leaked a r o u n d t h e lid and struck t h e p a p e r . A n o t h e r
c a u s e could be e x c e s s i v e e x p o s u r e to t h e safelight. Print Paper Has Black Light leaked into paper
Prints that fade o r stain after p r o c e s s i n g did not get Edges after Processing box when room lights
enough fixing o r washing. These and other print prob- were on
lems arc outlined in table 5 - 1 . Image Reversed Left to Negative wrong side
Right down in enlarger

D a r k r o o m Cleanliness a n d Safety

Although the details of p r o c e s s i n g may c h a n g e f r o m

lab to lab, some basic p r o c e d u r e s are universally im- Also, e v e n darkroom has a wet side and a dry side.
portant. High on the list in even* lab should be cleanli- T h e wet side is w h e r e the processing takes place; the
n e s s . K e e p i n g t h e lab a n d e q u i p m e n t c l e a n is dry side is reserved for the enlarger and related items.
i m p o r t a n t f o r m o r e t h a n a e s t h e t i c r e a s o n s . Spilled Never take wet prints, print trays, or other materials to
chemicals leave a residue that can c o n t a m i n a t e o t h e r the dry side of the darkroom. Wet chemicals in the en-
chemicals, damage your film and p a p e r , and stain your larger area are s u r e to get o n y o u r n e g a t i v e s , p r i n t
c l o t h e s . Fixers, for e x a m p l e , are c o r r o s i v e a n d c a n paper, and e q u i p m e n t , and cause stains, spoiled materi-
damage metal items around the lab. Some developers
als. and wasted time.
can cause skin reactions in persons with sensitive skin,
and wetting agents leave a sticky residue on process- Mixing Chew icals
ing e q u i p m e n t . W h e n c l e a n i n g y o u r w o r k area, b e
When mixing chemicals, follow the package directions
sure to use a clean s p o n g e and make a s e c o n d wipe-
exactly. If they instruct you to p o u r the contents slowly,
d o w n after rinsing t h e sponge thoroughly with plain
d o so. Dumping the whole package at o n c e could result
water. A quick once-over will not r e m o v e all traces of
in undissolved material. Stir until the material you have
c h e m i c a l s . W h e n t h e liquid e v a p o r a t e s , a p o w d e r y
added is dissolved, then add another small amount and
residue will remain that can be spread t h r o u g h o u t the
stir again. W h e n stirring, avoid creating a whirlpool that
lab and even find its way into your lungs. Always rinse
draws air into the mixture, and don't mix chemicals by
your hands in water before drying t h e m on a towel. If
pouring the ingredients into a bottle and shaking unless
you dr\ them w i t h o u t rinsing, chemical residues will
specifically directed to d o so. Shaking is a sure way to
remain on your hands, and you'll have c o n t a m i n a t e d
mix air into the solution, w h i c h can cause oxidation of
the towel as w ell.
the chemicals.
 Using a waterproof marker, label containers with image to a visible one. Then comes stop bath, which
their contents and date mixed. Be sure to use clean bot- stops the development, and then fixer, which makes
tles, and n e v e r use old food or cleanser containers, the image permanent. After washing and a dip in a wet-
which could be contaminated with residue that could af- ting agent, the film is ready to dry.
fect the p h o t o chemicals. Worse yet, s o m e o n e could
When processing film, remember to check process-
think an apple juice jug still contains its original contents.
ing time, developer temperature, and agitation. Keep
Store developers in full, tightly capped bottles to re- the temperature of all solutions the same. Be sure to agi-
duce oxidation. Stop baths and fixers are less fussy, but tate to bring fresh developer in contact with the film.
don't leave t h e m out w h e r e evaporation can change Your negatives can't be replaced, so handle them
their composition. Our lab has had some problems with with care. Physical damage such as scratches and fin-
mixed wetting agents spawning foul-smelling growths, gerprints will most likely s h o w up in the print. Recog-
so I recommend keeping wetting agents as stock solu- nizing p r o b l e m s in negatives takes some practice. A
tions, mixing them just before use. quick way to see if your neg is printable is to lay it
over a piece of newsprint. If the copy underneath is
Stock, arid Working Solutions just barely visible, the neg should be within limits for
A stock solution is a concentrated mixture that is diluted printmaking.
before use to make the working solution. Stock solu- The main characteristics of photographic paper are
tions are a space-saving way to store chemicals. Also, base material, contrast, and surface finish. Paper bases
some developers must be kept as stock solutions because are either resin coated or fiber. Resin-coated papers are
they will not keep w h e n mixed to working dilutions. Be- waterproof and can b e completely p r o c e s s e d in less
sure to clearly label stock and working dilutions. than 4 minutes, but fiber p a p e r s require long wash
times, up to an hour for maximum permanence.
Chemical Safety Print papers arc either graded to a specific contrast
Handle p h o t o c h e m i c a l s with t h e same respect you or are made with variable contrast. In either case, con-
would give any other common laboratory chemicals. Al- trast levels are numbered from 1 to 4 or 5. higher num-
though the immediate hazards arc few, evidence is still bers being higher contrast. Always start printing with a
being gathered about the consequenccs of long-term ex- number 2 filter or paper and adjust as needed to get the
posure to black-and-white p h o t o chemicals. As men- best result. Although print paper is available in many
tioned previously, some persons arc allergic to one of surface finishes, glossy finish is universally accepted for
the common developer components. The skin rash that reproduction prints.
results is temporary, but if you are afflicted, use rubber
The three challenges to the beginning printmaker are
gloves and a barrier cream available from a pharmacy.
cropping to improve message content, recognizing cor-
Some color chemicals contain formaldehyde and other
rect print exposure and contrast, and learning to dodge
strong components. Use these only in well-ventilated
and bum to emphasize local areas within the print.
areas and avoid skin contact. Women w h o are pregnant
To meet the first challenge, analyze what the photo
or nursing should contact a physician before handling
is trying to say. Then crop out anything that does not
any photo chemicals.
c o n t r i b u t e to t h e message. The second challenge is
When mixing chemicals from powdered stock, al- matching the paper contrast to the needs of the negative
ways wear a dust mask. Follow the package directions and exposing so the final print will have a full range of
exactly, and wear goggles if there is a chance of getting tones from maximum black and deep, detailed shadows
chemicals into your eyes. Use c o m m o n sense and keep to textured highlights and bright whites. Learning to see
direct contact with p h o t o chemicals to a minimum. correct print e x p o s u r e and contrast will c o m e from
studying the examples in this chapter, having your work
evaluated by an expert, and practice. Use dodging and
Summary burning techniques to lighten or darken certain areas of
the print. This useful technique can direct your readers'
Many photographers find much satisfaction (and frustra- attention toward the subject and away from distractions.
tion!) in darkroom work. You have more control at this
Finally, be a good darkroom housekeeper. Chemi-
stage than you may at first realize. The process begins
cal c o n t a m i n a t i o n can spoil your work and damage
by developing the film.
equipment, and carelessness with chemicals can be a
First, load t h e film onto a processing reel and into a health hazard.
tank. T h e n add developer, w h i c h converts the latent
 c h a p t e r \

6 ,

Light
OUTLINE

Light: A Fascinating Types of Lights: Main. Fill,

Phenomenon and Accent
Light and the Spectrum U s i n g Light: Natural, Available,
Light from Source to Film a n d Artificial
Light as a Creative Tool Available Light
Characteristics of Light Artificial Light

Intensity Using Electronic Flash

Quality Shutter Speed and Electronic Flash

Direction Using a Single Flash

Mistakes with Flash
Light i n t h e P h o t o g r a p h
Summary
T h e Importance of Highlights,
Shadows, and Texture

66.
W H E T H E R OE A B O A R D F E N C E , A N EGGSHELL, A MOUNTAIN PEAK OR A B R O K E N

S H A R E C R O P P E R , T H E GREAT P H O T O G R A P H FIRST A S K S , T H E N A N S W E R S , T W O

QUESTIONS. I S THAT MY W O R L D ? W H A T , IF N O T , H A S THAT W O R L D

T O D O WITH MINF.F
o'"

— D O R O T H E A LANGE,
NOTED DOCUMENTARY PHOTOGRAPHER OF THE 1930s
Light: \ ll
>n8 P h e n o m e n o n e d g e s of o p a q u e o b j e c t s . P e r h a p s you have n o t i c e d
this diffraction w h e n looking at the blurry e d g e s of
M . t>t a particularly prett\ sunset or the shadow s cast on a sunny day. T h e w a y sunlight can be
nidow alter a storm is created b\ light, transformed into a r a i n b o w of colors by a glass prism
p h e n o m e n o n of nature w e t o o o f t e n is additional e v i d e n c e of wavelikc behavior. T h e vari-
i. However, light I*- m o r e to the photog- o u s w a v e l e n g t h s are bent differently by the prism, al-
i sunsets and storms Learning to see it in all lowing individual colors to be seen. Light also b e h a v e s
inderstanding what it will do for your sulv like w a v e s in o u r c a m e r a s ' l e n s e s , w h i c h are, in a
o r t a n i kevs to making pictures that commu- sense, m o d i f i e d p r i s m s that b e n d light rays so t h e y
ii! the word photography literally means form an image on film.
riling. To learn to write with light, you must
what it will d o to your subject and h o w it will Light and the Spec I rum
\c responses from your reader. Unlike w a v e s o n t h e s u r f a c e of w a t e r , w h i c h m o v e
Scientists have puzzled about light for c e n t u r i e s . only u p and d o w n , light w a v e s also m o v e sideways.
rl> t h i n k e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t light t r a v e l e d f r o m t h e T h e distance b e t w e e n the crests of each w a v e is the
e \ c s of the observer to an object and back again. How- w a v e l e n g t h . W a v e l e n g t h s in t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c
ever. more modern scientists, beginning with Sir Isaac s p e c t r u m span a l m o s t u n i m a g i n a b l e e x t r e m e s , from
N e w t o n and his contemporaries, have s h o w n that light the miles b e t w e e n s o m e radio w a v e s to t h e minisculc
is a part of t h e electromagnetic s p e c t r u m and that it d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n g a m m a r a y s , w h i c h is a b o u t
behaves in some ways like particles and in some ways 1/2,500.000.000,000 inch. T h e w a v e l e n g t h s of visible
like waves. light arc about 1/4.500.000 inch.
N e w t o n theorized that light consisted of streams At the long end of the visible section of the electro-
«>l particles that shot out f r o m the s o u r c e like bullets magnetic spectrum are infrared rays, w h i c h can be pho-
from a m a c h i n e gun. This t h e o r y s e e m e d logical be- t o g r a p h e d on infrared-sensitive film. Next to infrared
cause light s o m e t i m e s b e h a v e s as energy, aiding pho- rays are red. yellow, g r e e n , cyan, and blue rays. T h e
tosynthesis in plants and r e a c t i n g with t h e film and shortest ravs are ultraviolet. You may r e m e m b e r from
p r i n t p a p e r w e u s e in p h o t o g r a p h y . Light also be- c h a p t e r 4 that in views of distant landscapes ultraviolet
h a v e s like w a v e s , h o w e v e r , s p r e a d i n g a r o u n d t h e rays contribute to haze.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Shor! waves

Ultraviolet Gamma 'ays

Visible light X-rays

Figure 6—1 ight is slightly toward the high end of the electromagnetic
nsists of the longest waves while violet rays are the shortest.
 White light from the sun is a mixture of all these see what colors the items appear to be under the lab
colors, and a rainbow is evidence of thai The water safelight. See if t w o items of different colors look the
droplets act as prisms and break the white light into its same color under the safelight.
constituent colors. T h e d o m i n a n c e of red or blue in Refraction is the bending of light rays. Anytime a
what appears to be white light is known as color tem- light ray passes at an angle from one medium, such as
perature and can be measured. A tungsten light bulb air or glass, into another medium, it is bent. You have
for example, emits much more red than the light from seen this effect if you have ever noticed how a pole
the sky; therefore, color photos made under tungsten sticking out of a pool of water appears to bend where it
light will appear overly red or orange. e n t e r s t h e w a t e r . Although we d o n t have to think
Some light sourccs, such as fluorescent lights in a much about refraction when making pictures, this prop-
classroom or vapor lights in a parking lot, don t contain erty of light is what enables lenses to focus light rays
a full spectrum. If you could create a rainbow from one onto film.
of these sources, you would see gaps in the spectrum
where certain colors arc missing. Because of these miss- Light as a Creative Tool
ing colors, it is hard to get natural-looking color photos Regardless of w h e t h e r w e classify light as energy or
under these types of lights. Color temperature is dis- p a r t i c l e s , it is of m a j o r i m p o r t a n c e to o u r photo-
cussed in more detail in chapter 17. graphic vocabulary. Light is to the photographer what
words are to the writer. Light illuminates, but light i-
Light from Source to Film also darkness; shadows are as important as highlights.
As light rays leave a source, such as the sun, they depart Light isolates, blends, emphasizes, de-emphasizes, re-
headed in all directions. The individual rays travel in veals or reduces shape, enhances or hides texture, cre-
straight lines, and w h e n they hit an object, they can be ates atmosphere and mood, and can direct or distract
reflected, absorbed, or refracted (bent). the viewer. While a feature writer listens to his sub-
We frequently think of reflection as coming only ject, intent on finding the salient quote, the photogra-
from shiny objects, such as a mirror or chromed auto pher looks at her subject, intent on finding the most
part, but light is rcflcctcd from almost every surface. In appropriate light. If you learn to see what light does to
the case of a mirror, the light rays arc so perfectly re- your subject, you will have almost limitless control
flected that w e can see an image of the sourcc. How- over the image.
ever, w h e n light is rcflcctcd from a textured surface,
such as a piccc of cloth, the rays are scattered and no
image of the sourcc is visible. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Light

Regardless of the surface, light rays are reflected at

In everyday photography, the most important character-
the same angle as they are received. For example, if you
istics of light are intensity, quality, and direction. Al-
threw a tennis ball straight at a wall, it would bounce
though intensity is a primary concern w h e n figuring
straight back. If you stood to the side and threw the ball
exposure, the quality and direction of light create high-
at an angle to the wall, it would bounce off the wall at
lights, shadows, and texture, which provide clues about
an equal angle. Scientists say it this way: The angle of in-
the subject's three-dimensional features.
c i d e n c e ( i n c o m i n g l i g h t ) e q u a l s t h e a n g l e of re-
f l e c t a n c e . K e e p this idea in mind w h e n using t h e
Intensity]
bounce flash techniques discussed later.
The intensity of light is simply its brightness.'Of course,
Although some light rays are reflected, others are intensity is a factor in exposure, but it also influences
absorbed. The color w e see d e p e n d s on which rays are your o p t i o n s for d e p t h of field and motion control.
reflected and which are absorbed. For example, if an Under low light levels, you must use slower shutter
object a b s o r b s all colors e x c e p t red. the object ap- speeds or wider apertures or both; bright light may re-
pears red. quire high shutter speeds and small apertures. Under
You can conduct an interesting experiment in color these conditions you may have few choices regarding
reflectance and absorption in a p h o t o lab lit by the safe- depth of field or motion. Remember the information in
lights used for black-and-white printmaking. Assemble previous chapters about depth of field—wide apertures
some small items of different colors: blue, orange, yel- limit you to selective-focus techniques, and slow shutter
low, red, and green, or write on a piece of white paper speeds may result in unwanted blurry images.
with a red or orange marker. Then go into the lab and
Figure 6-2 Hard light is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the sharp line Figure 6 - 3 The light in this p h o t o is so soft that the
between highlight a n d shadow. (Terry Pierson) transition b e t w e e n highlight a n d s h a d o w is almost
i m p o s s i b l e to find. (Rollin Banderob/The Pueblo Chieftan)

Intensity, however, does not directly influence two panels in an office ceiling. It creates a broad, soft line
o t h e r characteristics of light—quality and direction. between highlights and shadows, and it tends to dimin-
These two are the photographer's main tools for trans- ish texture, creating a smooth, even look. Figures 6 - 2
ferring information about a three-dimensional subject and 6 - 3 show examples of hard and soft light.
onto two-dimensional paper. Light quality and direction Hard light can suggest feelings of firmness, strength,
create the highlights, shadows, and texture that are vi- power, tension, shock, drama, excitement, and extreme
sual clues to shape and surface. cold or heat. .Soft light can suggest feelings of calm, dull-
ness, peacefulness, blandness, boredom, sensuousness,
Quality * and warmth. Although the main concept of a photo is
The quality of light ranges from hard to soft. Hard light more often determined by image content, feelings can
comes from compact, point-light sources such as t h e be created or reinforced by the quality of light.
sunfca light bulb, or even headlights on a car. It creates
a sharp line between highlights and shadows,, and em- Direct io/j
phasizes texture and specular reflections. The direction of light emphasizes the shape of the sub-
On t h e o t h e r hand soft light c o m e s from broad ject.^•You can discover the direction of the light by look-
sources such as the sky on a foggy day,, skylight (not ing at the shadows, which always point away from the
sunshine > c oming in a window, or the fluorescent light light. Front light comes from near the camera position.
 Figure 6 - 5 Sometimes c a l l e d ' R e m b r a n d t light, this light
c o m e s from a b o u t 4 5 d e g r e e s t o t h e s i d e of the c a m e r a
position. (Lane Turner)
Figure 6 - 4 Front light c o m e s from the
p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s position. (Brian Davies)

and as figure 6 - 4 shows, it rcduccs shadows and the re- Light i n t h e P h o t o g r a p h

sulting feeling of three dimensions. This is the type of
light created by the small flash units that attach to (or When a scene is full of light tones, bright highlights, and
are included in) many popular pocket cameras. minimal shadows, as in figure 6 - 8 , it is called high key.
As you move the light to the side, shadows increase. The opposite, as in figure 6 - 9 , is called low key. High
The light placed as in figure 6 - 5 is sometimes called key is a useful way to suggest feelings of heat, goodness,
Rembrandt lighting, even though the light in the famous warmth, innocence, delicacy, and vibrancy in a photo.
painter's works did not always c o m e from this direction. Low key contributes feelings such as mystery, evil, dark-
When the light is at the side as in figure 6 - 6 , the ness, cold, seduction, and death. As with light quality,
subject is said to be side-lit. W h e n light falls on the part the image content of the p h o t o also influences the na-
of the scene opposite the camera, the subject is back-lit. ture of the light's contribution, and many examples of
Back lighting creates rim light, as in figure 6 - 7 , which feelings opposite from those listed could be found. My
helps separate t h e subject f r o m the background. Most purpose here is not to list absolutes, but to encourage
television n e w s programs arc lit this way. T h e lighting you to think about the psychological effects of light on
on the newscaster usually includes a strong back light your message.
that creates highlights along the hair and shoulders.
Figure 6 - 6 Texture a n d detail is e m p h a s i z e d by side light. (Akemi Miyama)

Figure 6-7 Back light strikes the b a c k of the

subject, creating a highlight that tends to outline
the subject against the b a c k g r o u n d . (Gary
Kazanjian)
Figure 6 - 8 In high-key^photos. light tones dominate. Figure 6 - 9 A low-keyiphoto is d o m i n a t e d by dark tones.
(Dan Marschka/Lancaster, PA, Intelligencer Journal) (Gary Kazanjian/Hanford Sentinel)

The Importance of Highlights. Shadows, Texture is really nothing more than many small
and Texture points of highlight and shadow. Visible texture in a
All the characteristics of light c o n t r i b u t e to creating photo is the most significant clue to the nature of a sur-
highlights and shadows in your photograph. These two face. The shine of a smooth piece of marble or t h e
elements are the major way of communicating shape, coarseness of a piece of s a n d p a p e r tell your viewer
texture, and surface information. something about these objects. Carrying this idea a step
Photographs can convey this information because further, we associate certain surfaces with certain ideas.
Chrome and glass, for example, seem modern and busi-
your readers' memories contain a lifetime collection of
nesslike, while wood and earth tones often seem homey
information about objects and h o w they have perceived
and casual. And with people, w e tend to subconsciously
them—their shape, texture, and surface qualities and
group personality types partially by t h e clothes they
how those qualities look. When you see an object, you
wear. One particular type would more likely be found
can recall the shape and feel of similar things and make wearing a smooth satin shirt or blouse, while another
assumptions based on the visual clues created by the would more often be found in a soft, bulky sweater.
highlights, shadows, and texture.
 Types of Lights: Main, Fill, and Accent
In any given s c e n e , t h e r e are at least t w o different
lights, and sometimes a third. 'Hie First one, the main
light, is the one that seems to illuminate the scene, and
there will always be a main light in every photo. Out-
doors on a sunny day, the main light comes from the
sun, while in a pho* > studio, the main light is the bright-
est light. In figure 6-10, the main light is coming from
the right.
The second light is t h e / / / / light, which illuminates
shadows. There is always some fill light in every scene,
although it could be of such low intensity that the film
would not record it and the shadows would photograph
black. On a sunny day, fill light comes from the sky, but
it can also be light rcflcctcd into the shadows by other
objccts. such as walls, floors, pavement, trees, and so
on. In a studio, t h e fill light is o f t e n a s e c o n d lamp
placed near the camera so it will light the shadows seen
by the lens. You may not be aware of fill light, and that
Figure 6 - 1 0 S h a d o w s always fall away from the main is as it should be (fig. 6-11).
light. In this shot, the main light is c o m i n g f r o m the right. The third type of light, accent light, is an extra that
(Terry Pierson/Neighbors Publications) adds highlights to a scene. You w o n t find accent lights
in every photo, but they are often found in studio pho-
tography w h e n a light is used to create a special high-
light. In figure 6 - 1 2 , t h e highlight that outlines t h e
people's heads is coming from automobile headlights in
the background.

Figure 6-11 The front side of the catcher's f a c e a n d the Figure 6 - 1 2 The b a c k light that outlines these p e o p l e ' s
other s h a d o w areas of this photo are lit by fill light that is h e a d s is c a l l e d an a c c e n t light. (Thor Swift)
c o m i n g from e sky a n d b o u n c i n g back from the infield
dirt. (Brian Dave Gazette-Times)
U s i n g Light: N a t u r a l , A v a i l a b l e , a n d A r t i f i c i a l man-made lights Available light can include sources
such as long fluorescent tubes, which are found in class-
Natural light t o m e s from the sun or the sky. Light from rooms, offices, and stores; vapor lamps, which are used
the sun is hard light; light from the sky is soft. Instruc- in parking lots, street lamps, and stadium lights; and
tion manuals for the simplest cameras may have told you tungsten lamps, which are the bulbs commonly found
to shoot only in strong light and keep the sun at your in table and ceiling lamps in most homes. Available light
back. But if you look carefully, you'll see that the light is can be hard or soft depending on the size of the source,
different depending on the time of day and season, offer- and it can come from any direction.
ing many creative options to the photojournalist. Shooting u n d e r available light is an easy way to
In some locations, morning light is clearer because work because you don't have to carry and set up lighting
p h o t o c h e m i c a l smog doesn't have a c h a n c e to form equipment, and the subjects aren't bothered by abnor-
until the sun has been up for some time. In other areas, mal lighting conditions. On some sensitive stories you'll
haze is strongest in the early hours and will burn off by want to avoid distracting the subject or disturbing the
midday. Yet haze and heavy air pollution, which scatter natural flow of events. When contrasted with attention-
light into the shadows, actually help some photos. For getting flood lights or electronic flash, available light is
example, heavy smog or fog scatters light into the shad- often the best choice.
ows, making them slightly brighter. Available light is often of low intensity* however,
When photographers have a choice, they often pre- forcing you to use wide apertures and possibly slow
fer to avoid shooting at midday. In t h e hours around shutter speeds. This c o m b i n a t i o n w o r k s against ex-
noon, the light comes from directly overhead (particu- tended depth of field and stopping motion, and the lat-
larly during the summer), and the shadows and high- ter is particularly important w h e n shooting sports. For
lights created are neither complimentary nor dramatic. example, many high school gyms are poorly lit. With
Early and late in the day, the sun strikes subjects at an 400-speed film, some of these dark dungeons require a
angle, casting interesting shadows. When shooting with shutter speed of 1/250 second or less and the widest
color, the sunlight is a warm color. lens aperture available. This situation puts a heavy bur-
den on the photographer to focus carefully and shoot at
Overcast days provide marvelous soft light that is
t h e peak of the action, w h e n everything momentarily
great for p o r t r a i t s , w h i l e f o g can h e l p c r e a t e very-
stops. Also, if you shoot color under available light, you
moody photos. Ernst Haas, a photographer well known
may get color shifts because of the various colors of the
for his unique color work, said there is never a time
light sources. One common example is the green cast
w h e n the light is bad: "When it rains, you think, Well
caused by fluorescent lights.
h o w w o n d e r f u l . I have n o shadows.' When the sun
shines, you say, 'How great, my colors arc brighter. " Another problem with available light is that it is
I must add. however, that fog is a serious problem often too flat or too contrast)'. Although I don't want to
w h e n the assignment is not to create a moody picture, overgeneralize, it seems as though Murphy's law is at
but to catch t h e action at a football game! Not much its best w h e n we must rely solely on available light.
can be done to penetrate the fog if it makes it hard to T o o o f t e n w e find o u r s e l v e s s h o o t i n g u n d e r flat,
see the field. shadow-destroying office fluorescents or the impossi-
In the winter, the sun sits lower in the sky, and it ble contrast of theatre spotlights.
seems there is less dust and haze in the air. Stormy
w e a t h e r can provide dramatic light. If you live in an Artificial Light
area that has volatile weather, watch what happens to Some photographers have said that they only use avail-
light during storms. able light—any light that is available! They will use any
Natural light also r e a c h e s indoors, and w i n d o w light, from any source, if it will help them get a picture.
light is a marvelous, soft light that, in contrast to the And as n e w s p a p e r p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m shifts t o color,
unidirectional light of a fluorescent-lit classroom, has which requires a strong main light and plenty of fill,
shape and t e x t u r e - e m p h a s i z i n g direction. If you try photojournalists bring additional artificial lights to the
making a window-light portrait, you'll see how much scene more frequently than ever before.
better the result looks compared with harsh sunlight or Artificial light, which is light that the photographer
direct electronic flash. controls, most often c o m e s from floodlights or elec-
tronic flash. An advantage of floodlights is that you can
Available Light see what the light does to your subject. But size for size,
Any light that is not from the sun or under the control floodlights don't have the output of flash and must be
of the p h o t o g r a p h e r is called available light and in- plugged into a p o w e r source. Yet electronic flash, al-
c l u d e s b o t h i n t e r i o r s and e x t e r i o r s t h a t a r e lit by though more powerful and portable than floods, comes
Figure 6 - 1 3 Available light m e a n s using only the 3 2 0 0 - s p e e d film to m a k e this p h o t o of Vietnamese g a n g
light normally available in the scene. Paul K u r o d a used m e m b e r s b e i n g c h e c k e d out by police at 3 A.M. (Paul
Kuroda/Orange County Register)

and goes in an instant, leaving the photographer to rely- flash is anywhere from 1/300 second to 1/5000 second
on e x p e r i e n c e and perhaps a dim modeling light at- or less, and as long as the shutter is open w h e n the flash
tached to the flash to estimate the final result. Setting fires, the film will be exposed.
and controlling artificial light is covered in chapter 10,
but it is important to warn you n o w about one c o m m o n Exposure with Manual Flash Units Almost all
mistake: Don't set the main light below the subject's hand-held flash units include devices that control the
eye level unless you want an unusual effect. flash e x p o s u r e , but e v e n w i t h t h e s e m o d e r n tools
you'll s o m e t i m e s n e e d to calculate an e x p o s u r e on
Using Electronic Flash y o u r o w n . If you u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s b e h i n d
I suspect that every person reading this book has had at flash exposure, you'll be ready w h e n that unconven-
least one experience with artificial light—the little flash tional situation arises.
that sits a t o p so many p o c k e t cameras. But there is With any light source, exposure depends on the dis-
much more to flash than this shadow-destroying front tance from the light source to the subject. To under-
light And although early flash work required bulbs that stand this c o n c e p t , imagine yourself driving d o w n a
were good for only one picture, modern professionals dark road at night. As you look into the distance, the
depend almost exclusively on electronic flash. brightness of your headlights diminishes and the objects
When working with flash, conventional light me- farthest away receive the least amount of light.
ters can't measure the sudden flash of light. You must In theory, this fall-off happens at a fixed rate. Sup-
calcul exposure mathematically, use a special pose that the panel closest to the candle in figure 6 - 1 4 is
flash me ise a flash unit that has an automatic ex- receiving one unit of light. If the distance is increased to
posure s i \ ep in mind that shutter speed is not a t w o feet, the light spreads out to cover four panels, and
factor in fla-! -- e. T h e burst of light from t h e the intensity is only one-fourth the original brightness.
 1
9 u n i t of l i g h t
per square

u n i t of l i g h t
per square

1 u n i t of light
per square

T h r e e feet

Figure 6 - 1 4 W h e n light falls on a surface, its brightness surface doubles, the brightness of the light is cut by one-
falls off rapidly as the d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the s o u r c e a n d the fourth. If w e e x t e n d e d the distance in this illustration to four
surface increases. Imagine aiming a flashlight at a wall a n d feet, the intensity of the light w o u l d be r e d u c e d to one-
b a c k i n g away. If the distance b e t w e e n the light a n d the sixteenth of its original level.

If you move the subject back 3 feet, the light spreads out guide-number chart. This chart provides a guide num-
to cover nine panels and the intensity is only one-ninth ber for each film speed. Find the guide n u m b e r for the
of the original brightness. film s p e e d you are using and divide by t h e d i s t a n c e
This p h e n o m e n o n is k n o w n as the inverse square f r o m the flash to t h e s u b j e c t . T h e result will be the
law of light? and it m e a n s t w o things to the working f-stop you should use.
p h o t o g r a p h e r . First, it m e a n s that light falls off quite For example, the following chart lists guide num-
rapidly,'and you cannot count on a small hand-held flash bers for the Vivitar 283, a small flash unit used by many
unit for usable light m u c h beyond 20 or 25 feet from the photojournalists:
subject. Many factors influence the effective range of an
electronic flash, including the p r e s e n c e of walls and
other reflecting surfaces. If you shoot outdoors at night, Film Speed: 25 64 80 100 125 160 200 400 800
the effective range of the flash unit will be less than if
you shoot inside a room that has white walls. Guide Number. 60 96 108 120 135 150 170 240 340

Second, the inverse square law of light means that

you can mathematically calculate the f-stop n e e d e d if
Suppose your film speed is 100. By checking the
you k n o w t h e film s p e e d and t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e chart, you'll see that guide n u m b e r for that film speed is
flash to the subject. Here's h o w : 120. If you w e r e shooting at a distance of 15 feet from
1. Set the flash unit's e x p o s u r e calculator dial for the your subject, your calculations would be
appropriate film speed. 8 (f-stop to use)
2. Measure or estimate the distance f r o m the flash 15 feet) 120 (guide n u m b e r )
(not the camera) to the subject.
3. Check the calculator dial for the correct f-stop and Exposure with Auto-Exposure and Dedicated
set your lens aperture accordingly. Flash Units It is not necessary to calculate the f-stop
with auto-exposure and dedicated flash units because
If your flash does not have an e x p o s u r e calculator these units contain tiny light meters that figure the ex-
dial, you'll need to consult the instruction manual for a posure for you. W h e n the flash is fired, light is reflected
 Figure 6 - 1 5 Direct
flash c a n s o m e t i m e s a d d
an unusual feeling, as in
this photo by Steve
Pringle. In this case, the
light is as m u c h a part of
the i m a g e as the
arrangement of the
subject matter. Usually,
the unnatural effect of
direct flash is s o m e t h i n g
to avoid. (Steve Pringle)

back from t h e s u b j e c t and m e a s u r e d by t h e flash's Shutter Speed and Electronic Flash

meter. When the meter senses the correct amount of Although shutter speed is not a factor in flash expo-
light, it sends a signal that shuts off the flash tube. This sure, it is important for mechanical reasons w h e n using
action takes place faster than the blink of an eye, yet cameras with focal-plane shutters. Think back to the
this method is quite reliable. d i s c u s s i o n of s h u t t e r t y p e s in c h a p t e r 2. At high
Auto-exposure units can be used with any camera. speeds, a focal-plane shutter does not expose the film
All > ou need to do is set the flash exposure system for all at once, but scans the image onto the film as the sec-
the film speed you are using, and it will control the light ond curtain chases the first across the frame. Thus, the
output and tell you what f-stop to use. burst of light from the flash is so short that it has come
Dedicated units are similar to auto-exposure units, and g o n e b e f o r e t h e s h u t t e r curtains can c o m p l e t e
but they are designed to fit specific camera models. their trip, and only p a n of the frame will be exposed to
Like auto-exposure units, they have metering systems the light from the flash. At slower speeds, however, the
built in. When a dedicated unit is attached to the cam- first curtain completely opens before t h e second o n e
era, the shutter speed and sometimes the aperture are starts to close. The fastest such speed is usually marked
set by t h e flash unit. Sophisticated systems can even on the shutter-speed dial. In older cameras, this speed
read film-speed information encoded o n the film cas- w a s c o m m o n l y 1/60 s e c o n d , ' a l t h o u g h m a n y n e w e r
sette, so all you need to do is load the film, attach t h e
s h u t t e r d e s i g n s can s y n c h r o n i z e at s p e e d s u p t o
flash unit and shoot.
1/250 second. To find t h e fastest flash-compatible shut-
Because the special meters in both auto-exposure ter speed on your camera, look for a symbol such as a
and dedicated units read reflected light, exposure er- lightning bolt, a shutter-speed number in red, or possi-
rors can h a p p e n , usually for t h e same reasons that bly a small dot b e t w e e n two shutter-speed numbers on
things go w r o n g with regular reflected light meters. the shutter-speed dial. If the camera has two flash con-
Watch for differences in brightness between small sub- nections, use the one marked X. Any time you see the
jects s u r r o u n d e d by large b a c k g r o u n d s , and large
letter X on flash connections or shutter-speed controls,
bright or dark subjects. Make the same kinds of aper-
it indicates electronic flash. A letter M indicates the
ture adjustments to compensate for meter error that
connection to use with flash bulbs, but many cameras
you would when shooting without flash.
no longer have this option.
Because of their fast, convenient operation, auto- Leaf shutters do not cause synchronization prob-
exposure and dedicated units are the types most used
lems because the entire film frame is exposed at once,
by photojournalists. The exact operation of different
regardless of shutter speed. W h e n t h e shutter blades
brands varies, so be sure to read carefully the instruc-
have opened, the flash is tripped, and the light strikes
tion manual for your particular brand.
the film before the shutter closes.
Figure 6 - 1 6 The h e a d l i g h t s of the police car provide
backlight, but the light that is illuminating the faces of the
two p e o p l e c o m f o r t i n g the victim is c o m i n g from a flash unit
attached to the p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s c a m e r a . (Gary Kazanjian)

Using a Single Flash Figure 6 - 1 7 This humorous view of the relationship

between an elderly w o m a n a n d her pet w a s taken on a
The most common way amateurs use a flash unit is to at-
routine portrait assignment. The w o m a n allows the d o g to
tach it to the flash shoe on the camera and fire away. Al-
sleep in an oven she rarely uses. The s c e n e w a s lit by
though this method is still sometimes t h e only way a b o u n c i n g a flash off the ceilingi (Judy Griesedieck/Sari Jose
photojournalist can get the photo, it is a technique to be Mercury-News)
avoided if at all possible. The flat, front light created by
this on-camera light removes the all-important shadows
and adds a feeling of artificiality to the scene. The most
likely times w h e n on-camera flash is unavoidable are at Bounce Flash In contrast to the stark effects of di-
spot news situations where there is inadequate available rect flash, a natural look can be created by bouncing
light and no time to use alternate methods. A prime exam- light off a ceiling or wall. If the flash unit has automatic
ple would be outdoors at night, as shown in figure 6-16. e x p o s u r e control, swivel the flash head so the flash
When working close to your subject, you can avoid tube is aimed at the ceiling or wall while the metering
flat, front light by holding the flash at arm's length, as sensor remains aimed at the subject. This way, the ex-
far overhead and to the side as you can manage. When posure system will compensate for light absorption by
the light is held in this position, some shadows are cre- the bounce surface.
ated, and the light doesn't have quite the hard, frontal If you can t orient the flash as in the last paragraph,
look of on-camera flash. To trip the flash when the shut- set the unit's exposure control for manual exposure.
ter fires, you'll need a sync extension cord between the Then estimate the distance from the flash to the wall or
flash and t h e camera. ceiling and back to the subject, find the suggested f-stop
You can also soften the light when using direct flash on the flash's calculator dial, and open the lens up two
by covering the flash head with a facial tissue, handker- f - s t o p s to c o m p e n s a t e for light a b s o r p t i o n by t h e
chief or other thin translucent material: Some flash units bounce surface. The two-stop correction will work with
have special diffusion caps that fit right over the unit. most light-colored surfaces.
 igure 6 - 1 8 Fill-in flash h e l p e d light up the parts of
. e s e girl's faces that were in the s h a d o w s c a u s e d by their
c a p visors. (Tina Etheridge)

Because dark-toned surfaces absorb light, they don't

work well for bounce flash. If you shoot in color, be-
ware of bouncing light off strongly colored surfaces.
The light coming back will take on that color and might
create an unwanted color shift in the photo.

Using Flash Outdoors You may have seen photog-

raphers using flash outdoors o n sunny days and won-
dered w h y the extra light was needed. Bright, direct
sunlight casts strong shadows, and the detail in these
dark shadows is often lost, particularly w h e n shooting
color film or w h e n the photo is reproduced in a news-
paper or magazine. With a technique sometimes called
synchro-sunlight photography, an electronic flash used
at the camera as a fill light can bring these shadows u p
to a level that will preserve the detail and improve re-
production quality. (Note that this is one time w h e n a
flash used direct from the camera is appropriate.)
T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n h i g h l i g h t and s h a d o w
should be somewhere between one and two f-stops if
Figure 6 - 1 9 A flash unit is a necessity in heavily back-lit
important shadow detail must be preserved. This differ- situationsJThe flash b e c o m e s the main light, while the sun
ence is known as the lighting ratio. If you remember is an a c c e n t light. (Thom Halls/Fresno Bee)
our discussion of f-stops in chapter 2, you'll realize that
a d i f f e r e n c e of o n e f - s t o p b e t w e e n h i g h l i g h t a n d
shadow would mean that the highlights are twice as
bright as the shadows. This lighting ratio is 2:1. A differ- At first this procedure may seem a little odd, but
ence of two f-stops produces a lighting ratio of 4:1. think carefully about what is happening. The fill light
Here's h o w to set your auto-exposure flash for use should be less intense than the main light, so the flash
as fill light: must be set to put out less light than what is already-
falling on the scene. By setting the flash exposure for a
1 Set the camera's controls as if you were making the wider aperture than t h e o n e in use, you have lied to
picture without flash fill, but be sure your f-stop your flash. Because t h e flash thinks you are using a
and shutter-speed combination includes a shutter wider aperture than you really are, it will put out less
speed that will synchronize with the flash. light, which is what you want. See figure 6 - 1 8 for an
2. For a 2:1 ratio, set the flash's exposure system for example of fill-in flash.
an f-stop that is one stop wider than the one you You'll notice that the technique can also be used
will use. For a 3:1 ratio, set the flash's controls for a with heavily back-lit subjects, as in figure 6-19. In this
difference of one-and-a-half stops. case, the flash b e c o m e s t h e main light. It d o c s t h e
 Figure 6 - 2 1 By using a slow shutter a n d m o v i n g the
Figure 6 - 2 0 O n - c a m e r a flash at dusk a d d s to the
c a m e r a during the exposure, p h o t o g r a p h e r Lane Turner
bizarre nature of this image. (Steve Lokie)
has skillfully used the p h e n o m e n o n of ghosting to c r e a t e a
feeling of motion. (Lane Turner/The Boston Globe)

primary job of lighting the subject, and the f-stop on the freezes the motion. In this example, t h e technique was
lens should be t h e o n e callcd for by the flash. When skillfully used to create a feeling of motion, but in many
shooting against the sun. particularly early or late in the cases the blur is an unwanted distraction.
day, flash lighting such as this is often a necessity. To avoid this problem, you must increase the differ-
ence between the brightness of the ambient light and
Mistakes with Flash the flash. Solutions include turning off the room lights,
One c o m m o n error with electronic flash is using the increasing the p o w e r output of t h e flash, or using a
w r o n g s h u t t e r s p e e d w i t h a focal-plane s h u t t e r . Al- higher shutter speed (provided it will synchronize with
though slower speeds will work, if you get only half (or the flash). Skillful uses of flash with ambient light and
less) of the image, you used a speed that was too fast. color arc in color plates 6 and 12.
Another c o m m o n problem is called red-eye, t h e red-
eyed pupils that you see in some flash p h o t o s . T h e
cause is the light from an on-camera flash bouncing off Summary
the subjects' retinas and back to the lens. Remember
what was previously said about reflection of light. The Traveling at 186.282 miles per second, light is the pho-
solution is to move the flash away from the lens so the tographer's primary tool. Its place in the electromag-
light will reflect at an angle. Turning up the room lights, netic s p e c t r u m is b e t w e e n X rays and heat rays. It
w h i c h causes t h e subjects' pupils to contract, some- behaves like particles when it strikes film, but acts like
times helps. waves w h e n it passes through lenses. Because photogra-
phy literally means "light writing." you must build a vi-
A n o t h e r c o m m o n p r o b l e m o c c u r s w h e n an on- sual vocabulary based on this medium and learn what it
camera flash reflects back to the lens from a shiny back- docs to subjects that appear before the camera.
ground such as the glass in a window or picture frame,
Three important characteristics of light are inten-
or even a glossy, painted wall. Again, place the flash at an
sity, quality, and direction. The intensity must be high
angle so the reflection will bounce away from the lens.
enough for an exposure. The quality of the light adds
emotional values to the image. Hard light, such as bright
Ghosting An example of ghosting is shown in figure sunlight, creates sharp lines b e t w e e n highlights and
6-21. This combination blur and stop-action image re- shadows. At t h e other extreme, soft light, such as sky-
sults w h e n the photographer decides to use flash, yet light. produces diffused divisions b e t w e e n highlights
the ambient light is bright enough to record a separate and shadows.
image o n the film. When the shutter speed is slow, the
The direction of the light is what creates highlights
moving subject creates a blurred image, but the burst
and shadows, which reveal shape and texture and provide
of light from the flash is about 1/1000 second, which
information about the subject's three-dimensional features.
O n e \\. pen your lighting skills is to p r a c t i c e use a flash meter, or use an auto-exposure flash unit. Be
watch - l ight coming from the camera position sure the flash's e x p o s u r e system is set for the film speed
is c ght, while light coming in at 90° to the in use and that the f-stop called for by the flash is set
1 is called side light Light that strikes the into the lens. Most important, be sure the shutter is set
- hject that faces away from the camera is to a speed that will synchronize with the flash.
called back light. Although the most c o m m o n placement of a single
In .my given scene, there are always t w o lights, a flash unit is on top of the camera and aimed directly at
nd a fill light. The main light is the o n e that the subject, this type of flash p r o d u c e s hard, flat light
do all the work, but the shadows are lit by the that destroys the all-important shadows. Whenever pos-
uht. which contributes m o r e subtly. Without some sible. use b o u n c e t e c h n i q u e s , aiming t h e flash at the
i uht. the shadows would p h o t o g r a p h black. In the ceiling or wall, or take the flash off the camera and hold
studio, fill is usually added by placing a light n e a r the it at a r m ' s length above the c a m e r a so at least s o m e
; tmera; in nature, fill light is reflected toward the sub- s h a d o w s arc created.
ject from nearby objects. A third light is sometimes used O n e time w h e n flash is used on-camera is w h e n it is
to accent specific areas of a s c e n e , s u c h as t h e back n e e d e d to fill in shadows in bright sunlight. Fill-in flash
light often seen on television n e w s programs. is easy with auto-exposurc units. Just set the flash's ex-
These lights, main, fill, and accent, can be natural, posure control for an f-stop that is wider than the o n e in
available, o r artificial. Natural light, w h i c h c o m e s from use by the lens. Fill flash is particularly needed w h e n
the sun and sky. and available light, w h i c h is man-made important details, such as faces, are in d e e p shadow.
but not under the p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s control, are the easi- Because the light from a flash is so brief, you can't
est to w o r k with because you need not e a r n and set u p see w h a t it is doing, but you'll gain c o n f i d e n c e with
lighting e q u i p m e n t . But since you can't control natural practice. In the meantime, avoid c o m m o n errors such
and available light, your task under these conditions is as forgetting to u s e the right shutter speed, using on-
to find the best of w h a t is there. camera flash that results in red-eye or reflections from
Exposure with flash can't be measured b y regular the background, and expecting the flash light to carry
light meters, so you must figure it out mathematically. m o r e than 25 feet or so.

110 Part II: Tools

 p a r t

hi I

Techniques

(Kristy McicDoncilcl)
 ! ch aptery^

V 7 ;

Composition:
Arranging the Image
to Communicate
OUTLINE

Composition: A Photographic The Elements

Language The Principles
Composition Is Intuitive Common Compositional Devices
Camera Vision vs. Human Vision
C o m m o n E r r o r s in C o m p o s i t i o n
Elements and Principles
Summary
of C o m p o s i t i o n
Figure, Field, and Space

C O M P O S I T I O N IS MERELY T H E S T R O N G E S T WAY O F S E E I N G .

— E D W A R D W E S T O N , FINE ART PHOTOGRAPHER,

CONTEMPORARY OF ANSEL A D A M S
Composite V Photographic Language Composition Is Intuitive
Composition is difficult to discuss because it is a p a n of
C o m r sn is the way the parts of the p i c t u r e are a visual language that isn't easily translated into words.
nr . : i:- , s a way of clarifying the image, of rccogniz- Just as certain idioms in one verbal language can't be
v :su.ii problems and correcting them. It is a means translated into another, some visual ideas are under-
d . r. concise communication that will leave no standable only in visual terms.
d< i:bt in he reader's mind about the intent of the mes- Edward Weston, quoted at t h e beginning of this
• j r goal is to present the information in a visual chapter, k n e w that composition is intuitive. It resists
or<J that is easily u n d e r s t o o d , g e t s t o t h e p o i n t categorization, and there are so many examples that
ickiy. and excludes distractions. Composition is the seem t o go against any advice that I can give that I pre-
tool you will use to reach that goal. sent these tips with great caution. Even' picture is a dif-
Because composition is considered w h e n making f e r e n t case, and t h e f e a t u r e s that make o n e picture
the print as well as w h e n taking the picture, it is the work may contribute to the failure of another.
closest thing you have to a rewrite. Unlike a rewrite, Don't get into a trap of making formula pictures.
though, you are limited to selection and elimination: Keep in mind that composition is a tool to help tell the
you cannot add something that was not on the negative story, not an end in itself. Beware of falling in love with
originally. When shooting, you can change only angle, dramatic graphics that end up overriding journalistic
lighting, lens, and the moment of exposure. In the lab. content. An example of this failing is figure 7 - 1 . There
you are limited to cropping and burning and dodging is no doubt about the strong design in this image. In
for emphasis. spite of that, there is little o t h e r information for t h e
Eliminating distractions is important because pho- reader. The ideal is when the composition—the graph-
tography is a medium of exclusion. The frame can in- ics of the image—is consistent with the subject matter
clude only so much, even with t h e widest lens, and and adds to. but does not override, the message.
your task is to decide what to exclude as well as what Every factor in composition interrelates. None of
to include. As a sculptor goes to a block and eliminates the features discussed here operate alone, and there is
everything that doesn't look like the subject, you must almost always a compromise. The best angle may be
go to reality and eliminate everything that doesn't con- the worst light; the perfect balance may include a terri-
tribute to your story. Deciding what to cut is as impor- ble background.
tant as deciding what to keep.
There are some ideas in this chapter you can use to
Photojournalism is also like a hunt—you are looking i m p r o v e your p h o t o g r a p h i c vision. Although any of
for the picture that is already there. While the painter can these techniques can become a cliche, you must start
invent anything he needs for his picture, you can work somewhere. Try these suggestions. They will serve you
only with existing raw materials. If the painter doesn't well while your vision develops, and you'll soon move
like the telephone pole, it is a simple matter to leave it on to other approaches. Because composition is an in-
out. If a basket of fruit is called for, he has only to direct tangible concept, there is no ultimate right or wrong ap-
his hand to create o n e on the canvas. You, however, proach. The answer is always in the photo. If it does its
must find your best image in what already exists. job. it is successful.

Figure 7 - 1 s :/ cto d e p e n d s o n its g r a p h i c s . G o o d p h o t o s s h o u l d have strong

g r a p h i c s , but sno d not rely on g r a p h i c s alone. (Terry Pierson/Neighbors Publications)
 Camera Vision vs. Human Vision by changing depth of field in chapter 4, but even fuzzy
There are some important differences between the cam- backgrounds become a compositional element
era and the eye that w e need to discover before dis- This issue of the background is also affected by an-
cussing composition. Many problems arise in beginners other camera/eye difference. Your eye is connected to a
p h o t o s because beginning p h o t o g r a p h e r s haven't yet brain that is constantly interpreting incoming messages
learned to see the way the camera sees The things that you arcn t interested in are dropped out.
The camera has a much narrower field of view than For example, you don't notice a tree that looks like it is
the human eye. You may have taken a peripheral vision growing out of someone's head, or a clothesline that ap-
test in a drivers' e d u c a t i o n course and learned that pears to be running through someone's ears The cam-
some people can sec almost 180c from side to side (of era, however, takes a narrow image out of the context of
course, parents and teachers can see 360°). But only the the rest of the scene and presents it to us without inter-
widest of wide-angle lenses have that field of view. As pretation. All parts of the image along the plane of focus
you saw in chapter 4, the commonly used 24mm wide- arc given equal emphasis, yet the other stimuli—sounds,
angle lens has a field of view of 84°, while a normal smells, the feel of the breeze—escape the lens.
focal length lens has a field of view of 46°. So keep in If you have ever taken p h o t o s during a trip to a
mind that you will see things at the edges of the scene scenic spot, you probably have experienced this infor-
that the camera will not. m a t i o n loss. T h e p i c t u r e s j u s t d o n ' t c a p t u r e t h e
Although the field of view of the camera is narrow, grandeur of the scene. Yes, the colors and details are
it is s h a r p all t h e way across. Try this: T o u c h your there—the blue sky, the snow-capped peaks, the lush
thumbs together and hold them up at arm's length in grass surrounding t h e lake—but something unidentifi-
front of you. Then look at them through one eye. Look able is missing. That something is the context, including
at just one thumb, but be aware of the other thumb. all the other stimuli.
How much detail do you see in that second thumb? Now But degradation of the experience is not the only
move that second thumb about 6 inches away from the type of distortion that can occur. The photo can some-
one you're focused on and see h o w much detail you can times improve on reality. Look at the products advertised
discern. If you replaced your eyeball with a camera, in catalogs and magazines and see if they look that excit-
however, it would record both t h u m b s equally sharp ing when you get to the store. Does the flaw lie in the
and detailed. It is amazing to think that w e perceive so photograph or the store display? Perhaps our visual per-
much even though our field of sharp, detailed vision is ception is clearer when not distractcd by other stimuli.
so limited. That saying, "Seeing out of the corner of your In his classic essay "What Is Photojournalism?" 1 Wil-
eye," is an important talent for a photojournalism son Hicks elaborated on this idea. Suppose you w e r e
Part of the reason we see so much despite a limited being chased by a bull. You'd be pumping some adrena-
field of sharpness is because our eyes arc constantly lin and concentrating on h o w to get out of the way.
scanning our field of view. This scanning action is an- What you saw would be directly related to your goal.
other difference between the camera and the eye. What But a camera would see the incident without any emo-
we see is presented t o us in a piecemeal fashion, but tional involvement. It would take a moment of time out
the camera takes in the whole frame at once. of the continuum and separate it from all other stimuli.
Which would be the most accurate depiction of what
Your three-dimensional vision also fools you. Hold
happened? Some people say the camera never lies. Is
up one thumb and look at it with both eyes open. Hold
your high school senior portrait an accurate representa-
your t h u m b about 18 inches from your eyes, and be
tion of who you really are?
sure there are some background objects about 10 feet
beyond. While looking at your thumb, you should sec One more difference to mention is color. Even the
double images of everything in the background. These best color films available do not have the color sensitiv-
double images may be hard to perceive because your ity of the human eye. In fact, some of the most popular
brain has learned to block out visually confusing signals. color films are designed to produce more intense colors
Now, with the other hand, block the vision of one eye. than existed in the scene. (This enhancement resulted
What happens to the background? It becomes clearer. from filmmakers' marketing studies. They discovered
The objects there are n o w distinguishable, even though that people want color photos that fit their memories
they are out of focus. This two-dimensional view is and e x p e c t a t i o n s — w h i c h are not necessarily in line
what your camera sees, and t h e background now be- with reality.) When shooting in black and white, we are
comes an element to be dealt with. Light and dark, over- presented with a view that the eye has never seen on its
lapping planes, and the like impinge on your subject. own. Of course, these aren't the only differences be-
Unless they are so far out of focus that they are totally tween the camera and the eye, but they are perhaps the
obliterated, background details b e c o m e an important most i m p o r t a n t and will aim us t o w a r d W e s t o n ' s
consideration. You learned h o w to control backgrounds "strongest way of seeing."
E l e m e n t s a n d Principles of C o m p o s i t i o n its point. The principles, contrast, rhythm, dominance,
balance, and unity, are the operational process the artist
uses to bring all the design elements together into a
Even* factor in composition d e p e n d s on and interacts
harmonious combination The whole process—selecting
with even other factor. They interrelate so closely that elements that express the idea and arranging them in
the image should be taken in as a whole. In order to talk relation to the principles—is pictorial composition.2
about it. however, w e must find some way to create
pans within this tightly woven unit. In a very thorough Because all these factors interrelate, their meanings
>ook about this subject. Ben Clements and David Rosen- are dependent on h o w they combine with each other
<dd divided composition into two areas: elements and and the message content of the subject. What works in
principles. one situation may not work in another.

In a sense, the qualities of the elements ( not just the Figure. Field, and Space
terms) are the vocabulary of visual communication, just as
words are the vocabulary of verbal communication. . . . T h e figure, s o m e t i m e s called p o s i t i v e space, is t h e
Shapes, lines, texmres, and volumes used in combination thing you usually look at. In figure 7 - 2 , the figure
are capable of supporting each other for increased should be obvious. Your eye goes quickly to the man.
effectiveness. Unless they are directed by an T h e field, w h i c h is s o m e t i m e s called t h e negative
organizational premise, the artist's idea may fail to make- s p a c e , is t h e area in w h i c h t h e f i g u r e exists. This
image resembles those perception games that can be

Figure 7-2 This photo resembles those

p e r c e p t i o n g a m e s you m a y have seen w h e r e
you c a n see either t w o faces or a vase. In this
case, the figure of the m a n t e n d s to prevent us
from playing m i n d g a m e s with the field. (Terry
Pierson/Neighbors Publications)
looked at as t w o opposing faces or a vast-, li is onlv be-
cause of t h e man that we see it more as t w o laces.
Too often, beginners' awareness of space stops at
the figure—get the subject into the viewfinder. don't
cut off the head, and press t h e button. However, the
negative space, the space not occupied b\ the subject,
is also important. In figure 7 - 9 the negative space above
the two people creates the feeling that they arc alone
on a cold, dark night.
Space influences a p h o t o in subtle, yet important
ways. Lay a piece of paper over the right side of figure
7 - 3 and you'll see h o w that space is important to the
image. T h e arrangement of space is a key to the cohe-
siveness of the image.

The Elements
Line is the fundamental element of composition. Lines
mark the edges of shapes, provide clues for motion (or
lack of it), and suggest subtle conceptual meanings/
A straight vertical line is often associated with ideas
of p o w e r , s t r e n g t h , rigidity, h e i g h t , and, o n a two-
dimensional piece of paper, depth. Horizontal lines sug-
gest calmness, passivity, breadth, weight, finality, and
distance. Angled lines suggest motion and strong action, F i g u r e 7 - 3 Space is an important element in
while curved lines are associated with grace, beauty, composition. Try c r o p p i n g the right half of this image by
love, and nature. A commonly discussed curved line is laying a piece of paper on it. a n d you'll see that the space
is n e c e s s a r y . (Thor Swift)
the classic S shape, which is said to be the most beauti-
ful kind of line. Jagged lines indicate tension, anger, con-
fusion, and chaos. Notice the strong lines in figure 7-4.

Figure 7 - 4 Lines are a

fundamental element of
composition. One of the key
features of this photo is its
strong lines. (Gary Kazanjian/
Hanford Sentinel)
Figure 7 - 5 ere is a strong diagonal
line crests G i:. ' e faces in this photo
that extends d o w n to the w o m a n ' s
hands. Notice how the j a g g e d lines in
g r o u n d contrast with the r o u n d
; faces a n d the w o m a n ' s
j asj-es. " s photo w a s m a d e in 1939
o> "of a Lange as part of the FSA
d o c u m e n t the plight of p e o p l e
si laced by the Depression. (Dorothea
• . = Courtesy of the Library of Congress)

Lines can also be an implied alignment of objects. corn field as seen from the air, or the texture of distant
Several things in a p h o t o can work together to create a hills. These large-scale textures are purely visual, but
line. In figure 7 - 5 , you can see a line created by such they are just as important to a successful visual image as
an arrangement. timbre is t o musical expression. Remember that texture
Lines also delineate shapes. Circles, triangles, and is not only the roughness of weathered wood or a brick
rectangles are c o m m o n shapes that, in p h o t o g r a p h s , wall. It is also smoothness. There is always texture; it is
usually represent three-dimensional objects, such as just a matter of type.
cylinders, pyramids, and spheres. Shapes have meanings
similar to those of line, but as with all these concepts, The Principles
the exact meaning depends on context. The elements of composition—line, shape, tone, and
Shapes are revealed by light, which creates tone. texture—arc the building blocks for every image. They
Tones of light and dark can make surfaces seem to pro- will be there in some form, perhaps clearly visible, or per-
trude or recede, and through these clues we gain an haps working quietly in the background. 'Ilie manner in
understanding of the third dimension and spatial orien- which they combine leads us to the syntax of visual com-
tation. In the chapter on light, I explained h o w light munication, the principles of composition: contrast and va-
and shadow earn* three-dimensional reality o n t o two- riety, rhythm, emphasis or dominance, balance, and unit)-.
d i m e n s i o n a l p a p e r . Highlights and s h a d o w s tell us I like to think of photographic composition as having
about the surface features of the subject. Tone also be- many parallels to music. The elements we have talked
comes a pan of the principle of emphasis (which will about are like the musician's notes. The principles are
be discussed below) because objects that are radically h o w those notes are put together, including the harmony,
different in tone will stand out. the tempo, the key. and the dynamics of the piece.
Light also shows texture, which, as I've said before, Contrast and variety w o r k like the various instru-
is an important tactile indicator. Although the texture ments in an orchestra. This kind of contrast is not the
you might think of most often is one you can feel with type w e discussed in the c h a p t e r on darkroom tech-
your fingers, there is also t h e large-scale texture of a nique. This principle is a contrast or variety in shapes.
 tempo, its contributions are far greater. So are those
of visual rhythm The beat need not be symmetrical
Just as there are snare drums, bass drums, cymbals,
and such that create musical rhythm, visual rhythm
also has different instruments Remember, a given in-
strument may sound only o n e n o t e in t h e photo. In
figure 7 - 8 , there are a lot of little beats but only a few
big ones. Some p h o t o s don't have any repeats at all,
but a r c m o r e like a m u s i c i a n ' s i m p r o v i s a t i o n o r
c h a n c e composition—a John Cage piece for example.
Yet despite t h e apparent randomness, there is some
underlying feeling that ties the whole thing together.
Emphasis is the visual crescendo. It is the theory be-
hind the focal point we will discuss shortly. Emphasis is
created by combining the elements so that one object
or area dominates. As with music, there may also be sec-
ondary emphasis. However, emphasis does not neces-
sarily refer to the largest object in the image As figure
7 - 9 shows, a small area can have a big impact, just as
the percussionist's triangle can when the entire orches-
tra pauses for it.
Emphasis is also e n e r g y flow. T h i s idea can be
rather abstract, but every p h o t o has real or implied en-
ergy flowing within or out of it. In many cases, the en-
ergy is easily connected to the action, as in figure 7-10.
In this photo, the energy flows away from us from right
to left, with an interesting counterpoint created by the
curve of the dog. In some images, the energy flow is
suggested by the arrangement of the objects. As with
space, energy flow must be carefully considered w h e n
cropping an image. Room for energy flow should be ei-
ther provided or denied after careful consideration of
the consequences.
Balance is an idea that has been discussed, praised,
and discredited by any number of p h o t o critics. When
discussing balance, the classic examples come from the
chemist s scale or playground teeter-totter. If both sides
are of equal weight, t h e image is symmetrically bal-
anced, as in figure 7-11. If one side is heavier than the
other, the fulcrum must move in order to balance the
uneven pair. This distribution is called asymmetrical bal-
ance. Visual balance doesn't mean both sides of the
scale must be level. In figure 7 - 1 2 , the image is bal-
anced even though you can't set it on a fulcrum and ex-
pect it to stay there.
Figure 7 - 6 The winner and the loser. A contrast of
m o o d s . (Gary Kazanjian) A n o t h e r way t o look at balance is t h r o u g h t h e
music analogy. Not all instruments play at the same vol-
ume. Some are loud, some are soft. Sometimes there is a
solo, but even then, other instruments might play un-
derneath. Visual instruments can work the same way.
tones, moods, or content. For example, in figure 7-6.
there is a strong contrast of mood between the winner Symmetrical balance is sometimes called formal bal-
and the loser. The two are opposites that generate vari- ance. and it is useful for creating feelings of formalin',
ety and interest. In figure 7-7, the contrast is one of size power, or boredom. It is a static placement. Asymmetri-
Rhythm is t h e visual percussionist. Even though cal balance is informal and active. The golden mean is
the percussion section in the orchestra maintains the sometimes brought up w h e n discussing these ideas.
Figure 7 - 7 The size difference b e t w e e n these t w o h a n d s is the key element
in this photo. (James Skovmand/Union-Tribune Publishing Co.)

Figure 7 - 8 The rhythm is subtle in this photo of makeshift caskets lined u p

after the 1986 earthquake in Mexico City. (Lane Turner)
Figure 7 - 9 If you shout too
m u c h , n o b o d y will hear you
Although the main e m p h a s i s in
this photo is a small area, it is
quite effective (Gary Kazanjian)

Figure 7-10 The energy flow

in this shot is easy to find. The
slight tilt to the frame a n d the
d o g make the shot sing. (Kristy
MacDonald)
The golden mean is the proportion thought by the an- combined coordination of everything that makes the
cient C ir» eks o be an ideal It is created by dividing the image successful. It is the thread that tics the parts to-
space im » live parts o n one side and eight on the other, gether so that they become something greater than the
as in figure 7-13. and is the foundation for the rule of sum of their individual parts. It is difficult to point to a
thirds ill.: will be discussed. p h o t o and identify a single unifying force; unity is a
is probably the most verbally elusive of these wholeness that involves all the elements and principles.
,.,-^cj r.ity is a cohesiveness of the image. It is the Perhaps unity could be compared with the difference
between an orchestra playing with a score and a con-
ductor. and the chaos of the practice room backstage.
Sometimes a p h o t o needs to be without obvious
balance and unity, particularly if it is a photo of chaos.
Why? Bccausc chaos is unbalanced and disunified. Pho-
tographic unity and balance arc usually there, and these
photos can be well composed. Frequently, students in
my p h o t o editing class will object to the composition of
such a photo—a wreck, disaster, or scene of visual clut-
ter similar to figure 7 - 1 4 . The point of the photo is to
show the clutter. However, even though the image is
well composed, t h e students will react to the clutter
and label the image as poorly composed. They react to
the content of the image, not t h e way it is put together.
Although content is a part of composition, keep in mind
that even content that causes a negative reaction can be
well composed. You may not like the picture for what it
says, yet what is said is said well.

Common Compositional Devices

As I said above, there arc no set rules for composition.
Beginners need a place to start, though, so h e r e are
some ideas that you can use right away to make your
p h o t o s c o m m u n i c a t e more effectively. As you grow,
you'll use these less as formulas and more as starting
points for your own visual vocabulary.
Figure 7-11 When both sides of an i m a g e are equal, it
is symmetrically b a l a n c e d . (John Walker/The Fresno Bee)

Figure 7-12 V ;al b a l a n c e d o e s not m e a n that an i m a g e n e e d s to b e

equally w e i g h t e d a c r o s s t h e frame. In contrast to figure 7 - 1 1 , this image is
asymmet'* w h i l e the b a s e b a l l is important to the story, it also
b a l a n c e s the pi . ' Kurt Hegre)
 Figure 7 - 1 3 The Golden Mean, which
consists of 5 : 8 proportions, w a s thought by
ancient Greeks to b e the most aesthetically
pleasing. See figure 7 15 for a practical
example.

fit for the rule of thirds, has a dominant element, a n d a

Figure 7-14 Even though a photo contains clutter a n d
strong focal point. (Robert Hanashiro/Visaha Times-Delta)
chaos, it c a n still b e well c o m p o s e d . This photo is a close
Focal / ic focal point is t h e main attention- not in p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m . Multiple focal point images
gettin- ;lie photo. Even' shot must have a focal can get quite c o m p l i c a t e d , and it takes great c a r e to
point HI one. your reader's eye w a n d e r s about in- make t h e m w o r k . In the beginning, look for a strong,
si,i i igi trying to figure out w h a t the picture is simple focal point, and make only o n e s t a t e m e n t with
- MiK i mes the focal point is called the center of the image.
: c st. but this phrase can mislead people into putting
:ne m.;in subject in the center of the frame, a spot that, Rule of Thirds T h e rule of thirds is an imaginary
in \ > •' i want to create formal balance, usually should grid that you create in your viewfinder. T o use the rule,
be avoided. divide the f r a m e into three equal parts, both horizon-
\.ost of t h e time, a p h o t o s h o u l d h a v e only o n e tall) and vertically, as in a tic-tac-toe game. The rule
cal point, but it is possible for a shot to have t w o o r says that a major element placed on o n e of the lines or
en more. That is w h a t m a k e s some p h o t o g r a p h s so at o n e of their junctions will create a m o r e dynamic
exciting—the discovery of t h e s e c o n d level. This sec- p h o t o (fig. 7 - 1 5 ) . Horizons, for example, should be on
ond level must be s u b o r d i n a t e to the p r i m a r y o n e in o n e of the horizontal lines just above or b e l o w the cen-
o r d e r to avoid c o n f u s i n g t h e reader. C o n f u s i o n may ter of the frame.
be a valid p u r p o s e in o t h e r p h o t o g r a p h i c genre, b u t

Figure 7 - 1 5
This photo is a g o o d e x a m p l e
of the rule of thirds. It is as
though the frame h a d b e e n
d i v i d e d like a tic-tac-toe g a m e
and the major e l e m e n t s were
p l a c e d a l o n g the g r i d lines.
(Rollin Banderob/The Pueblo
Chieftan)
 This rule helps beginners avoid tlu- "bullscyc-vision the background gives the reader a sense of scale as well
syndrome," the tendency to put the main subject dead as d e p t h . In figure 7 - 1 8 . t h e f o r e g r o u n d and back-
center in t h e frame. I s u s p e c t this h a p p e n s because ground are mutually dependent.
there is a focusing spot in t h e middle of the ground
glass. Photographers focus on the subject, which must Scale The mention of foreground/background rela-
be placed in the c e n t e r in o r d e r to use the focusing tionships leads us to scale, which is also important as a
spot, and then just leave t h e image framed that way reference for the viewer. At the beginning of this chap-
and press the button. In fact, 1 have had students look ter. I mentioned landscape p h o t o s you may have taken
into t h e viewfinder and ask me if that spot is w h e r e the that don't seem to capture the grandeur of the scene.
subject's head should be. Although the question is an O n e m i s s i n g e l e m e n t is p r o b a b l y an i n d i c a t o r of
honest one. t h e answer is usually no. Dead center is a scale—something that tells the reader just h o w far it is
useful spot if you are trying to create a static or heavily to those distant peaks. The traditional solution in such
symmetrical look to the image, but this isn't needed an example is to put a person in the foreground, but
most of the time. Try t h e rule of thirds. Look through other kinds of shots may need a scale indicator. Figure
the photos in this book and see how many fit this sim- 7 - 1 9 is a good example. It helps the reader understand
ple grid. Don't hesitate to try something else if it would the size of the pieces of debris and the scope of the
work better! damage w h e n there is something in the shot that the
reader can identify.
Foreground Framing F o r e g r o u n d f r a m i n g is a
great way to create a feeling of d e p t h and add empha- Leading Lines Leading lines arc those that tend to
sis to your subject. In figure 7 - 1 6 , the image is rather draw the reader toward the focal point. Figure 7-20 is a
two-dimensional. On t h e other hand, c o m p a r e that ex- good example of leading lines. There may be some dis-
ample with figure 7 - 1 7 . This p h o t o has depth and a pute among experts as to whether a reader's eye actually
sense of reality that brings t h e image closer to t h e follows such lines, but they certainly are a strong graphic
reader. In the first example, one feels like a distant ob- element. Even though a reader's eye may wander, I think
server, while the second p h o t o pulls the viewer into leading lines can be a useful strategy and worth keeping
the room. on your list of useful tips.

Foreground/Background Relationships C1 ose 1 y Repeated Pattern Repeated pattern is a direct mani-

allied w i t h f o r e g r o u n d f r a m i n g a r e f o r e g r o u n d / festation of the rhythm that w e discussed previously.
background relationships. lying foreground objects to This repetition is the visual beat of t h e image, and as

Figure 7 - 1 6 Although the

photographer w a s quick to respond, this
photo feels rather two-dimensional when
c o m p a r e d to figure 7 - 1 7 . (Roilin
Banderob/ Manteca Bulletin)
Figure 7 - 1 7 When c o m p a r e d to figure 7 - 1 6 , this photo d r a w s you into the
scene, a n d it has a strong three-dimensional effect. (TonyOlmos)

Figure 7-18 Tying the f o r e g r o u n d with the b a c k g r o u n d

is a useful technique. The power a n d m e s s a g e of this
photo d e p e n d s on juxtaposing the wheelchair with the
p e o p l e in the foreground. (Brian Davies)
Figure 7 - 1 9 This photo needs the man in the
foreground to give it a sense of scale.'(Glenn
Moore/Turlock Journal)

Figure 7 - 2 0 The lines in this photo lead

your eye to the man's face. <Tony Olmos)
 Choice of Lens and Selective Focus Choice of lens
with m». often needs to be a rebel that is off
and selective focus may not. at first, seem like tools of
just -*ke it interesting, but not so far out
composition, but they arc because of the impact they
that it abrasive.
have on t h e image. (Lenses and selective focus, also
an example of a repeated pattern. Al-
k n o w n as d e p t h of field, w e r e discussed quite thor-
petition can be boring, it is the slightly
oughly in chapter 4.) The lens focal length affects cam-
the repeat that can be interesting. Re-
era angle and f o r e g r o u n d / b a c k g r o u n d relationships.
ns need not be like this example, how-
Wide-angle lenses emphasize and enlarge foreground
tion can take more subtle forms, ones I like
objects while diminishing background ones. Telephoto
. i.ii echoes. Figure ~T-22 is an example of visual
lenses compress distance and de-emphasize objects out-
i he repetition is subtle, but it is there and does
side the plane of focus.
fu, . ion as an important p a n of the image.

unera Angle Camera angle is certainly a composi- Cropping Cropping, which can be d o n e in the lab
tional device. By using a radical angle, the subject can be or at the editing stage, is also a compositional device.
changed considerably. The high camera angle in figure Consider c h a n g i n g t h e p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e image to
" - 2 3 allowed the photographer to include several story- s o m e t h i n g o t h e r than t h e 1:1.5 ratio of t h e 3 5 m m
telling elements. frame or the 1:1.25 ratio of 8 x 10-inch print p a p e r
(fig. 7 - 2 4 ) .
Remember, one unique feature of photography is
viewpoint. Take advantage of a slightly different view- Another aspect of cropping can be useful: I call it
point w h e n you can. By the way. high and low camera "a part of t h e w h o l e . " S o m e t i m e s you can c r e a t e a
angles are one way to eliminate a bad background. A stronger image by not including the whole object, but
radical camera angle can also provide a little visual inter- just enough of it so the reader knows what is going on.
est for an otherwise trite assignment. Figure ~-25 is a good example of this kind of cropping.

F i g u r e 7 - 2 1 Repeated
patterns are useful
compositional devices. But
just as in music, a break from
exact repetition is important.
(Rollin Banderob/The Manteca
Bulletin)
Figure 7-22 This is a great e x a m p l e of visual echoes. The repetition is there
in the faces a n d arms, but it is not an exact duplicate. (Robert Gauihter)

Figure 7-23 Try to break away from the usual eye-

level perspective. While this extreme viewpoint c o u l d be
overused, it is a p p r o p r i a t e from time to time. (Brian
Davies/Appeal-Democrat)
Figure ~ - i .ot all photos
should b e use in standard
proportions. T 5 photo works as
tai i m a g e that
of the action.
7a Times-Delta)

Figure 7-25 Neither the whole plane nor the man's legs are i n c l u d e d in this
shot, but w e can tell that this pilot is none the w o r s e for the incident. R e m e m b e r ,
too. that c a p t i o n s confirm our presumptions a n d fill in important details.
(Ralph Thronebery/The Fresno Bee)

C o m m o n Errors i n C o m p o s i t i o n look at your images. Be sure to s h o w t h e ones that

failed as well as those that succeeded. You may be mak-
Table ~ - l lists some common problems often found in ing a consistent mistake that could be pointed out and
beginners photos. Because each p h o t o has its o w n corrcctcd. and you can also learn from the failures by-
unique character, it is important for you to get outside learning w h y they failed.
feedback on your work. If there is no critique session in O n e c o m m o n m i s t a k e , b a d b a c k g r o u n d s , is a
your class, start your own group or get a professional to c o n s t a n t h e a d a c h e for even t h e best pros, but t h e
 TABLE 7-1 C o m m o n Errors in C o m p o s i t i o n

Problem Cause Solution

Bad background Failure to see as c a m e r a sees Use low or high c a m e r a a n g l e
Use m i n i m u m d e p t h of field

Weak or nonexistent f o c a l point Photographer unsure of m e s s a g e D e c i d e what is most important

Too far away Move in closer
Bad b a c k g r o u n d C h a n g e c a m e r a a n g l e or use
minimum d e p t h of field

Centered subject Bulls-eye vision Try rule of thirds

Learn to c h e c k corners of frame

background is just a clutter of shapes and tones that

steal e m p h a s i s f r o m y o u r s u b j e c t . O t h e r t i m e s , a
more insidious background problem will arise—the
b l e n d i n g of similar t o n e s in b o t h t h e s u b j e c t and
background. Called the tone merger or background
merger, this trap catches beginners w h o haven't
learned to see as t h e camera will see. Figure 7 - 2 6
s h o w s an example of background merger. The solu-
tion is the same as for o t h e r background problems:
change camera angle or reduce depth of field.
A similar, but less frequent, problem is the empty
foreground, which is usually caused by being too far
away. Photojournalist A1 Grillo says that if you don't
move in close, all you II get is "little ant-people" and
wasted foreground space in your pictures.
Weak focal points are usually caused by the photog-
rapher's confusion about the intent of the photo. The
key to a strong focal point: know your subject and think
carefully about what you are trying to say. Move in close.
Get faces. The face is the primary human communicator.
Many times, a beginning photojournalist will come back
with a roll full of pictures that show nothing but the
backs of people. Avoid "back shots." Assert yourself, get
up front, and show us what the people look like.
The problem of the centered subject should b e eas\
to deal with. The rule of thirds helps, but also learn to
see into the c o m e r s of the frame. Watch what is hap-
pening at the edges of the image. Check these spots be-
fore you shoot and it will soon become second nature
One last thought. Many times I have been on as-
signment w h e n people will come up and look at my
Figure 7-26 Beware of b a c k g r o u n d s that will blend in professional-quality camera. "Bov. I'll bet that camera
with your subject. Foliage is a typical p r o b l e m b a c k g r o u n d . takes good pictures." they invariably say. I just say yes,
Solutions i n c l u d e finding a different c a m e r a angle, or using and that satisfies them. However, just as an expensive
a telephoto lens a n d a w i d e a p e r t u r e to throw the paintbrush does not create a great painting, the cam-
b a c k g r o u n d out of f o c u s . (Anne-Mette Madsen) era alone does not make great pictures. Remember,
these are mind-guided photos, not snapshots. Know
what you are trying to say. Often. I'll ask a beginner
professional s e e s t h e p r o b l e m before s h o o t i n g and
what he or she was trying to do with a photo, but the
finds a solution. The classic tree-growing-out-of-
p h o t o g r a p h e r w a s n ' t sure. It always s h o w s in t h e
s o m e o n c ' s - h e a d e x a m p l e is n o t t h e only t y p e of image—message unclear.
background problem that can occur. Often, the
 The « iverrkling goal is to tell the story. Composition Probably t h e most i m p o r t a n t tip is to c r e a t e a
should (ill the ^oal but be subordinate to it. Graphics strong focal point in every p h o t o . Some part of t h e
with i i ontent arc similar to a string of interesting image should call out to the viewer and say, "Hev. look
words n i o s there is an order to them and a message to at me!" Without a focal point, your reader will wander
be . onveyed. they are nothing more than a vocabulary around inside the image trying to figure out the mes-
< Learn the tips, see how the elements and principles sage. More than likely, the reader will quickly give u p
u >rk. and use them to create messages with content. and move on to something else. A strong focal point
should be your primary goal.
A second tip, related to the concept of balance, is
Summary the rule of thirds. Dividing your frame into thirds and
placing major items o n the division lines or their inter-
( omposition is the way you organize the visual message, sections is a step toward correcting the "bullscyc vi-
(iood composition is similar in many ways to good writ- sion" that afflicts so many beginners' photos. The rule
ing. The writer must find the right words and arrange of thirds shouldn't be called a rule, though; it's only a
them in the right order for maximum impact. The photo- guideline. There arc many instances when some other
journalist must do the same thing, b u t with different placement would be better.
tools and processes, and in a totally different language.
T h i r d , f o r e g r o u n d f r a m i n g and f o r e g r o u n d /
To understand composition, you should first under-
background relationships are ways of creating depth in
stand how the camera and the eye see differently. One
the photo. By placing something close to the viewer, a
obvious difference is that the camera sees in two dimen-
feeling of scale is created that gives your reader clues
sions while we see in three. A second difference is field
about size and draws the reader into the image.
of view. You see a wide field of view, yet only the cen-
tral portion of that field is sharp. The camera sees a nar- Watch also for leading lines and repeated patterns,
row field, but sees it equally sharp from edge to edge. simple graphic devices that can emphasize t h e focal
Therefore, you must learn to sec into t h e corners of point and help unify the image. Don't forget that cam-
your frame and make maximum use of the entire area. era angle, choice of lens, and selective focus are major
influences on composition. Selective focus, particularly,
Third, you tend to see only what you are interested can give you control over backgrounds and emphasize
in at the moment. The camera, however, does not have or de-emphasize other areas in the image.
a brain to interpret and control what it sees, which is
w h y distracting objects tend to appear in your photos— While learning composition, watch out for com-
they went unnoticed when you pressed the shutter. mon errors such as bad backgrounds, which creep in
because of failure to see as the camera sees. Weak focal
Finally, a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e is t h e points are another common problem, and the cause is
objectivity/subjectivity battle b e t w e e n h u m a n vision usually a photographer w h o isn't stye of the message or
and camera vision. When we see something, w e are in- h o w it will be interpreted by the camera. Lastly. bew r are
fluenced by other stimuli, sound, smell, and emotional of the centered subject. Sometimes it is important to
involvement. The camera records only its o w n special put the subject in the middle of the frame, but most of
visual image. Which is more accurate: the mental im- the time that placement leads to poor use of space and
pression that encompasses all t h e messages, including images without impact.
the emotional influences of the moment, or the impar-
tial record that is not affected by outside forces?
In discussing composition, w e can divide it into Endnotes
two broad areas: elements and principles. The elements
are similar to the words of the writer, and the principles 1. Wilson I licks. Words and Pictures: An
arc similar to the syntax of language. The words, visual Introduction to Photojournalism (New York:
or verbal, must be the right ones, but they must also be Harper, 1952), 345.
in the right order for the message to make sense.
2. Ben Clements and David Rosenfeld. Photographic
Hie photographer's words, the elements of composi- Composition (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
tion, are line, shape, tone, and texture. The principles— 1979). 125.
the way the elements are organized—include contrast
3. Ibid.. 62.
and variety, rhythm, emphasis or dominance, balance,
and unity.
To use the theories of composition, you can apply
some practical tips to your pictures, but don't become a
slave to these methods. Every p h o t o is different, and
many call for innovative treatment.
 c h a p t e r

8
News and Features
OUTLINE

News o r Features: What's Survival G u i d e to Cliche E v e n t s

the Difference? Politics and News Conferences
Covering an Assignment Meetings
K n o w Your Audience Groups, Handshakes, and Awards
Know Your Message and Flan Concerts and Stage Shows
Ahead Cameras in Court
Show H o w People Are Involved
Weather
or Affected
Features
T h e T h r e e Basic S h o t s
Good Ideas Are the Key
of P h o t o j o u r n a l i s m
Dealing with People
Providing Full Coverage:
The Saturation Method Window-Light Portraits

Look for the Peak Moment Environmental Portraits

Caption Information
News
Summary
Shooting Tactics for News
Professional Behavior
Fires and Accidents
Get the Story Behind the Story

" O F ALL T H E M E A N S O F E X P R E S S I O N , P H O T O G R A P H Y IS T H E O N L Y O N E T H A T FIXES

F O R E V E R T H E PRECISE A N D T R A N S I T O R Y I N S T A N T . W E PHOTOGRAPHERS D E A L IN

T H I N G S W H I C H ARE C O N T I N U A L L Y V A N I S H I N G , A N D W H E N T H E Y HAVE V A N I S H E D ,

T H E R E IS N O C O N T R I V A N C E O N E A R T H ttlHCH CAN M A K E THEM COME BACK AGAIN.

W E CANNOT DEVELOP A N D PRINT A MEMORY.

—HENRI CARTIER-BRESSON,

PHOTOJOURNAUST K N O W N FOR THE "DECISIVE MOMENT"

News or i iires: W h a t ' s t h e D i f f e r e n c e ? Covering an Assignment

Traditio v.!!\ photo assignments have been categorized T h e r e ' s a story in photojournalism about t h e young
as news :'catures. and sports. It is hard to draw firm di- photographer w h o asked the old pro h o w the pro got
\ iihng lines b e t w e e n these categories, h o w e v e r , be- s u c h great p h o t o s . The p r o a n s w e r e d . "F/8 and be
.KIH- some sports stories are more like features, some there." Well, by n o w you k n o w about exposure, and
features »re more like news, and s o m e n e w s stories you know that there is much more to it than a simple
could fall into either category. f/8. And although you certainly must be on the scene to
think most of us have an intuitive feeling about get the picture, there is much more to successfully cov-
Piii i> news. It is what is new and different from the rou- ering an assignment than the old-timer's advice.
ble In photojournalism, news assignments frequently in-
clude political or criminal events, w e a t h e r , fires, and Know Your A udience
accidents and the like, but anything that is of immediate You must first k n o w your audience. You are making
importance to a majority of readers could be considered pictures for them. You are their representative o n t h e
news. News is important today, and history tomorrow. scene, and your job is to tell them what happened. If
Features are hard to define. They can range from the your publication is a community weekly, a daily news-
controlled situation, such as a personality story, to the paper. or part of the campus press, your readers will
grab shot, an unexpected photo of an unplanned event. have special interests and needs that must be met. Re-
In many cases, features don't have the time value of news member what I said about personal pictures and pho-
photos. Some features could be run today or held until tojournalism in c h a p t e r 1. The photos you make o n an
next week and still be fresh and interesting. Feanire pho- assignment must s h o w your readers what happened,
tos are sometimes accompanied by full-length written clearly, concisely, and w i t h o u t ambiguity. Your per-
stories, but frequently a brief caption or a couple of para- sonal feelings or interpretations must be subordinate
graphs are all that's needed. What blurs the line between to this goal.
news and features is that some news events can be cov- To know your audience, you must also know the is-
ered with a feature approach. A swim meet, for example, sues that are important to the community. Read the publi-
could be covered from a news angle—the winners, major cation you shoot for. This advice may sound sell-evident,
contenders, ctc.—or it could be covered from a feature but it is surprising to discover how many photographers
angle, concentrating on the stress of competition or the neglect this important means of keeping up. A glance at
emotions of winning and losing. Features include just the front page and the sports section isn't enough. Read-
about everything that isn't news or sports, yet it's hard to ing the opinion columns and particularly the letters to the
list examples because the category is so broad. More im- editor will give you a feel for the attitudes and concerns
portant than trying to categorize pictures is learning to of the community. Keeping up with regional, state, and
recognize what will interest your readers and knowing national events is important too because you need to be
how to bring that story to them. aware of distant events that affect your readers.

Figure 8 - 1 A good news photo contains most of the F i g u r e 8 - 2 Feature photos fall into a broad category,
story information The caption fills in the details. (Michael ranging from slice-of-life shots such as this, to in-depth
Penn/The Fresno Bee) c o v e r a g e of social issues. (Kristy MacDonald)
 Along this line, you should be able to find the local
angle to the large or distant story. How d o events in the
state capital affect people in your community? If some-
thing happens in a developing country, is someone in
your area involved?
Finally, get out into the community. Expand your
network of contacts beyond your o w n circle of friends
and coworkers. Explore unfamiliar areas of your com-
munity and develop contacts there. Talk to people and
find out their interests and concerns. Let it be known
that you are a photojournalist and are always looking for
interesting things to report. It is surprising how many
stories can come through these contacts and h o w many
times one story will lead to another.

Figure 8 - 3 Luck is only part ot g o o d photojournalism.

Know Your Message and Plan Ahead
Photographer Paul K u r o d a anticipated this s c e n e by
Before you can c o m m u n i c a t e to your audience, you k e e p i n g notes on the u n d e r p a s s e s that h a d a tendency to
need a clear understanding of what you are trying to flood in heavy rains. W h e n an exceptionally heavy storm
say. You need to k n o w t h e story better than anyone hit. he knew exactly where to g o to find this photo. (Paul
else if you expect to successfully interpret it visually for Kuroda/The Fresno Bee)
the reader. Begin with research. If someone has already-
been working on the story, check with that person and
get as m u c h information as you can. If the story has al- Here's a personal story to illustrate the point. Years ago
ready been written, read it. If not, get together with the I was covering an enormous forest fire that was threatening
writer and share ideas. Check the paper s files for other a Large ranch house, barn, and other outbuildings. I drove
stories that may h a v e b e e n d o n e on this p e r s o n or into the area through thick smoke and found the fire crew
s u b j e c t . This r e s e a r c h i s n ' t just f o r y o u r p e r s o n a l sent to protect the buildings. Everything around us was
edification—the more you know about your subject, the bunting. The sky was an eerie color beyond description,
easier it will be to see the things that tell the story visually. and the hot air created its own abnormal currents. The fire
Part of knowing your message involves anticipating crew knew what they had to do, but I was so overcome by
the event. Anticipation includes looking ahead on three the other-worldly spectacle of it all that I didn't get any us-
levels: for trends, specific events, and moments within able pictures. At the very least, I should have looked for a
events. Planning for trends is a long-range type of antici- photo that tied the fire to the fire crew or that showed its
scale relative to the buildings. A long shot showing the
pation. For example, if you notice an unusually severe or
ranch buildings surrounded by flaming trees would have
mild winter, think ahead to the consequences that will
been most appropriate. Instead, I was so overwhelmed I
arise during spring and summer. At t h e second level,
couldn't tliink of what to shoot and came back with only-
planning for t h e event includes the preparations you
some close-ups of a fireman with a hose, and a shot of a
might make weeks or days in advance to insure that you burning pile of brush. If I had remembered the basic three
are at the right place at t h e right time with t h e right shots discussed in the next section, I would have realized
equipment. At the third level, anticipation means a strong that a long shot was the best solution to the problem.
intuition about what will happen next. If you sec a tiny
toddler eating an ice cream cone and it's the hottest day Although your experiences as a beginner will prob-
of summer, you should be ready for the inevitable. ably be much less dramatic, you still should be able to
The preparation phase also includes thinking ahead explain, in words, what you are trying to say about the
to specific photos you might make. While you should event. If you can't explain it, then the p h o t o will proba-
not go into a story with a preconceived notion of what bly be confusing, too.
you will shoot, you should think in general terms about
what kinds of pictures would be possible This is usu- Show How People Are Involved or Affected
ally a simple mental list of shots that you plan to look One definition of photojournalism is "pictures of people
for at the event—notes that you update as the assign- doing things." I think this point is good for beginners to
ment progresses. This list is only a guide and should be remember. For the most part, photojournalism is not
flexible. The primary reason for the list is to help you pictures of static, inanimate objects. One common ob-
avoid getting involved in the event to the extent that stacle for beginners is a certain shyness about approach-
you forget what you are trying to do or miss something ing p e o p l e . But p h o t o s of t h e b a c k s of p e o p l e , or
important because you w e r e distracted by something pictures without people at all. rarely tell us much about
that turned out to be trivial. what was going on.
Figure 8 - 4 A n important j o b of the photojournalist is to Figure 8 - 5 O n e of the c h a l l e n g e s of photojournalism is
show the h u m a n a s p e c t of the news. When p h o t o g r a p h e r to find a p h o t o w h e n obvious visual situations are lacking.
Rollin B a n d e r o b arrived at this fire, he f o u n d the W h e n the jury failed to reach a verdict in time for the
homeowner c o m t e m p l a t i n g his loss. (Rollin Banderob/The n e w s p a p e r ' s deadline, photographer Mark Mirko still
Modesto Bee) n e e d e d to s u p p l y a photo. This w a s an excellent solution.
(Mark Mirko/The Palm Beach Post)

When at the event, show what most readers want Figure 8 - 6 A long shot
to see: h o w people are involved or affected. For exam- shows the overall scene.
ple. if I sent you out to get some shots of opening day at In this case, w e see the
c o n s e q u e n c e of the road
the county fair, I'd be very disappointed if you came
closure rather than the
back with nothing but photos of display booths. But I'd
cause. The cutline will
be happy if you brought me pictures of people involved s u p p l y that important
in the activities—4-H members preparing their animals information. Here the
for s h o w , little kids enjoying the rides, some of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e (closure of
behind-the-scenes activity, and so on. the main road to a
In the end. knowing what you are trying to say is recreational area) w a s
answering this question: "What is this event about and more important than the
how can I capture its essence with my camera?" c a u s e itself. (Brian
Da vies/Appeal-Democrat)

The Three Basic Shots o f P h o t o j o u r n a l i s m

Writers are lucky. They can telephone the subject and

ask another question. But you can't hold the p h o n e up The close-up moves in on details. It adds impact
to the lens to take another picture. The only material and creates emphasis by bringing us right up to the situ-
you and your editor will have to work with w h e n you ation. Sometimes the close-up is so tight that there is
r e t u r n is what you c a p t u r e o n t h e film. You c a n ' t nothing more to see than a facc.
rewrite a photograph. Of course, exactly what a long shot, medium shot,
How. then, can you be sure you have the pictures and close-up are depends on the story. If, for example,
you need before leaving the assignment? One way is to you work on a feature about some particular agricul-
look for the three basic shots used in cinema: the long tural trend in your area, a long shot could be an aerial
shot, the medium shot, and the close-up. These three p h o t o of a thousand-acre field. A close-up might be a
shots are a great starting point for providing complete farmer examining a s a m p l e of t h e crop. However, a
coverage and insuring that you'll get a picture that tells story about a dentist w h o bakes miniature paintings into
the story best. t h e e n a m e l of false t e e t h for his e c c e n t r i c p a t i e n t s
The long shot establishes the scene and shows the would require the three basic shots to be on an entirely
relationships between the various elements. The long different scale.
shot is often important for conveying scale and showing
the location of the event. Providing Full Coverage: The Saturation Method
The medium shot moves close enough to clearly But long shots, medium shots, and close-ups are not
identify the major individuals involved. We can see detail, made by merely pushing the shutter button as you walk
yet we are still far enough away to see parts of the setting. closer to your subject or by twisting the zoom ring on a
zoom lens. T h e same result could be achieved b\ en resourcefulness you can muster. You must have all the
larging the long shot in the darkroom. And in any event, technical problems solved; you can't c o n c e n t r a t e on
your coverage should not end with the basic three You looking for the decisive moment if you are worrying
must continue shooting, covering your subject from as about f-stops or fumbling with a flash. Camera operation
many different angles as possible or appropriate should be second nature. You should be able to reload in
P h o t o g r a p h y w r i t e r Milton F e i n b e r g calls this an instant and operate the camera's controls rcflcxively.
method "saturation shooting." 1 Your goal is to find the Then use your knowledge of the story and your ability to
one p h o t o that best tells the story. You are looking for. anticipate the action to capture that peak moment.
as Henri Cartier-Bresson calls it. "the decisive moment."
But w h i l e w o r k i n g t h e story, you can never be ab-
solutely sure which picture will do that job best. The
photo you take o n e moment might be overshadowed by
something that happens an instant later. Something you
thought looked great w h e n you pressed the button may
not look so terrific w h e n you edit the film later.
Therefore, a sound approach is to visually saturate
the situation by making the three basic shots from a va-
riety of angles. Shoot high angles, low angles, vertical
compositions and horizontal ones, long shots, medium
shots, and close-ups. Watch for the angles and moments
that tell the whole story in one frame.

Look for the Peak Moment

Because most publications use only one picture from an
event, you must look for that one moment when all ele-
ments of the story come together in one neat visual pack- Figure 8 - 7 The m e d i u m shot m o v e s in on the key
age. T h i s i n s t a n t is c a l l e d t h e p e a k m o m e n t , and action. W e c a n see the individuals as well as details of
photographing it is a major challenge that requires all the what is happening. (Brian Da vies/Gazette- Times)

Figure 8 - 8 A c l o s e - u p shows details a n d a d d s impact. (Robert Gauthier/

The San Diego Union Tribune)
 Hi

w 4.1

Figure 8 - 9 Here is part of a set of pictures from a story shots, and close-ups. Because you can't rewrite a
on a youth equestrian group. The photographer has tried to photograph, it's best to have a selection to choose from.
provide complete coverage, including long shots, medium

How many pictures should you shoot on an assign- Also, an unfortunate fact of life is that news pages
ment? That's hard to say. It depends on the story. The re- are sometimes designed before the photos are available.
s p o n s i b i l i t y falls on your s h o u l d e r s t o analyze t h e If you have both vertical and horizontal shots, as well as
situation and insure that you have covered it thoroughly. an assortment of viewpoints, there is a greater likeli-
You need to have some "insurance" pictures, ones that hood that you'll have a photo that will tell the story and
you know will succeed. You also need to go beyond the contribute to an effective presentation as well.
expected to find the unusual or different way of present-
ing the story. A dozen frames might be enough for a sim-
p l e p o r t r a i t , w h i l e t e n rolls or m o r e m i g h t b e News
appropriate for a major event. It is more important that
you cover the event thoroughly without overshooting— Hard news includes events of major importance and im-
wasting frames on shots you know don't stand a chance mediacy. Major political developments, accidents, disas-
of being used. There is no need to make a half dozen ex- ters, and public events arc some examples. Generally
posures on something that remains exactly the same. At speaking, you must be ready to react quickly at these
the same time, don't force yourself into a corner editori- kinds of events. When faced with an unpredictable situa-
ally by bringing back only the obvious, ordinary picture. tion. professionals often earn- three cameras, each fitted
Figure 8 - 1 0 Look for the peak moment, w h e n all the story elements c o m e
together. You must b e r e a d y b e c a u s e the moment will not wait for you. (Dean
Slagel/Tulare Advance-Register)

As discussed in chapter 4, telephoto lenses reach

TABLE 8-1 H o w t o Cover an Assignment
out and magnify' distant objects, and wide-angle lenses
• Know your a u d i e n c e . include wide fields of view. An important use of a tele-
• Find out what the story is a b o u t a n d d e c i d e how to photo is to decrease depth of field and throw a distract-
c a p t u r e that element visually. ing background out of focus. If you don't have this
• K e e p moving. option, you'll need to move closer to the subject and
• Include faces. R e m e m b e r , the face is the primary find a camera angle that favors a clean background.
human communicator.
At t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , t h e wide-angle lens gives
• Don't wait for t h e s c e n e t o get better. Shoot right
the pro the ability to work very close to the subject
away; then get r e a d y for a better shot.
and still include important parts of the scene. This op-
• K e e p looking for the d e c i s i v e moment.
tion is important in crowded situations w h e r e there is
• Learn t o o p e r a t e your c a m e r a reflexively.
no space to back up or w h e n backing up puts you at
the outside edge of a circle of people. Unless you are
in the midst of the group, all you'll get is the backs of
with a different lens and set in advance for the expected people's heads.
conditions. That way, t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r can quickly As a beginner, you may have only one lens, and it
grab the needed lens and shoot. will probably be a normal focal length. Because you
Lenses often used for hard n e w s include a wide don't have the optical advantages of wide-angle and
angle such as a 24mm or 28mm. a medium focal length telephoto lenses, you'll have to work harder to include
telephoto such as an 85mm or a 105mm, and a long or e x c l u d e important e l e m e n t s of t h e e v e n t — m o v e
t e l e p h o t o such as a 180mm or 300mm. With these in close, try to get faces, and w a t c h for distracting
three lenses on cameras and ready to go. you can han- backgrounds.
dle a high percentage of the situations that come up.
Shoot i t 7 > < for Neus persons. Remember, too, that reactions can come quite
some time after the peak moment. The aftermath often
Wliei gets t o u g h , s h o o t — d o n ' t wait for
includes a moment w h e n the key persons are reflecting
thing- ui i better. I admit that too many times I've
on what has happened, and that could be the moment
w < u nd or two hoping for a slight change, say,
you are looking for.
•j die foreground to move slightly and im-
p r o v e the composition. Hut instead the person moves
You need to develop a sixth sense about access to
K- othev w.iy and makes the shot—any usable shot— shooting positions. Sometimes you should ask permis-
Few pictures are perfect. Shoot what you sion to move into a spot, but other times, if you ask.
and hope things will get better for a second try. If you'll give the person in charge an opportunity to say
ngs get worse, at least you have something. no. In such a case, if you move in on your o w n initia-
When you First arrive, make some protection shots. tive, you may be left there as the participants deal with
These are low-risk pictures that you are positive will other things. If someone objects and you are asked to
succeed. I nusual viewpoints, lenses, or other special move, it w o n ' t matter because you'll already have the
p h o t o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e s should not be used at this shot. Obviously, this tactic must be applied judiciously,
point if there is any risk that the photo will not work. but the good photojournalist knows w h e n to be aggres-
W ith protection shots for insurance, you can then try sive. Your editor wants pictures, not a list of excuses.
for that different viewpoint and. if not yet captured, the
peak moment. Get faces. The face is the primary human Professional Behavior
communicator. Move in close and look for expressions. T h e r e ' s not s p a c e h e r e to list every personality trait
Don't be satisfied with only o n e angle or viewpoint. needed by photojournalists, but start with some com-
You just might Find a better shot somewhere else. As al- mon sense about dealing with others and the image you
ready mentioned, the shot you liked w h e n you pressed project. There is a lot of truth to the saying "What goes
the button may not look so great later. around c o m e s around." Respect and c o o p e r a t e with
people and they will respect and cooperate with you.
Of course, y ou'll look for the action, but also look
for the reaction. from bvstanders as well as from kev At first you may feel s o m e w h a t shy or inhibited
about getting out w h e r e other people are bound to see
you. But you can't get all the photos you need from the
sidelines. You must be assertive and move right up to
the action when necessary. If you project an image of
professionalism, people tend to accept that. But if you
convey a feeling of uncertainty, people will sense that
and it will work against you.
On the o t h e r hand, k n o w w h e n to pull back. Be
aware of an individual's space, and stay out of it. Pho-
tographer Ed Dooks says

ITJhis can be physical space a n d / o r emotional space.

H o w m u c h space varies from time to time. Space seems
to be t h e important element in accidents and other
tragedies. Your space will be d e t e r m i n e d usually by t h e
p o l i c e at the s c e n e of an accident or other type of
tragedy. Victims, fire fighters, police, and medical
personnel all need space and that space is crowded by
n e w s photographers, reporters, and the general public.
T h e order of things will g o in a priority of victims'
needs, public safety, media needs, and t h e general
public's need to be at t h e scene. If you present the
p e r c e p t i o n of not intruding on the space and feelings of
others, you will usually have n o problems covering an
emotional story. -

My experience has shown that at tragedies the indi-

viduals directly involved are usually in such shock that
Figure 8 - 1 1 In fast-moving situations you must be able they d o n ' t notice you. But t h e second-level p e o p l e ,
to operate .our ameras by reflex action. Have one camera close friends, relatives, emergency personnel, and so
fitted v. ;h ie-angle lens set for auto-focus. Set manual- on. will react, and perhaps strongly. Keep a low profile.
focus equipment tor the hyperfocal distance. (Lloyd Francis/ Use telephoto lenses. Work quickly and quietly, don't
San Jose Mercury-News) overshoot, and know when it is time to leave. Above all,
remember the Golden Rule. (By the way. I don't believe Fires and Accidents
in sneak pictures. I think people should know who you
At fires, look for the overall shot that shows the com-
are and what you're doing. The ethics of these situa-
plete situation. Try to show the building in flames, if
tions will be covered thoroughly in chapter 13 )
that is the nature of the fire Include people for scale. If
Professional behavior also includes dressing appro- t h e fire d e p a r t m e n t beats you to t h e s c e n e by more
priately for t h e assignment. Take your c u e from the than a couple of minutes, you probably won't find lots
participants. If they can be e x p e c t e d to be wearing of flames. Look for the human element. Are there vic-
business dress, then that's your uniform, too. Remem- tims? How are they reacting? Can you visually tie them
ber. you represent your publication when sou meet the to the fire (victim in foreground, fire in background)? If
public. Photographers w h o look like transients get little the victims are injured, show them being treated. If you
respect from anyone. Many photojournalists find a mid- can include the fire in the shot, so much the better.
dle ground so they can look casual most of the time but
grab s o m e t h i n g m o r e formal f r o m t h e i r c a r w h e n Shots of fire fighters squirting hoses are rather ordi-
needed. nary. If it has been a difficult fire, try to show that strain
on fire fighters' faces. If the situation is under control,
the captain or engineer might let you climb on the fire
Funerals If you are assigned to photograph a funeral, truck for a high angle, or even inside the structure for a
h e r e are s o m e practical tips that might r e d u c e t h e shot of the results of the fire. When shooting interior
tensions: damage (or any other scene involving rubble), try to in-
clude a person, again to s h o w scale. A photo of a pile of
1. Try to contact a family member or spokesperson in
charred wood probably w o n ' t tell your reader much
advance and let them know you will be there.
and may leave her wondering what she is looking at.
Express sympathy. Let them know > ou do not want
to interfere, and see if you can work something out. If the fire is major, with streets blocked and many
You may have more success getting permission p i e c e s of fire-fighting a p p a r a t u s in use. c o n s i d e r a
from a family m e m b e r than from the funeral wide-angle shot from a viewpoint high in a neighbor-
ing building.
director.
Night fires are difficult because you are working
2. Dress appropriately: dark suit or dress.
outdoors where natural light is minimal, yet the flames
3. Be early so you don't cause a commotion w h e n you can be quite bright. In order to show the scene as well
enter. That way you'll also have a chance to talk to as the flames, try a time exposure. One photojournalist I
the funeral director. If p h o t o s are prohibited during know shoots night fires at 1 second and f/8 with 400-
the service, you might be able to get something speed film, but I suggest you bracket your exposures.
beforehand. Obviously you'll have to find a way to steady your cam-
4. Keep technique to a minimum. Use telephoto era. If you don't have time for a tripod, press the cam-
lenses, one camera, no motors, no flash. If the light era against anything firm: a door frame, a car hood, or
is too low for even 3200-speed film, a floodlight light pole.
bounced from the ceiling or a wall might be At an accident, show the people involved and the
enough. This light should be set up and turned on consequences of the wreck. Twisted metal can be a pho-
well in advance and left on throughout the service. tographic cliche if that is all there is to your picture. Res-
5. Be careful about offending others w h o are grieving cue shots are rarely effective if all you have arc medium
or w h o don't know you have family permission. shots of the backs of the rescue crew. Either move in

Figure 8 - 1 2
Funerals a n d other
tragedies require
sensitivity. Maintain a
low profile, work
quickly a n d quietly,
a n d respect the
subjects' feelings.
(Dean Slagel/Tulare
Advance-Register)
F i g u r e 8 - 1 3 An overall
shot of this fire was the most
appropriate a p p r o a c h s i n c e
the building, with its s t a t u e of
Santa Claus. was a well-
- ov. loca andmark. (Tony

FLORIST
SUPPLIES
FOIL'WIRE-UP
piRRON-FLQVjE

Figure 8 - 1 5 This is a different a p p r o a c h to an accident.

Photographer Terry Pierson did not arrive in time to get a
photo of the victims, but I think this shot is more chilling.
(Terry Pierson/The Milwaukee Journal)

close with a wide-angle lens or work from a distance

with a telephoto. Use careful judgment about getting too
close. If you'll get in the way or upset people w h o arc al-
ready under strain, stay back, but look for the vantage
point that will enable you to see faces.

Beware of Hazards It should be self-evident that

you must stay out of the way w h e n shooting accidents
and fires. Photographers w h o get in the way not only
endanger themselves and others, but also can be sub-
Figure 8 - 1 4 At accident scenes, use a long focal length ject to arrest. Furthermore, many emergency scenes are
lens and stay out of the way. (Brian Davies/Appeai-Democrat)
d a n g e r o u s . S p e c i f i c h a z a r d s to w a t c h f o r i n c l u d e
d o w n e d p o w e r lines, spilled chemicals, and smoke.
Hazardous materials are involved in more emergenc ies
every year, and even routine garage fires can expose
you to dangerous chemicals. There have been numer-
ous incidents w h e r e photographers have been exposed
to hazardous materials, including poisons and carcino-
gens. No picture is worth a risk to your health. Assume-
that any tank or spilled material is hazardous unless you
are told o t h e r w i s e . At industrial fires, a s s u m e the
smoke is laced with chemicals. At fires or accidents
that could involve hazardous materials, follow these
safety guidelines:

1. Stay uphill and upwind. Heavier-than-air fumes can

flow downhill and displace oxygen. Some deadly
fumes are odorless and colorless.
2. Do not walk into or touch any spilled material.
Even fire-fighting runoff can be contaminated.
3- Avoid inhalation of all gases, fumes, and smoke.
Oddly colored smoke is more than likely from
chemical sources.
4. Do not leave the scene if there is any possibility you
have been contaminated. Decontamination should
be done immediately and at the scene. Go to the
command post or tell an emergency official. Do not
go to a hospital emergency room first.

About Press Passes If you've seen photographers in

movies flash a press pass and gain immediate access to
an event, I can assure you that what you've seen is pure
Hollywood. The press passes you can buy at camera
stores or get through some club memberships are un- Figure 8 - 1 6 If you s u s p e c t h a z a r d o u s materials are
likely to carry m u c h weight in serious circumstances. involved, don't take c h a n c e s . Don't risk your health for a
Almost ever>r law e n f o r c e m e n t jurisdiction issues its photograph. Stay uphill a n d u p w i n d . Do not c o m e in
own press ID and will demand to sec that card. 1 have contact with firefighting runoff. (Rollm Banderob/The Modesto
been ejected from emergency scenes by deputy sheriffs Bee)
w h o refused to honor cards issued by the state highway
patrol and a neighboring county whose border was only
In this context, you might hear the phrase "story
500 yards away. Press IDs are granted to those w h o can
angle." In contrast to camera angle, the story angle is
prove they are legitimate working press, and it's not un-
the aspect of the story that makes it interesting and dif-
usual for a working photographer to carry a half dozen
ferent from other, similar situations. You should discuss
press cards issued by various agencies. Having the card
t h e story angle w i t h t h e p e r s o n w h o assigned t h e
does not guarantee you admission, nor is it a license to
photo, but think about it on your own, too. Sometimes
break any law.
the person w h o assigned the story can't see past the ob-
vious trite photo, and the best story angle may be found
Get the Stay Behind the Story only by some probing on your part.
Quite frankly, too many assignments are good stories Here are a couple of case histories. Photographer
for coverage with words, but they provide little visual Bob Durell was assigned by The Fresno Bee to get a
material. News c o n f e r e n c e s , meetings, awards cere- photo of a bar owner frustrated by the prostitutes w h o
monies. and the like are visual cliches that result in the cruised the street in front of her bar. She said they were
same p h o t o s time after time. The best approach is to driving business away. Durell didn't want t h e cliche
show the cause or the consequences of the story. long-lens shot of the backs of prostitutes walking along
This is w h e r e planning is essential. If you know the the street, and he also wanted to avoid a confrontation
assignment is coming up, you can find a way to photo- between the prostitutes and the bar owner in front of
graph the real reason behind the story. t h e business. W h e n Durell asked her h o w she kept
 is covered by television crews, their lights can help
TABLE 8-2 Cliches to Avoid
you by providing some modeling on the subject's face
• A allegedly "talking" on the phone (or any and by b o o s t i n g t h e illumination as well. If flash is
other fake action) called for, use it, but beware of the flat light from on-
• f w o or ;.vee people supposedly "conferring' c a m e r a flash. On-camera flash is your last resort if
• One person handing a check to another person available light is t o o w e a k and t h e r e is n o way to
• G r a n d o p e n i n g s ( i n c l u d i n g o n e s w i t h the g i a n t place the flash to o n e side. Keep in mind the maxi-
scissors) mum range of your flash.
• People holding trophies
As with any assignment, be on the alert for a differ-
• A group of people lined up against a wall
ent angle. Perhaps the best shot is after the event, w h e n
• Medium shots of people speaking (or singing) into
microphones
the key person is relaxing or leaving.
• Shots of p e o p l e w i t h a r m s c r o s s e d , f a c i n g the Arrivals and departures can be an opportunity for
camera some different shots, but be ready to react in an instant.
• People holding protest signs It only takes a few seconds for the VIP to walk from the
airplane ramp to the limousine or from the car to the
building entrance, and you'll have only one chance to
get a shot. If possible, check out the route in advance
track of the women outside, the bar owner went to the and plan your coverage.
w i n d o w , p u l l e d d o w n t h e blind, a n d a p r o s t i t u t e
walked by. Figure 8-17 is the resulting photo. Meetings
Judy Griesedieck of t h e San Jose Mercury-News
Meetings should be handled the same way you handle
was assigned to get a p h o t o of a professional sky-writing
assignments for speakers and n e w s conferences. The
pilot. T h e assignment sheet instructed Griesedieck to
primary visual element is the faces of the participants.
get a shot of the w o m a n standing next to her plane,
Get some close-ups, filling y o u r frame with the sub-
which is a rather ordinary, person-looking-at-the-camcra
ject's face. Then look for something different. Watch
picture. Knowing that this shot wouldn't tell readers
also for r e a c t i o n s f r o m listeners that symbolize t h e
much, Griesedieck probed until she discovered that the
mood of the event.
woman had a dog that liked to fly. Figure 8-18 is the
photographer's solution. Groups. Handshakes, and A wards
I r e m e m b e r o n e regular a s s i g n m e n t I u s e d to face
Survival Guide to Cliche Events w h e n I worked at a small daily newspaper. There was
a g r o u p of w o m e n w h o held an annual holiday craft
The examples previously discussed are typical situations fair, the proceeds going to a charity. The p a p e r always
faced regularly by photographers w h o try to provide ran a p h o t o of t h e w o m e n with their crafts to help
more than routine photos. Sometimes the event itself is publicize the upcoming event. But it was always t h e
a cliche, and getting a different type of p h o t o is a major same w o m e n , with t h e same crafts. I d m u c h rather
challenge. The following s u g g e s t i o n s will h e l p you have p h o t o g r a p h e d t h e story behind the fund-raiser,
make the best of some essentially nonvisual situations. but the editor wanted this picture. Each year. I d try a
different angle or different lens, but there was no sal-
Politics ctncl News Conferences vaging t h e well-meaning w o m e n and their stuff. I al-
Much of the photography of politics is at staged events ways w o n d e r e d w h o in the g r o u p was good friends
where the candidate or politician is prepared to meet with t h e editor's wife! Fortunately, many publishers
the media. Try to avoid the picture of a person speaking have realized that these p h o t o s arc horrible cliches,
into a microphone. Get extreme close-ups of the speak- but some still s u c c u m b to local political pressure to
er s face, cropping out the mike. Look for animated ex- run such images.
pressions. Look also for what else is going on at the Group pictures can be horridly boring if the p h o t o
p e r i p h e r y of t h e event. Make a f e w long shots that looks like a police line-up. Try to make a p h o t o of the
show the context of the situation. group while members are legitimately involved in some
If the subject of the assignment is a major political activity. If that is impossible, there are at least two ways
figure, you must arrive well in advance, sometimes sev- to improve on the cliche. First, arrange the group so
eral hours to claim a shooting position. Security for na- some of the members are toward the front and some to-
tional political figures has become so tight that you may ward the back; then pose them so their heads are on
not gain access to the best spots without credentials different levels, as in figure 8 - 1 9 . Make the background
arranged in advance. one of the story-telling elements if possible, but beware
To get that tight close-up, you'll need a telephoto of confusing or distracting backgrounds. A second solu-
lens, such as a 180mm or even a 300mm. If t h e event tion is to make individual close-up portraits of the group
 Figure 8 - 1 7 Try to go beyond
the obvious solution to an
assignment. As e x p l a i n e d in the
text, this photo shows the c a u s e
of the w o m a n ' s c o m p l a i n t s to the
police. (Bob Durell/The Fresno Bee)

originally wanted" photographer J u d y Gr.esedieck b r o u g h t

Figure 8 - 1 8 Avoid p h o t o s of p e o p l e s t a n d i n g with.arms b a c k something m u c h better. ( J u d y GriesediecVSan Jose
K d looking at t h e c a m e r a . Instead * Mercury-News)
woman pilot s t a n d i n g next to her plane, the shot the
Figure 8 - 1 9 David Yarnold of the San Jose Mercury-
News says new officers of civic and other such groups
warrant a news brief, not a photo. But if you are required to
make a group photo, set it up so each person's head is on
a slightly different level. Place some of the people toward
the front, some in the back. Be sure the shoulders, and the
knees of those seated, are turned slightly away from the
camera.

members, which can then be laid out in the publication

as a series of small shots. Be sure to coordinate this idea
in advance with the page editor.
The dreaded handshake shot has been laid to rest at
most newspapers, but if you are sent out to make such
a photo, try a close-up portrait of the t w o instead of a
meaningless picture of t w o people clasping hands. Al-
though the shot may not have much more meaning, at
least it does away with the artificiality of t h e handshake. Figure 8 - 2 0 When the story is about a speaker, or is a
If o n e of t h e two has w o n an award, p e r h a p s just a personality profile about someone whose work is not visual,
close-up of that person is the best way to show what he a portrait is sometimes the only practical solution. Avoid
or she looks like. Trophies and plaques all look alike in having people pretend to do things such as talking on the
photos, so if one of these must be in the shot, arrange phone. (Thor Swift)
the composition so the person is the dominant element,
not the award. For example, try putting the award in Concerts and Stage Shows
the background so it is slightly out of focus, while the
In my opinion, p h o t o s of performers performing are
recipient's face is sharp. Spare us the shot of the person
just another cliche. Try to give your readers something
holding the trophy at belt-buckle level, the whole scene
they wouldn't sec from the audience, such as a shot
l o o k i n g like a p i e c e of poorly d o n e t a x i d e r m y . Of
during a rehearsal or an image made during a break that
course, the best p h o t o is the one that shows us the rea-
reveals another side to a performer s personality.
son behind the award.
If you must shoot during the show, remember that
Avoid setting up fake action. Never have p e o p l e pictures of people and microphones don't tell readers
pretend to do something w h e n it is obvious they are much. Look for characteristic gestures and expressions.
posing for t h e camera. That is a blatant fraud. Your Look also for s h o t s that c a p t u r e t h e feeling of t h e
readers k n o w it and deserve better. If t h e r e are ab- event—perhaps a shot of the audience or of some par-
solutely no other options, it is much better to have peo- ticularly enraptured listeners.
ple looking directly into the lens than to pretend to do Photographing at major concerts has become diffi-
something we all know is artificial. cult. if not impossible. Security and concert promoters
The main purpose of the photos in all the situations usually limit or prohibit photography. In the case of a
above is to s h o w us what the people look like. If your superstar, about all you can do is contact the concert
well of ideas runs dry, you can always accomplish that promoters well in advance to arrange for coverage. If
task by making a window-light portrait as explained they are uncooperative, you can complain, but. as ex-
near the end of this chapter. plained in t h e law chapter, it's their show.
 Photographing during a legitimate theatre produc involved, a tclcphoto lens is a must for complete cover-
tion is never advisable. You'll create a disturbance that age Check with court officials well in advance of your
will interfere with t h e s h o w . Make a r r a n g e m e n t s to assignment to see what arrangements must be made.
photograph during a rehearsal w h e r e you can be on
stage for b e t t e r angles. Have t h e cast run through a Weather
scene just for your benefit. It bears repeating, though, The weather is a constant topic in the news. Keep in
that the most interesting shots are usually those that re- mind the basic guidelines for all photojournalism when
veal something not seen in the show itself. looking for weather photos: show how people are in-
volved or affected. One useful technique for gelling
Cameras in Court good weather photos (and some feature photos, loo) is
Not long ago, photographic coverage of courtroom ac- the stake-out. Find a spot where something is likely to
tivities was prohibited. Today, cameras are allowed in- happen, then wait. An obvious example is the intersec-
side state and local courthouses more regularly. (Federal tion that always floods. Sooner or later a pedestrian will
courts remain closed to photography: see chapter 14.) try to leap across, or a car will stall and the owner will
Courts impose rules on the photographer, and you must have to jump into the water 10 abandon ship. One pho-
follow these exactly or you will find yourself outside in tographer I know heads for a certain freeway during
short order. Common rules require the photographer to foggy winter mornings because pile-ups are c o m m o n
sit in one seat for the duration of the proceeding and to then. If you think this approach is rather predatory,
shoot w i t h o u t flash. Some courts have limits on the keep in mind that what you are looking for will happen
noise from t h e camera, and special sound-deadening anyway. You can't prevent it. Your job is to photograph
covers must be used. Because the visual elements of a it, so you might as well be there to get the picture.
c o u r t r o o m arc c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h e f a c e s of t h o s e

I V V V I * * . . A-. ~JP

building w h e n he looked b a c k a n d saw this man. w h o w a s

Figure 8 - 2 1 This shot was made from the newspaper s
late for work, rushing across the parking lot. (Bob Durell/
office. Photographer B o b Durell h a d just e n t e r e d t h e
The Fresno Bee)
 Shooting weather can be as much a technical chal-
lenge as a content one since you are also out in the ele-
ments. Alaskan photojournalist A1 Grillo warns against
bringing your gear in from the cold too quickly because
condensation will form on the lenses. He also says that
batteries suffer in freezing weather, sometimes putting
out only one-fourth their usual capacity. To solve this
problem, he uses a battery pack that he can keep in his
pocket until the last moment. Grillo says that at temper-
atures below -10° F, film gets brittle and will break un-
less you operate your film advance and rewind slowly.
In hot weather, don't leave your cameras or film in
your car. Temperatures inside can reach 130° F and can
ruin film and cause lubricants inside cameras to run into
places w h e r e they can gum up the mechanism. Some
p h o t o g r a p h e r s use a picnic cooler for film transport,
with a package of reusable Blue Ice in the bottom to
keep heat from building up.
Rain is another problem. You can put your camera
in a plastic bag and cut a hole for the lens, which will
help keep the camera from getting flooded. Many cam-
era stores sell an underwater camera housing made of
vinyl that is handy for foul weather. I have yet to find a
way to keep myself completely dry. Rain suits are bulky
and hot and condensation often collects inside the suit.
Some lightweight hiking parkas work reasonably well,
but they are expensive. If you must photograph in the
rain, plan ahead and have dry clothes available. Be sure
to use skylight filters to protect the front elements of
your lenses from blowing sand, sea spray, rain, and acci-
dental scratches.

Features

Although news photos are often made on the run. with

deadlines adding to the pressure, features usually offer a
chance to try n e w ideas and approaches that can't be
risked in the limited time available on a news assignment.
As I said at the beginning of this chapter, features
are hard to define. They can range from the slice-of-life
Figure 8 - 2 2 The slugline for this shot w a s " M u r d e r on
photo that you happen to see while on the way to the
his mind." Businesses are a g o o d s o u r c e of feature ideas.
market to in-depth c o v e r a g e of s o m e o n e struggling
(Alison Portello/Davis Enterprise)
against the odds.

Good Ideas Are the Key hobby, social, and professional interests that could pro-
Good ideas are a key to good feature photos. While you vide leads. The Yellow Pages of the telephone book are
may find some shots just by driving around town, good also a spot to check.
feature photos often take lots of work and preplanning. Keeping a camera with you and ready to shoot is
Read your own paper, looking for notices of upcoming also vital. I remember one time when I was headed for
events, club news, and briefs on local residents. Keep a the auto parts store. I had been working on my car and
small notebook in your pocket, since ideas will p o p into was greasy and in a hurry to get parts. I decided not to
your head at odd moments and they will evaporate un- take my camera. As I pulled up to a stoplight, the car in
less you write them down. Ask people to let you know front of me was an exceptionally small compact car.
if they see something interesting. There are clubs for Through the back window, all I could see was a mass of
Figure 8 - 2 3 A feature can be a slice of life s u c h
as this golfer's fate on a w i n d y day. Photographer
Paul Kuroda saw the golfer struggling to k e e p his hat
on a n d w a i t e d for the right moment. (Paul Kuroda/
The Fresno Bee)

Figure 8 - 2 4
Features can be
serious subjects of
social c o n s e q u e n c e
that are explored in
depth. Projects such
as this m a y be long-
term assignments.
(Robert Gauthier/The San
Diego Union Tribune)
hl.iik-.nui whiu fur. I he entire window was tilled with
ii Out h rear w i n d o w on the sides of the car
« inn the IK J of a giant sheep dog in perfect symme-
try with the car and each other All I could do was sit
and \sait until the light changed

Dealing with People

< re is no easy formula or checklist for making good
c.nure pictures Of the three skills in photojournalism—
technical, perceptual, and human—it is the human skills
that are so important for successful feature photography.
You must first understand people: what motivates them,
h o w they think, and why. You must k n o w w h e n to
speak out and w h e n to keep quiet and blend into the
background. A good feature photographer is sensitive,
compassionate, patient, and tolerant. She finds it easy to Figure 8 - 2 5 Sometimes you are just lucky a n d see
get along with all types of people, is curious but not s o m e t h i n g unfold before your camera. Patience a n d an
nosey, assertive but not aggressive. u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h u m a n nature will help you find these
m o m e n t s . (Brian Davies/Appeal-Democrat)
I suspect that no other job will bring you in con-
tact with as many different personalities as photojour-
n a l i s m . Y o u ' l l d e a l w i t h shy p e o p l e as w e l l as
egomaniacs, bossy types as well as those w h o are al- political or philosophical debate. Your task is not to
most too helpful. But dealing with people is part of the change a person's mind, but to gain his or her confidence.
excitement of t h e business. When you encounter an uncooperative subject, fig-
Shy people arc best approached in a low-key man- ure out the reason and try to eliminate the objections. If
ner. They need to gain confidence in you before they your subject says there isn't enough time, ask for a spe-
will open up. Talk to them for a while before starting to cific amount of time. Make it an odd amount, such as
make pictures. Sometimes, it is best to leave your cam- eight minutes. Then stick to that. Make your protection
eras in your car until you get a signal that the subject shots right away, and w h e n the eight minutes are up.
has accepted you. I remember one assignment w h e n I announce that the time has expired. Often, the subject
had to photograph a four-year-old child. I don't remem- will have discovered that you are a likable person and
ber the story, but I was on deadline and had to get back extend the time.
with the photo in about an hour. The boy took one look If you are pursuing your subject because he or she is
at me. decided he didn t want his picture taken, and re- involved in a negative news story, you may never get co-
treated to his bedroom. 1 knew that if I asked his mom operation. In these cases, you'll have to rely on arrival/
to bring him out, all I would get would be a shot of a departure pictures at the courthouse entrance or the like.
screaming youngster. Instead. I asked t h e m o t h e r to
When shooting kids, particularly in a classroom, tell
tune in a cartoon show on TV Then w e sat on t h e liv-
them who you are and what you are doing. Their curios-
ing room floor and played noisily with the kid's toys. In
ity is so strong that they won't b e able to ignore you.
less than 10 minutes, the boy came out to play with us,
Sometimes, it is best to take one group picture at the be-
and I asked him to show me his tricycle. After he was
ginning to cure the "Hey. take my picture!" syndrome.
on the trike. I got some nice shots. I made the deadline
Let them clown for the camera if that seems appropri-
with 5 minutes to spare.
ate, but don't let that get out of hand. Then, tell them
Bossy types can be a problem unless you let them that if they want to be in the pictures, they must pretend
think they are getting their way. They will have all sorts you are invisible. There is usually one kid w h o will test
of suggestions about h o w you should make the photos. you, and when that happens, be sure to turn your cam-
The best way to deal with this attitude is to shoot some era in another direction so he or she will know you're
oi their ideas (Sometimes your subject's ideas will be serious. After about 20 minutes, they will get used to the
good ones.) Then, you can say something like. "Now camera and lose interest in you. I've never had this tech-
let's tr\ .mother way My editor w a n t s me t o always nique fail, even in junior high schools.
bring back several choices." When you are working with one or t w o people,
I he U< dealing with personality ty pes is to find b e sure to give t h e m positive f e e d b a c k d u r i n g t h e
points ot agr« ment and avoid controversy Get people to shooting session. W h e n you think you have a great
talk about th i-selves and what they are doing. Don't talk shot, say so Always project an air of self-confidence.
about yourself r your problems Never get involved in a Never reveal t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s lest your s u b j e c t s
doubt \ our abilitv.
 TABLE 8-3 Dealing w i t h P e o p l e

Don't
• gossip listen
• get visibly angry find things to agree on
• reveal technical give positive
problems feedback
• argue appear confident
dress appropriately

Windoiv-L ight Porti a its

Many n e w s publications u s e mug shots, close-up pic-
tures of faces that serve as a visual identification of the
individual. But the term mug shot also calls u p memo-
ries of your favorite driver's license p h o t o or a set of po-
lice ID p h o t o s h a n g i n g in t h e l o c a l p o s t o f f i c e
However, there is n o reason w h y a close-up portrait for
n e w s p a p e r u s e should look like an ID card p h o t o . By
making a simple window-light portrait, you can create
an image that will s h o w w h a t the subject of the story
looks like, w i t h o u t making him or her look like an es-
caped convict.
All you need is a w i n d o w and a plain background.
Pose your subject so h e r shoulders are at an angle to the
lens and her face is turned toward the camera. Be sure
the background is free of distractions. If you keep the Figure 8 - 2 6 Soft light coming in a window makes good
background about 10 feet behind your subject and u s e a portrait light Use a plain wall as a background, move in
wide aperture, the background will be out of focus and close with your camera, and be sure the light is soft
its t e x t u r e will disappear. Measure the light carefully. skylight, not hard sunshine. (Trish Ellebracht)
Take a close-up reading f r o m h e r face or use an incident
m e t e r . If t h e s h a d o w side is m o r e t h a n t w o f-stops
darker than t h e bright side, have a helper hold a piece These kinds of shots are usually made with wide-
of w h i t e c a r d so light is r e f l e c t e d f r o m it i n t o t h e angle lenses. A c o m m o n weakness is an elusive focal
shadow side of t h e face, if a card isn't available, you can point. Even though your subject's environment may be
use any light material, such as a pillowcase, bedsheet. cluttered, you must c o m p o s e so there is a dominant ele-
or t a b l e c l o t h . ( B e w a r e of u s i n g b e d s h e e t s f o r back- ment. Be sure the person is in a dominant position in
grounds, t h o u g h . Unless they are ironed and h u n g so the composition. Pay close attention to lighting, looking
they are wrinkle-free, the wrinkles will show.) for light that emphasizes the mood.
Some critics say modern photojournalism relies too
The background can be either light or dark, but be- heavily on this picture style. Too many times this type
ware of a very dark background w h e n your subject's hair of p h o t o is used w h e n the story is about active people.
is also dark. The t w o can blend together and all you'll see Although I think the p h o t o in figure 8 - 2 7 is a good one.
in the final print is a face floating in the darkness. a portrait is a static image. If at all possible, s h o w your
W h e n c o m p o s i n g this type of shot, m o v e in close. subject in action—not posing or acting for the camera,
Shoot a vertical image and c r o p in the viewfinder so but doing what the story is about.
the top f r a m e e d g e is a c o u p l e of inches over the sub- Figure 8 - 2 9 a through 8 - 2 9 c s h o w h o w San Jose
ject's head and t h e b o t t o m is about midchest level (see Mercury-News p h o t o g r a p h e r Cheryl Nuss successfully
fig. 8 - 2 6 . ) solved this problem. The assignment sheet correctly de-
scribed all the wonderful things this man does, but then
Environmental Portraits requested a p h o t o of him in his office. Nuss recognized
The environmental portrait shows the subject with ele- this approach to be a waste of a good opportunity to
ments of his or h e r e n v i r o n m e n t that reveal the per- make photos in a real situation. She called the subject,
son's personality (fig. 8 - 2 7 ) . arranged to spend time with him. and the resulting pho-
tos prove the time to have been well spent.
Figure 8 - 2 7 The lighting in this environmental portrait Lisarraga, b o x i n g for five months, has a record of eight
helps create a strong m o o d . Twelve-year-old Franciso w i n s a n d three losses. (Tom Spitz)

Caption Information

You must get caption information for every photo you

make. If at all possible, get enough information to write
a small story to go with y o u r p h o t o s . Although you
might never be asked to write such a piece, as a com-
plete journalist, you should be ready to do so.
Names are the first priority. If there are recogniz-
able people in your photos, you must make every effort
to get their full n a m e s — n o t just n i c k n a m e s or first
names, but first and last names. Find out their addresses
and, if possible, p h o n e numbers in case questions arise
later. Thoroughness cannot be overemphasized. Be ac-
curate! Check spellings with your subjects—some com-
mon names have many spelling variations. Too many
times problems arise with identification of persons in
photos, and in some cases mistaken identity could lead
to legal problems for you and your publication.

Figure 8 - 2 8 S p a c e for c a p t i o n information is p r o v i d e d

on most publications' film-processing envelopes. S u p p l y i n g
c o m p l e t e , a c c u r a t e c a p t i o n information is vital
 Sun Jose M e r c u r y News
PHOTOGRAPHER N U S S a v a i l a b l e UMI

ASSIGNMENT Portrait of Herman Hyatt, pediatrician, lawyer, and pastor of San Jose's
Mt. Herman African M e t h o d i s t RaEpiscor.il C h u r c h
LOCATO
IN INClUDINGADDftSS. CROSS STRUT "AAPS ETC
12 S o u t h 15th St. Suite 202, san jose
REQUESTED BY Of Sic COO
i® BU01„„ NOW
FlElD CONTACT H e r m a n Hyatt
TEE
lPHONf 295-2693
PUBLICATION DAK
mid April
APPROVED BY_
(PiCTURl tOiTORi
STORY S U M M A R Y ATTACH ARTlClt 'I AVA&ABU
D r . H e r m a n H y a t t w i l l b e p r o f i l e d i n the S a t u r d a y R e l i g i o n and E t h i c s
section as a man offmany callings. H e ! s a p e d i a t r i c i a n by t r a d e , b u t
a l s o has a law d e g r e e and is p a s t o r of the M t . H e r m o n M e t h o d i s t
E p i s c o p a l C h u r c h , a small b l a c k c h u r c h w i t h 60 m e m b e r s that w a s
f o u n d e d in 1 9 8 1 and r e n t s s p a c e from S a n J o s e ' s C h u r c h o f t h e L i v i n g
God for its Sunday services. H y a t t is a l s o a c t i v e i n t h e N A A C P a n d
t h e I n t e r d e n o m i n a t i o n a l M i n i s t e r ' s A l l i a n c e in S a - J o s e .

W e n e e d p h o t o s o f h i m in h i s d o c t o r ' s o f f i c e s u r r o u n d e d b y c l u t t e r ,
diplomas and tigers. The nan c o l l e c t s tigers - stuffed, ceramic,
e t c . a n d h i s o f f i c e is f u l l o f t h e m .

(a)

(b)
Figure 8 - 2 9 (a) Here is the a s s i g n m e n t sheet
d i s c u s s e d on p a g e 153. In t h e s e c o n d p a r a g r a p h on the
sheet, the p h o t o g r a p h e r is a s k e d to m a k e a p h o t o of this
man in his office with his d i p l o m a s a n d stuffed tiger
collection, (b) Instead of a static photo of this m a n in his
office, p h o t o g r a p h e r Cheryl Nuss found a better way to tell
us about this person, (c) Sometimes a pair of photos is a
better way to tell the story. W h e n this photo is c o m b i n e d
with (b) a n d a g o o d cutline, w e c a n learn m u c h more
a b o u t this person than by looking at a simple portrait Th^s (c)
m a n is a pediatrician a n d a preacher a n d also has a iaw
degree, ((b) & (c): Cheryl Nuss/San Jose Mercury-News
 I'se c o m m o n s e n s e on c r o w d shots. Obviously, if W h e n shooting n e w s , w o r k fast. You never k n o w
there ar >0 people in your shot, you can't get all their h o w the event will unfold, so make a f e w shots as soon
names But if several are featured p r o m i n e n t l y in the as you arrive. T h e n , after you have t h e s e p r o t e c t i o n
composition, get their names. shots, look for a different way to tell the story. At all
In addition to names, jot d o w n the time and place times, be alert for that peak m o m e n t .
the shot w a s taken. Include your name on the caption Your professional behavior is just as important as
sheet and explain anything that might not be clear in your skill with the camera. The way you deal with peo-
the photo. Don't waste time stating the obvious. Don't ple and your personal appearance affect your subjects
say "Smith looks at J o n e s . " We can see that. Tell us and. through t h e m , the final results. If you act like a
which o n e is Smith and w h i c h is J o n e s and why Smith is professional, you will get cooperation and respect. Be
looking at Jones. assertive, but k n o w w h e n to be low-key.
Always get c o m p l e t e caption information. Double-
c h e c k t h e s p e l l i n g of n a m e s , e v e n t h o s e that s e e m
Summary obvious.
H e r e arc s o m e t i p s to k e e p in m i n d w h i l e on
T h e first step in covering n e w s and feature assignments assignment:
is to k n o w your audience. You must look out for their
interests, not yours. If you u n d e r s t a n d the issues that 1. Make camera operation second nature.
are important to them, you'll be able to recognize the 2. Keep e q u i p m e n t to a minimum.
images that will speak to that audience.
3. Don't say "hold it."
P l a n n i n g is as i m p o r t a n t to p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m as
4. Keep moving.
lenses and film. Plan for the long term as well as tomor-
row. be sure to read the publication you arc shooting 5. Don't operate in a field of d o u b t (either yours or
for. and learn to anticipate the moment. Determine the your subject's).
e s s e n c e of t h e story, t h e n d e c i d e w h a t p a r t of that 6. Set technical elements before the shooting session.
e s s e n c e can be s h o w n o r symbolized visually. S h o w
people doing things rather than posing for the camera.
Endnotes
T h e three basic s h o t s of photojournalism, t h e long
shot, the medium shot, and the close-up, should be a
1. Milton Feinberg. Techniques of Photojournalism.
part of e v e r y s h o o t . K e e p l o o k i n g f o r t h e s e as y o u
( N e w York: J o h n Wiley & Sons. 1970), 9 - 4 .
work. Don't back yourself into a visual c o r n e r by fail-
ing to cover the event thoroughly. Be sure to look for 2. Ed Dooks. "Unending Debate" (letter), News
d i f f e r e n t angles a n d . most i m p o r t a n t , t h e p e a k mo- Photographer. August 1986, 34.
ment. the instant w h e n everything c o m e s t o g e t h e r in 3- Mary Lou Foy, "On Covering Funerals'" (letter). News
o n e image. Photographer. August 1986. 34.
 ^ c h a p t e r

v 9

Sports
OUTLINE

The Challenge of Sports Golf

Photography Skiing
Action and Feature Tennis
Preparations Track and Field
Equipment Ice Hockey
Basic Techniques Boxing and Wrestling
T h e Big T h r e e : F o o t b a l l , Auto and Motorcycle Races
Baseball, a n d Basketball Equestrian Events
Football Water Sports
Baseball Shooting Under Water
Basketball Wildlife
Other Sports Summary

Soccer
Gymnastics

u
S P O R T S IS T H E T O Y DEPARTMENT O F LIFE.

— J I M M Y C A N N O N , SPORTS WRITER
The Ch i JC o f S p o r t s P h o t o g r a p h y It would take a whole book to discuss all the details
of covering every sport. What can be done here is to get
you started and to give you practical advice that will help
Grea: - 1 - photography is easy. All you need is a thor-
you get protection shots. Protection shots, you will re-
orn: wiedge of the sport and the individual players,
member from chapter 8. are photographic insurance—
. ; u i uipment, the right shooting position, quick
angles and moments that are fairly certain to result in
. nd good timing. With study, you can learn the
usable pictures. After getting a few good basic shots,
urcc I he last two are best developed by practice.
then try unusual angles or other techniques that may or
It ill probably take a lot of practice before you
may not s u c c e e d . Be as creative as you can, but be
ourself at t h e sidelines of t h e Super Bowl or
sure you have something your editor can use before tak-
v Jing for position at the Olympic Games. Hometown
ing chances.
u.tmes can be filled with just as much action as national
playoffs, and the local photos you can make can be just
as exciting. A great place to learn is at high school Action and Feature
events. It is easier to get good shooting positions at The a c t i o n shot is t h e staple of s p o r t s coverage. A
these games, and because the officials usually exert less friend of mine w h o shoots for Associated Press says the
c o n t r o l you'll have m o r e f r e e d o m t o m o v e a r o u n d . job of the sports action photographer is to get a good
Make contact with the coach several days in advance picture of the significant moment. This is a major chal-
and arrange for a pass. Be sure to thank the coach by lenge. You aren't sent to the game as an artist; a beauti-
sending a couple of prints from your best shots. ful picture isn't enough. You are sent as a journalist.

Figure 9-1 Sports p h o t o g r a p h y includes features s u c h are not just the result of luck, but require a thinking
a s this shot of a or- g football team. These types of p h o t o s p h o t o g r a p h e r b e h i n d the c a m e r a . (Mike Penn)
and you must constantly be alert for the ke\ play that press information official at the event for tips on w h o
turns the game around, clinches the title, or sets a new t o w a t c h . P e r h a p s s o m e o n e is e x p e c t e d to break a
record. It can be frustrating w h e n the best p h o t o is of record, or maybe a certain player has a personal trade-
an insignificant play and t h e i m p o r t a n t m o m e n t s es mark m a n e u v e r that you should w a t c h for.
cape your lens. Robert Hanashiro, an award-winning p h o t o g r a p h e r
Don't forget the sports feature. This shot show s us w h o has shot almost every sport from small-town bas-
the human-interest side of t h e e v e n t — t h e c o n t e s t a n t ketball to the Olympics, says
warming up. enjoying victory, or suffering defeat some-
times the best shots c o m e after the game is over. Read your o w n paper! You d he surprised how many
journalists don't read t h e paper they work for. Most
s p o r t s sections run prc-stories or player features before
Preparations
t h e game. Study these stories. Often they will tell you a
Just as the athlete prepares for competition, you'll bring lot (especially about the opposition which, if they arc
back better pictures if you are also prepared. from out of the area, you may k n o w nothing about).
First, m e m o r i z e t h e s e three rules for g o o d sports Often you can find out w h o the key players are. what
coverage: (1) k n o w the sport; (2) k n o w the sport: and type of offense they run. and so on. The more
(3) k n o w the sport. It's obvious that you must under- information you have on these teams, the more prepared
you are to shoot the game.
stand the basic c o n c e p t of t h e g a m e , b u t you can t
stop there. You n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d the strategies of
I r e m e m b e r learning this lesson t h e hard way. I
the teams or the individuals and w h a t type of action
used to shoot high school football games along with the
might be e x p e c t e d in certain situations. If you k n o w
s p o r t s e d i t o r for a small n e w s p a p e r . T h e editor also
w h o the key players are, you can k e e p your eye (and
took along a camera, and w e would usually stand near
lens) o n t h e m . C h e c k w i t h y o u r s p o r t s editor or the
each o t h e r along the sidelines. I'd shoot e v e n play like
crazy, and this editor would only occasionally raise his
camera and take o n e frame. He'd shoot o n e or t w o rolls
per game and always get better shots than I did. It fi-
nally d a w n e d on me that he out-shot me b e c a u s e he
knew the teams, their players, and techniques. While I
was trying to follow the ball through my lens, and often
getting fooled, he had a fairly accurate (as accurate as
you can be with high school football!) idea of w h a t was
going to h a p p e n .

Credentials and Shooting Positions Press creden-

tials for m a j o r events are usually arranged well in ad-
vance and offered to credentialcd media only. If you are
on assignment, by all means apply for a pass. If you are
just shooting for yourself, h o w e v e r , be considerate of
t h o s e w h o are working the game and shoot from the
stands. At many events, space in the best shooting spots
is limited, and the working pros don't need extra pho-
tographers in their way.
At high school and many small college games, you'll
have n o problems getting a place at the preferred van-
tage points. At bigger e v e n t s you will have to arrive
early to stake out your s h o o t i n g spot. Credentials at
major events are often limited to certain areas. At auto
races, for example, it is not unusual to need separate
passes for t h e pit. infield, and e a c h s h o o t i n g t o w e r
around the course.

Equipment
Figure 9 - 2 The action shot is the basic sports photo
Getting good action shots requires a knowledge of the
It is the photographer, not the camera, that makes the
sport and the teams, the ability to anticipate, and quick pictures, and some of the most famous images in the
reflexes. (Gene Lieb/Turlock Journal) history of p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m w e r e t a k e n w i t h s i m p l e
 lenses, aside from their bulk and weight, is their price.
You can buy a rather nice used car for what it costs to
o w n one of those monsters. If you can afford it. enjoy.
If you can't, special lenses can sometimes be rented.
Check with camera stores in major cities.
Holding long lenses steady can be difficult, particu-
larly those over 300mm. As the focal length increases,
f o c u s and camera m o v e m e n t b e c o m e m o r e critical.
Many photographers rely on a monopod, which takes
t h e strain off t h e i r a r m s and s u p p o r t s t h e c a m e r a .
Tripods are useful, but only if you're shooting from a
spot w h e r e you w o n ' t have to move and w o n ' t be in
anyone's way, such as a p h o t o box in the stands.
Z o o m l e n s e s can b e u s e f u l f o r s o m e s p o r t i n g
events, but most of t h e m d o n ' t z o o m past 200mm.
which is not quite long enough for field events such
as football and baseball. Further, their maximum aper-
ture is usually relatively small, such as f / 3 . 5 or f / 4 ,
which limits their use to daylight events. You might
Figure 9 - 3 Planning a h e a d i n c l u d e s a r r a n g i n g for try a zoom lens if you are stuck in one shooting posi-
special viewpoints. Photographer Peter Haley m a d e this tion yet must cover action in several different spots.
shot f r o m a catwalk atop the K i n g d o m e in Seattle. He said Zooms are particularly useful for track and field as you
the s t a d i u m m a n a g e m e n t w a s reluctant to grant a c c e s s , can follow an athlete and zoom to keep his or her size
but by a p p r o a c h i n g team officials w i t h his idea he got the constant in t h e frame. It takes a lot of practice to be
OK. (Peter Haley/The News Tribune. Tacoma WA) able to zoom and focus at t h e same time, though. In
t h e beginning, you will need to set your zoom long
before the action happens.
equipment. Good sports photos are a lot easier to make,
though, if you have the advantages of telephoto lenses Of course, every other type of lens has its place in
and other specialized gear. sports photography. I'll make some recommendations
Although you can get by w i t h o u t the fancy stuff in the section for each sport, and you'll discover your
you see some professionals carrying, a telephoto lens is favorite choices as you cover the various events. The
a must. Most sporting events are such that you can't get best lens in any situation is the one that works for you.
close to the athletes, and photos taken with a normal
focal length lens will require so much enlargement that Auto-Focus Cameras Auto-focus c a m e r a s a r e a
the image will fall apart technically. Remember, w h e n b o o n to t h e sports p h o t o g r a p h e r . Early a/f cameras
you enlarge an image, you enlarge its defects, too. Grain did not focus fast enough to keep up with the action,
and lack of sharpness add little to your photos. Even if but n e w e r e q u i p m e n t has met the challenge. Using an
the grain and sharpness were acceptable, you'd proba- a/f camera still requires skill on your part, h o w e v e r .
bly discover that the enlarger won't blow up t h e image Some models have a small focusing spot in the center
as much as needed anyway. of the frame; others have systems that follow your eye
Of course, the telephoto reaches out to the distant as you look at different places in t h e viewfinder. In
action, but its minimal depth of field also isolates the the case of t h e former, you'll have to frame tightly to
player from distracting backgrounds. Remember the dis- k e e p the focusing spot on your subject. If t h e subject
cussion of depth of field in chapter 4. By using a tele- moves to t h e side of the frame, your focusing mech-
p h o t o lens at a wide aperture, backgrounds are easily anism could end up focusing on the background. Be
thrown out of focus. sure you k n o w the strengths and weaknesses of your
particular system.
A good all-around c h o i c e f o r m a n y s p o r t s is a
SOOmm or 400mm lens. These sizes are perfect for base-
ball and football and work well for soccer, tennis, and Motor Drives Many beginning photographers think
many other o u t d o o r sports Lenses with a maximum that a m o t o r drive is a must for covering sports. Not
aperture of f/4 to f/4.5 arc common and will work well true. It helps, but look back to some of the great sports
for you if you shoot day games. The huge lenses you see photos taken in the days of the Speed Graphic, w h e n
many pros carrying have wide maximum apertures of every shot required a separate piece of film in its own
f/2 or f/2 s Thesi lenses are almost a must for night film holder. Those photographers succeeded because
events w h e n low light levels require as m u c h light- they w e r e able to anticipate the action. You must de-
capturing ability as you can get. The drawback to these velop the same talent, even with a motor drive.
 basic Techniques
First, arrive early so NOU can check the lighting. At night or
indoor events, you should be able to get onto the field or
arena floor to take light meter readings An incident meter
is useful for this because, as you recall from chapter 3. it
reads the light as it comes from the source without the in-
fluences of the subject. Take meter readings from the
edges of the playing area as well as the center; there can
sometimes be a big. yet visually unnoticeable, difference.
Artificial lighting at a particular arena usually stays
the same. Therefore, k e e p a file of e x p o s u r e informa-
tion so you'll r e m e m b e r what works best. If you find
yourself shooting an out-of-town game, c h e c k with the
local n e w s p a p e r ' s photographers or the stadium's press
relations office for any special tips they can offer.
Figure 9 - 4 Photographers scatter as the San Francisco
Second, check the shooting positions. If the event is
Giants' Will Clark takes a dive into the p h o t o box while
drawing major coverage, you might have to pick a spot
chasing a ball. Sports p h o t o g r a p h y can be hazardous to
the p h o t o g r a p h e r ! (Martin Klimek/Marin Independent Journal)
and stay there to k e e p s o m e o n e else from claiming it.
(At some events, shooting spots arc assigned by stadium
m a n a g e m e n t . ) C h e c k for unusual shooting positions,
such as particularly high or low angles, or side views.
Why? There are several reasons. The primary o n e is Catwalks and towers provide different perspectives, but
a matter of timing. During a m o t o r drive sequence, the be doubly careful w h e n u p there. A lens dropped from a
shutter is closed, not o p e n , most of t h e time, w h i c h catwalk could be fatal to someone below.
means that the odds are good the peak action will hap- Speaking of shooting positions, if you are covering
p e n w h e n t h e s h u t t e r is closed. I suggest, therefore, an event with a n o t h e r p h o t o g r a p h e r from your o w n
that you learn to shoot the m o m e n t you w a n t to cap- publication, d o not stand side by side. You'll both come
ture. Then you can let the m o t o r make subsequent pho- back with the same shots. Work a different side of the
tos in the instant that follows. Even this technique isn't field. Remember, for photographers, a sports event is
necessary on e v e n ' play, b e c a u s e the follow-through not a social event.
just isn't always w o r t h photographing, and editors don't Before the game is also a good time to get close-ups
run sequences of p h o t o s as often as you might think. of athletes warming up. These shots can c o m e in hand)
A good use for a m o t o r is w h e n you want to make if an athlete does exceptionally well and you don't man-
several p h o t o s a fraction of a second or so apart. Use age to get an action shot of h i m o r her during the event.
the m o t o r to w i n d t h e film for you so you will be ready be sure to s t o p by the press b o x and pick u p a pro-
for the next shot. Those of us w h o are lcft-eved particu- gram or speed card. A speed card is a single sheet with
larly appreciate this feature because w e must m o v e the projected starting line-ups and c o m p l e t e rosters both
camera away from o u r focusing eye to operate the film- numerically and alphabetically. Don't d e p e n d on the re-
advance lever if ther e is n o motor. porter to provide your IDs.
Sometimes over-use of the m o t o r is a sign of inse-
c u r i t y o n t h e p a r t of t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r L e a r n to Shooting Tips In general, watch for faces as much as
watch for the peak m o m e n t , make follow-up shots if possible. The face is the primary human communicator.
you think it is necessary, and use your k n o w l e d g e of Shoot not only the action, but also the reaction (see fig.
the sport a n d t h e event to find t h o s e i m p o r t a n t im- 9-6). Sometimes a p h o t o of an athlete reacting to a win
ages of key m o m e n t s . or loss says more about the game than anything else.
Another reason for going easy on the m o t o r drive is When shooting action, look for the peak moment—
one of logistics. T h e m o r e you shoot, the more photos the instant w h e n the athlete has put forth maximum en-
you must process and edit. At a major event, the publi- ergy. The peak moment of a jump, for example, is w h e n
cation may be set u p to process and edit as much as the the jumper has reached the highest point but hasn't yet
p h o t o g r a p h e r s can s h o o t , but at r o u t i n e g a m e s and started back d o w n .
u n d e r tight d e a d l i n e s p r o c e s s i n g and editing are n o When you first start shooting sports, you might be
small consideration. It's m u c h better to c o m e back to disappointed at the n u m b e r of shots that d o n ' t w o r k
the office with a f e w rolls of carefully made photos than out. particularly those taken at fast-paced events. If you
dozens of rolls of motorized m u d d l e . So if you d o n ' t see a shot and you haven't time to focus precisely, push
have a motor, d o n ' t despair, and if you have one. use it the button anyway—you might get lucky. Accept t h e
with careful intent, not reckless abandon fact that a certain percentage of your shots will be fuzzy
Figure 9 - 5 The f a c e is the primary h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t o r . Try to c a p t u r e
faces. By the way. b e c a u s e ihere are fewer restrictions on your m o v e m e n t , high
school g a m e s s u c h as this offer m a n y opportunities for p h o t o s that you won't get
at professional g a m e s . (Chad Surmick/Press Democrat. Santa Rosa. CA)

Figure 9 - 6
Reactions are
s o m e t i m e s as
important as the
action. In this
case, these girls
were so e x c i t e d
about c a t c h i n g the
ball they m i s s e d a
c h a n c e for a triple
play. (Terry
Pierson/Neighbors
Publications)

Figure 9 - 7 Spectacular plays aren't the only action to

w a t c h for. (Rollin Banderob/Redding Record Searchlight)
 However, the editor wants pictures that are sharp H t h e g a m e is b e i n g broadcast, you can carry a
You can increase your average by using the techniques personal radio and let the a n n o u n c e r h e l p you k e e p
discussed in chapter i. such as zone focusing and prefo- u p with action. After a play, the a n n o u n c e r will prob-
cusing. Follow focusing, focusing the lens as the action ably i d e n t i f y key p l a y e r s If you h e a r a lot of talk
moves within y o u r frame, is very important, and you a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r p l a y e r , that s a tip-off t h a t you
should practice this technique. Just as a trombone player should try to get some action s h o t s of him or her.
knows w h e r e the instrument's slide should be for a cer- T h e following sections list s o m e tips f o r specific
tain note, you must k n o w w h e r e the lens focusing ring sports, but k e e p in mind that the ideas I offer for o n e
should be for a particular distance. Find a busy intersec- sport might be just as effective for another. At the fun-
tion and practice focusing on passing cars No need to damental level, the keys to g o o d sports p h o t o g r a p h y
shoot pictures—just practice focusing the lens. are universal.
Microprisms and split-image aids on focusing
screens o f t e n go dark w h e n used with telephoto lenses,
so s o m e photojournalists replace the screens in their T h e Big T h r e e : Football, Baseball,
cameras with plain mat screens that they find easier to and Basketball
use. If your camera does not have this option, you can
still use t h e mat area around the central focusing aids. A survey o n c e s h o w e d that 6 0 percent of Americans arc
interested in pro football, and 59 percent are interested
In addition to skilled focusing, anticipating the per-
in baseball. 1 Nationwide, basketball, both college and
fect m o m e n t is important. It will take a half a second or
pro, draws the attention of about 30 percent of our citi-
so for your brain to tell your finger to press the button,
zens. Readers w a n t to read about their favorite teams,
and a f e w m o r e t e n t h s of a s e c o n d for the shutter to
and it's our job as journalists to report the action.
open. If you wait until you see the perfect moment, it
will be too late.
Football
Framing is another factor you must consider before it
is time to press the shutter. Some shots are better framed Although baseball has b e e n called the national pas-
horizontally, others vertically. Plan ahead, since the time time, I think football could be called the national pas-
it takes to twist the camera around could cost you the sion. To d o the best job of c a p t u r i n g the e s s e n c e of
shot. For example, many basketball photos are best shot the game, find out w h o the key players arc and
as vertical compositions, and a lot of football plays are w h e t h e r they tend to pass or run the ball. Learn some
best shot as horizontal compositions. Hut you might want game strategy, such as w h e n a team is most likely to
to use vertical framing for a football pass receiver or a run. pass, or punt.
horizontal frame for midcourt basketball action.

Keeping Notes Taking n o t e s is just as important as

shooting pictures. A great shot of u n k n o w n players and
an u n k n o w n play is useless. Good sports photographers
will give as m u c h attention to this as they will to the
photography itself. Be accurate. Of course, you'll have
picked up a program and s p e e d card from the press box
before the event so. in t h e case of team sports, you'll
have a record of players' names and jersey numbers.
Don't count on being able to see jersey numbers in
every shot. Make a n o t e after the play so you can refer to
it later. It is also good practice to shoot the scoreboard
after any major play and at least o n c e on even- roll. This
shot provides you with a visual clue and can help you
and the sports editor determine w h i c h play is which.
If t h e r e is n o s c o r e b o a r d , o r you need to record
some o t h e r information, you can write it in your note-
book and then take a close-up shot of the note. You've
probably seen motion picture photographers use a slate
to identify take one. scene two. and so on. Some pho-
t o g r a p h e r s u s e m i c r o c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r s for k e e p i n g
notes, but the drawback is that you have to listen to the Figure 9 - 8 The best shot is not always a peak action
t a p e later, and t h e r e may not be time. If y o u ' r e not moment. Here the winning q u a r t e r b a c k (r) reacts to his
working with a writer, stop by the press box after the tenth sack of the g a m e by players his team has still soundly
event to get the statistics and official results. defeated. (KurtHegre)
 4-yard restraining line

w/mmimm
NCAA bench area | _
T 1 1 i T" T
10 40 50 40 20 10

10 20 30 40 50 40 20 10

NFL b e n c h area

Figure 9 - 9 Under NFL and NCAA rules, photographers the 30-yard lines in the NFL. Photographers must walk
must stay four yards back from the sidelines. The players behind this area to get to the other end of the field.
team area is between the 25-yard lines in the NCAA and

The stands provide a good vantage point, but un- During the game, pay careful attention to w h a t ' s
less you have a very long t c l c p h o t o lens, such as a going on. but don't root for your favorite team. I know
1000mm. the action will be too small in t h e frame. one photographer who always ends up cheering for his
Even if you could b o r r o w such a lens, its relatively h o m e team w h e n he should be shooting pictures.
small maximum aperture (surely not wider than f/4 or I shouldn't have to warn you about players heading in
f/5.6) might not admit enough light for night games. your direction. If your eye is glued to your viewfinder
The most c o m m o n s p o t for s h o o t i n g football is and you don't realize h o w close the players are, you
along the sidelines. Beware of t h e restricted zone in might find yourself underneath several hundred pounds
front of the players' bench. It's usually marked off with of m u s c l e and sweat. Some p h o t o g r a p h e r s learn to
a line, and you'll have to stay out of this zone. NCAA shoot with both eyes open, o n e looking through the
(college football) rules set the bench area between the v i e w f i n d e r and the o t h e r watching for hazards. This
25-yard lines; in the NFL, the bench area is between the technique takes a bit of practice, but it's useful.
30-yard lines. Walk around behind the players to get to Your position along the sidelines is a key to getting
the other side. Also, there may be a second line painted g o o d shots. T h e tried-and-true s h o o t i n g position is
on the field four yards outside the playing field sideline. about 10 yards ahead of the line of scrimmage. This
This second line is the limit for photographers. At some spot has its hazards, though, because the officials sta-
fields, this limit is rigidly enforced; at others you can get tioned beside the line of scrimmage, the line judge and
right up to the sideline. Photographers are sometimes the head linesman, often end up in front of your lens.
required to kneel w h e n shooting along the sidelines so When the play begins, try to follow the ball. You'll be
that people behind t h e m can see t h e field. In these fooled often enough—after all, deception is one job of
cases, you may find it helpful to wear k n e e pads. At the offensive team—but if you've done your homework,
some important games, you may be assigned to a partic- you'll succeed, too. On a pass, don't follow the ball, but
ular side of the field, but usually, you'll have a choice. swing your lens to the receiver and use the second or
For day games, your decision should be based on which two before he catches it to focus. (This technique is
side has the better light. also useful for any o t h e r sport involving a ball in the
air.) Sometimes you can anticipate a pass and move
The weather can be a problem, and the challenge
downfiekl to be closer to the receiver. You'll just have
here is to dress to stay warm and dry yet still be able to
to rely on luck to put you on the right side of the field.
move freely. Sometimes, wet and cold is the lot of the
If the team has a star receiver, and particularly if he's
football photographer. If it rains, put a plastic bag over
working on a record, you might concentrate on being
your camera to keep it dry A loose-fitting parka with
in the right place to get the record-breaking moment.
many pockets is very useful.
 Take two or three camera bodies with just the two or
three lenses you need for the job.
You 11 need a tclcphoto lens to get close to the ac-
tion. and a 300mm lens is a good choice. This focal
length lets you move in visually yet still leaves some
room in the frame to show the overall play. A longer
focal length, such as a 500mm or a 600mm, will be
needed to isolate individual players. It takes some prac-
tice to focus these extremely long lenses though, and
your percentage of sharp pictures will be rather low at
first. If you must work with shorter lenses, particularly
those shorter than 200mm, you'll have to wait for the
action to come to you. If you try to shoot all the way
across the field with. say. a 135mm lens, you'll have to
enlarge the image so much that you'll probably end up
with objectionable grain and loss of sharpness. If all you
Figure 9 - 1 0 Due to the helmets a n d f a c e guards, have is a normal lens, then you'll have to use a tech-
getting g o o d facial e x p r e s s i o n s from football players is nique that was c o m m o n before high-speed films and
difficult, but still s o m e t h i n g to try for. (Glenn Moore/Turlock fast telephoto lenses were available. Find a spot along
Journal) the sidelines ahead of the line of scrimmage and wait
until the action comes close enough to you to fill the
frame as m u c h as possible. Sure, you'll miss many plays,
Beware of bringing back nothing m o r e than the but chances are good that with concentration and good
usual standard shots of the running back earn ing the timing, you'll get something.
ball or getting tackled. Watch for possible quarterback
sacks and pass receptions. Keep in mind the strategic An important technical consideration is to use a
situation on the field. When an offensive team moves wide aperture combined with a telephoto lens to pro-
within about 20 to 30 yards of the end zone, it is in duce minimum depth of field. Because there is usually a
scoring position, and you should move downfield to be lot of clutter along the sidelines, this technique is im-
ready for a possible t o u c h d o w n . When the team gets portant for separating the players from the background.
within 10 to 15 yards of the goal, consider moving to At night games, minimum depth of field is easy to get,
the end of the field to get the action coming toward since you wrill more than likely be shooting at the lens'
you. If t h e offense is playing near its o w n goal line, maximum aperture. But at day games, bright sunshine
watch the defense since it could get possession of the might require an f-stop of 11 or 16 with 400-specd film.
ball and change the course of the game. At night games, If you face this problem you can switch to a slower-
double-check your exposure in the end zones, as these speed film or use a neutral-density filter. Either of these
areas typically are not as bright as midfield. options will require a wider aperture, which would re-
duce your depth of field. The filter will reduce the light
Don't forget that there are pictures off t h e field,
passing through the lens and therefore make the focus-
too. The coaches and players on the bench will be re-
ing screen darker.
acting. so use this chance to get tight close-ups of their
faces. One beginners' mistake is to shoot too many pic- Generally speaking, use the fastest shutter speed
tures of c h e e r l e a d e r s , mascots, and fans at r o u t i n e you can. Unless you are looking for blur as a special ef-
games. If the event is a big one. there might be a place fect. football photos should be sharp and blur-free. If the
in the p a p e r ' s coverage for these photos. Otherwise, light is weak and you have to use a speed of 1/250 sec-
one or two p h o t o s will be run and they will probably be ond or less, wait until the action comes straight toward
action shots or sideline reactions. Don t force your edi- you and side-to-side motion is minimized. This will re-
tor to w a d e t h r o u g h a b a t c h of useless p i c t u r e s in duce blur since subjects moving toward the camera look
search of what is needed. less blurry than those moving across the field of view.
I have seen some high school fields where the light
Equipment Sports p h o t o g r a p h y e x p e r t Robert was so weak there was no way to shoot without flash.
Hanashiro advises photographers to take only what will In these cases, all you can do is wait for the play to
be needed to the sidelines. come within the range of your flash. And unless you
All a camera bag does at a football game is weigh have a high-powered one. that range is probably limited
you down and get in the way. It doesn t help you while to a maximum of 20 to 25 feet.
you're following t h e action and trying to balance a Remember that football is a contact sport, so look
400mm lens on a monopod. And putting that camera for images that show that contact. Look for good defen-
bag on the ground on the sidelines is a definite no-no sive and offensive moves. It's not unusual for a beginner.
particul.i''i\ nc without much knowledge of the sport, face w h e n shooting from first, and the c a t c h e r ' s face
to c o m e h.ick with lots of p h o t o s of players r u n n i n g will be toward you w h e n you are near third.
alone d o w n the field, side views of the line of scrim- T h e outfield is tough to shoot n o matter w h e r e you
mage before • he ball is snapped, player pile-ups after the sit because the players arc so far away. You'll need a
pe.ik m o m e n t has passed, and so o n . Remember that. 6 0 0 m m or 1000mm lens for these players, and a tripod
,ust as in learning to play a musical instrument, good or m o n o p o d will be necessary to hold it steady. For the
sp- >rts photography takes concentration and practice. infield and the bases, a 300mm is a g o o d choicc if you
can get fairly close to the foul line. If you shoot from
Baseball the stands o r a p h o t o b o x . you might need a 400mm.
Baseball can be tough to shoot. T h e game might be a Beware of shooting from behind a fence because it
pitching duel or a battle of strategy that doesn't involve will s h o w u p in the photos. If you can get right u p to it,
a lot of spectacularly visual plays. You can wait patiently you can p o k e your lens through a gap in the wire, but
for several innings and then have a flurry of action on be sure the entire front of the lens is unobstructed.
o n e play, followed by little else. In some ways, this pace Bccausc so m u c h of the action h a p p e n s at the bases,
works in your favor, since there is time to prepare for you can set up one camera on a tripod and aim it at, say,
action and you can usually predict w h e r e it will happen. second base. Keep it focused and ready to go. You don't
However, if > ou let your mind wander, fate will get even even have to look through the lens. Just reach over and
with you and you'll miss an important play. p u s h the button. I o n c e k n e w a photographer w h o used
this technique by aiming a separate camera at each base.
Shooting Positions The most c o m m o n shooting He had rigged u p the cameras' motor drives to foot ped-
spot is along the first- o r third-base line. There is a lot of als so he could cover the action at any given base or
action at first base, and if you station yourself t h e r e , bases by pressing the pedals with his feet while shooting
look for pick-off attempts. If the runner makes a diving infield action with a hand-held camera.
return, he'll be c o m i n g right at you. This is also a good If you d o n ' t have auto-focus equipment, baseball is
place to get the face of the s e c o n d baseman during a o n e sport w h e r e prefocusing techniques are a big help.
double play, since he'll be looking toward first base. R e m e m b e r t h e analogy of the t r o m b o n e player I used
If you d e c i d e to sit along the third-base line, the earlier? It applies here, too. During lulls in the action,
third b a s e m a n and t h e s h o r t s t o p will be facing away p r a c t i c e f o c u s i n g y o u r lens so you k n o w the feel of
from \ o u . but you'll be in a good position to catch the your wrist w h e n you are focused on each base. Don't
runner heading for second. Either spot will w o r k f o r ac- try to follow the ball. Aim instead at its destination and
tion at home; you'll be more likely to see t h e r u n n e r ' s wait for the moment.

Figure 9 - 1 1 When a runner is on third, you should be

ready for home-plate action such as this. (John Walker/The
Fresno Bee) F i g u r e 9 - 1 2 Action on the b a s e s is best shot with a 300
or 400mm lens. (Lane Turner)
Figure 9 - 1 3 At a n y s p o r t i n g event, w a t c h for actions a n d reactions b e y o n d
the center of attention. (Thor Swift)

As with any sport, it helps to k n o w some strategy. an eye open for a drop in light caused by passing clouds,
If there is a r u n n e r on first and he takes a long lead, too. At night games, wait for the peak action if the light
watch for a steal or a pick-off. If a runner is on second is too dim to permit a shutter speed of at least 1/250.
or third, be ready for action at home. If you shoot a day game in bright sun, you will be
I suppose the biggest p h o t o cliche in baseball is the working with a very high-contrast scene. In black and
second base slide. Shoot it if it happens, but try to pro- white, the white uniforms could be so white they lack
vide your editor with something else. The shot from be- detail and texture in your print, while the faces under
hind the plate of t h e p i t c h e r t h r o w i n g is also rather the caps are too dark. It is almost impossible to burn and
well-worn. Keep your eye on the dugouts for a few re- dodge these small areas. A solution to this problem is to
action shots of the managers and coaches. If you need a reduce the contrast of the negative by overexposing it
shot of a strong hitter, anticipate the swing slightly'. If and underdeveloping it. Try shooting 400-speed film at a
you don't anticipate the swing, it will be long over by speed of 200 or even 100 and reducing your develop-
the time your shutter opens. ment time by about 20 percent. This method will reduce
the negative contrast and make the shots easier to print.
Use the highest shutter speed you can to stop the
action. If part of the field is in shadow and pan in sun. By the way, there aren't many papers that can afford
you might need to set your exposure system on auto- the luxury of paying a photographer to spend the whole
matic or make manual adjustments . (If you do this with afternoon at a baseball game. It's not unusual for a pho-
an aperture-priority exposure system, beware of letting tographer to have other assignments or early deadlines
the camera set shutter speeds slower than 1/250.) Keep and have to get a good photo in an hour or two. This is
Figure 9-14 B e c a u s e most of the action in basketball the stands a b o u t even with the basket rim a n d used a
h a p p e n s a r o u n d the basket, many g o o d p h o t o s are m a d e 3 0 0 m m lens to get this shot. (Gary Kazanjian)
in that area. Photographer Gary Kazanjian found a spot in

true for many sporting events, and it definitely puts pres- white, you can expose it as if it w e r e 1600-speed film.
sure on the photographer. If you find your time running This c o m m o n technique, known as pushing the film, is
out and you have yet to get an action picture, shoot some discussed in the appendix. T h e higher film speed will
pitcher or batter shots and some reaction shots of players allow you to use a faster shutter, such as 1/500 second, a
in the dugout. Such routine shots don't win awards, but at speed that will help stop that lightning-fast action.
least you'll have something. The 1600- and 3200-speed films are an excellent al-
ternative that will allow you to use a shutter speed that
Basketball is t w o or three speeds faster than what you'd need for a
There are t w o big challenges in s h o o t i n g basketball: 400-speed film. Although these amazingly fast films help
lighting and keeping up with the action. solve the problems caused by low light, even they may
The first problem exists because the light in so many n e e d p u s h p r o c e s s i n g for s o m e e x t r e m e situations.
gyms just wasn't designed for photography. At normal Robert Hanashiro says T-Max P-3200 will yield very ac-
e x p o s u r e s with 400-speed films, you might find your ceptable negatives at a speed of 12,500. (See the appen-
meter calling for shutter speeds of 1/250 or 1/125 sec- dix for details.)
ond. even with the lens wide open. These shutter speeds If t h e gym is so dark that even p u s h processing
just aren't fast enough to stop the action in basketball. If w o n ' t help, you'll have no choice but to use flash. Or-
the only film you have available is 400-speed black and dinarily, you'll just have t o attach t h e flash to your
 camera and a c c e p t t h e unnatural results. If you have
several flash units, you can t a p e a c o u p l e of them to
the wall b e h i n d the b a c k s t o p with duet tape and trip
them with slave triggers. A slave trigger is a small elei
trie eye that plugs into a flash unit. W h e n the trigger
sees the b u r s t of light from any o t h e r flash, it trips the
flash it is a t t a c h e d to. You c a n get slave triggers at
camera s t o r e s for a fairly low price, but you'll need an
additional flash unit a t t a c h e d to your camera to trip
the r e m o t e units. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , slave triggers will
react to the flash f r o m any p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s strobe, so
if s o m e o n e s h o o t s just an instant b e f o r e you do. the
remote units w o n ' t be recycled in time for your shot.
Professionals with big b u d g e t s use p o w e r f u l strobes,
with suitcase-sized p o w e r packs, that are m o u n t e d in
the catwalks above the c o u r t . T h e s e lights are tripped
by radio devices a t t a c h e d to both the camera and the
flash units. If you shoot an i m p o r t a n t game, you might
persuade your e m p l o y e r to rent a set of t h e s e lights
f o r y o u . C h e c k w i t h large c a m e r a s t o r e s in m a j o r
cities for rates.

Be sure to c h e c k with the school's sports informa-

tion d i r e c t o r o r a t h l e t i c d i r e c t o r b e f o r e using flash.
Some fear the flash will interfere with play.

Keeping Up with the Action I previously discussed

focusing techniques, but you also need to zone-focus
your attention, too, particularly in basketball. Find out
w h o the key players are and pay attention to them. For- Figure 9 - 1 5 Photographer Terry Pierson used a remote-
get trying to follow the w h o l e game. It's just too fast. controlled c a m e r a m o u n t e d on the b a c k b o a r d rigging to
The o d d s are that t h e key players will be involved, so get a different perspective. (Terry Pierson)
make t h o s e odds w o r k in your favor.
b e e n seen thousands of times. You'll undoubtedly get a
T h e most c o m m o n shooting position is at the end
f e w jump shots, but also watch for good offensive and
of the court to o n e side of the basket. In this spot, you
defensive moves away from the basket.
can use a lens with a focal length of b e t w e e n 50mm and
105mm to get medium shots of the action at that bas-
ket. This is probably the best spot to make your protec- Other Sports
tion shots from. Then, you can try shooting from a seat
at the side of the c o u r t a b o u t even w i t h the basket. Although the f u n d a m e n t a l s of sports p h o t o g r a p h y re-
F r o m t h i s s p o t a l o n g e r lens, s u c h as a 105mm or main the same, here are some specific techniques that
180mm, is useful. If you w a n t to try some high angles, might help you w h e n shooting o t h e r sports. The list is
move to the seats higher u p in the stands so your eye far from comprehensive, but you should Find tips that
level is just above the rim of the basket. You'll probably can be applied to any sport not covered.
need a 3 0 0 m m to shoot from this spot. Keep in mind
that j u m p s h o t s a n d slam d u n k s have b e c o m e cliche Soccer
shots. As a b e g i n n e r , it is fine to w o r k on mastering
Shooting soccer combines some of the techniques used
these basics, but try to get p h o t o s of good offense and
for basketball and some of those used for football. Al-
defense action away from the basket, too. Because of
though football moves slowly d o w n the field allowing
the fast-paced action, you should expect to shoot a lot
you to position yourself for each play, you can keep u p
of film to i n c r e a s e y o u r c h a n c e s of getting a g o o d ,
with soccer only by picking a spot and hoping for the
sharply focused shot.
best. Since m u c h of the action h a p p e n s at the goals,
W h e n s h o o t i n g t o w a r d the o p p o s i t e e n d of the o n e good shooting position is at the end of the field and
court, k e e p your eye o p e n and your camera read)' for just t o o n e side of t h e goal. Lenses in t h e r a n g e of
some midcourt action as the players run t o w a r d you 85mm to 135mm work well from this spot.
R e m e m b e r , a l t h o u g h most of the action is under the For midfield action, you'll need a 300mm. You can
baskets, the s h o t of players w i t h arms in the air has shoot from the center of the sidelines, but as the players
Figure 9 - 1 6 The h u m a n elements of the g a m e are h a r d To s u c c e e d , concentrate on the g a m e a n d avoid
to g e t — y o u may have only o n e c h a n c e for a shot like this. socializing with other photographers. (John Nelson)

move d o w n f i e l d , you'll need a long lens, such as a news about this sport is that it often takes place in ex-
500mm or 600mm. Remember, the players must be rea- tremely dark gyms, and flash is usually prohibited.
sonably large in your frame. You can't enlarge ant-sized Be sure to arrange for your credentials well in ad-
images and expect them to be technically acceptable. vance, since access to t h e competition area is usually re-
For insurance, get s o m e goalie s h o t s . Since t h e stricted and you'll want to move around t h e floor to
goalie moves within a limited range, focusing and fol- cover the different events. In both men's and w o m e n ' s
lowing the action aren't too difficult. You should be able gymnastics, the athletes perform both compulsory and
to get a few good saves or a successful goal. Then try for optional routines, although a given meet may be limited
the unusual action out on the field, either by following to either c o m p u l s o r i e s or optionals. When shooting
the ball or a specific player. As with any sport, watch compulsory routines, you'll know after the first person
after the play for reactions of players and coaches. performs what to look for since all the other athletes
must make the same moves.
Gymnastics Telephoto lenses arc a must, since you won't be al-
The good news about shooting gymnastics is that, ex- lowed too close to the athlete. Also, by using telephoto
cept for floor exercise, the athlete's peak action takes lenses at w i d e apertures, you can t h r o w distracting
place in a limited area You can find a good shooting po- backgrounds out of focus. Lights, spectators, and other
sition. prefocus. and wait for t h e m o m e n t . T h e bad equipment in the background can easily spoil a shot.
 Figure 9 - 1 7 For a fast-
p a c e d sport s u c h as
s o c c e r , it is s o m e t i m e s
best to c o n c e n t r a t e o n a
few key p l a y e r s rather
than trying to follow the
ball. Q u i c k f o c u s i n g
reflexes a r e a must. (Greg
Ebersole/The Daily News.
Longview. WA)

Golf gray-card reading. Keep in mind that a polarizing filter

Golfers are very sensitive to distractions: you must stay will reduce reflections from the s n o w and that w h e n
out of their field of view and keep quiet. Long lenses shooting black and white, a yellow or orange filter will
arc best for shooting the swing without upsetting the darken skies. If you shoot black-and-white film in bright
golfer. At big tournaments, photography is restricted, sun, you can overexpose by about one f-stop and cut
and you may be limited to specific shooting spots. Keep your development 15 to 20 percent to reduce contrast in
out of the line of play, and if your camera can be heard, the negative. On cloudy days, you might need to increase
do not shoot until after the golfer's shot has been made. the negative's contrast by underexposing one f-stop and
increasing d e v e l o p m e n t by t h e same p e r c e n t a g e s . I
Because concentration is a big part of the game,
haven't found any trick that will make snow look good
watch for faces. The movement is usually either a drive
under overcast skies. The soft, unidirectional light that fil-
or a putt, but you can also shoot t h e golfer planning
ters through the clouds masks the snow's texture and
the shot. Putts are often shot from a low angle to in-
makes it look like a featureless white mass. The only al-
clude the ball and the golfer. If you are e x p e c t e d to
ternative I have come up with is to avoid too many long
p h o t o g r a p h a n u m b e r of players, get a map of t h e
shots and concentrate on medium shots and close-ups.
course and take shortcuts. You might consider asking
the local pro w h e r e the most troublesome holes are As with any cold-weather shooting, keep your batter-
Keep your eye open for strange juxtapositions, such as ies inside your coat until the last minute. Before bringing
animals running across the course or something going your cameras indoors, put them in a sealed plastic bag to
on in the distant background. prevent condensation from forming inside the camera.

Skiing Tennis

There can be beautiful action in skiing. Check the course This fast game requires good follow f o c u s and long
in advance for good shooting positions, such as turns, lenses. If you are at court level, a 200mm to 500mm
ridges, or jumps. Backlight makes snow spray more bril lens works well. Good positions arc from the side or
liant, but be careful when calculating exposure—snow is end, and if you use a high angle, you'll have better luck
a major meter-fooler. Play it safe and take an incident or avoiding bad backgrounds. Outdoors, you'll rarely have
Figure 9 - 1 8 Don't try to follow the ball as it g o e s b a c k a n d f o r t h — j u s t
c o n c e n t r a t e o n o n e player. (Ron Holman)

exposure problems since tennis is almost always a day- Ice Hockey

time event. Indoors may be a different story, and you This fast-paced sport has lots of fights, movement, and
may have to use 3200-speed films or the push-process emotion. As with soccer, the goal is a point to watch
t e c h n i q u e s d i s c u s s e d in t h e a p p e n d i x . R e m e m b e r , for heavy action. A good spot for covering the goal is
though, that if your exposure drops below 1/250 sec- f r o m the side, even w i t h the net, but there may be
ond, you'll have blur problems. p h o t o spots available near t h e center of the ice or near
the goal. Shooting through the clear plastic safety bar-
Track and Field rier will degrade your images, so avoid that at all costs.
This sport will challenge your creativity. You can use The ice reflects light that can fool an in-camera meter,
long lenses, wide-angle lenses, and any number of cam- so use an incident meter or take a reflected reading off
era positions to get an unusual view of the event. Be a gray card.
careful, though, of distracting an athlete before h e or
she starts the event. Also watch out as you move around Boxing ancl Wrestling
the field since several activities are usually going on at
Unless you want an overall view of t h e arena, you'll
the same time.
have to shoot from a spot close to the ring. If you can
If you have a motor drive, you can try special re- get right u p to the ropes, you can use a lens between
mote set-ups. triggering your camera w i t h a r e m o t e 28mm and 85mm for full-length to medium close-ups.
cord made to fit the motor. Discuss any unusual cam- Shooting at ringside also forces you to aim up into the
era placements with meet officials in advance. Panning overhead lights. Removing the skylight filters from your
is a good technique for running events, and 1/125 sec- lenses helps reduce glare. With a fast telephoto such as
ond or slower will blur the b a c k g r o u n d effectively. the 300mm f/2.8. you can shoot from a little farther
Some interesting effects shots can be made with shut- back and get some nice face close-ups. A peak moment
ter s p e e d s as slow as 1/15 s e c o n d . W h e n s h o o t i n g t o w a t c h for is just after t h e p u n c h but b e f o r e t h e
relay races, watch for the baton hand-off. In races, the fighter pulls his fist back. In large arenas, the lights may
finish-line shot is standard, but w a t c h for r e a c t i o n s be bright enough for normal film speeds and exposures.
after t h e finish, too. Smaller places are usually less well lit and you may need
Be sure to do your homework beforehand and find a 3200-speed film or a strobe.
out if there are any potential record-breakers to watch for.
In collegiate wrestling the faces of t h e wrestlers
Plan your coverage so you won't miss a star performer.
a r c o f t e n t u r n e d t o w a r d t h e mat a n d will b e in
Figure 9 - 1 9 Rollin B a n d e r o b took a d v a n t a g e of the u n i q u e lighting u s e d for
w r e s t l i n g to m a k e this a w a r d - w i n n i n g p h o t o . (Rollin Banderob/The Clovis
Independent)

shadow. If you can get close to t h e edge of the mat, Equestrian Events
consider using strobe as a fill light along with a low At rodeos, needless to say, stay out of the ring! If you
camera angle t o c a t c h t h o s e strained e x p r e s s i o n s . take a spot opposite the chutes, the action will start out
When shooting pro wrestling, watch out for fighters coming right toward you. Remember that the cowboy-
being t h r o w n out of the ring—you don't want to be on-bucking-bronco shot is rather routine, so look for
the landing mat. some different action shots. Don't spend all of your
time on the ring, though, as there is lots of good charac-
Auto and Motorcycle Races ter material around the sidelines.
The prime shooting positions at motor races are often At o t h e r types of riding c o m p e t i t i o n s , j u m p i n g
tightly controlled. Some of these spots are not behind events are visually dramatic and reasonably easy to pho-
the spectators' barricades, so you must pay attention tograph if you can get a good s h o o t i n g position. A
and be careful. As with most events, get there early for three-quarter view on the jump is a good spot to begin,
a choice of spots. If there is a safety fencc in front of but a direct side view or head-on are also good. Dres-
you, it will more than likely show up in your photos. So sage is a specialized event that is hard to present visu-
if you can't Find a spot without a fence, poke your lens ally because the significant movements are not overtly
through a hole in the mesh. photographic. In thoroughbred racing, the shooting po-
For road races and oval tracks, turns are good spots sitions will probably be controlled because of the high-
to watch, while pits provide a different type of action. s t r u n g n a t u r e of t h e a n i m a l s . Be p r e p a r e d w i t h
Pan shots, taken with a slow shutter as you follow the telephoto lenses.
cars, work well. Head-on views taken from a turn are
also good bets. Prefocus on the pavement and wait for Water Sports
the cars to c o m e into focus. At drag races, you can There are too many types of boating events to cover in
shoot the start or the Finish, or aim down the track from detail here, but generally, shooting from shore is diffi-
near the finish with a telephoto. At any race, long tele- cult. Obviously, if you are on a competitive boat, you'll
photo lenses will help isolate the cars from the back- be able to get close-ups of the crew members as they
ground, but keep your eye open for a background that work. If you can get a chase boat with an operator,
can become part of the story. If you have a pit pass, get you'll have many more opportunities for shots. Skiing
shots of the crews and drivers working on cars. Look can be shot from the tow boat; exhibitions can some-
for faces; shots of the backs of people as they bend over times be shot from shore with long telephoto lenses.
their machines arc not interesting. Because of the lack Drag boats can be shot from shore, since the start or fin-
of light, photographing night raccs is almost impossible ish is usually within sight of shore-bound spectators.
Figure 9 - 2 0 S w i m m e r s ' f a c e s c o m e out of the water only for a s e c o n d , so
y o u will n e e d g o o d follow-focus t e c h n i q u e . (Robert HanashiroA/isalia Times-Delta)

When on the water, be sure to protect your gear from Shooting Under Water
spray. Keep skylight filters on your lenses and cover Aside from breathing, t h e big challenge in underwater
cameras with plastic bags if necessary. p h o t o g r a p h y is exposure. Unless you have an under-
Swimming events can be shot from the side or the w a t e r meter, take a reading o n t h e surface and add
end of the pool. Diving is best shot from the side. A one-and-a-half to two-and-a-half stops more exposure
200mm or 300mm lens is useful for getting face close- as you descend from just u n d e r the surface to about 20
ups. It is often quite bright around o u t d o o r pools so feet. Below 20 feet, use an u n d e r w a t e r flash. Auto-
check exposure carefully. Indoor pools can be dread- exposure cameras will do their job. but b e careful that
fully dark, and you will probably have to push process t h e shutter speed doesn't get too slow. Fairly inexpen-
your film. sive u n d e r w a t e r h o u s i n g s a r e available at c a m e r a
Robert I Ianashiro, w h o shoots for USA Today, says, stores and dive shops. Ask about renting if your need
is temporary.
Timing is essential and good follow-focus technique is a
must in shooting swimming. The swimmers' faces come You probably w o n ' t be able to see through t h e
out of the water for just a split second and there is no camera's conventional finder, particularly if you wear
wa\ to prefocus on a specific spot. The butterfly, breast a f a c e mask. So be p r e p a r e d to estimate f o c u s and
stroke, and distance freestyle events offer enough framing, or check with a dive shop for special framing
opportunitie s for good shots. At sprint freestyle races attachments.
you'll have to rely on start, finish, and reaction shots
because often the swimmer does not lift his or her head
out of the water for the entire length of the pool.
Wildlife identification of the players involved in the plays you
Wildlife is probably the hardest of all subjects u> photo p h o t o g r a p h In general, w h e n shooting any sporting
graph well. Someone once said you must know the ani- event, make some shots from tried-and-true positions
mal as if you w e r e o n e . Stay d o w n w i n d and plan to before you experiment with unusual camera angles or
spend a lot of time waiting; the most likely time to techniques. If your experiments fail, at least you'll have
catch your prey is at feeding time. You'll need to use something to fall back on.
special blinds, telephoto lenses up to 1000mm or more When shooting football, t h e spot for protection
remote camera set-ups. and as many other tricks as you shots is just ahead of the line of scrimmage. But pay at-
can think of. tention to the progress of the game, since you might
One National Geographic photographer mounted want to move downfield to photograph a pass recep-
a camera on a toy remote-control tank and disguised the tion or into the end zone for a goal attempt. Baseball is
rig as a bush. He rolled this gadget right up to his sur- almost always a risk since games can go on inning after
prised p r e y and got s o m e great close-ups. I've also inning without much overt action. You must stay alert
h e a r d a b o u t a n o t h e r p h o t o g r a p h e r w h o w a s well to catch what might be the one flurry of action. A com-
known for his hunting and fishing magazine covers that mon shooting position is along the first-base line where
featured fishermen with record-breaking trout and bow- you can see the face of the second baseman during dou-
hunters ready to shoot bear and deer that were only a ble plays and can cover action at first at closer range.
few yards away. However, the photos were illustrations, Practice focusing so you can quickly shift focus to any
not photojournalism. The animals in many of the pic- base when the moment arrives.
tures came from the taxidermist. In terms of pace, basketball is probably the oppo-
site of baseball. Focus is a challenge because you will
often shoot at wide apertures while trying to follow the
Summary action. Beware of overloading your coverage with jump
shots; try to get some good midcourt action as well. De-
Success as a sports photographer requires quick reac- pending on what lenses you have available, there are
tions. t h e p r o p e r e q u i p m e n t , and a thorough under- several good shooting positions. The most common is at
s t a n d i n g of t h e s p o r t . A l t h o u g h y o u r talent is t h e t h e end of t h e court and to o n e side of t h e basket,
primary ingredient in good sports photos, you'll also w h e r e a normal or m e d i u m focal length t e l e p h o t o
need telephoto lenses and possibly a motor drive if you works well. If you have a longer lens, you can shoot
want to c o m p e t e with t h e professionals. The 300mm from the stands at a point level with the basket.
telephoto is probably the most universal sports lens.
There arc so many other sports, each with its own
W h e n shooting w i t h a motor, d o n ' t let it b e c o m e a
special characteristics, that it is hard to generalize. How-
crutch for good timing. Learn to focus quickly and accu-
ever. if you plan ahead rather than relying on last-
rately by practicing: if you use a focusing technique
minute arrangements, your coverage will benefit.
such as zone, follow, or prefocusing, you'll have a bet-
ter chance of getting a sharp picture. When shooting,
look for the peak moment, that one instant when the Endnote
action seems to stop.
1. "Sports Survey," World Almanac and Book of
C a p t i o n s will d e p e n d o n t h e a c c u r a c y of y o u r
notes, and you can h e l p note-taking by shooting t h e facts (New York: Pharos Books. 198"*). 859.
scoreboard at least o n c e on every roll. Be sure to get
 Studio
Photography
OUTLINE

A Different Approach A Basic T a b l e t o p Shot

E q u i p m e n t f o r Studio Lighting
Photography
Illustrative P h o t o g r a p h y
Light Sources: Flood or Flash
I l o w to Get Ideas
Light Control Steps in Idea Generation
Other Equipment
Special C o n s i d e r a t i o n s : F o o d
Basic T i p s f o r S t u d i o and Fashion
Photography
Fashion: Room to Experiment
Making a Formal Portrait Summary
T h e Pose
Camera Position and Choice
of Lens
Lighting

I HAVE F O U N D THAT T H E SUCCESSFUL P H O T O G R A P H E R S US! 'ALLY A R E NOT

SUCCESSFUL ONLY BECAUSE T H E Y ARE TECHNICALLY GOOD.

—PHILIPPK HALSMAN, PHOTOGRAPHIC ILLUSTRATOR

 \ Pi: approach p h o t o g r a p h to be horridly frustrating. Regardless of
how you feel about working in the studio, you'll find
> cd to find a chapter on studio pho- the lessons learned there e a r n over to the work you'll
tojournalism book You'll understand do in the field.
ugh. b\ looking carcfull) at main of
mis you look 10 lor examples of good
E q u i p m e n t f o r Studio P h o t o g r a p h y
v and sports. Skill in the studio has he-
important to the photojournalist as an\
The equipment inventor) of man) studios looks like a
:ic medium requires
cross between a hardware store, a mad scientist s labo-
inonally. b\ now you should be convinced that
ratory. and a junk shop. Improvisation is the rule. You
uraph) reall) does mean light writing, and that
don't need a lot of fancy stuff to get started, and a heady
r.mg to use light to your advantage, regardless of the
dose of ingenuity will help solve most problems. Keep
lation. will e x p a n d your p h o t o g r a p h i c vocabulary
in mind that you control only what the camera sees,
„ lormoush . Studio work is an excellent means of devel-
and that your controls include anything you can do to
iping your lighting skills.
the light as it comes from its source, reflects off the sub-
There is a big difference, of course, b e t w e e n the ject. and makes its way to the film.
conceptual a p p r o a c h e s of working in the studio and
The primar)' equipment in the studio is the light-
shooting on the street Photojournalist Michal T homp-
ing instrument along with its accessories. You must
son says. "Photo illustration is not photojournalism b\
control the type of light—hard, soft, or somewhere in
any stretch of t h e definition, but it is an established
b e t w e e n — and w h e r e t h e light falls on your subject.
form of newspaper photography, w h e t h e r immaculate!)
Although t h e r e is a p l e t h o r a of lighting e q u i p m e n t
conceived in a pristine studio or eloquently enhanced
available, you can do a lot with a few simple items.
on a computer screen.
I w ant to emphasize that studio photograph)' is not
Shooting news is like hunting. You are looking for limited to those photographers lucky enough to have a
the picture that is already there. Your controls are lim- big room filled with expensive equipment. The large
ited to vantage point, choice of lens, and timing. Your lighting units you see in some studios put out lots of
thinking must be fast, and it usually involves anticipat- light for those cases when small apertures are a must or
ing or reacting to the event. Hut in the studio, you cre- large scenes are on the agenda. All shots in this chapter,
ate an image from nothing. You have complete control as well as the illustrations in the color section, could
over even detail, and your thinking can be as deliberate have been d o n e with inexpensive floodlights or small
as deadlines permit. flash units such as those in figure 10-2. Diffusion and
S o m e p h o t o g r a p h e r s e n j o y this t o t a l c o n t r o l reflector panels like those in figure 10-6 can be made
and carefulh planned image making. Others find walk- from plastic water pipe and white rip-stop nylon for less
ing i n t o an empty r o o m and c o m i n g back w i t h a than ten dollars.

Figure 10—1 g eq
At the far left is a diffusion f r a m e m a d e from
plastic water p i p e c o v e r e d with white rip-stop
nylon T o the right are a p h o t o f l o o d a n d an
e l e c t r o n i c flash h e a d with a snoot a t t a c h e d
Next is an electronic flash unit b o u n c e d into
an u m b r e l l a f o l l o w e d b y a l a m p e q u i p p e d with
barn doors
Light Sources: Flood or Flash Figuring e x p o s u r e for flash is different than for
Two types of lights are commonly used in the studio floodlights because the short burst of an electronic flash
flood and flash. When using floodlights, you can sec ihc unit cannot be read by a conventional light meter. Studio
lighting e f f e c t w h i l e you work, and t h e lights them systems do not use automatic exposure devices such as
selves arc inexpensive, lightweight, and portable One those discussed in chapter 6, and the exposure control
big disadvantage is that they generate a lot of heat In circuits in small flash units won't work unless the sen-
fact, p h o t o g r a p h e r s w h o work with floods often call sors can be aimed directly at your subject. If you don't
them "hot lights." A second drawback is output. The have one of the special exposure meters made for flash,
small floodlights that you are likely to use are not as you can make estimates based on the charts or calcula-
bright as many electronic flash units. tor dials that come with most flash units. Professionals
often use Polaroid instant films to make exposure tests.
A good electronic flash unit, however, is bright and
If you have a film-processing tank and chemicals handy,
cool, but it is hard for a beginner to estimate the results
you can always shoot and process a test roll of the same
since the effects of its short burst of light can't be stud-
film you intend to use for the assignment.
ied. Flash e q u i p m e n t made for studio use solves this
problem by including a small modeling light that stays lit
during set-ups. If you have access to this type of equip- Light Control
ment. enjoy. If not. you can set up your shot with flood- Remember from the discussion of light in chapter 6 that
lights and then replace them with flash units for the final light and shadow give shape and form to your subject.
exposure. After you gain s o m e experience, you'll be Light, or lack of it. also creates atmosphere, mood, and
able to predict flash effects with reasonable accuracy. dramatic impact. The goal in light control, then, is to es-
Many news photographers use small hand-held flash tablish a light source and apply it to the subject so the
units such as the Vivitar 283 or 285 w h e n studio-type mood and shape seen by the camera are exactly what
lighting is needed on location. T w o or three of these you want.
flash units, some lightweight stands, and a cheap white When shooting news, you'll almost always have to
umbrella bought at a variety store during the rainy sea- take the light as it comes. In the studio, however, you
son can b e c o m e an inexpensive portable lighting sys- can decide w h e t h e r to use hard light, soft light, or
tem. One flash must be connected to your camera so it something in b e t w e e n . Hard light is easy to create—
will fire when the shutter opens. The other flash units just aim the flash or floodlight directly at your subject.
are tripped via slave triggers. These gadgets arc about To create soft light, you can diffuse the light emitted by
the size of a ping pong ball and are plugged into the sec- the bulb either by bouncing it off a broad panel, a light-
ondary flash units. W h e n t h e main flash goes off. the colored wall, or into a white umbrella, or by aiming it
slave triggers sense the light from the main flash and trip through a translucent panel like the one at the left in
the remote units. Using such a set-up is fundamentally figure 10-6. Devices like these arc also very handy for
the same as using larger, heavier units in the studio. creating fill light. Just use them to reflect light into the

Figure 10-2 T w o Vivitar 2 8 3 s a n d a n

i n e x p e n s i v e u m b r e l l a c a n b e c o m b i n e d for a
h a n d y lighting unit. The small d e v i c e s a t o p the
u p p e r flash are slave triggers. The flashes a n d
u m b r e l l a are h e l d o n t o the light s t a n d by an
adapter invented by a news photographer a n d
m a r k e t e d b y Stroboframe.
areas that r e e d fill. White cardboard, aluminum foil, Fourth, use a tripod. A steady camera helps make
and small mirrors also make great reflectors. s h a r p p i c t u r e s . Also, b e c a u s e y o u r s c e n e m u s t be
There ire any n u m b e r of ways to gain additional arranged and lit for a specific camera position, control
control over t h e spread of t h e light. You can make is easier to maintain if the camera position is fixed. By
• . \ Mich are pieces of cardboard used to block the the way. once I have the tripod in position and the cam-
In : i-iini reaching specific areas of the subject. Snoots era set, I t a p e the tips of the tripod legs to the floor
id > •'! doors are light controllers that attach directly with duct tape so they w o n ' t get bumped out of place.
10 ill. amp and help narrow and aim the light beam. No matter how careful I am. Murphy's law always inter-
V>u can improvise these with aluminum foil or pieces venes and I trip over a tripod leg just after everything is
of mat board. (By the way, if you work with floodlights, perfectly set!
be sure that any material used close to t h e b u l b s is Fifth, use a slow-speed film if possible. You'll al-
flameproof.) Examples of some of these devices are most always want the finest grain and sharpest image
shown in figure 10-1. possible. If you're using floodlights, their low output
might force you to use long exposures, but this situa-
Other Equipment tion should be no problem because your camera will be
Other important studio equipment includes light stands, held steady by the tripod and your subject will often be
a tripod, and a cable release. A hand-held light meter static. Even in the case of a portrait, 1/8 second is not
makes exposure calculations easier since so many set- unusual. Your subject should have no problem holding
ups call for either incident or close-up readings. Useful still for that brief moment.
items include a lens shade to cut down the chance of One important exception: If you use floodlights and
lens flare, and masking tape, duct tape, spring clamps, want to freeze a moving subject, you may have to use a
and clothespins for holding things in place. high-speed film in spite of its grain, because floodlights
may not b e bright e n o u g h t o p e r m i t s h o r t , action-
stopping exposure times with slow-speed films.
Basic Tips f o r S t u d i o P h o t o g r a p h y
And a final, miscellaneous tip: Use care in choosing
b a c k g r o u n d material. Wrinkled b e d sheets look like
One interesting facet of studio work is that each assign-
what they are. Professionals use all kinds of materials
ment presents a different problem which, in turn, calls
for b a c k g r o u n d s , but t h e easiest for a b e g i n n e r is a
for a different solution. This fact makes it very difficult to
plain, t e x t u r e l e s s wall or t h e seamless b a c k g r o u n d
set out a series of general guidelines. If you keep a few
paper available from most large camera and art supply
basic principles in mind, though, solutions to n e w prob-
stores. A medium gray works well w h e n making por-
lems will be easier to find. Be sure to check t h e color
traits for publication because both light and dark hair
plates for examples that may not be mentioned here.
will stand out from it.
First, be sure t o have the scene and camera position
Of course, there are exceptions to all these sugges-
set before you try to set lighting. Since highlights, shad-
tions, and those with studio experience will recognize
ows, and other aspects of your lighting must be set ac-
w h e n these suggestions should be bypassed. But as
cording to what the camera sees, it is a waste of time to
with all the advice in this book, use it as a starting point
light before this viewpoint is established.
and a point to return to w h e n you are confused about
Second, keep lighting simple. Lighting should help, what to do.
but not be, the photo. If the reader looks at the p h o t o
and sees only your masterful lighting job. then you've
failed. There should be one dominant light source. If Making a Formal Portrait
possible, stick with one lighting instrument and use re-
flector cards for fill. When you add lights, you increase Making a formal portrait might seem like a boring pro-
the complexity of the set-up, as well as the chance for ject w h e n compared with shooting the action situations
error. (Besides, lighting equipment costs money. If you that comprise so m u c h of modern photojournalism. But
can do a good job with less, why not?) Always start with before you write off this task as something to be merely
all lights turned off (including room lights) and add o n e endured, let me explain why learning these techniques
light at a time, checking the effect carefully from the is so important. First, if you intend to pursue photogra-
camera position as you go. phy as a professional, you will eventually be asked to do
Third, crop in the camera. Framing your image the these kinds of photos, and you will be expected to do
way you intend it to be seen is just as important in the them right. Those of you w h o plan to pursue writing,
studio as in the field. Extensive cropping and enlarge- public relations, or advertising and intend to hire a pho-
ment in the darkroom increases grain and fuzziness, and t o g r a p h e r w h e n n e e d e d , should k n o w what a well-
there is little e x c u s e for this result w h e n you are in m a d e p o r t r a i t i n v o l v e s . ( T h e r e is n o t h i n g m o r e
complete control. embarrassing for a corporate executive than a poorly
 shoulders Have your subject lean so there is a slight tilt
to the shoulders as in the illustrations. Then have your
subject look straight ahead so his eyes are centered in
his eye sockets. Turn his head so the ear that is away
from the camera just disappears.
For a formal b u s i n e s s p o r t r a i t , b o t h m e n and
w o m e n should w e a r a conservatively styled t o p in a
plain dark color Avoid bold plaids, checks, or stripes,
or necklines that would call attention to themselves.
Watch for wrinkles in jackets. Common problems are
for collars to ride up in the back or wrinkles to form in
the sleeves. Lapels can also buckle. Pulling down on the
jacket should correct these problems. (Don't ask your
subject to do this because the wrinkles will just come-
back a f t e r h e r e s u m e s t h e p o s e . ) Be s u r e ties a r e
straight and jackets arc buttoned.

Camera Position and Choice of Lens

Now that you have set the pose, set the camera height.
I p r e f e r a straight-on camera position with t h e film
plane parallel to the subject's face, as in figure 10-4. A
slightly higher camera is sometimes used to give more
emphasis to the subject's eyes, or to de-emphasize the
lower part of the face due to a large, protruding, or dou-
ble chin. A lower camera angle can de-emphasize a long
nose or wide forehead, but I am not comfortable with
Figure 1 0 - 3 W h e n p o s i n g a p e r s o n for a formal portrait,
this angle because it can result in emphasizing the sub-
k e e p the h e a d a n d s p i n e in a straight line: the eyes a n d
ject's nostrils.
s h o u l d e r s s h o u l d b e parallel. (Randy Do(ta-Dovidio)
To p r e v e n t t h e unnatural distortion that a wide-
angle or normal focal length lens will cause, use a lens
made portrait.) Finally, the lighting techniques used for slightly longer than normal focal length. I p r e f e r an
the formal portrait are basic ones that can be applied to 85mm lens w h e n shooting with a 35mm camera be-
many other subjects and situations. cause I can stand closer to my subject and establish
As you begin, k e e p in mind the first guideline I better rapport than possible at the distance required
mentioned in the last section: Set the pose. Until the by a 105mm or 135mm lens. This is a personal prefer-
pose and camera height are determined, lighting can't ence, though, and these longer focal lengths are also
be perfected. good choices.
By the way, the cropping in figure 10-3 is a com-
The Pose promise. Portrait photographers would say it is too tight
There are many types of poses for a portrait, but the and that the face would be overpowering if enlarged to
one presented here should work in almost any situation 16 x 20 or more for a display print. On the other hand,
that calls for a formal presentation. You should com- many photo editors would prefer a closer crop to keep
plete your set-up with a volunteer stand-in before Mr. or the face from being too small, particularly if the image
Ms. Big Shot arrives. It is poor form to keep a busy exec- will run small in the publication.
utive waiting while you fiddle with lights and cameras,
and some executives w o n ' t give you more than 10 or 15 Lighting
minutes anyway. First, you must decide whether to use hard light or soft
Seat your subject on a chair-height stool. If you light. The differences in impact created by these t w o
must use a chair, use a firm o n e such as a typist's chair types of light were covered in chapter 6. In portraiture,
or classroom-type chair. Be sure your subject is sitting I think soft light is more forgiving, both for the pho-
up straight and not leaning against the back of the chair. tographer and the subject. Minor mistakes in light posi-
Turn the person to about a three-quarter angle to the tion or slight facial irregularities are less noticeable
camera, as in figure 10-3- The person s head should be with soft light. Hard light creates a rugged look, which
p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the shoulders so that a line d r a w n you might want for some people, but its shadows are
through the eyes is parallel to a line drawn through the sharply defined and must be placed with care.
 s

Figure 1 0 - 4 Adjust the c a m e r a height so the film p l a n e is parallel t o the s u b j e c t ' s f a c e .

Regardless of the type of light you choose there are f-stops. see c h a p t e r 6) is about right. To measure the
two basic lighting arrangements for a portrait: short light lighting ratio, turn off the main light and measure the fill
and broad light. In short lighting, the main light is aimed with a light meter, then m m on the main light and mea-
at the side of the face away from the camera and is used sure t h e highlight areas. If you don't have an incident
w h e n your subject has a normal-width or w i d e face. light meter, you can use a gray card as a target for your
Broad lighting is aimed at the side of the face that is t o reflected meter. If you don t have a hand-held meter,
ward the camera and is used w h e n your subject's face is you'll have to remove the camera from the tripod and
narrow. See the illustrations in figure l()-5d and 10-5e. take close-up readings, as described in chapter 3-
After you have decided which light ty p e and style After these lights are set. you can add w h a t are
to use. place the main light. Turn off all other lights, in- known as accent lights. Accent lights add small highlights
cluding room lights, and set the main light high and to to specific spots in a photo. An important accent is the
the side so it casts a shadow of the subject's nose that hair light. which is placed above and behind the subject
falls d o w n w a r d t o w a r d t h e c o r n e r of t h e s u b j e c t ' s to create a highlight on the subject's hair and separate it
mouth, as in figure 10-5a. Watch the subject's eyes. If from the background (fig. 10-5c). Don't make the mis-
they are deep-set and begin to get lost in eyebrow shad- take I once did and use a hair light on a bald person!
ows. lower the main light a little. If you use broad light- Keep bald heads in shadow by using cardboard flags be-
ing. use a cardboard flag to cut down the light on the tween the main light and the top of the subject's head to
subject's car. block the light. A background light can be added for ad-
ditional background separation (fig. 10-5d).
Then set the fill light. Since its job is to fill in the
shadows the camera sees, put the fill light about a foot Eyeglasses can present a lighting problem. Eyes in a
or two higher than the camera and only slightly to the portrait are important because they convey much of the
side. Be sure it is on the other side of the camera from p e r s o n ' s personality, and if your subject w e a r s eye-
the main light. And remember, sincc you are producing glasses. you may have to compromise on lighting and
an effect for t h e camera, check lighting effects only camera position so the eyes don't disappear in shadow.
from the camera position. Look through the lens and First, be sure the glasses are u p against the bridge of
check the background for s h a d o w s of the subject. If your subject's nose. Then lower the main light so the
shadows can be seen, eliminate them by increasing the glasses' frames don't cast a shadow across the pupils of
distance between the subject and the background. the eyes. Reflections of lights in the glass can be reduced
The fill light should be dimmer than the main light, by having the subject tilt her head slightly and by mov-
so back it away from the subject if necessary to reduce ing the lights slightly. Some portrait studios solve this
its intensity. A lighting ratio of 3:1 (or one-and-a-half problem by having a selection of empty frames handy.
 Figure 1 0 - 5 (a) Main light only,
(b) Main light a n d fill, (c) Main light, fill
light, a n d hair light, ( d ) Main light, fill
light, hair light, a n d b a c k g r o u n d light.
T h e s e c o n d c a t c h l i g h t in the s u b j e c t ' s
eyes (from the fill light) has b e e n
s p o t t e d out. (e) A b r o a d - l i g h t setup. The
main light is falling o n the s i d e of the
f a c e that is t o w a r d the c a m e r a . (Randy
Dotta-Dovidio)

(d)

A Basic T a b l e t o p S h o t translucent plastic (with light coming through the un-

derside). flooring materials, ceramic tiles, black Plexi-
It is risky to suggest a universal lighting set-up for small glas. and old barn wood. The list is endless, and a good
products, because each product has its own set of chal- studio photographer is always on the lookout for inter-
lenges: color and tone, shape, reflectance, and character esting background materials. Visit lumberyards, fabric-
Use the ideas here as a starting point for experimentation. stores, h o m e i m p r o v e m e n t centers, and art s u p p l y
Begin by setting up your background. Use care in stores for ideas.
selecting b a c k g r o u n d material; one frequent flaw in After the background is ready, set your subject in
b e g i n n e r s ' s t u d i o w o r k is a b a c k g r o u n d that looks place. For an overall view, use a three-quarter perspec-
shabby or that c o m p e t e s against t h e c o n c e p t of the tive. When setting up the scene in t h e viewfinder, re-
photo. Although background paper is useful for a sim- member to allow space in the composition for copy if
ple p r o d u c t shot, you'll see all sorts of background necessary. Use a medium focal length telephoto lens to
materials used in illustrations and commercial p h o t o s minimize subject distortion, and try to use a small aper-
If you can, try s o m e of these: smoked glass, plastic ture so the depth of field extends from the front edge of
c o u n t e r t o p material, black velvet or velour. w h i t e the product to the back edge.
Figure 10-6 main light at the left is b e i n g
diffused p a n e ! m a d e of white r i p - s t o p nylon
attar arne m a d e from plastic p i p e .
Photographer Randy Dotta-Dividio is u s i n g a g r a y
c a r d a s a target for his r e f l e c t e d light meter.

Figure 10-7 The m a i n light is c o m i n g from a large Figure 1 0 - 8 T h e b a c k g r o u n d in this shot w a s a p i e c e of

d i f f u s e d s o u r c e ( s u c h as the p a n e l in f i g u r e 1 0 - 1 ) p l a c e d b l a c k Plexiglas B a c k g r o u n d g r a d a t i o n w a s c r e a t e d b y
directly over the s u b j e c t The light f a d e s off t o w a r d the rear, c o n t r o l l i n g the p l a c e m e n t of the o v e r h e a d soft light. (Richard
a n d the b a c k g r o u n d therefore f a d e s to b l a c k . You c a n s e e a Eissler)
white c a r d reflected in the front of the c a n . w h i c h w a s u s e d
to b l o c k the reflections of the p h o t o g r a p h e r a n d his c a m e r a .
(Richard Eissler)
Lighting the shailow s cast by the subject fall out of camera range
As with all lighting, set the main light first. II you need Then increase the light on the background until the re-
to show texture, place the light so it rakes across the lied ions of the subject in the glass disappear.
subject. Food is often lit this way. the main light coming I'inalh, bracket your exposures in one-stop intervals
from behind and to one side of the set. If you need to for black and white, one-third-stop intervals for color. If
show shape, place t h e light over the subject or to the you can leave your set-up in place until you process your
side so it creates shadows and highlights. Avoid front film, so much the better, since surprises sometimes crop
light since it does not produce those all-important shad- up that call for a rcshoot. Common problems include
ows. A way to light glassware without annoying reflec background defects, unnoticed shadows or reflections,
tions is to eliminate the traditional main and fill, use a and lack of sharpness or depth of field.
translucent panel as a background, and aim the light When setting lights, there is one common begin-
through it. When glare and extraneous reflections must ner's mistake that you should avoid. It happens when
be eliminated in shiny metal objects, enclose the object working with hard light and the light on the subject
in a tent made from thin white cloth, then aim the lights isn't bright e n o u g h . You'll be t e m p t e d to move the
through the cloth. lights closer to the subject, because that will make the
Fill light is set near the camera and adjusted so the subject brighter. But if you get the lights too close, say
shadows have the desired brightness. If important detail within a couple of feet, the lighting contrast—that is,
must be seen, keep the shadows not more than one-and- the difference between the highlights and shadows—
a-half to two stops darker than the highlights. Remember: will increase and you'll have to use stronger fill light,
to check the lighting ratio, turn off the main light and too. In addition, t h e bright areas closest to the light
meter t h e fill light, then meter both main and fill to- source will be significantly brighter than the bright
gether. Use the latter reading for your exposure settings. areas farthest from the light source. (Review the inverse
square law of light in chapter 6.) As you move the light
Accent lights can be created with spotlights or reflec- source closer to the subject, this effect gets stronger
tors and are added if needed to create a highlight along an and more evident in the photo. The solution is to keep
edge of the subject or lighten a dark shadow. Background your lights back from the subject at least six or eight
lights can be used to provide background separation. feet. If a longer e x p o s u r e w o n ' t solve t h e problem,
You should know by n o w not to fall into the trap of you'll have to use a brighter light.
trying to eliminate the shadows within the subject. You
can eliminate the shadows cast by the subject onto the This problem is less severe with large soft-light
background underneath it and thereby make the subject sources because the light that hits the subject is actually
look suspended in space by setting the product on a piece coming from a number of different points and is spread
of glass suspended between two supports. Have the back- out. Many times a studio photographer will place the
ground far enough from the bottom of the subject so that soft-light panel as close to the subject as possible so the
light tends to wrap itself around the subject.

Figure 1 0 - 9 This is w h e r e the light

w a s p l a c e d for f i g u r e s 1 0 - 7 a n d 1 0 - 8 .
Here the diffusion p a n e l is not b e i n g used.
The white c a r d is reflecting fill light into
shadows.
Figure 10-10 Shiny metal is c o l o r l e s s a n d c a n b e a n d p a n s a n d y o u will s e e the p i e c e s of white b o a r d the
s h o w n only t h r o u g h w h a t it reflects. Look closely at the pots p h o t o g r a p h e r u s e d to c r e a t e s h a p e a n d control reflections.
(Richard Eissler)

Illustrative P h o t o g r a p h y when a good documentary photo can be made. I agree.

An illustration is probably not the best approach for a se-
The job of an illustrative photo is to suggest, clarify, or rious story. I think readers prefer the real thing over arti-
explain. It can show the reader h o w something works, ficial situations. T w o c o m m o n e x a m p l e s f r e q u e n t l y
visually show relationships between concepts, summa- found in the campus press arc the alcoholism story illus-
rize the story in a visual form, or present the subject of trated with a silhouette of a person and a liquor bottle,
the story in an idealized way. The p h o t o g r a p h e r can and the final exams/all-night studying/term paper crush
bring e l e m e n t s t o g e t h e r b e f o r e t h e lens that w o u l d story illustrated with some variation of a person sitting
never occur naturally and can show aspects of a story behind a pile of t e x t b o o k s holding his or her head.
that documentary images could never accomplish. Ex- These kinds of photos don't tell your reader anything
amples of succcssful illustrations are figure 10-11 and and are a waste of space. A genuine documentary photo
in color plates 13. 14, 16. 18. 19. and 20. would be better.
In photojournalism we often encouter two types of il- One final point must be made: Be sure an illustra-
lustrations Product illustrations arc designed to show an tion is obviously an illustration and not a staged news
object. Food, fashion, and home interiors are just a few picture. An illustration, through its content and execu-
examples. But we also must deal with issue illustrations, tion, should b e so obviously an illustration that t h e
which arc designed to represent a concept or idea. Finan- reader does not doubt for an instant what type of photo
cial stories and social issues arc two common examples. h e or she is looking at. Illustrations that look like spon-
But when faced with an issue story, be sure that an il- taneously shot news or feature photos might be mis-
lustration is the best approach. George Wedding, a well- leading to the reader and can cause people to question
known phot< editor, says never substitute an illustration the publication's credibility.
 Figure 10—11 An abstraction
is often a better a p p r o a c h for an
illustration than a literal
representation (Mark Mirko/Palm
Beach Post)

Figure 10-12 F a t i g u e flattens millions of people f r e q u e n t c o m p l a i n t at d o c t o r s ' offices. Geff Hinds started
year. O n e survey f o u n d f a t i g u e to b e the seventh i o s ; with that c o n c e p t a n d p r o d u c e d this a w a r d - w i n n i n g
i : I ustration. (Geff Hmds/Tacoma News Tribune)
 with 120 ideas for every assignment, but I am suggest-
ing that you think up at least a dozen. Never quit after
o n e idea pops into your head.
When working on picture ideas, start by formulat-
ing them in terms of an overall concept or theme. This
type of thinking will create a framework so w h e n you
get d o w n to specifics, you'll be more likely to create an
image whose p a n s work well together.

Steps in Idea Generation

Read the story. This step is obvious, but experience
tells me that I should remind you again.
Brainstorm. Get together with the other people in-
volved with the story and suggest ideas. But observe
one important rule: Do not criticize ideas at brainstorm-
ing sessions. If you shoot down ideas at this point, the
shy people will quit contributing, and the subconscious
thinking that can lead to better ideas will quit working.
Create a headline. It might be only a temporary
one, but it should be a usable headline that could run
with the story. The headline will help you define a con-
cept or theme for the photo.
Use a clip file. When you see an interesting photo,
clip it out and file it away. Start folders for various cat-
Figure 10-13 This p h o t o w a s m a d e to illustrate the e g o r i e s : f o o d , f a s h i o n , p r o d u c t , industrial, and so
c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o b l e m s b e t w e e n t e e n a g e r s a n d their on. W h e n you need an idea, you can use these clips
p a r e n t s . The p i c t u r e w o n first p l a c e for editorial illustration as inspiration.
in a Pictures of the Year c o m p e t i t i o n , a l t h o u g h s o m e j u d g e s
Make sketches. Never mind if you're not an artist.
felt it looked too m u c h like an a c t u a l d o c u m e n t a r y p h o t o .
Sketching your idea will help you previsualize it and
(V. Jane Windsor)
recognize problems before you begin. Plan how the il-
lustration will be used on the page. How large will it
How to Get Ideas be? Will it include type? Special borders? Other ele-
ments? What display typeface will be used?
A major factor in the success of an illustration is the
idea, and many illustrations that fail do so because of a Set a schedule. It takes time to do a good illustra-
poor concept. Avoid the predictable. Go beyond the ob- tion. You should plan on at least a day to gather all the
vious. trite, or s o p h o m o r i c . B e w a r e of a t t e m p t s at ingredients and plan the shoot, and another day in the
humor. What may seem cute to you may look stupid to studio shooting.
your readers. Consider visual approaches that symbolize
rather than present literal representations of the theme
or idea. An illustration should add to the story just as a
Special Considerations: Food a n d Fashion
good documentary photo does.
Food is harder to photograph than you might think. Be-
So what is the key to a good idea? Unfortunately, cause film can't capture the taste or smell of food, all
there is no easy way to great illustration ideas. It's hard you have to work with are its visual qualities. Profes-
work, but you can do some things to tip the odds of sional photographers often hire food stylists w h o know
success in your favor. I am reminded of a story I o n c e h o w to prepare food for the eye. A photograph can take
heard about a group of Japanese p h o t o students w h o two or three days to design, set up, and complete, so
toured the United States. One assignment while they stand-in food is used for set-ups so the actual items can
traveled was to make 120 different photographs of a be fresh. Cooked food must be visually perfect, and gar-
pair of sunglasses. The instructor knew that the first 30 nishes and d e c o r a t i o n s are vital parts of t h e scene.
photos would clear away all the preconceived notions Fruits and vegetables must be flawless—no wilt, n o
and obvious solutions. The second 30 probably would dents, no brown spots. Beef is often cooked a little on
be variations on the first. By the time the students got the rare side so it will maintain its redness. Gelatin can
halfway through the project, they would be generating be made with a half a pack extra so it will stay firm for
new ideas. Well. I'm not suggesting that you come up the camera.
Figure 10-14 G a r y C h a p m a n a n d his c r e w set u p for the illustration in
plate 16. The p h o t o w a s to illustrate Guillain-Barre s y n d r o m e , a n e u r o m u s c u l a r
disease. (Gary Chapman/Louisville Courier-Journal)

Figure 10-15 This illustration is m u c h m o r e

s o p h i s t i c a t e d than it first s e e m s . Look carefully at t h e
a r r a n g e m e n t of the b e a n s a n d the various s h a d o w s . (Patrick
Tehan/The Pittsburgh Press)
 wine glasses are alike). And props should be either new
or have that interesting patina that comes with age and
use. Stuff that has seen the usual household use usually
looks shabby. Import stores and junk shops are good
sources for interesting props, and sometimes an antique
store will rent or loan a particular piece.
Because of the attitudes we have toward our food

jjpBS ffl r | J V *
"Ti; and h o w it looks, food p h o t o g r a p h y is probably t h e
most difficult studio assignment. J. Bruce Baumann, a
S :
K' «• ci-f^S * * " ^ photo editor and a former judge of the Pictures of the
Year competition, says too many food photographs fail
-v.'. - . >

Z \ v : because of poor concepts. Food that is poorly prepared

for the camera is simply unappetizing. Humor in food
photos usually fails, he says, resulting in "photographic
" 1 salmonella." To test your idea, he advises, ask yourself,
"Would you eat that?" The worst cliches are variations
of salads with the ingredients arranged as smiling faces,
people slicing onions while wearing gas masks, or aim-
V % ing fire extinguishers at pots of chili.

£
r m .
f
M
XT'.

'
Fashion: Room to Experiment
Successful fashion pictures require a good concept based
on an understanding of fashion trends and the qualities of
gjL.- the specific garment—its lines, textures, and mood. One

r
1 type of fashion photography shows the clothes in com-
X\ i 1
i
plete detail, another creates an atmosphere, a mood, a
feeling of what wearing the clothes would be like.
There is no way to generalize about fashion lighting
and other visual techniques, since they are as m u c h a
Figure 1 0 - 1 6 G o o d f o o d p h o t o g r a p h y p r e s e n t s the part of the concept as any other element. It is probably
items in a n a p p e a l i n g fashion. Place the main light at a n best to start with location work, learning h o w to con-
a n g l e that b r i n g s out the texture of the food. A v o i d t r y i n g to trol the model and integrate the setting into the photo.
m a k e jokes with food, as they usually aren't funny. W h e n Many effects that would be considered defccts in other
evaluating your idea, ask yourself if y o u w o u l d w a n t to eat genres arc used here intentionally with success. Ghost-
the f o o d as it is p r e s e n t e d . (Ron HolmanA/isalia Times-Delta) ing, e x t r e m e grain, high contrast, soft focus, and blur
are some examples.
Important contributors to a successful p h o t o are
Liquids need something extra so they aren't dead-
the models and the location. The models must be ap-
looking in the glass. Props such as ice (pros use non-
propriate for the clothes. I can't give you a checklist for
melting Lucite blocks), swizzle sticks, straws, and so on
selecting models because so much of it is intuitive but,
help. Sometimes a single b u b b l e resting against t h e
for example, some people look better in western wear
edge of the glass is enough. A drop of detergent added
than formal evening dress. Working with a professional
to the liquid will help make bubbles. To make sweat on
model is a luxury that I hope you get to experience; a
the outside of a glass, use glycerin (from a pharmacy)
pro knows what's needed and how to produce it. When
mixed with water. Spray it on with an atomizer; apply
professionals are not available, I suggest using dancers
large drops of pure glycerin with a toothpick. Cooking
or actors. I find these people arc m o r e in t u n c with
oil spread with a basting brush makes things shiny.
movement than most amateur models and are only too
The props arc just as important as the food. They glad to work with you. Pay them if you can, but many
must c o m p l e m e n t t h e food and should s u p p o r t t h e times they will trade their talents in return for photos.
theme. All props should reflect the same mood: formal
Be sure the clothes are new, properly fitted, and
and elegant, down-home country, ethnic, or whatever.
ironed. Clothes that have been worn for a while show
When shooting in color, the color of the props should
scuffs, stretches, and sags, and unless that's what you
be carefully coordinated, with each o t h e r as well as
arc after, the look will be amateurish. Problems with fit
with the food. Be accurate. Don't d o a bread shot with a
can be cured with temporary fixes. Tape or clothespins
sheaf of barley (or worse, w e e d s ) alongside the loaf
a p p l i e d out of camera view can tighten a g a r m e n t ;
w h e n you should be using a sheaf of wheat. If you pho-
gently crushed tissue can fill out a garment.
tograph wine, be sure to use t h e right glass (not all
Figure 10-17 Fashion g i v e s creative p h o t o g r a p h e r s a Figure 1 0 - 1 8 Simple g r a p h i c s are best with fashion
c h a n c e t o try a v a n t - g a r d e a p p r o a c h e s . (Mark Mirko/Paim This p h o t o w a s originally in color a n d was s c a n n e d into a
Beach Post) c o m p u t e r w h e r e the red c h a n n e l w a s p r i n t e d as a b l a c k -
and-white i m a g e . (Gary Kazanjian/Hanford Sentinel)

When directing models, I prefer to set up a scenario When setting up a shot, set the scene and the cam-
and let them act it out. This encourages the models to era angle before you try to set lights. Then arrange the
be spontaneous and to contribute ideas. Saying "hold it" lighting as you check the effects from the camera posi-
can result in stiff-looking poses, so I suggest banning tion. Establish o n e main light source and k e e p your
that term from your shooting session. Posing works bet- lighting simple, using as few lights as possible. Remem-
ter if the model is on the move and you use your sense ber that a studio photograph should be technically per-
of timing to catch the moment. This is true even for sit- fect, so use a tripod and a fine-grain film if possible to
uations w h e r e the pose is to look static. The model is gain maximum sharpness. Cropping should be done in
still making extremely subtle movements; changes in the camera so grain and sharpness don't suffer because
eye position or a tiny facial muscle. The model is free to of excessive enlargement.
move but can sense w h e n t h e t w o of you are o n t o
When making a formal portrait, set the pose first,
something that is working.
then set the camera height, and. finally, set the lights.
During the session, give positive feedback. Let your Short lighting is used for normal to wide faces, while
models k n o w that you like what they are doing for you. broad light is used for narrow faces. For both portraits
If there are technical problems that they can't do any- and tabletop set-ups. soft light is more forgiving of be-
thing about, keep them to yourself. Never allow nega- ginners' mistakes.
tivism to arise. Illustrations are useful in photojournalism because
they can show relationships and make visual explana-
tions that can't be photographed otherwise. However,
Summary beware of deceiving your reader with illustrations that
look like candidly shot news photos. Don't substitute an
Working in the studio can be an exciting experience be- illustration when a good news photo can be made.
cause you are in complete control of even aspect of Encourage the growth of ideas by writing a head-
your image. Your thinking will take a different tack than line and getting together with colleagues for a brain-
you may be used to. You will have to invent the photo- s t o r m i n g s e s s i o n . Plan y o u r illustration c a r e f u l l y ,
graph instead of searching for an existing arrangement. avoiding the obvious solution at all costs.
Setting up your scene requires the same feelings for When shooting food, be sure the food items are as
composition and design that you'd use for any photo- perfect as possible and that the appropriate accessories
graph, so the main emphasis in learning to work in the are included. Light to show the texture of the food. For
studio is the control of light. Simple controls include fashion, select models carefully and be sure clothes are
blocking the light from a specific subject area by using new and well fitted. Make sure backgrounds do not de-
cardboard flags and reflecting the light into shadows tract from the clothes.
with white cards, aluminum foil, and the like-
 c h a p t e r

^
11
The Photo
Story
OUTLINE

S t o r y o r Essay? Case Histories

T h e Idea A Time for Love
S h o o t i n g the Story There Are 10,000 Things Worse
than Being Blind
Understanding the Story
Blood. Sweat, and Gears
T h e Shooting Script
Subject Rapport Summary
Sensitivity to Unspoken Signals
Editing the Pictures and
Designing the Page

44.
M Y P H O T O G R A P H S AT BEST H O L D ONLY A SMALL S T R E N G T H , B I T T H R O U G H T H E M

I W O U L D SUGGEST AND CRITICIZE AND ILLUMINATE AND TRY T O GIVE

COM PASSIONATE UNDERSTAND ING.

— W . EUGENE SMITH, OFTEN REGARDED AS THE FATHER OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC ESSAY

Story Too often, these lists come from persons who aren't vi-
sually oriented, and the ideas are the obvious cliches.
Ar narrative set of pictures that work to- The first source of story ideas is your o w n aware-
single topic. A complete p h o t o story ness of what is going on in your community. I've men-
ics. captions, and a carefully coordi- tioned this point before, but it bears repeating. Do you
out, all of which contribute to the mes- read a n e w s p a p e r e v e n day? Do you k n o w the local,
spapcrs, p h o t o stories are usually given regional, and national issues that affect your readers?
ay space such as an entire page or series of A n o t h e r g o o d s o u r c e of s t o r y i d e a s is t h e o n e -
• liile magazines might devote many spreads to a p a r a g r a p h n e w s b r i e f s that most p a p e r s r u n . Also
. i photo story. check the want ads and the Yellow Pages, and get out
To many photojournalists the photo story is the ulti- into the community. Recently, one of my students was
mate in photojournalism because it offers a chance to driving d o w n an out-of-the-way street and saw some-
dig into a situation, develop a close rapport with the one working on an odd-looking airplane in an old ware-
subjects, and display the result in the best possible man- h o u s e . T h i s p l a n e t u r n e d o u t to be a r a r e W W I I
ner. In some ways, a p h o t o story is easier to produce specimen that was being restored, a project that be-
than a single picture because all t h e elements of the came an interesting photo story.
story don't have to fit into a single frame, and the pho-
tographer has more time to understand the story and
develop rapport. But in many o t h e r ways, t h e p h o t o
story is a challenge. Making sure that the pictures will
work together is often challenge enough, but the p h o t o Health & Fitness
story also requires a carefully planned approach from Fnnrt lunclk"!. to imiiiiiv
MuUk-ttge nwutMl phriir\
the first idea through the final layout. arv courting ilk• perfm <Jt»i

There is also a form of picture journalism called the

photo essay. In fact, some people use the terms photo
essay and photo story interchangeably, but there is a dif-
ference. An essay might rely more o n symbolism and
subtle relationships or juxtapositions among pictures,
while the story has a more direct progression from pic-
ture to picture. Gerald Hurley and Angus McDougall
have said: Over the
The picture essay is more likely to argue than to
narrate. It intcllectualizes. It analyzes even when it
Hill
presents both sides of an issue. It's more likely to be
about something than someone.
Under
The picture story's visual continuity is not a
characteristic of the picture essay. Unrelated in time,
Hoop
unconnected in story development, essay pictures do not
lean on one another. Each picture is selected to make a
large point: each can stand alone. If pictures in the
picture story are comparable to sentences, the essay-
picture more closely resembles a paragraph.1
Not everything is easily categorized, though. Some
stories have essay-like features and, conversely, some es-
says have story-like features. As a beginner, I think you
should start with p h o t o stories, and as your narrative When all hope is gone, it s time to 'take charge'
skills develop, move on to the more demanding essay.
Y
The Idea
Good p h o t o stories start w i t h good ideas. It's self-
evident that your story idea should be a visual one, but
Figure 11-1 A b o u t m i d d l e - a g e d e x e c u t i v e s w h o play
sometimes it is hard for persons with no photography b a s k e t b a l l d u r i n g lunch, this is the type of story that c o u l d
experience to recognizc the visual potential of an idea. b e d o n e in any c o m m u n i t y in o n e afternoon. Simple ideas
Make your own determination; don't let someone else a r e often the best. (Courtesy The Virginian-Pilot and The Ledger-
give you a topic with a list of p i c t u r e s to be shot. Star)
 And one story can lead to other ideas I >i \ample in your file Then when you are looking for an idea, these
the airplane story could lead you io the AW\ rt win M- clips can be explored or used to spur your mind on
you might find an 80-year-old pilot w h o still holds an in-
Once you have an idea, write it down Write a sam-
structor's certificate and still flies a biplane. Another
ple headline and a brief statement about the essence of
method is to take an idea and reverse it. \\ hat about tin
the story. If you can't do this, the story is probably
youngest pilot in your community ?
vague in your mind. too. and the resulting photos will
Ideas also c o m e from other publications There is be scattered and without direction.
nothing wrong with borrowing an idea as long as \ou
modify it so the product is your own work. I remember Evaluating a Story Idea It is vital that you examine
an editor w h o scolded me for rejecting a ston idea be- an idea seriously before you start shooting. Some ideas
cause it had already been done by other newspapers might make great stories for words but weak stories for
She said that w e h a d n ' t d o n e t h e story, our readers pictures; others might be totally impractical due to time
hadn't seen it, and therefore it was still valid for us. W e or production problems.
would be doing our own version and not copying what
Mere are some questions to ask w h e n evaluating
had been done elsewhere. So although you should still
your ston idea:
try to come up with n e w ideas, it's fine to borrow from
Is the story significant? Keep in mind some of the
time to time.
basic news values: conflict, proximity, and the unusual.
Keep an idea file. When you get a ston idea, or see a What makes this ston unique? What is it about this per-
story or news item that might lead to something, drop it son or event that makes it different from all the rest'
Why should readers care? If you were the editor, would
you publish this story?
Has the story or a similar one already been covered
by your publication or a direct competitor? Editors do
not want to repeat themselves or what their competi-
tion has already done. If the story has been done within
the last year or two. move on to the next idea. Keep in
mind that this is not the same as modifying an idea from
a noncompeting publication.
Is the scope of the story coverable in the space and
time available? You can't do the history of Western civi-
lization on one newspaper page or in a one-afternoon
shoot. A ston on a hospital burn ward might be loaded
with visual potential—the patients' struggles and the
concern of the staff could be strong material. But the
ston of the whole ward is a big one. including doctors,
nurses, therapists, patients, patients' families, and so on.
By reducing the ston* to one patient's fight to return to
a normal life, you have narrowed your ston* to some-
thing manageable.
Will the events in the story be scheduled so you can
complete it in a reasonable time? If the key element in
your story only happens once a month, you might find
the project strung out. Long-term projects are fine as
long as you know what you are getting into, but be sure
that there is a definite ending in sight. For those long-
term projects, be sure the ston will still be timely after
it is completed.
Is the ston* overtly visual? Some stories lend them-
selves to telling with the camera, while others are best
told with words. A story on an accountant probably
Figure 11-2 The e l e m e n t s of a g o o d p h o t o s t o n wouldn't be a good choice for telling with pictures, but
evident here: a strong, d o m i n a n t lead photo: continuity you can readily envision the photos that could be made
a m o n g the p h o t o s : a n d c l e a n p a g e design. (Photography by of an o w n e r of Percheron draft horses w h o uses t h e
Robert Cohen. Picture editing by Jim Urick: Page design by horses to h a n e s t their o w n feed. Also, some stories
Stephen UrbanskifThe Sun Tattler. Hollywood. FL
 aren't obviously visual but could be told by a skilled TABLE 11-1 Story Idea Checklist
photogr i cr I am reminded of a story o n e of my ad-
vance! e:its did on a counseling program for trou- • Is the story significant or u n i q u e ?
bled teens Most of the action was people talking, but • Has the story already been c o v e r e d by your
this phi s ^ r a p h e r had the ability to capture the subtle p u b l i c a t i o n or the c o m p e t i t i o n ?
expressions, body language, and mood that w e r e the • Is the story c o v e r a b l e with r e s o u r c e s available?
lal indicators of the emotional tensions present. • Will the s c o p e of the story fit p u b l i c a t i o n s p a c e ?
• Is the story overtly visual?
ihe subject cooperate? Before you take your
• Will the s u b j e c t c o o p e r a t e ?
k a to your editor, c h e c k w i t h your subject. It is a
• Is the story a o n e - t i m e event or a c o n t i n u i n g o n e ?
vaste of time to consider an idea when you won't get
past the subject's front door. Further, your editor's time
is valuable and shouldn't be taken up with false alarms.
I recall a local foreign-bom sculptor w h o has been the see in the following discussion of the two case histo-
target of several photographers over the last few years. ries, this step can be an important part of developing
In addition to a language and cultural barrier, he's an in- the story line.
d e p e n d e n t sort w h o deals w i t h p e o p l e o n his o w n After your research is complete, write out a tempo-
terms. He'll let a photographer shoot for half an hour or rary headline and short description of the story if you
so and then suddenly smile and say, "Enough photos. haven't already done so. This headline, even though it
You go now. Good-bye." may not be t h e o n e ultimately used, b e c o m e s your
Is the story something you can return to for addi- guidepost w h e n shooting. It will help you see the pho-
tional shooting? Experienced photojournalists can com- tos that need to be made, and it will help you avoid
plete some photo stories in one visit, but at first you'll going off on tangents, wasting time shooting things that
need to go back and reshoot to fill in the gaps in your don't relate to the immediate story. Time and time again,
coverage that are bound t o occur. I have been presented with photo story contacts that are
disjointed; important pictures are missing, and there is
What technical problems will you encounter? If the
no continuity among those taken. Without fail, the cause
lighting at the story location is weak, do you have the
can be traced back to a lack of direction, direction that
means to solve this problem? If flash is needed, it will
could have been provided by a simple headline.
be a constant reminder to your subjects of your pres-
ence. What effect will this awareness have on their be- For a photo story to work, there must be some thread
havior? Will special e q u i p m e n t be n e e d e d ? Remote mnning through the pictures that ties them together. This
cameras, underwater gear, special lenses? thread might be the person w h o is your subject, or it
could be the location, time, or event. Regardless of the
specific device, you must maintain continuity in the con-
Shooting the Story tent of the photos, because without it, all you'll have is a
collection of assorted pictures. Working with a headline
Shooting the story is not as simple as running out with in mind is a big help, as is keeping your idea simple and
your camera and snapping away. If you take this ap- limiting the number of key characters.
proach. you'll most likely come back with a set of photos
that is little more than a collection of assorted pictures,
The Shooting Script
and such collections do not make good photo stories.
Don't count on being rescued by editorial salvage. O n c e you have a headline, you can develop a shooting
script, which is a more detailed list of the kinds of situa-
Understanding the Story tions and p h o t o s that you will look for. Your script
must be a flexible plan, because things often don't turn
To do a comprehensive job. you should know the story
out as expected, but it will get you started and help
better than anyone else. National Geographic photog-
keep you on track. Be careful of predetermining too
raphers spend weeks researching a story before they
much. Regardless of your familiarity with the story, your
even think about picking up a camera. Such detail is
preconceived notions should not slant the story in an
impractical in newspaper work, w h e r e you may have
inaccurate direction. You should photograph the story,
only a couple of afternoons to shoot, but you should
not create it.
gain as much background information as possible in
the time available. This research does two things. First, A p h o t o g r a p h e r for t h e long-since d e f u n c t Look
it will prepare you to recognize m o m e n t s and situa- magazine gave me the following basic shooting script,
tions that need to be captured on film. Second, it is of and it's still valid today.
major value in establishing rapport with your subject.
1. We three basic shots. Start with the three basic
This research could include a preliminary visit to your
shots discussed in chapter 8: long shot, medium
subject w h e r e you might make some photos. As you'll
shot, and close-up. Remember, the long shot shows
 rs-...
TABLE 11-2 Sample Shooting Script
The DailyBreak
• L o n g s h o t — s e t s the s c e n e
• M e d i u m s h o t — m o v e s in o n the a c t i o n
• C l o s e - u p — r e v e a l s detail a n d e m o t i o n
• L e a d p h o t o — t h e key p h o t o , s u m s u p story
• P o r t r a i t — s h o w s key personality
• I n t e r a c t i o n — h o w t h e i n d i v i d u a l s r e l a t e to e a c h
other
• S e q u e n c e — a p r o g r e s s i o n t h r o u g h time
• Detail s h o t — a d d s flavor
• C l o s e r — e n d s the story

4. Interaction. The subject should be shown relating

to other people. This is an important element in
most stories and one beginners often miss. To get
A U T ISM good interaction photos, you must be in a position
where you can see what is going on. You must
An h ho htnr myumous anticipate because these moments go by quickly.
handicap arr v/v/wrd
fivm ihr ""id but rtKh 5. The sequence. Not all stories will lend themselves
u affraed diflrniuh
to sequences, but if they are there, shoot them. A
sequence is not necessarily a motor-drive series, but
any progression through time.

6. The detail shot. This is an extreme close-up of a

small detail. It might be a cowboy's boots outside
the bunkhouse door, or his worn hands and the
reins of his horse. This shot adds flavor to the story.
Do-do-dtHk>. ikxkxio-iio: SomclinKs we all cnlcr The Twilight Zone'
7. The closer. This is the shot that ends the ston*. A
good closer is not necessarily the last shot taken,
but is the shot with which w e say good-bye.
Sometimes a good story should end before every
Figure 1 1 - 3 Evident in this story are the lead photo,
detail is told.
w h i c h is also a portrait, interaction shots, a n d a detail
p h o t o . A s is s o m e t i m e s the c a s e , the b o t t o m of this p a g e Of course, not all stories will have all of these shots.
w a s r e s e r v e d for a c o l u m n i s t . (Courtesy The Virginian-Pilot and The lead and the closer are always necessary; the others
The Ledger-Star) will depend on the situation. Although you won't neces-
sarily shoot these p h o t o s in the order I've presented
them here, you should keep reviewing your progress as
the overall scene and helps the reader understand you shoot to be sure you have complete coverage.
the relationships of the pans. The medium shot Shooting a photo story is more than going clown a
moves in on the action, and the close-up reveals checklist of photos. You must go beyond the obvious de-
details and emotion. scription of what this person is doing. Show the reasons
why and the consequences; show us the motivations. Let
2. Lead photo. Next, and most important, is the lead us see something w e couldn't ordinarily sec for our-
photo. This is the shot that sums up the story and selves. When you feel yourself getting emotionally in-
gets the largest play in the layout. Finding a strong volved, trust your emotions and shoot what you feel.
lead p h o t o is often the major challenge in shooting
a p h o t o story. Subject Rapport
3. The portrait. This picture isn't necessarily posed, One of your jobs is to gain the trust and confidence of
but it is a close-up of the face of the key character. your subject so he or she will share those personal mo-
It should be more than just a shot for the record: it ments with you. Keep a positive attitude; never allow
should s h o w this person's personality or the negative comments. Keep technical problems to your-
self. When you encounter someone whose ideas about
emotions involved in the story.
life are yours, keep quiet. Don't engage in
philos
agree n
' iitical arguments. Find some point of
keep conversation centered on him or
SPECTRUM
her. n o
m you may run into is the self-conscious
erson has a hard time getting used to the
csence and wants to make everything "look
his is t h e p a r e n t w h o r u n s over to c o m b a
hair, or the executive who cleans off his or her
' -Nk in anticipation of your visit. But you have to make
understood that you want to photograph them while
they do what they would be doing if you weren't there.
Changing things for the benefit of the camera sets up an
unreal situation. You have to convince them that you
will photograph with sensitivity and respect and aren't
out to do a hatchet job or embarrass anyone.
At first you can count on shooting some film just to CIIURMW
break in your subject and get him or her used to the cam- (ii "ii H-:
era. After a while—the time varies with each person—
the camera will no longer be intimidating and you can
get into the core of the story. As you progress, give some
positive feedback to your subjects. A few strokes aimed Semi-surfers
specialize

in their direction encourages them to continue working I n flips, flops

as popularity
ot n e w s p o r t
with you. increases

Sensitivity to Unspoken Signals

You also have to be sensitive to the unspoken commu-
nications from your subject. Know w h e n to pull back
and w h e n it is time to leave. Don't wear out your wel-
come. and don't shoot the subject to death. And if you
are doing an emotionally intense story, watch for those
private m o m e n t s . Some things are important to t h e
story and must be shot. Some aren't. There's no way I
can give you a checklist to recognize these situations; Figure 1 1 - 4 When designing p h o t o pages, the headline
all you can do is shoot carefully, with sensitivity and t y p e should also be c o n s i d e r e d a d e s i g n element. Notice
awareness. the alignment of the two outlines. (Photos: John Kaplan; Page
After you finish a shoot, never show your contacts design: J. Bruce Baumann/The Pittsburgh Press)
to your subject. (The only other person w h o should see
them is your editor.) People don't realize that you are
six is enough. If you have the time and resources, make
quite likely to make photos that don't work out, shots
some small work prints from a dozen or so of the shots
that catch them in an awkward moment. If your sub-
you think best tell the story. These don't have to be per-
jects see your mistakes, they might lose confidence in
fect, just make quick prints so you can better sec the
you and worry that the story will embarrass them. Fur-
images. Then get down to the final selection by cutting
ther. this fear increases their desire to influence the the redundancies and shots that are technically weak.
editing of t h e story, an involvement that should be Remember that visual redundancies can occur in photos
strictly prohibited If it seems appropriate, bring some that are graphically different but make the same state-
prints to the subject, some shots that you are sure they ment. Cut out obvious cliches. And keep in mind that a
would like. One of the greatest public relations devices straight chronology might not be the best approach;
a photographer has is t h e 8 x 1 0 print. you might want to edit the pictures by theme or idea.
W h e n laying out t h e page, there should be o n e
Editing t h e P i c t u r e s a n d D e s i g n i n g t h e Page large, dominant lead photo. Remember, this is the pic-
ture that is the peak of the story—make it the biggest
Once the photos are shot, you have to edit and present picture on the page, and be sure it is significantly bigger
them in a logical manner on the page. Don't try to in- than the others. One common mistake beginners make
clude too main pictures; on a newspaper page, five or is sizing the lead photo too small.
 IWI I S | \S | I) U s | Although captions are discussed in chapter 12, it's
important to mention here that a good caption adds to
the photo It does not repeat what the viewer can see
in the photo. Keep the captions adjacent to t h e pic-
tures; avoid centralized cutline blocks that force the
reader's eyes to j u m p around on the page trying to
match pictures with cutlines.

Case Histories

For all p h o t o stories, the fundamental considerations

are the same: getting a good idea. Finding the images
that best capture the story, and presenting them to the
reader in an effective manner. To better understand
h o w the process works, here arc some case histories.

A Time for Love

The story in figure 11-6 was p h o t o g r a p h e d by Lisa
Waddell and edited by Murray Koodish of the Memphis
Commercial Appeal. Figure 11 -7a through 11 - 7 c are
some of the other shots that w e r e considered for the
story.
This story began with the photographer, Waddell,
who was looking through magazines in the library trying
to Find story ideas when she came across a generic story
about the Foster Grandparent Program. After suggesting
the idea to her editors, she tracked down the person in
charge of the local program. She was granted clearance
to visit the center. Waddell made an initial trip to check
out the situation and find a grandparent/child combina-
tion that would work well for the story.
At that first visit, Waddell spent the day shooting
Figure 11-5 This is a c o n t i n u a t i o n of a story that b e g a n p h o t o s of various grandparent/child couples, looking
on a n o t h e r p a g e : t h e r e f o r e there is no large headline.
for o n e that would work out best for the story. Be-
N e v e r t h e l e s s , there is a strong, large lead p h o t o a r r a n g e d
cause children in such situations are protected by pri-
with the other p h o t o s so the visual d i r e c t i o n flows o n t o the
vacy l a w s , t h e d i r e c t o r of t h e c e n t e r h a d to get
p a g e . (Photos by Brad Graver son, reprinted with permission of
p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e p a r e n t s of any child Waddell
The Daily Breeze)
wanted to photograph. "The challenge was to find a
grandparent that was willing, plus one of the children
w h o s e p a r e n t s didn't mind them being pho-
Then fill in the details, using other pictures that
tographed," Waddell said.
s u p p o r t and explain t h e lead. G r o u p t h e p h o t o s to-
gether, clustering t h e s u p p o r t i n g p h o t o s around the One of Waddell's reasons for selecting the pair in
lead. Sometimes your detail shot makes what I call a these photos was that there was some visible interac-
headline shot, a small p h o t o that can be used near the tion between the woman and the boy. Many of the chil-
headline as a symbol of t h e story. Give t h e headline dren, she said, were incapable of much visible response
good display too since it is the verbal counterpart to the to their foster grandparent's attention.
lead photo. Don't create a Swiss-cheese look with bits Although she had many pictures from that first day.
of copy jumping among scattered pictures. Place the neither she nor editor Koodish wanted to take such a
photos together and be sure the copy flows in a logical generalized approach. Waddell said, "We had enough
manner. Keep the white space to the outside of the lay- pictures to make a page layout, but it wouldn't have
out and make sure the small spaces between photos are meant as much to just have a bunch of cutsie pictures
of g r a n d p a r e n t s hugging, g r a n d p a r e n t s picking kids
consistently sized. When laying out the shots, set u p the
up." Koodish added, "We thought that by homing in on
p a g e so t h e r e a d e r ' s eye flows t h r o u g h t h e pictures
one relationship, w e could get more dimension than by
with the energy flow of each image. Try to keep t h e
shooting a whole bunch of different people."
flow of each photo going onto the page.
 Figure II his p h o t o story o n a
foster c
text Sc :
the- is d i s c u s s e d in the
e p h o t o s that w e r e not
APPEAL
Illl ( .« »\|Ml |<« I \I Al'l'l Nl
usee: 1 1 - 7 a - e (Photos by
:' j:e editing by Murray
gn by Brian Stallcop and
The Memphis Commercial

ATIME FOR LOVE

On four subsequent visits, Waddell concentrated on Waddell said she was not looking for specific pic-
this one pair I was trying to get her interacting with the tures, but w a n t e d to c o n c e n t r a t e on images that
kid. to show that she was helping the child; and in the showed the need on both sides. "They both are at the
same way the child was helping her. 1 found out what ac- end of the spectrum w h e r e they are in need of other
tivities they had during the day, and that's when I would people," said Waddell. One big difficulty w a s finding
go. She said it took several visits to get the woman used different types of situations to photograph. The chil-
to being photographed. "It takes a while for people to dren almost never leave the facility, and their awareness
trust you and go on about their life as normal." of their surroundings is extremely limited. "There aren't
(b) (e)
Figure 11-7 T h e p h o t o s in this series a r e o n e s not u s e d in the "A Time for
Love" story in f i g u r e 1 1 - 6 . See the text for details. (Lisa WaddeilfThe Memphis
Commercial Appeal)
an\ acth r ihc> do with the kids. It's mostly hug- The photo in figure 11 -7a was held as a possibility
ging an and touching. It was hard to get away until the final layout because, although it is somewhat
from'h. hot. Waddell said. similar in content to the lead, Koodish felt it was a clean
\\ , time to edit the take, Waddell made the tight shot with a simple background that could be used
she made a stack of workprints, which, small if needed. "If w e ' d needed something 18 picas
e negs, were passed to editor Koodish. He wide, we could have used it," Koodish said. Waddell
K the photographer should do the first edit said she took t h e picture because it was a quiet moment
ning. The photographer was there and knows and because the grandmother spent hours walking the
nation. You have to trust her judgment in that rc- child up and down the halls, which was something he
v i But Koodish also went over all the negs from the seemed to enjoy.
shoot to be sure nothing was missed. The long shot of the hallway, figure 1 l - 7 d . would
At the same time, an editor must be careful about have given the action some context. However, Kood-
making presumptions about the story, Koodish said, so ish said that scene was described in the text, and he
he always asks a lot of questions. As an editor, "There felt it was better just to concentrate on the personal
may be a story line that you're seeing that isn't accu- relationship.
rate." he said. "You have to talk to the photographer He also said the cutlines are a vital part of the pack-
and t h e w r i t e r and be sure you u n d e r s t a n d what is age. "They show w h y the pictures tie into the overall
going on." story," he said. The photographers write t h e cutlines,
'A lot of editing is very subjective," Koodish said. with help from the editors if needed.
"One person might come up with something a n o t h e r Overall, Koodish said, "We could have included
person would go right by." During the editing of t h e s o m e of t h e o u t t a k e s and made it a different story.
story, other photographers made a few suggestions, as T here is no one way to do a story, and I think that's
did the director of photography. something people need to realize."
The lead was an obvious choice from the start. Shot
on the first day, it sums up the relationship and t h e There Are 10,000 Things Worse than Being Blind
heart of the story. Koodish sized it to run large and then The photo story in figures 1 1 - 8 and 11-9a t h r o u g h
began finding photos that would both fill in the rest of 11-9c was photographed by Melissa Farlow and edited
the story and work well in the design of the page. Wad- by J. Bruce Baumann of The Pittsburgh Press.
dell liked figure 11-7b. but recognized that there was The idea began with Farlow. "We are expected to
no point in using both it and the lead. come up with most of t h e ideas . . . ," she said. "We
The shot of the boy on the floor was used "to show get assignments for sports and fashion and food, but
that the kid just doesn't get up and run around," said everything for feature and magazine stories, photogra-
Koodish. It gives the reader an idea of the boy's condi- phers contribute. We read the wires . . . we ask people
tion. And although figure 11-6c is a close duplicate, to call us and w e make lots of calls. Bruce has asked us
Koodish said it would not have worked as well in the to be journalists and that's what w e try to do."
layout. He liked t h e g r a n d m o t h e r leaning d o w n and Farlow had b e e n at a c e n t e r f o r t h e blind and
touching the boy, but that action was similar to the asked the staff to put her in contact with a set of blind
lead. To run figure 11-7c would have been somewhat parents. She found a couple, but the husband had a
redundant and presented a difficult sizing problem. By typical role as b r e a d w i n n e r and d i d n ' t h e l p out as
the time it was sized to fit the layout, it would have m u c h as Farlow had c x p c c t e d . The m o t h e r b e c a m e
been too small to b e effective. Further, t h e shot has the focus of the story.
more distractions around the edges than the o n e used.
One of the challenges in this story was to keep it
The shot of the woman alone at home was used to from being another trite story about a handicapped per-
show another side of the story, something that is men- son. Farlow explained that it is easy t o make p h o t o s
tioned in the text. "I shot it because that's w h e r e she s h o w i n g a p e r s o n ' s disabilities and h o w that person
would sit during the day when she didn't have anything deals with them. "I honestly thought the mother was
else to do. To me, this showed that she needed the kids different and tried to make pictures that were true to
as much as they needed her," said Waddell. In the lay- her situation and not to rely on cliches."
out. Koodish feels it also adds a strong graphic element. Farlow said she tries not to head into a story with a
We felt that by having her isolated with the darkness, it notion of what she is going to look for. "I think some
was a dynamic shape that contrasted well with every- people predict their stories and that's all they'll find. I
thing else Sure, you could have cropped it, but having try to go in with an open mind. My first couple of shoots
all the black isolates her," he said. "You can read into it arc just groping, just observing. I try to tune into the
what you want, but it is a moody picture because of subjects—how they feel and what their lives are like.
that He said h e considered using the shot at the top of Then I look for photographs that illustrate those points."
t h e layout, basically flopping t h e page design top-to- In this case, Farlow k n e w she had to s h o w that
bottom. but felt the final layout was just a bit stronger. t h e mother was blind and the kids w e r e sighted, but
 Figure I I - 8 T h i s story w o n

SPECTRUM . 11•
Section O
i>
a n a w a r d for e x c e l l e n c e in the
P i c t u r e s of the Year
c o m p e t i t i o n (Photos Melissa
. • . . > ... Failow, Page design J Bruce
BaumannfThe Pittsburgh Press)

THERE ARE

10,000
THINGS WORSE THAN
BEING BLIND'

o c
W IU H » \ f « l WAVES bt<_- I . b - . . « . ! I V Sow* P . r « » . . . >•.

>»:.« iwJw?
In..

-I i l i a
IC
.n!
ntr Vr*?'*
b>
.-ip
roilrtaij
AM M m lutwrji wK»f i
w r t i m «. - r .
.t a
'r
wwrtoni t» IN ^ Mu#
»«ti«!.>« ( w n^v... . •• ihtm lmkr« !,-*«a»r » -• wr
i M b r r U r w 4 i « f ? i r r » i r f r.C:-£ ib«.«< - si?^ • .if
p r w . r . o » . x -«r-J • -..ne l I U . M Ut\»
t v o U * r » » u a Iron". 1S«
rs» prli i n n m t i r i K o U o o M.— T v - V . r j r.i

H'f . J^i lvrw> An; iM j j >,i ;. . - .s

Vi)t>KluMa«nrjruKi tv!rai» •- :
brf i i u j i fjT.iiv :in(Mii!<r
amin l a ; w u u .i : * r o>"*r*r: .r « » 7 » . • b#r •-.
In Ihr L>rOMB«f •?» I'rv^ • .—•» - f a i n H.i. « - • •. •
*>"» I " ftf»pUr» Ir L.W (MTOiit 4 r.: -MM- •
bolt M ir» « | W .5 |-,«I! mill Ihr « • • !>..: Sr.r"
B r t u M uwm t u a d « * • » • Kar.- : Kimbrr .
!t » in Tl- • '•:-<-. «•»«: "»j .-
ea«v;n»». tM I,;, —
lft» p e r rail I I »r» M i r r . » f t>» < » « '.r •':-!'"
Mn P.rv* .-,-.! ... .

Photographed by Melissa KarloM

Written by Aon Bullri

(C) (e)
Figure 11-9 The p h o t o s in this series are s o m e of t h o s e not u s e d in the story
in iigure ' - ~ e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s is d i s c u s s e d in the text. (Melissa
Farlow/The Pittsburgh Press)
beyond that, "I'm just trying to get a sense ol w h o Un- The small shot of the three kids earn ing groceries up
p e o p l e are and project that o n film," she explained. the stairs does not include the mother, but Baumann said
After each shoot, she c h e c k e d the take to see if there he felt it was important to show that she does need help.
were gaps in that goal. In retrospect, Baumann thinks he should have left
As is typical, the first visit yielded few usable pho- out the haircut picture and used figure 1 l - 9 c . "I was so
tos. Farlow said the mother had planned a game with adamant about this not being a n o t h e r blind w o m a n
her kids for Farlow's benefit, and the house was in per- story that there is no place in there when you could bet
fect condition. After Farlow was able to establish some the ranch that this woman was blind," he said.
rapport with her subjects, subsequent visits were more "This story doesn't have a tight story line with a be-
normal. In all, Farlow made about eight trips to photo- ginning, middle and end." said Farlow. It is more like
graph the family, trying to catch them in everyday activ- an essay. There is more room for interpretation com-
ity a r o u n d t h e h o u s e as well as d u r i n g trips to tin- pared to others w h e r e there are certain pictures that
doctor. the beauty salon, and the amusement park. tell a particular part of the story."
W h e n t h e s h o o t i n g was c o m p l e t e , Farlow made
contacts of all the negatives, as well as workprints of Bloocl, Sweat, and Gears
her favorite shots. Some of those printed but not used Here's an example of a photo story that began with a
are in figure 1 l - 9 a through 1 l - 9 e . good idea, but there are some problems with the page
Baumann liked photo 11 -9a because it was a good (fig. 11-10). T h e editor and p h o t o g r a p h e r involved
housework shot that included her young son being very have graciously agreed to share it so w e can learn from
kidlike. But Farlow didn't feel the shot worked. Farlow some of their mistakes. The story is about a bicycle race
said, "We went back and forth between this picture and that starts at about 300 feet above sea level and climbs
the kitchen picture," that was used in the layout. Bau- some of the steepest grades in the state to a 9200-foot
mann settled on the kitchen shot because, he said, "I mountain pass. The route is 161 miles long and is about
thought it was a quicker read." a 10-hour ride. It is a tough ride; many of those w h o
Farlow didn't like figure 11-9b. However, she un- start fail to finish.
d e r s t o o d that Baumann was looking for a shot that A common approach to such a story is to concen-
s h o w e d t h e m o t h e r dealing directly with o n e of her trate on one person, but another approach would be to
children in a motherly way, so she found a better one, cover the whole event from a broader perspective. Un-
the shot used in t h e lower right corncr of the layout. fortunately, the photographer took the former approach
T h e log ride shot w a s a c o m p e t i t o r w i t h figure while the writer took the latter. The result is that the
1 l - 9 c . Farlow had originally printed 11-9c because the photos and the story don't complement each other. The
mother was easier to see than in the log ride, although reader expects the photos to show how tough this race
she liked the log ride shot, too. Baumann chose the lat- was, but the rider t h e photographer concentrated on
ter shot for t h e layout because the expressions on all doesn't seem to be having much trouble.
the faces w e r e better, and the mother was a part of the Perhaps the photographer should have also taken a
action instead of being the whole point of the image. generalized a p p r o a c h . Seventy-two cyclists w e r e in-
Farlow liked figure 11 -9d, but realized that she was volved, and because it was an all-day event there was
probably reading something into it that wasn't there. ample time to get many pictures of exhausted riders bat-
She said the mother could hear her son's voice, knew tling the hills. The area covered is quite scenic, and there
he was testing his limits, and went over to steady him. were a number of good shooting spots. Unfortunately,
Farlow felt that this shot illustrated what it would be- the photographer drove his own car, which meant he
like to not always k n o w exactly what was going on. couldn't shoot as he followed riders along the road.
Baumann, t h o u g h , felt t h e shot w a s t o o subtle and The good parts of the page include the large head-
didn't say anything about being blind. line and a gray screen behind the whole layout that sets
T h e p a g e layout p r o c e s s begins w h e n Baumann off the photos nicely. Also, the pictures are grouped to-
throws t h e prints o n the floor of his office and starts gether and the borders between them are even. Empty
pushing them around. "I'm looking for an order, first of space is kept to the outside of the layout, and the copy
all. I'hen I put the lead picture in. and size that picture to is kept together as a solid block. The energy of the pho-
where I think it is large enough for the information to be tos flows onto the page.
read. From that, I start to put the other pieces together." The long shot with the cuned-road sign seems to
Although he usually uses a lead photo that is signifi- be the lead, since it is the largest shot on the page; in
cantly larger than the other shots, tliis story worked out t e r m s of c o n t e n t , h o w e v e r , this shot d o e s n ' t o f f e r
well with one that does not obviously dominate the page. much. There is too much empty space between the sign
Farlow explained, "The kitchen picture reads faster, and and the rider on the road, and the dominant element in
although it may not be bigger, it appears larger. the photo becomes the sign. On the page, the shot is
Figure IJ J . I , J> I M »H£ CLOV1SIH0CKNDCN1 > < ( . »A

pag^ : — — —
goo 72 cyclists attempt annual Climb to Kaiser
encounieit't. ^UUIWHO
ainnn the w a v S o m e of

text.
Blood, sweat and gears
i t • a i n , i H e " a i > J t t " i m ' she • o r i e l , u - d be h u only I o n t l j l » . . .n ihe w i i Ihe flnlifl.
i h e C l i m b i o K « i w i ii a l o w .
O r * But .1 « o u l d b e h i t fioi • h e r e h a n u l h e r , Dec W i l i e i . lljnungion Lake To gel (here,
T i t u i d e I i t n x . 6 k iSon'i iry l o (StJ-4 a year a i d I»1I b e S « |
i race. I b c r l d e n t t c c k e d in
I r e c y i h o j in I b e S l r r r i i i n d i n d l o i u c l h n e r c naming a i h ihe nden bad lo deKer^ into B(g
u D t X i l t o a r i of l h r 72 n . l r t u c«Jy been m i n i n g w r t o u i l y f o r
«n>uiid 5 : 1 0 i tr < n d l o o > off la
local n d a i like W l l k i t a , B i i b o p vwie food. Creek acd ihen climb Big Creek
•r,.v p a n k i p i r i d IP U s Saiur- u»e Climb l o K » b < ; f o r l » o m o o -
p a i n k i l imiU j i c « i p i o> ihe I V u
i n d C a u e n w o u l d s i r p n i him in C l i u r n . a K j l x r veteran » h o Oraie. :he iCMghcil jrade of ihe
J » ) ' i I ' u r l . n i Oirr.b l o Kilmer.
M. ihrJuVj h a i f r i i h e d Ihe race i » K e betoee diy.
V.-cordir4 l o Virgil O a x n .
41. l b - l o p C o - i i f r . . i h c r : " I t
Ralph T o a a e l h , . h o d i m e .
w p p o n vehicle I h i i i.jjJkd
'«>» o f >unli(l< b < ( j n 10 p « »
over ihe S x i m
W i l k l m w i v e d ir ihe f i n t r r a
' . o p t e e o n j a n d » u u l d be io
in lhr l o p 10. i r m e d al I t e
r a n g e t u n o o n f i h ai 9:14 a m .
« l l l i n i cyckd pau Bo.-
it 10:J) a.m. Hiving had kaeh
Con
Wdkini « n h 'rei^ -«ier bceito.
Mid I>JI -M f i n h r v W U l l r j > a d
I h u >eii"i C L i r b i o K i J e r ' • o o i f o i ihe i c u of ihe lour L Uv.cn. - h o climbed i o K a l i e i « S^UCT lake, he .»> ready for
Clam. finuis: foot*.
e v e i a m before - » . " I a u l a
» b i c h ii p . * on b> the F r o m ) l>lve Torchm of Ficvao a n d P a n in I W 5 i r d I M ' . Mid h e ihe auaull oc. KIOCT.
» a » the d m of l a v C l o v n i v ! n C y d i n j C u b d i e * n d e n from i l l Cliuen in.-rd ecu. bav b e r a c y d . r i for i b o m 20 Bear C O K at
ic»caip)eiciaik year's c c j r i t I k
f i n u h e d i t * IM ; r u l e couMe
u d I h K •—> l u l
T o M e c h u p 5 WHkini, w h o li
o » c Oii'orr. i
1 ' n y - n « o n r d f r o x Ltuer-
I h e n d e r i l u d e d up c o iooklev
a n d f r a i l I b e o ihey filled iheir
•ait C b a e n r«ehcd
11:05 i m
fcanJ SiUx H. hu naited in
- • , 1 •.Hind f r o - a C o m " Ler- r a n F u k t h r o u g h H a m Villry A . !he r i d e n - o l f e d d o « n a
i m n i n P a r k u p i o ihe 9.2CD ft.
d i u s j hli d i u c h i c r , S ^ u i r u i n ,
l a d H u r r c - j h Villey i n d u p Old
" a i e r b e u k i a n d look o f f f o r Die >anevy of f i u n > a n - u i a c k t ai ihe Pruhn and cw«hl up »nh
Kilo I'JU <nd bi.» in II from leilomly J ( e » m o i u i i T O ind
Tolllioiiie g r a d e . Ii > o u i i 3
aieeni u p C t l r . i i w . grid*. ranger f.r.krn. c«c o i l " ' , claim. villkmi .n Shave. Uke. SaU». a
anil 20 irrcs/a. joined hii t m » J I r e i r o o e l l n <
Car. S h i > t r L i k e . Big C ' r e t l I h e l e a d e n of i h e :our c><fj<il M lh»i b e lovi four Ibt. of i » o i l racer from Fretno. ••> no
| i c u p , ihe O M C u b .
gride m d p u l Kunungt^n Like Old l o l l l i o m e i o ihe c o o ' c i Old T o i t t o i K grade He '<Viile«cd for the Climb (o
B o a l j r j « j ) . ibe CVr^i TMKIK
" H e ' i a real f j c u r o l , " u p t o K ^ v e r P a n . T h e s , follow- hoghn ivu u lan'i hrv - n h a d n ' t v f w an>ib.af >el. Kaim. bu: be decided to ug
f i t w f t e r . completed lite c o u n c In u J of Wlltoru. ing i d i f f c i e i i t o u l e . i f e r i d e r i H a i l i n g l o pulic 1.1 Ihe k a l k y . T h e
12 h i - J " i o c i C - n ruv.b p l a e . 44 i y c a m » b o HeUhed ihe The " e n H o p - a . !"« l u n c h
N o l only l b ; nfleri hive ic r e n a m e d (O C l o v i i .
"Curve » v c M n m ihe t u n agiin n o c ai Bear Cove Ptcalo Area o n ( « « p t . I»AI
Bui Da>id W i l k i m . 22. f r o m < e « a p l n c i 141H i a i e c o o n e .
S h a t e i L i t e ^ y c k C a » i > « a b il. i b c , h i d i o fi^ « i i h M o t h e r Ai ihe i l r c rer. i f o p . J6W on ihe »a> d o w n .
fashing ihe c j j i e in 10 fic<in N * l u i r I h e »fic4e » i y . milc« l i o o the n a n . J o Deijiif- K c u n o p n u m b e r i - o > n al
n d JO c i c u t o . 20roinuinahead t»< n d e n v o i e - r f c r t d i » n f m i o a f r o m L o i .\nge<ei a r m e d Shaver Kinger
of veceod ( 4 M f.?»hcr Mile to f j i n the niaioehiibc i b s u l toi i : 7:36 a n W i l k l m l p o n in flm a i 9:01
frtfop. 41. of Fieveo. rtruil. t t c f i r e p i n of i h e e o u n r w u a IP. and Ihm ig«n <j«U> ool so
Wilkim, 1 coniirucilon Deiptle the »on*>c<»i>« cpint r e h t i < e l y flit a n d D e f r a f f e n r c i d ihe " R e d E i r e " in S h i v e r l a k e

«It was sheer Hell.' S t o r y by F r a n k Q u a r a t i e l l o

P h o t o s by R o n H o l m a n
— Virgil Classen

Upper kfl: Climben »rre creeled by KVCVI road icark-

ingv t o <>rcf
CJj.il p l c i «iih w w
uSap Upper n««i: Virgil CLmco of
reiief after reaching Kiiier P»»
1 hour» ifler he uaited. M«k left: Cidjm like
Oj.OT tulikd uihx wifid1 roadi. enp hilli «nJ
rsxoitm far o.o IW aja. Middle rtjkl: l»>>d
wans. 22. of Stiver Like kfl iW "CboA) to Rata''
•>th only tii bile, hii iboev aod (bi ben OBK for ihe
day. lea Ml: C U u c a . 48. grti moral Ul7<n end a
leg -rmugc (roio Ka daughter Joey a!art« «op in Beir
Cme pictc are. nor Huni^toa Lake. Lo«ee
Free© Cycte< ClubraemberIran Rapdale Vice ao-
ulcupe a; lie icccad rot nop "hile Ctaurn gm
•aciFvi "iter refill.
too small to be a lead; the photo at the low er right IN al- than narrative. The pictures in a photo essay don't have
most the same size. Remember, a lead p h o t o should the same direct continuity that is found in a photo story
dominate the other pictures. The shot of the w riting on Successful p h o t o stories start with good ideas. Of
the pavement is fine and would have been a good one course the idea must be visual, but also be sure it is fea-
to use at the top of the page with the headline. sible considering the time and resources available. One
The face shot of the cyclist captures a nice expres- common flaw in beginners story ideas is trying to cover
sion. but t h e c r o p at the b o t t o m cuts him off at his too much. Narrow your topic to one person or idea. Be-
wrists, an a w k w a r d spot for a c r o p Blowing it up to fore you start to shoot, be sure you have done your re-
just the face would have been better. search so you'll r e c o g n i z e the i m p o r t a n t m o m e n t s
The burn on the shot in t h e middle right is a bit w h e n they arise. Write a temporary headline that can
heavy, and the photographer violated his premise by act as a guidepost. and devise a shooting script that will
including this image of a different rider w ithout tying help you get a set of photos that will work together.
it to t h e star c h a r a c t e r . Although t h e p h o t o s h o w s Good rapport with your subject is also a key ele-
someone apparently at the end of the ride, the feeling ment in successful p h o t o stories. At some moments,
of exhaustion doesn't come through. We can under- you'll need to become invisible as your subject deals
stand t h e p h o t o at t h e lower right, but these people with the topic at hand. At times when you feel it is ap-
are n o t a n i m a t e d — t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n s and body lan- propriate to chat, keep the conversation focused on the
guage are neutral. The most telling shot of the set is subject, not on yourself or your technical problems.
the o n e of the leg massage, even though the man's ex- Also be sensitive to those times w h e n you must back off
pression is hidden by the helmet. and put the camera down.
The captions would have worked better if they had W h e n designing the p h o t o page, look first for a
been under or beside the photos they refer to. It is diffi- strong lead photo. Play it big. being sure that all other
cult for a reader to relate cutlines to their photos w h e n p h o t o s arc s u b o r d i n a t e to it. G r o u p t h e p h o t o s to-
presented this way. Also, the captions along with the gether. leaving w h i t e space toward the outside of the
pull-out quote and the bylines make an awkward zone page and being sure the spaces between the photos are
b e t w e e n t h e copy and t h e p h o t o s . The copy w-ould even. Group the copy as well; don't make your reader
have looked better if set at a wider measure and left hop all over the page to follow the written half of the
ragged right. It would have been better to arrange the story.
story and photos so the top of the page doesn't start out
with a mass of gray type.
Endnote

Summary' 1. Gerald D. Hurley, and Angus McDougall. Visual

Impact in Print (Chicago: American Publishers
A photo story is a narrative series of pictures. A success- Press. 1971). 72. Some excellent examples of
ful story has a lead photo that either symbolizes the en- extended photo essays are Eugene Richards' Below
tire story or captures t h e peak moment of the action. the Line: Living Poor in America and two works by
Other photos support the lead, explaining the details and Mary Ellen Mark—Falkland Road: Prostitutes of
giving additional information, and the story ends with a Bombay and Ward 81. If these books aren't in your
library, ask your librarian about an interlibrary loan.
picture known as a closer. The photo story is slightly dif-
ferent from a p h o t o essay, which is more interpretive
 Photo Editing
OUTLINE

Selecting Photos for Publication Cropping

Photographer as Editor? Sizing a Photo
Sorting T h r o u g h the Shoot The Proportion Wheel
Message, Graphics, and Technique Retouching
Awareness of Sensitive Issues Captions
Additional Editing Criteria Summary

P H O T O G R A P H Y IS A P O T E N T MEDIUM O F EXPRESSION. P R O P E R L Y USED IT IS A

GREAT P O W E R FOR BETTERMENT AND UNDERSTANDING; MISUSED, IT CAN KINDLE

MANY TROUBLESOME FIRES.

— W . EUGENE SMITH,
PHOTOJOURNALIST W H O SPECIALIZED IN IN-DEPTH ESSAYS
Selecting tos f o r P u b l i c a t i o n Sorting T h r o u g h the Shoot

p ie entire process of selecting p h o t o s Of course, the first step in editing is to go through the
_ apher's take, cropping them, deter- shoot to see what you'll have to choose from. You'll ei-
east i n f l u e n c i n g , t h e i r u s e o n t h e ther look at the negatives or at a contact sheet. Most
e. and preparing them for the production n e w s p a p e r photographers don't make contact sheets
At publications using digital p h o t o svs- because they cost money and take time. If you are a be-
s last task may also include "pre-press" re- ginner. h o w e v e r , you might w a n t to make contacts
.Miities. w h i c h can i n c l u d e all t h e t e c h n i c a l since the}' are easier to evaluate.
l a m e n t s necessary to send the image directly to Before s ou make decisions, you need to know the
ilie printing plate. story the photos arc* supposed to illustrate. I've said this
The details of graphics, page design and pre-press before, but experience tells me I need to repeat it. The
work are subjects for another book, but here you will photograph and the words are partners and should be
find the basic editing skills you'll be expected to have as selected to work together.
a photographer. With an understanding of the story in mind, I usually
Actually, p h o t o editing begins w h e n you press the go over a set of pictures at least twice. The first time, my
button. You should be thinking about t h e n e e d s of eye stops at any p h o t o that might do the job. When
the story and the p h o t o s you can make that will tell working with contacts. I'll mark these possibilities with
the story best. Cover t h e story fully because, as has a red grease pencil. If you are working with negs. jot
been said before, you can't rewrite a photograph. Try down the frame number that appears on the edge of the
to find effective images that include t h e three basic film. Then I'll go back a second time to see if there are
shots of p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m : long s h o t , m e d i u m shot, any shots that may hold some small detail or subtle mes-
and close-up. sage that might not have jumped out w h e n taking the
After processing the film, and presuming that you first look. Be careful w h e n looking at the small images
have a good assortment of photos to choose from, h o w on a strip of negatives or a contact sheet. There is quite
can you be sure you have selected the best one? A large a difference between a photo seen at postage stamp size
part of selecting photos is intuitive. With experience, and what it looks like in an 8 x 1 0 print. A shot may look
you'll d e v e l o p a f e e l f o r f i n d i n g t h e right p i c t u r e . sharp but turn out fuzzy w h e n enlarged. The impact of
There's no reason to ignore your gut feelings w h e n edit- an image can change w h e n printed. More important, a
ing photos, but also consider the criteria listed below. good p h o t o may escape your notice because its strong
features aren't readily apparent in such a small size.
Photographer as Editor? Although I've seen many persons edit without using
T h e r e have been s o m e rather mighty d e b a t e s over a magnifier. 1 don't recommend it. Get a good loupe of
w h e t h e r a p h o t o g r a p h e r should edit his or her o w n about 8 power, such as the ones made by Agfa. There
photos. On the one hand, the photographer was the a r e m a n y o t h e r styles, i n c l u d i n g o n e s w i t h built-in
person on the scene and k n o w s w h a t h a p p e n e d and lights, fancy stands, neck straps, and so on. but the Agfa
w h i c h image best c a p t u r e s the event. On t h e o t h e r loupes are inexpensive and have a nice wide field.
hand, it is not unusual for a photographer to become W h e n looking at contacts or negs. you can judge
subjectively involved with t h e p h o t o s and think an content, composition, and a certain amount of technical
image says more than it really does. I think the best ap- quality. Don't try to make a decision on the printability
proach is for the p h o t o g r a p h e r and editor t o review of a shot w h e n all you have in front of you is a contact
t h e p h o t o s t o g e t h e r , so each p e r s o n can k e e p t h e sheet. Remember, the exposure used to make the con-
o t h e r from falling into any traps that might exist. In tact print was the one needed to make most of the negs
practice, this approach is often difficult because the visible on the sheet. If there are some shots that look
photographer might have to d r o p off exposed film and too light or dark on the contact, they might be entirely
continue on to another assignment, or the production printable anyway. With experience, you'll be able to
cycle is s u c h that b o t h p e r s o n s a r e n ' t at t h e s a m e judge the printability of a neg just by looking at it. For
place at the same time. In these cases, it is imperative tips on what to look for. review the section on negative
that the photographer provide notes and detailed cap- quality in chapter 5.
tion inlormation so the editor can make the best possi-
ble decision. But regardless of the process, you should
seek feedback >n e v e n shoot. If you can't participate Message. Graphics, and Technique
in t h e editing. tr\ t o get s o m e o n e to c r i t i q u e y o u r Three main points to look for w h e n judging a photo-
shoot later graph arc message c o n t e n t , c o m p o s i t i o n and design
(sometimes called graphics), and technical quality.
 When checking message content he sure the ph« : Part of composition and design is a vague-sounding
is making a statement about the ston and is not m v concept I call visual efficiency Visual efficiency is how
a pretty picture. Keep in mind that the message can be the space within the frame is used. Figure 12-2a and
subtle, or possibly a counterpoint to the w ritten part of 12-2b arc examples. The intent of the photos is to show
the story. Also watch out for cliches, the obvious visual the two sheriffs deputies looking for something along
s o l u t i o n s t o r o u t i n e p r o b l e m s . W e discussed some the tracks Aside from the bad background, there is a lot
cliches in chapter 8. A typical cliche is one or two peo- of space between the two men in figure 12-2a. This
ple passively looking at t h e camera, with or without space is wasted. It contains no information relevant to
background elements that relate to the ston The better the story, no environmental details such as location,
choice is a photo of someone in action time, other persons involved, or the nature of the inci-
Also, b e sure t h e p h o t o accurately portrays the dent. In figure I2-2b. although the telephoto lens helps
event and is not a m o m e n t out of context. Does the separate t h e officers from the background, they arc-
p h o t o ovcrdramatizc the event? A picture at a protest closer together and the space within the frame is more
rally, for e x a m p l e , could imply that the c r o w d was efficiently used. Wasted space in a photo is much like
larger or more boisterous than it was. This can be frus- unnecessary words in a story. Unlike a s t o n . though,
trating if you have c a p t u r e d an exciting moment yet you can't cut extra space from the middle of a photo.
that moment was an isolated incident and not represen-
The third point is technical quality. Is the p h o t o
tative of the event as a whole.
sharp and well exposed? Sharp photos are a must. Once
When looking at a photo, ask: What does this photo in a while you'll have a picture that isn't sharp, yet the
say about this event? What does it tell us about the at- message c o n t e n t o v e r r i d e s this c o n s i d e r a t i o n (fig.
mosphere of the event? Does it say enough? A common 12-3). These cases are rare. Look for sharp photos.
problem is memory fault, which is the photographer s Another technical consideration is exposure. If the
tendency to read something into the photo that isn't re- negative is too thin or too dense, good reproduction
ally there. Be sure the p h o t o says what you think it says. will be difficult if not impossible. Details in e x t r e m e
Get a second opinion. shadow r s or highlights may be lost.
Edward Steichen. a well-known photographer in
t h e early 20th c e n t u r y , r e f e r r e d t o good p h o t o s as Awareness of Sensitive Issues
being alive, so ask yourself if the p h o t o you are con- Watch carefully for things that could needlessly embar-
sidering could be called alive. Does it have impact? If rass the subjects or the publication. Examples include
the p e o p l e are posing, is t h e r e a naturalness to the folds, wrinkles, or sags in clothing that reveal some-
pose, or do t h e y look like stuffed turkeys? Remember, one's private anatomy, or those moments when cloth-
the face is t h e primary h u m a n communicator. While ing has fallen aside for an instant.
many p h o t o s work well w i t h o u t an identifiable face, Sensitive issues also include photos of grief, tragedy,
a c o m m o n beginners' mistake is to make p h o t o s from violence, and the private moment. T hese are dealt with
o u t s i d e t h e c i r c l e of a c t i o n and c a p t u r e only t h e in considerable detail in the next chapter, but below is
backs of t h e key people. T h e result is a p h o t o that re- one case history that is heavily dependent on editing de-
veals little. cisions. The p h o t o in figure 12-5 was made by Mark
Also check the shoot for p h o t o s that could be suc- Crosse of The Fresno Bee. The cutline reads:
cessful after cropping. It's not unusual for an image to
The husband of a woman who died in an accident
look weak on the contact sheet yet turn into a strong
Monday afternoon grieves while cradling her body. The
p h o t o with careful cropping. California Highway Patrol said the woman was driving
While message content is paramount, composition north on Cornelia Avenue about 1:40 p.m. and failed to
and design is a close second in importance and often stop at the intersection of California Avenue. A freight
c o n t r i b u t e s m u c h to t h e ston". H o w e v e r , don't get truck, travelling east on California, collided with the car.
caught up in t h e graphics of t h e image to the point pushing it several feet into a telephone pole, a CHP
w h e r e you overlook c o n t e n t . It's possible to have a spokeswoman said. The collision caused the truck to roll
beautiful p h o t o that doesn't really tell the story, and an- over several times. The truck driver suffered major
injuries, the spokeswoman said. The names of the
other that gets right to the point yet isn't as well bal-
woman and the truck driver were not made public
anced and composed.
A Look magazine photographer I once knew said a The photo was used o n page one and did not run
good p h o t o should read from 10 feet. Of course, this with a story. An important s t o n element missing from
does not mean that you should pace off exactly 10 feet the cutline is the fact that the man had been following
before looking at even* photo, but it does mean that the his wife's car in another vehicle and saw the entire acci-
photo should have a strong element that can be readily dent as it happened. Also important is the lack of names
seen and will grab the reader's attention for the victims as well as the man.
Figure 12—1 Try e d i t i n g this shoot. C o n s i d e r w h e t h e r they b u r n o l d b u i l d i n g s for training p u r p o s e s . T o d a y a
o n e or m o r e p h o t o s w i l l b e n e e d e d a n d h o w y o u w o u l d h o u s e a n d g a r a g e that s t o o d o n the t o w n ' s m a i n street
s u g g e s t their u s e o r ; h e p a g e . A s s u m e n a m e s a r e s i n c e 1910 are both b e i n g b u r n e d . T h e firefighters i n c l u d e
available for e v e r y o n e p h o t o g r a p h e d , a n d that a 6 - i n c h m a n y volunteer reserves. In the top two strips on the
story will also run. H e r e a r e t h e story details: The fire c o n t a c t sheet o n this p a g e , the m e n a r e setting u p a n d
d e p a r t m e n t in this s m a l l t o w n h a s f e w structure fires, so p l a n n i n g the event. In the b o t t o m four strips, they are
 M

b u r n i n g the g a r a g e . T h e m a n in the f o r e g r o u n d of the fifth top strip is of a n engineer; the m e n in the two f r a m e s o n the
strip is in c h a r g e of training, a n d the m e n with the h o s e s right of that strip are p r e p a r i n g the b u i l d i n g prior to lighting
a r e trainees. T h e m a n s a l u t i n g a n d the w o m a n looking into the fire. In the third strip d o w n , the old m a n w a t c h i n g lived
the c a m e r a are not part of the story. In the p h o t o s o n this in the h o u s e m a n y years a g o The m e n t a k i n g a break in
the fourth strip are reserves.
p a g e , the m e n a r e b u r n i n g the h o u s e The c l o s e - u p o n the
(a)
Figure 1 2 - 2 (a) T h e w a s t e d s p a c e in the m i d d l e of this p h o t o s e r v e s no
p u r p o s e , a n d w o r s e , c a n ' t b e e d i t e d out. ( b ) Visual e f f i c i e n c y is greatly
i m p r o v e d with this p e r s p e c t i v e . (b)

Figure 1 2 - 3 O n c e in a while, a p h o t o has s u c h A P p h o t o g r a p h e r H u y n h C o n g " N i c k " Ut w o n the Pulitzer

o v e r w h e l m i n g i m p a c t that its t e c h n i c a l flaws a r e s e c o n d a r y Prize in 1973 for this i m a g e of a girl running from a n a p a l m
to the m e s s a g e E v e n t h o u g h slightly out of f o c u s . attack in Vietnam. (Huynh Cong "Nick'' Ut/Associated Press-
Wide World)
 Vi
. - ; :« -

t r

m m

Figure 1 2 - 5 This p h o t o ran o n p a g e o n e with only a

cutline. See the text for details. It raises q u e s t i o n s as to
whether a p h o t o s h o u l d b e u s e d w h e n c o m p l e t e
information is not available. (Mark Crosse/The Fresno Bee)

Additional Editing Criteria

When looking over the shoot, check for pairs of photos
that could be used together, giving the editor another
option w h e n presenting the story. When using photos
in pairs, be sure that t h e images c o m p l e m e n t each
other, not duplicate each o t h e r . As a u t h o r Daryl R.
Moen says, good uses for pairs include stories involving
contrasts, times w h e n a long shot also needs a close-up.
or when a sequence best explains the action. 1
If you decide to include a long shot, be sure it is
more than just an overall. It should make a point be-
yond being a wide-angle view of the scene. As with
any image, such a p h o t o should have impact and a
dominant element that stops the reader and gives him
or her solid information. O n e p h o t o editor I k n o w
calls a well-matched pair of images a two-fer: t w o for
the price of one.
Be careful w h e n editing color photos. Don't let
^ M & a m color seduce you into thinking the photo has more con-
Figure 1 2 - 4 Editing i n c l u d e s sensitivity for p h o t o s that tent than it really has. Color should not b e c o m e t h e
w o u l d n e e d l e s s l y e m b a r r a s s the s u b j e c t . While the p h o t o is only reason for using the shot.
within legal b o u n d s , t h e r e are u n d o u b t e d l y other shots from Sometimes, you'll have a p h o t o that doesn't meet
the game that w o u l d not risk h u m i l i a t i n g this p e r s o n . (Terry very many of the criteria listed in table 12-1, yet it is
Pierson/Neighbors Publications)
still an important element of the day's news. Remember
that the value of a news photo is measured heavily by
Photo editor Thorn Halls said they did not have con- the news of the day and not by its aesthetic or photo-
firmation on the names or of the man's role in the story, graphic merit alone. A good editor should ask: Does this
so all they could publish was t h e information in the particular photo, compared with all the other pictures
available today, have importance? Sometimes a shot that
above cutline. Although readers reacted strongly against
will mean nothing tomorrow is important today. The
t h e use of the photo, an important question is the use
shot may not have great graphic or artistic merit, and it
of the image w h e n so many important details were lack-
may have little chance in photojournalism contests, but
ing. Editor Halls said it was a significant local story as a
it might, in the context of that day. be the number one
major rural intersection was blocked for hours. photo. A good news picture tells the story at that time
W o u l d y o u h a v e run t h e p h o t o u n d e r t h e s e and that place.
circumstances?
Figure 1 2 - 6 W h e n this spelling b e e c o n t e s t a n t h a d reaction as well as material for a c l e v e r series for the p a g e .
trouble with a w o r d , p h o t o g r a p h e r M a r k M i r k o s u s p e c t e d (Mark Mirko/The Palm Beach Post)
that the b o y w o u l d react w h e n h e lost. M i r k o got the b o y ' s

bear in mind that good cropping can work wonders as a

TABLE 12-1 Editing Checklist
means of correcting flaws in the original. Careless crop-
1. Information. Does the p h o t o tell the story? ping. however, can destroy a well-made photograph.
2. Impact. Will the p h o t o g r a b the r e a d e r ? T h e foundations for good cropping lie in composi-
3. Focal point. Is the p r i m a r y m e s s a g e of the p h o t o tion and design. There's no need to repeat all the details
clear a n d e a s y to s e e ? of chapter 7 here, although you might review that chap-
4. Action. Is s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n i n g , or is t h e i m a g e ter with c r o p p i n g in mind. Look for visual efficiency.
static? Crop out e m p t y or wasted space. The most c o m m o n
5. Background. Is it a d i s t r a c t i o n ? Will t h e r e b e t o n e
error in my p h o t o editing class is cropping too loose. Be
mergers between subject and background?
careful, h o w e v e r , about destroying balance and emo-
6. Framing. C a n it b e c r o p p e d w i t h o u t too m u c h
tional feelings created by space.
image-destroying magnification?
7 Composition and design. D o e s the i m a g e u s e its Crop for content. Emphasize the p h o t o ' s message,
g r a p h i c e l e m e n t s well? Is it visually efficient? but at the same time be sensitive t o the subtleties of the
8. Shadows and highlights. Will important details in image. Remember too. that the proportions of the cam-
these a r e a s r e p r o d u c e in print? era's frame or the 8 x 10 print arc not always the best
9 Sharpness. Is the p h o t o in f o c u s ? proportions for the image. Don't hesitate if a tall vertical
10. Ethics and decency. Does the p h o t o m e e t the or a w i d e horizontal treatment would be best. A com-
s t a n d a r d s set b y the p u b l i c a t i o n ? m o n error among beginners is forgetting to crop to cor-
rect p h o t o s that have tilted horizons. W h e n horizons
slope and telephone poles lean to one side, it looks as
Cropping t h o u g h the p h o t o g r a p h e r w a s falling over w h e n t h e
shutter snapped. If the original frame is tilted, it's your
job to straighten it out.
(dropping, setting n e w boundaries for the edges of the
photo, is a way to cut out irrelevant parts of an image C r o p p i n g c a n s o m e t i m e s salvage a n o t h e r w i s e
and emphasize the main points. I r e m e m b e r reading a weak shot. Cutting out e m p t y foregrounds and distract-
news editing textbook that said. "Crop ruthlessly." The ing elements might make the image usable. Sometimes
implication w a s that every p h o t o should be c r o p p e d , drastic action is called lor. 1 recall an editor w h o w a s
probably heavily But w e k n o w better. Perhaps the au- faced with a boring shot of four p e o p l e standing in a
thor should have said. "Crop intelligently." g r o u p looking at the camera. By c r o p p i n g d o w n to the
A good photographer will crop in the camera, and individual heads, she converted the picture into four
w h e n that fails, will c r o p properly w h e n making t h e separate head shots that ran together as a picture pack-
print. But even then, new options may reveal themselves age. But again, beware of cropping so m u c h that techni-
and photos may be cropped again after prints are made. cal quality drops.
For photos that could be cropped several ways, the deci- Also, no cookie-cutter shapes, please. We arc accus-
sion sometime--s depends on the needs of the page de- t o m e d to looking at p h o t o s in rectangular formats. I
sign Regardless of where or w h e n cropping takes place, o n c e w o r k e d with a feature editor w h o thought it was
(a)

(b)

F i g u r e 1 2 - 7 Notice how the impact of this photo is improved by cropping in

to the peak action. (Thor Swift)
Figure 12 i \ Photographer Kurt Hegre
r
only 3 to make this p h o t o g r a p h ;
thert to c r o p in the c a m e r a .
is properly c r o p p e d it has
act (Kurt Hegre/Gilroy Dispatch)

great to give photos scalloped edges and cut them into Make your crop marks in the borders of the print,
hearts and circles. But a good editor would not turn a as in figure 12-9. I like to use a grease pencil so I can
well-written story into a limerick, so don't destroy a make changes, although grease pencil annoys scanner
good photo by cutting it into cute shapes. and process camera operators because the marks come
There are a few specific don'ts in cropping. Avoid off on their equipment. Be sure to mark the print on all
cutting off hands and feet. If you must crop these, crop four borders so that the ticks line up properly on oppo-
way in to the middle of a limb. Also, avoid cropping so a site sides of t h e print, correcting for a tilted image if
major element just touches the edge of the frame. Either needed. Never make crop marks in the image area of a
leave a little space between the element and the frame, print. You could damage the print, and you will have no
or c r o p NO the frame runs through the object. Things room for error or change of mind.
that are just touching the frame set up a visual tension When the c r o p of a print is critical and time al-
that usual 1\ 1 ikl be avoided in photojournalism. lows, print the shot to size and crop in the darkroom.
Figure 12-9 T h e c r o p p i n g for this shot is i n d i c a t e d b y the marks in the
m a r g i n s of the print. M a s k the print with p i e c e s of p a p e r to s e e h o w the c r o p
i m p r o v e s the shot.

This p r o c e d u r e reduces t h e c h a n c e for error later in Sizing a Photo

the production cycle, particularly when printing facili- The print you made in the darkroom or on the com-
ties are at a different location and follow-ups are hard puter may not be the size needed for reproduction. Al-
to make. If your publication uses digital photo process- t h o u g h f i g u r i n g t h e a m o u n t of e n l a r g e m e n t or
ing. you might not need to make crop marks since you reduction is usually the responsibility of an editor, you
will crop the image on a computer screen by drawing should know this basic skill in case of an emergency or
a frame around it. If t h e p h o t o is printed on a photo- if you are given the opportunity to design a page.
quality printer connected to the computer system, you Sizing a photograph is simply a matter of figuring its
might still n e e d c r o p marks on the print itself. I'he reproduction size compared to the original. You can do
exact procedure will depend on t h e idiosyncrasies of this easily with a pocket calculator by dividing the new-
your publication. width by the original width. Always measure between
Figure 1 2 - 1 0 E x p e r i m e n t with c r o p p i n g this shot. C r o p p i n g is s o m e t i m e s
subjective, a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r s a n d e d i t o r s h a v e h a d several lively d e b a t e s
a b o u t the best version. (Rollin Banderob)

the crop marks. For example, s u p p o s e your c r o p p e d This device is nothing more than a simple calculator
image measures 8 inches across and you want to use it that figures the n e w dimensions and t h e percentage of
6 inches wide. Enter 6 divided by 8 to get a reproduc- your enlargement or reduction.
tion size of 75 percent. The dimensions of the original p h o t o always go on
Here's h o w it looks mathematically: the inner wheel; on the outer wheel will be the dimen-
sions of the n e w size. For example, measure the width
% enlargement or reduction
b e t w e e n the c r o p marks on the photo. Find that dis-
Old width)New width tance on the inner wheel and place it opposite the new
So in our example: width on the outer wheel. Then, without changing the
.75 or 75% wheel, look along the inner wheel to find the original
8)6 c r o p p e d d e p t h . O p p o s i t e that spot will be t h e n e w
depth on the o u t e r wheel. In the w i n d o w is the per-
To find the n e w depth, measure the depth between centage of change.
the crop marks on the original print and multiply by the
percentage, which in this example is .75. Mark the back A common mistake is to confuse the inner and outer
of the photo with the reproduction sizes and the per- wheels. Do not put the width of the original on o n e
cent change so the printer will know what you want. wheel and the depth on t h e other. Keep the original
width and depth on the inside, new sizes on the outside.
The Proportion Wheel When sizing photos, always think in terms of per-
centages. If the reproduced width is to be 50 percent of
Another common method for sizing photos is using a
the original, the depth will also be 50 percent. Do not
p r o p o r t i o n w h e e l like t h e o n e in f i g u r e 1 2 - 1 1 .
make the mistake of thinking that you can trim an inch
 PS 7 9

RTIONAL SCALE

Figure 12-12 B e h i n d the m a n w h o is l o o k i n g at t h e c a r

Figure 12-11 is a p o l i c e m a n w e a r i n g a w h i t e h e l m e t . To p r e v e n t t h e
A p i c a p o l e a n d a p r o p o r t i o n w h e e l a r e b a s i c tools for h e l m e t f r o m b e i n g a d i s t r a c t i o n , it w a s d a r k e n e d w i t h a
p h o t o editors. c o t t o n s w a b s o a k e d in d i l u t e d s p o t t i n g d y e .
(Paul Kuroda/The Fresno Bee)

off the width and an inch off the depth and end up with Retouching
the same width-to-depth proportion as the original. To Before submitting a print, retouch dust spots with spot-
take an e x t r e m e example, suppose your photo was 3 ting dye. Check chapter 5 for how-to information. Re-
inches wide and 1 inch deep. If you took an inch off the touching to de-emphasize objects can also make a big
width, reducing it to 2 inches, taking an inch off the improvement (see fig. 12-12). You can do this by wet-
depth would leave it with no depth at all. What you in- ting a cotton pad or swab with spotting dye and rub-
tended to do was reduce the dimensions by one-third, bing it on the light area. You can also do this to a print
or 33 percent, leaving the depth at about 5/16 inch. corner that escaped burning in the darkroom. With the
In publications work, the pica is a common unit of arrival of digital photo processing, retouching on a com-
measure. There are six picas t o the inch. You'll find that puter screen is common. It is a simple matter to burn
measuring photos by picas helps eliminate fractions of and dodge, remove dust spots and scratches, and cor-
an inch. Rulers marked in picas (pica poles) arc com- rect color balance. Electronic editing has also opened
mon around publications offices. Also common is mea- the door to sophisticated, undetectable changes such as
suring width by columns. You might hear someone say. making composites, changing colors of selected items,
"Make it a four-column shot." meaning the photo is to or removing people and cloning in new backgrounds.
run four c o l u m n s w i d e . Measurements differ among Although this level of manipulation might be acceptable
publications, so you'll need to ask about the column in an advertising photo, the integrity of the n e w s photo
widths for your publication. must not be breached. The ethical questions raised by
this practice will be dealt with in the next chapter. Suf-
A c o m m o n sizing e r r o r is to overlook t h e c r o p fice it to say here that the photographer w h o tampers
marks w h e n measuring the original print. But remem- with the honesty of the image lies to the reader. The
ber. w h e n you cropped the photo, you created a n e w line between improving the image and falsifying it must
photograph. Be sure to size the photo as cropped: al- be carefully drawn and never crossed.
ways measure between the crop marks'
Captions a caption is a sure turn-off. Imagine a photo of two
forest rangers placing a radio-tracking collar on a
Phorc work together, and the words of the bear. Instead of "Rangers Ted Francis (left) and Bob
c.i part of the communications package. Holman attach a radio collar to this bear so they can
clarify, and add to the image. Carefully track its movements," h o w about, "By attaching a
interpret the photograph, and provide radio collar to this 300-pound black bear, rangers
^ not found within the image, Ted Francis (left) and Bob Holman can track its
re ire several styles of captions ( s o m e t i m e s movements."
outlines). Sometimes a photo is used without an
ipanying story and needs a caption of several sen- 3. Include story facts in your cutline, but don't
ences. At the other extreme are name-line captions that repeat information that is in the headline or
identify only the person in the photo. Unless you are story. This is a tough challenge since the head and
certain what type of caption your editor needs, supply story are often prepared separately. But the
every photo with a full caption. Although the extra can photographer should be a complete journalist and
always be edited, information you've left out can't be have some additional facts to contribute. Quotes
fabricated. from the subjects are a great way to add spicc to a
cutline.
Unfortunately, many cutlines are so poorly written
that they sound like descriptions of hardware in an in- 4. Never say "is pictured," or "in the photo above,"
dustrial supplies catalog. W h e n writing this section, I or similar phrases. Everyone knows you are
looked t h r o u g h scores of n e w s p a p e r pages seeking referring to the picture. When naming persons, say
good examples to share. Sadly, e v e n ' caption I found "from left," rather than "from left to right." The
failed to qualify. Considering the time and skill it takes former is just as effective and more efficient. Avoid
to make a good photograph, w h y do you s u p p o s e so overidentifying. It would be insulting to your
many photographers put such little effort into the other readers to say, "The Pope, left, and the President,
half of the duo? right." If you have a p h o t o of 20 people, identify
One way to avoid c o m m o n mistakes is to make a only the most important.
list of what you can't see in the p h o t o and use this as a
5. Never say someone is "looking on." This phrase is
basis for t h e caption. List reasons w h y t h e p i c t u r e d
ridiculous. We can see that this person is watching.
event is happening, pre- and post-picture events, time
Identify him or her with additional facts. Instead of,
context, other facts not visible, quotes from the subject,
"Fred Barnes adjusts the harness on his horse while
names, time, date, and place.
Sam Pierce (left) looks on," try, "After 50 years in
Here are some tips for cutline writing: the saddle, adjusting a horse's harness is almost a
1 Don't repeat what is obvious in the photograph. reflex action for Fred Barnes. Ranch handyman Sam
When writing a caption, it is terribly tempting to Pierce keeps the tack in good shape."
simply restate what you see in the image. A good
caption should explain, not repeat, what the reader 6. Clarify ambiguities. Why has this moment
can see. Unfortunately, this verbal/visual occurred? What happened before? After?
redundancy happens all the time, and I have even 7. Be sure facts match the photo. More than once, I
seen editing texts that advised cutline writers to have seen an antique auto called a Model T Ford,
describe the photo. Why waste time and space yet the car in the p h o t o was a Model A Ford. If you
telling a reader what he or she can plainly see? can't tell the difference and can't find out, call it "a
Interpret the photo, don't describe it. Example: vintage Ford." All cattle are not cows, only the
"Bob Jones rides his ten-speed down the n e w bike females are. I once saw a caption that referred to a
path in Kearney Park." We can see that this person cow, yet the animal in the p h o t o was most
is riding a bike down a bike path. How about: "This definitely a horse!
new bike path in Kearney Park was completed
yesterday. One of the first to try it out is Bob Jones. 8. If a photo is an old one from the file, say so. Using
The path is p a n of the city's $125,000 program to old photos without telling your readers is a
expand bike routes throughout the west side." deception that they will soon discover.

2 Try not to start every caption with a name. 9. If the photo in volves unusual photographic
Starting with a name can lead you into the trap of technique, mention that. Time exposures and
just describing the photo. More important, distortions caused by lenses are prime examples.
interesting facts are more attractive to readers than 10. Keep tenses logical. Use present tense w h e n
names, and a long list of names at the beginning of referring to the photo, past tense w h e n providing
 background information not contained in the on the scene and know which shot best represents the
photo. "Two Ferraris are in the center of this ball ol story. However, it is possible to be misled and think a
flame. The fire gutted Mario's Classic Auto Repair p h o t o contains more than it really does. Two-person
on Front St. yesterday afternoon and the cars, the editing is the best solution, w h e r e t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r
building, and four other exotic autos were a total and an editor review the work together.
loss." When sorting through the shoot, go over the mater-
11. Keep sentences and cutlines short. If the photo ial at least twice, looking carefully for photos with infor-
requires more than a f e w lines, write a story not a m a t i o n , i m p a c t , s t r o n g focal p o i n t s , a c t i o n , clean
cutline. backgrounds, good framing, strong composition, and
sharp focus. Keep in mind that the impact of an image-
12. Try to match the mood of the photo. A light- will change when it is enlarged. Be careful when deal-
hearted feature would call for an entirely different ing with sensitive issues. Use photos of tragedy, vio-
approach than a wreck picture. lence, and grief only after deciding they don't cross
ethical boundaries.
13. Libel involving a photo often happens because of
Remember that a single p h o t o isn't the only way
the cutline. Re sure names are accurate and that the
to p r e s e n t t h e story. Sometimes t w o or even t h r e e
cutline relates only to the photo and its
p h o t o s working together will do a better job. When
accompanying story. Don't guess. If you aren't you see this possibility, be sure to point it out to the
positive about names and facts, leave them out. page editors.
Never use a file p h o t o to illustrate an unrelated
Cropping is to the photographer what copy editing
story unless you have signed model releases in
is to the writer. It is a way to improve on the original
hand. Libel and releases are covered in chapter 14. product by correcting errors and eliminating distrac-
14. Be careful when writing gag cutlines to circulate tions. Cropping should begin in the camera, but you'll
only around the office. From time to time these also have a chance w h e n making the print and w h e n
escape with embarrassing and possibly legally preparing the print for reproduction. Crop with care,
troublesome consequences. removing e m p t y foregrounds and peripheral distrac-
tions, but do not hack away thoughtlessly. Be sure to
As Wilson Hicks, executive editor of Life magazine look for tilted horizons. Make crop marks in the borders
during its most innovative period, said. "The camcra of the print so the printer will know what you want.
can go just so far. Words go the rest of the way." Al-
After c r o p p i n g t h e photo, size it by figuring the
though it is easy to fall into the trap of dashing out a
new size as a percentage of the original. Simply divide
caption at the last minute, your careful efforts with the the old width into the new width to get the percentage
visual part of your message deserve more than a care- of change.
lessly crafted companion. Well-written captions make
Pictures and captions are allies in communication.
good photos better. The words should explain and interpret, not describe,
This necessarily brief introduction to p h o t o editing the photo. The most c o m m o n error, visual/verbal re-
must end h e r e , t h e p o i n t at w h i c h t h e p h o t o g r a p h dundancy, can be avoided with only a little more effort
leaves the photographer's hands. If you're interested in than it takes to write a poor caption. Include facts and,
page layout and design, which is a growing specialty in if possible, a quote in your captions. Never say "is pic-
journalism, consider joining the Society of Newspaper tured," or "looks on." Keep tenses logical, and doublc-
Design. Their address is in the appendix. c h e c k f a c t s . Be s u r e t h e f a c t s in t h e c u t l i n e a r e
consistent with the facts in the photo.
Summary
Endnotes
Photo editing starts w h e n the p h o t o is taken. A good
photojournalist thinks ahead and tries to provide the ed- 1. Daryl R. Moen, Newspaper Layout and Design
itor with a variety of images and options. Most photo- (Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1984), 83.
graphers prefer to edit their own work since they were
V >
/•I
 Beyond the
Camera

f Rollin Banderob/Tbe Clovis Independent)

 ! c h a p t e r ^

13
Ethics
OUTLINE

N o Easy A n s w e r s Photographic Deceptions

Freedom and Responsibility Digital Manipulations
C o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t Grief, S u f f e r i n g , Violence,
Emotional Involvement a n d the Private Moment

Political and Business Involvement Dwyer Suicide

Professional Conflicts Mount St. Helens Victim

Bakersfield Drowning
Unpublished Photos
T h e Photographer's Decisions
It 's a Matter of Trust
O n e Photographer's Guidelines
P i c t u r e s t h a t Lie
Summary
Illustrations. Re-creations,
and Controlled Candids
Stereotypes

u
O N HIS INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENTS, HE C A N N O T D O D G E AN ETHICAL QUESTION ON

T H E G R O U N D S THAT T H E BOSS, N O T HE, EDITS T H E P A P E R .

— G E R A L D G R O S S , AUTHOR.
RESPONSIBILITY' OF TUT PRESS

" cSHtxrr FIRST EDIT IATER.

"

—ANONYMOUS
No Easy A n s w e r s C o n f l i c t s of I n t e r e s t

It sou . lg for firm answers to ethical problems, First, let's look at the problem of maintaining objectivity
you : I them here. If you are expecting a check- in the face of the personal, ideological, or commercial
ii-: end of this chapter, you will be disappointed. relationships you will d e v e l o p with p e o p l e you are
v , \ come away from these pages with more likely to cover. Personal relationships can put a strain
is than when you started, for the ethics of jour- o n even one if your friend becomes involved in a nega-
mply can't be summarized on a neat, wallet- tive story. You then find yourself having to balance
i-d card. Sometimes what w e are here to do—inform f r i e n d s h i p obligations with professional ones. Obvi-
public—seems to be at odds with what needs to be ously. I'm not suggesting that you abandon all your
done in a specific case, and the next day, a slightly dif- friendships, but w h e n the situation arises, you will be
ferent case will require a slightly different handling. faced with a conflict.
While reading this c h a p t e r , k e e p in m i n d t h a t Also, there are people w h o will cultivate your favor.
there is no special level of ethics that reserves itself Suppose, for example, the press relations manager for
for photojournalism. The ethics of this business are, at the local sports team regularly gives you a free ride on
t h e f u n d a m e n t a l level, no d i f f e r e n t f r o m any o t h e r the team airplane, or a sidelines pass even though you
ethics. Some thinkers would reduce t h e questions I aren't covering the game, or even a box seat. Is there a
will raise h e r e t o a m a t t e r of m o t i v e s a n d c o n s e - hidden quid pro quo in his or her generosity? What kind
quences. In looking for answers, they would ask you of pressure would you feel if that person became in-
to e x a m i n e y o u r motives and t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of volved in a negative story? Perhaps, as you read this,
your actions. Obviously, if both motives and conse- you can say that it would not affect your decisions, but
q u e n c e s are good—or b a d — t h e answers are easy to h o w do you know that there wouldn't be some subcon-
find. However, it is the o t h e r combinations that cause scious effects? Imagine this comment from the PR man-
p r o b l e m s . Bad m o t i v e s t h a t result in g o o d c o n s e - ager a f t e r i n v o l v e m e n t in a m i n o r traffic a c c i d e n t :
q u e n c e s are a possibility, although w e like to think of "We've been friends for a long time, and I hope you'll
journalists acting with w h o l e s o m e intent. Of course, respect that by not running that photo. " If your answer
w e can also get into discussions about w h e t h e r a par- is d e p e n d e n t on t h e news value of the incident, sup-
ticular motive is good or bad. pose the accident resulted in a couple of moderate, but
ty pical, injuries.
What about the combination of good motives with
bad. or at least questionable, c o n s e q u e n c e s ? I think
most of the issues in this chapter fall into this category, Emotional Involvement
and you'll have a chance to wrestle with this problem Sooner or later, you'll also have to face the problem of
w h e n you try to decide for yourself h o w you would emotional involvement with your subjects. The most
handle the situations discussed. likely situation is o n longer stories, ones that keep you in
contact with the subject for weeks or months. As you get
Freedom and Responsibility to know these people, your objectivity may diminish.
Unfortunately, there isn't space h e r e for a long discus- Frankly, I don't think it is possible for a photo jour-
sion about the importance of information to a democ- nalist to be entirely objective, nor is it possible to make
racy. Nevertheless, it is important to r e m e m b e r that good photos without some involvement with your sub-
f r e e d o m includes responsibility. Many p e o p l e d o n ' t ject. I don't think people go into this business unless
trust the press, and this thought, combined with the they care about what they are doing and w h o they are
fact that some in the legal c o m m u n i t y do not view the dealing with. Caring itself puts a person beyond p u r e
First Amendment as an absolute, 1 should remind us all objectivity. It then becomes a matter of limits—at what
that freedom of the press exists only as an attitude. In point does your involvement begin to have adverse ef-
t h e c a s e of t h e p h o t o of t h e d r o w n i n g victim dis- fects on your images? (This is one of the reasons why it
cussed later in this chapter, o n e reader thought "The is important to have someone else help edit your pho-
p h o t o g r a p h r e a c h e s t h e h e i g h t of insensitivity and tos. Your personal involvement may cause you to see
oversteps the principles of freedom of the press. Al- something in the image that isn't really there.)
though there are both legal and p e r h a p s social limits
to the First Amendment, if this kind of attitude w e r e Political and Business Involvement
to expand, the press, and consequently t h e free flow This kind of relationship can include conflicts such as
of ideas, could be more restricted than is healthy for
those b e t w e e n your after-hours work with a political
our society
g r o u p and your coverage of issues that concern that
group. Although you might try to prevent your feelings
from influencing your photos, those who know YOU M.iy pictures for an unspecified investigation? T h e r e have
think your work is biased, and that impression could be been numerous cases of police abuse of civil rights
as big a problem as any overtly slanted point of view How would people react to you if they suspected you
Another potential p r o b l e m is c r e a t e d w h e n vou were an informant?
take freelance assignments from local businesses Can I recall a case where the Ku Klux Klan held a rally,
you keep that from influencing your coverage of these complete with robes and cross burning. Photographers
businesses as news subjects, and will the reading public w e r e welcome at the rally, and a photo was run in the
understand your relationship? paper. Some time later, an organization that o p p o s e s
the Klan requested copies of all p h o t o s taken at that
Professional Conflicts event. Would you send the photos? If the event had
Two other conflicts of interest come up from time to been an equal-rights rally and the request was from the
time. The first one is getting in the way of someone Klan. would your response be different?
else's shot. If a photographer realizes that taking a cer-
tain vantage point will give her a better shot but at the It's a Matter of Trust
same time spoil everyone else's, what should she d o - Some people have n o fears, but others don't want to
shoot alongside everyone else or take the spot? deal with you. They don't want to share themselves with
To me. t h e second conflict is not an issue: at an the reading public, or they simply don't trust your mo-
emergency should the photographer take pictures or try tives. Perhaps they have something to hide (that may or
to help the victims? It is not unusual for a photojournal- may not have anything to do with the story you are
ist to get to the scene before emergency personnel, and working on). How can you get them to trust you if they
in such a case, basic human decency requires that you have a nagging suspicion that you will share whatever
help. One rescue worker said, "A good rule of thumb you see, hear, or photograph with the police—or their
might be that if anyone is there helping and you can do ex-spouse's lawyer? Your sources should be able to trust
no more than anyone else, record the event. But if no you. Information shared in confidence should remain
one is there, you must step in to help, as a human being confidential, and your subjects should know that you are
first, a journalist second." 2 working for a news publication and not for the police.
Regarding releasing unpublished photos, the policy
at many papers is to provide a copy of the photo that
Unpublished Photos appeared in t h e n e w s p a p e r , but nothing else. Some
publications destroy all imprinted negs after a couple of
Because the photo is so often the most accurate record, weeks, a practice that prevents negs from being sub-
eventually you will be asked by lawyers or police for poenaed. Other publications provide any pictures taken
copies of p i c t u r e s you have made at an accident or to anyone w h o can pay for the prints.
crime scene. On t h e surface, there might be no prob-
lem in giving out photos of a routine traffic accident,
but before you do, consider the implications. P i c t u r e s t h a t Lie
On t h e o n e hand, if you had p h o t o s that could
p r o v e s o m e o n e ' s guilt or i n n o c e n c e , p e r h a p s you There's an old saying: pictures never lie. By n o w you
should make those photos available. If you do, though, know that that is not necessarily true. If a quote can be
aren't you compromising journalistic independence by taken out of context, so can a moment of time. You can
becoming directly involved in the story? How could catch someone blinking or yawning and make him or
you maintain objectivity if you got caught up in a dis- her look like a moron or a fool. You can use a wide-
p u t e betw r een, say, t w o n e i g h b o r s , b o t h of w h o m angle lens and distort facial features; light can change
w e r e asking you for photos taken from the other side shape and influence mood. Instead of making things
of t h e fence? look worse, you can use photographic techniques to
make things look better than they really are.
If you made it a practice to hand out (or sell) acci-
dent photos, would you draw the line there? Suppose What h a p p e n s w h e n t h e subject was in a good
you photographed a labor picket line that turned vio- mood during the interview, and two-thirds of the pho-
lent. Should the police have access to your pictures to tos show that, yet the overall story is downbeat? What
identify and bring charges against the picketers? Does about those assignments w h e r e the subject is expecting
your role as a journalist include being an arm of law en- you and prepares for your visit? Are the photos that re-
f o r c e m e n t ? If so. h o w could you c o n t i n u e to cover sult truly documentary? The list goes on and on.
union activities if you w e r e viewed by the union as a Perhaps it's a matter of understanding objectivity,
source of trouble? subjectivity, and honesty. Because the decision to push
Suppose your p h o t o s were of a protest rally during the button is a subjective one. it must be made with
which no laws w e r e broken, yet the police wanted the honest intent, the goal being to present to the reader as
Figurt > ou look closely, y o u will n o t i c e
tha* • s shot with a w i d e - a n g l e lens
. not p r o d u c e a large m o o n in
Fne m o o n w a s p r i n t e d from a
. e s it ethical to m a n i p u l a t e
.-.ay. even if r e a d e r s a r e w a r n e d in
icberj DeGiulio/Statesman Journal)

accurate a representation of what was there as possible. photo. Some photojournalists feel that these machina-
Catching the subject with mouth open may be purely tions are fine as long as they are explained in the caption.
objective, because that is what h a p p e n e d during that What about using models for p h o t o s that are in-
1/125 second when the button was pushed. In that re- tended as illustrations but look like documentations of
gard. the photo is honest. However, if it makes the per- reality? In one case. Parade magazine used models in
son look like a fool w h e n in fact this person is not. the photos on the cover of an issue containing a stor\- on
image has failed. Because w e cannot present our photos teen prostitution. 3 The p h o t o s looked like they w e r e
in the context of time, the burden lies with the photog- taken of w o m e n on the street soliciting customers. The
rapher to decide on the picture that best represents a faces w e r e not recognizable, and the shots looked like
composite of the moments. they were taken candidly on the street with a telephoto
lens. In two of t h e three photos on the cover, however,
Illust rations, Re-creations, the girls w e r e professional models. The maker of the
and < o it rolled Can d ids third photo said that image was of an actual solicitation.
If a feature story needs an illustration, you'll have to de- The magazine said it used models to avoid legal prob-
cide ;.ir t go when creating such images. The pic- lems if a real prostitute was somehow identifiable in the
ture n .ure I is about a drought, and if you look photos. One photographer w h o used a model didn't see
close that the moon is much larger than it any problem with the practice. He said it was done all the
ought to be i story was not breaking news, and the time by all magazines and that legal problems were an im-
photograp: r ght the m o o n would e n h a n c e t h e portant concern. The magazine also said an explanation
had been planned to run with the photo credits on an in r e a c t i o n s f r o m o t h e r p h o t o g r a p h e r s w h o fell y o u
side page, but was inadvertently dropped.' s h o u l d n ' t d o that sort o f thing
In a related discussion on posing, however, one
widely respected photojournalist said, You cannot rel\ O n e photojournalist explained why this situation
on a caption to correct the ills of a misleading photo- was a breach of ethics:
graph. . . . If you don't want to perpetuate the prac- W o u l d you ask your writer to g o t o that s a m e e v e n t and
tice, the answer is simple: don't. get n a m e s o f the p e o p l e that are g o i n g o n that trip and
What, then, about the photographer who arrives a then have the writer make u p quotes? That's w h e r e
few minutes late and asks the subjects to reenact the it turns T h e subjects k n o w that's a p h o n y picture.
event? How is that different from the reporter w h o calls T h e n t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r g o e s to a n o t h e r assignment and
a subject to ask for an additional comment? t h e n e x t day. the n e x t month, and s o on. and all t h o s e
subjects k n o w t h o s e are p h o n y situations. Can the public
Consider the technique used by some of the best-
put their trust in y o u r paper? D o y o u lose credibility by
k n o w n p h o t o g r a p h e r s in the history of t h e medium,
having this untruth perpetuated e a c h day? 8
that of asking the subjects to do what they would nor-
mally do. but arranging it for the benefit of the camera Several photographers have been fired when their
Wilson Hicks, an editor of Life magazine during its rise editors believed the line had been crossed. 9 In one case,
to dominance in the world of American photojournal- a photographer made pictures of giant pandas that were
ism, described h o w W. Eugene Smith used t h e tech- supposedly in the wilds of China. In reality, the bears
nique in shooting his famous "Spanish Village' essay: w e r e in a two-acre pen at a research center in China's
Wuyipeng province. In an explanation to readers, the
By explaining to the villagers that h e w i s h e d to tell w h o managing editor of the magazine said the pandas really
they w e r e and w h a t the) did in the most interesting w e r e wild. "Isn't that t h e way a panda in t h e wild
possible manner, and to d r a w the full import and m o s t would look?" he asked. "Yes, probably. Isn't that the
suggestive m e a n i n g s from their actions and appearances.
kind of terrain in which a wild panda would be found?
Smith m a d e actors o f them, but actors in a drama held
Yes. So what's the difference?"' The difference, he said,
strictly to the facts. For t h e camera they enacted
is in being honest with the reader. 10
consciously what they theretofore had d o n e unconsciously:
they did w h a t t h e y w e r e used to doing better than they However, so much of our work is done by arrang-
w e r e used t o doing it. In re-creating an acuiality. Smith gave ing to meet a subject at a time and place for the pur-
to it more p o w e r and beauty than it had had originally. 6 pose of making pictures. Are these false situations?
One photojournalist explained:
Smith believed the procedure was entirely ethical.
He said: What is a p o s e d picture? Many of the subjects w h o are in
o u r pictures p o s e t h e m s e l v e s for us. . . . S o m e t i m e s w e
"If to direct is to translate the s u b s t a n c e and spirit of the
p o s e pictures. I think that it's very important that the
actuality m o r e effectively, then it's thoroughly ethical. If.
reader understand w h a t the situation is b e c a u s e basically
h o w e v e r , t h e actuality is perverted for the purpose o f
w e don't want to fool the reader. . . .
m a k i n g a m o r e dramatic picture, the p h o t o g r a p h e r has
S o m e t i m e s in a caption w e can explain that w e
indulged in an unwarranted "poetic l i c e n s e
organized t h e s e p e o p l e to have this picture taken in a
This is a common type of distortion." certain way. Or in the style of the photograph, it is s o
obviously p o s e d that n o reader is fooled into thinking
The next step, however, is acting out something that
that this w a s a real event.
could happen. Below is a brief discussion between an ed-
1 think there s n o ultimate a n s w e r as to w h e n you
itor and several photojournalists. The editor had assigned
p o s e or w h e n you don't. It's a w h o l e series of situations,
a p h o t o g r a p h e r to cover basketball fans leaving for a
but y o u h a v e to k e e p in mind that w h a t y o u present to
state t o u r n a m e n t w h e r e t h e local high school team the reader has to b e h o n e s t . 1 1
w o u l d play. The p h o t o g r a p h e r t u r n e d in a p h o t o of
cheerleaders ty ing decorations onto cars. The editor said: Photojournalist Sam Abell said. " [ P h o t o j o u r n a l -
ism derives its strength from its reputation for the un-
W e w e r e n ' t t o o h a p p y w i t h the picture b e c a u s e w e constructed photographs. When that's changed with
w a n t e d to c o n v e y s o m e o f the e x c i t e m e n t . 1 s u g g e s t e d to your altering . . . you're changing the basic structure
the p h o t o g r a p h e r that p e r h a p s h e c o u l d get a b u n c h of of admittedly a very small but important b r a n c h of
the kids t o g e t h e r in a g r o u p and have t h e m w a v i n g their photography. It lives by its ethics." 1 2
hands in a big V or yelling and screaming, basically just
saying t o t h e m . "Be yourself, kids." and s h o o t the picture
Stereotypes
T h e p h o t o g r a p h e r w a s u p s e t a b o u t this, b e c a u s e
h e felt it w a s a p o s e d p i c t u r e and p e o p l e w e r e n ' t d o i n g An area requiring particular sensitivity is the perpetua-
anything. T h e y w e r e just sort o f s t a n d i n g around and h e tion of stereotypes. Racial stereotypes head the list,
felt that it w a s w r o n g to take that kind o f p i c t u r e W e but s t e r e o t y p e s can include gender, sexual orienta-
didn't think s o . But s i n c e t h e n , w e ' v e heard s o m e tion, t h e disabled and v a r i o u s cultural and e t h n i c
Figure 1 3 - 2 B u r n i n g d o w n the b a c k g r o u n d is a c o m m o n two players, b u t the p h o t o g r a p h e r d a r k e n e d the i m a g e so
t e c h n i q u e , but at w h a t point d o e s it falsify reality? In this only the p l a y e r s c o u l d b e seen. You c a n s e e part of the
c a s e , there is a n u m p i r e s t a n d i n g i m m e d i a t e l y b e h i n d t h e s e u m p i r e ' s l e g b e t w e e n the two players. (Glenn Moore)

groups. In selecting a p h o t o to use, you should b e We do this because, in contrast to the wide sensitivity of
sure the image is an honest representation of t h e par- the eye, camera and Film are limited, and sometimes the
ticular story, and not a m o m e n t out of c o n t c x t that image needs darkroom help in order to match what we
results in an unfair stereotype. A d e e p e r question is saw at the scene. However, a photo that is dodged and
w h e t h e r the story itself is perpetuating a stereotype. burned is not a literal representation of that moment,
Here is an example to think about. A photographer and just as a writer can easily distort an interview, a pho-
told me that he photographed an incident that resulted in tographer can distort an image. Look at the picture in
a number of men being arrested. The editors asked for a figure 13-2. The photographer thought the darkroom
photo of a white person even though there were a dozen treatment was necessary to enhance the image, but at
black men and only one white involved. Were the editors some point, enhancement ends and distortion begins.
within bounds to make such a request? Would a photo of Cropping can distort, too. Imagine t h e p h o t o in
black men involved in this incident perpetuate a stereo- figure 13-3 cropped down to just the woman and the lit-
type' If a photograph happens to reveal a person's race, to tle girl. There were many photographers and reporters
what degree should that be an ethical consideration? on hand to cover the story; if they were cropped out.
Would it serve the story bener to not run any photos at all? would the resulting image misrepresent the scene?
Similar questions can be asked when a photo would
Pbotog rapt i c Deceptions work much better in the page design if the subject was
Enhancing photos in a conventional darkroom is stan- facing in the opposite direction. It is a simple matter to
dard practice. You saw how this is done in chapter 5. make a print with the negative flopped upside down in
Figure 1 3 - 3 T h e p h o t o g r a p h e r s w e r e part of the s c e n e h a v e b e e n ethical for R i c k m a n to u s e a t e l e p h o t o lens to
a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r Rick R i c k m a n d e c i d e d that they h a d p r e s e n t just t h o s e t w o p e o p l e ? (Rick Rickman/The Orange
b e c o m e part of the story. But w o u l d it b e ethical for an County Register)
editor t o c r o p in to just the w o m a n a n d the b a b y 9 W o u l d it

the enlarger. If there is nothing in the background, such This is not an unrealistic possibility. What about the en-
as street signs, that would appear reversed and thus look t e r t a i n m e n t magazine that c h a n g e s t h e hairstyle and
odd, is it permissible to flop the image? After all. the pho- makeup of a celebrity to better match the public image
tographer could have taken the shot from the other side. of that person? It is easy to make an imaginary leap from
this to the person w h o s e goal is to deceive the public for
Digital Manipulations political p u r p o s e s . W h e n that h a p p e n s , h o w can w e
As Sam Abel has said above, the honesty and integrity of keep the public's trust w h e n w e present honest images
the p h o t o g r a p h are the pivots around w h i c h our effec- that challenge the public's notions of reality?
tiveness as journalists ride. In the previous cases, it is There are a n u m b e r of e x a m p l e s of c o m p u t e r ma-
the p h o t o g r a p h e r w h o bears the primary responsibility nipulation that can serve to d e m o n s t r a t e the cause for
for honest photos. However, w e n o w have a n e w tool c o n c e r n . 1 3 An early case is t w o covers from National
that can be used not only by photographers but also by Geographic magazine. In February and April 1982, the
anyone else to take the most truthful image and distort magazine used digital retouching to alter p i c t u r e s to
or falsify its content and meaning. better fit the cover format. In o n e case, the pyramids
Until you have played with an image on a computer of Egypt w e r e moved slightly in relation to o t h e r ele-
screen, you cannot k n o w h o w easy, and how much fun, ments in the photo. The o t h e r cover was a portrait of a
it is to tinker with the facts of a photo. You can make a soldier. In t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s take, o n e f r a m e had the
blue shirt green, take out a distracting object, or add a best expression but not all of the soldier's hat. So the
pointed head to your boss's portrait. What about the pho- next frame, w h i c h had all of the hat, w a s spliced in.
tojournalism though, w h o , under the pressures of the mo- The magazine's p h o t o d i r e c t o r said he had n o prob-
ment, manipulates a p h o t o because it could have been lems with these changes because they could have
that way if he had pressed the shutter a moment earlier.' b e e n d o n e by t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r o n t h e s c e n e . 1 4
The ma ' reated quite a stir in the industry,
and ir his a u t h o r , senior assistant e d i t o r
\\ : he alteration "was d o n e experimen-
j.i mology was first available to us. and
with our present policy regarding elec-
ion of photographs and illustrations."
a different viewpoint is expressed by Rick
-director of the Day in the Life series of books,
ver photos have been digitally altered. For ex-
. the p h o t o in figure 13-4 was originally a horizon-
tal image. To make it fit on the cover of the book, the
horseman and the tree were moved closer together and
the moon was enlarged. Smolan said, "We feel that any-
thing that makes the picture stronger but doesn't change
the journalistic integrity of the photographs is fine. . . .
It seems silly not to use the technology that's out there to
make what you're doing s t r o n g . B u t another photo ed-
itor said that c h a n g i n g p h o t o s digitally is "ethically,
morally, and journalistically horrible.' 1 6
There arc other less drastic examples, too. At The Reg-
ister in Santa Ana. California, swimming pool water that
had been dyed red was changed to blue because the com-
puter operators thought swimming pool water was always
blue. 1 - And the New York Times Magazine once discov-
ered that an aesthetically inclined printing technician had
added some shrubbery to the background of a photo. 1 8 Figure 1 3 - 4 M a n y of the c o v e r s for the Day in the Life
Fred Ritchin. f o r m e r d i r e c t o r of p h o t o g r a p h y f o r of b o o k s h a v e b e e n digitally e n h a n c e d . For this one, the
t h e New York Times Magazine said t h a t in 1988, m o o n w a s e n l a r g e d a n d the h o r s e m a n a n d the tree w e r e
Newsweek did an article about the film Rain Man. They m o v e d c l o s e r t o g e t h e r . (Cover photo byFrans Lanting)

u s e d a p h o t o of T o m C r u i s e a n d D u s t i n H o f f m a n .
Ritchin later f o u n d out that the p h o t o was a composite. Grief, Suffering, Violence,
"[TJhey w e r e b o t h p o s e d with dummies. It w a s com- and the Private M o m e n t
posited together after the fact. It w a s always intended
to be a composite. It was p h o t o g r a p h e d to be a com-
A police officer is killed on dun* and the press attends
posite. The reader w a s never told it was a composite." 1 9
the funeral. A child d r o w n s in a lake, the parents react
>XTiile not excusing the alterations above, they w e r e
to seeing the body, and a p h o t o g r a p h e r records the mo-
not made with a specific intent to defraud the reader.
ment. A w o m a n falls to her death from a tall building.
However, the digital world is n o w o p e n to anyone w i t h
T h e c a m e r a s are there. Should t h e y be used? Is this
a f e w thousand dollars to s p e n d on a c o m p u t e r and a
event history, or are w e intruding? Do the victims have
scanner, and there is always the possibility that someone
a right to suffer in private, and if so. w h e n d o c s the
will use these tools to deceive. As Lou Hodges of Wash-
readers' need to k n o w override those of the individual?
ington & Lee University, said. "When human dirt bags
Is t h e r e a difference b e t w e e n the p e r s o n w h o volun-
have an opportunity to be corrupt, they will d o so. Digi-
tarily enters the spotlight and those w h o are unwillingly
tal photography will increase the threat of dirt-bag pho-
f o r c e d t h e r e by fate? Does t h e v o l u n t e e r s u r r e n d e r
tographers." 2 0 I need not cite history's many examples
everything, or should he be permitted to choose w h a t
of dishonesty by despots, corrupt officials, and sincere
will be revealed? (Or d o w e consort with him in reveal-
but misguided governments. N o w w e have the veracity
ing only that for w h i c h he has sought attention?)
of the- photograph to add to our list of suspicions.
This area is perhaps the most controversial and sensi-
If journalists are to maintain credibility, w e must tive of p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m e t h i c s , and I d o u b t that any
guarantee that the integrity of our d o c u m e n t a r y pho- c o n s e n s u s will ever be d r a w n . P e r h a p s t h e p h o t o of
tographs is not breached. Toward this end. photojour- tragedy has more impact than words because the photo
nalism must not t a m p e r w i t h t h e image c o n t e n t of leaves so little to the imagination. With words, the reader
photos or < reatc illustrations that could be interpreted has a choice to create a mental picture or not—an imagi-
as documentary photos. nary image that is under the reader's control. He or she
can pick and c h o o s e w h i c h e l e m e n t s c o m p r i s e that
Figure 1 3 - 5 A s s o c i a t e d Press p h o t o g r a p h e r E d d i e c a u s e a great ethical d e b a t e , it raised m a n y q u e s t i o n s
A d a m s w o n the Pulitzer Prize in 1969 for this p h o t o of street a b o u t the g o v e r n m e n t the U.S. w a s d e f e n d i n g . (Eddie
justice in Vietnam. While the u s e of the picture d i d not Adams/AP-Wide World)

picture and can stop creating w h e n the image reaches the p h o t o in figure 13-5 was made in 1968 during the
the limit of tolerance. The photograph, however, forces Tet Offensive in Vietnam. It was a peak m o m e n t in the
an image on the reader, o n e which he or she cannot con- h i s t o r y of t h a t w a r . a n d p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e p h o t o
trol. Its presence on the page is almost impossible to ig- c h a n g e d m a n y attitudes. Although s o m e r e a d e r s may-
nore. and its reality can be overwhelming. have found it difficult to look at, the image symbolizes
By discussing a f e w of the questions here, perhaps the horrors of that war. However, w h a t of the s c e n e
t h o s e i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e line is c r o s s e d can be re- with less global impact?
duced. W h e n a decision is made, it should be a carefully 'Hie following sections are three case histories. The
reasoned decision. It must be based not on the needs of first involves a public official and a locally significant
the m o m e n t nor on an impulsive reaction to a dramatic story with a bizarre and tragic conclusion. The second
image, but on careful consideration of the value of the w a s a major event that took the life of a person w h o
photograph as news, and the c o n s e q u e n c e s of its u s e - was not otherwise in the news, and the third would not
its effects on the subjects of the p h o t o , the readers, and have been more than a one-paragraph n e w s brief if the
the credibility and reputation of the publication. p h o t o g r a p h e r had not b e e n there.
In s o m e cases, t h e r e is little professional dissent
about the use of such a n e w s photo. When the event or Dwyer Suicide
the image is of such magnitude that it affects main read- In January 198". R Budd Dwyer. treasurer of the state
ers, editors generally agree that the p h o t o should run in of Pennsylvania, stood convicted of bribery, mail fraud,
spite of possible negative reader reaction. For example and r a c k e t e e r i n g . O n t h e day b e f o r e h e w a s t o b e
Figure 13-6 "i January 1987.
Pennsy a State Treasurer R. B u d d
Dwyc" press c o n f e r e n c e the
day ? as to be s e n t e n c e d on
- nar oery a n d corruption.
Thes 3 p lotos of his p u b l i c s u i c i d e
questions, ((a): Gary Miller-
. rd Photos; (b-e): Paul Vathis-
; Vorld Photos)
sentenced, he called a press conference and, in front of business eight and a half years and it was all reflex ac-
TV c a m e r a s , still p h o t o g r a p h e r s , a n d r e p o r t e r s , h e tion From p h o t o g r a p h e r Vathis, w h o made the pic
pulled a .357 magnum revolver from .1 manila envelope tures in figure 13-6b t h r o u g h 13-6e, "Nothing w e n t
and shot himself in the head. 2 1 through my mind except to keep shooting."
T h e Dwver suicide quickly became a story centered However, there was time to put the camera d o w n
on the media and the use of the photos: Could anyone and turn away. Should the photographers have allowed
at t h e p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e have p r e v e n t e d his suicide? themselves to b e c o m e involved in Dwyer s final act?
Should it have b e e n photographed? Should the photos O n e photojournalist called this type of situation a "pub-
have b e e n used? licity crime." More commonly involving murder, terror-
A series of the Dwyer suicide taken by AP photogra- ism, h o s t a g e taking, o r k i d n a p p i n g , "The p u b l i c i t y
phers Gary Miller and Paul Vathis is reproduced in figure crime is a perfect e x a m p l e of h o w w e arc used. .
13-6a through 13-6e. UPI also had a similar series, and O n o n e hand w e have an obligation to report the crime,
other still and video photographers were on the scene. but on the other hand w e have a nagging suspicion w e
W h e n Dwyer first pulled out the gun. n o o n e knew may b e c o m e accomplices." 2 2
exactly w h a t w a s c o m i n g . Some t h o u g h t he was just And w h a t about the photographer's private ethics?
fooling around; o t h e r s thought he would use the gun on Docs he or she o w e an employer photographs of every
them. Those present said to stop his suicide w a s impos- assignment regardless of personal standards?
sible. Only 15 s e c o n d s e l a p s e d f r o m the time he re-
vealed the gun until he pulled the trigger, and by the Use of the Photos Many n e w s p a p e r s used pictures
time everyone realized w h a t was going to happen, there from the series in figure 13-6 or similar shots from UPI.
wasn't time to think. As o n e video p h o t o g r a p h e r said, "I Three different surveys s h o w e d that most papers used
really didn't think about the situation until it was over p h o t o (a), but from one-fourth to one-third of the pa-
and w e w e r e out in the hallway. . . . I've been in the pers also used pictures (c), (d), or (e). 2 3

(d)
(e)
 Ot main argument in favor of using at It is ironic to note that, on the same day. photos of
least ( w.is ihe event itself. O n e p h o t o editor victims of street violence in the Philippines w e r e used
said ! e the time, place, and c i r c u m s t a n c e . by many p a p e r s w i t h o u t dissent o r reader o b j e c t i o n .
ii. the business of not r e p o r t i n g . W e H o w d o e s t h e D w y e r story, o r any o t h e r local o r na-
v. ! to pass it on to the public." tional story, fall into a different category than something
ditor said. "The reasons on w h i c h to base f r o m a w a r - t o r n c o u n t r y h a l f w a y a r o u n d the world?
should be the quality of t h e p i c t u r e s Such p h o t o s are still violent. The dead and dying are
»s very good) and the n e w s value of the event, graphically s h o w n . So w h y does it matter that one is dis-
the ethical questions that might have come into tant and another is close?
such as privacy and fairness, simply didn't apply."
A n o t h e r v i e w p o i n t w a s this: " P h o t o s are m o r e Mount St. Helens Victim
p o w e r f u l than words. More personal. And potentially I think most editors w o u l d agree that an event involving
m o r e offensive. But our job is not to avoid o f f e n d i n g a w e l l - k n o w n p e r s o n , such as t h e assassination of a
readers. Our job is to t o u c h , teach, and h e l p o u r read- world leader, must be p r e s e n t e d to the readers. How-
ers and to s h o w and e x p l a i n to t h e m w h a t is h a p p e n - ever. h e r e is a case involving a major n e w s ston' but an
ing in t h e w o r l d . You d o n ' t t o u c h p e o p l e o r a f f e c t u n k n o w n victim.
their behavior w i t h mug shots and p i c t u r e s of sunsets. O n a Sunday morning in May 1980. Mount St. Hel-
. . . [Tlhe best p i c t u r e s , the o n e s that d o m o v e us ens. near the Washington-Oregon border, erupted. All
and make us s t o p and feel h u m a n emotions, are o f t e n day. news agencies flocked to the scene as the peak con-
controversial." tinued to belch smoke and ash. Most of the photos of the
An editor w h o s e paper did not use any of the contro- mountain w e r e taken from great distances. Other photos
versial photos disagreed: "We did not want to offend the w e r e of local t o w n s p e o p l e c o p i n g w i t h the massive
sensibilities of our readers. W e w e r e c o n c e r n e d about amounts of ash that rained d o w n on their communities.
Dwyer's children, his wife, his relatives, and friends. Our The peak had b e e n rumbling for weeks, and both
readers tell us they don't want to see pictures like that." b e f o r e and after t h e e r u p t i o n many p e o p l e had b e e n
The o m b u d s m a n for the Kansas City Star said that treating the spot as a tourist attraction, sneaking past
the p a p e r " w o u l d n ' t assign a p h o t o g r a p h e r to c o v e r police lines. Searchers w e r e looking for victims, but at
someone blowing his head off. so w h y should w e pub- first it was too dangerous to get too close. The day after
lish those same p h o t o g r a p h s just because a photogra- the e r u p t i o n , G e o r g e Wedding, shooting for t h e San
pher h a p p e n e d to be there?" Jose Mercury News, made the p h o t o in figure 13-7. "It
O n e argument that can be used on both sides of the w a s , " h e said, "the first p h o t o t h a t b r o u g h t h o m e
q u e s t i o n is t h a t t h e p h o t o s m i g h t m o t i v a t e o t h e r s . strongly that p e o p l e died u p there." 2 4 The p h o t o ran in
Would this event give s o m e o n e else a similar idea? T h e m a n y n e w s p a p e r s , i n c l u d i n g o n e s e e n by t h e b o y ' s
o p p o s i t e is also a possibility, h o w e v e r . O n e w o m a n g r a n d f a t h e r . Until t h e n , t h e child had b e e n listed as
called a TV station that ran the entire video footage and unidentified, and the family did not k n o w the fate of the
said: I have often considered the taking of my o w n life boy, o r his father and b r o t h e r , w h o s e bodies w e r e in
as a means of solving my problems. But I feel strongly the cab of the truck.
n o w that I have an alternative." A f t e r r u n n i n g t h e p i c t u r e . The Seattle Times re-
A pragmatic argument for not using the pictures is ceived 150 complaints about its use of the photo. The
based on n e w s values. Dwver w a s a state official un- Portland Oregonian also had about 150 calls and letters,
known outside the immediate area, and his case w a s of and Wedding's o w n paper had about 35 complaints.
little c o n s e q u e n c e e l s e w h e r e . That h e t u r n e d a p r e s s Some persons argue that the use of such p h o t o s is
conference into a public suicide raised his story to a dif- an intrusion on the privacy and dignity of death and that
ferent level. However, in the context of the day's n e w s the trauma to the family is u n w a r r a n t e d . An editor at
in. for e x a m p l e . California, m a n y o t h e r stories com- We Seattle Times w h o opposed using the shot said, -I
peted for space in the paper. Public suicide is certainly w o u l d not have run it. I k n o w it reflects the horror of
news, but d o the readers need to see the details to un- w h a t h a p p e n e d , but I think w e o f f e n d m o r e p e o p l e
derstand the event? than w e impress." 2 5
This is admittedly a bizarre and atypical case, and it is Other editors at the Times, though, felt publication
unlikely that >ou will ever face anything similar. It does was a must. "I think w e had to run the picture," o n e said.
raise important questions about persons, either public o r
It made m e u n c o m f o r t a b l e , especially wrestling w i t h the
private, w h o create catastrophes to draw media atten-
inevitable c o n c l u s i o n that family m e m b e r s might w e l l
t i o n S h o u l d w e b e c o m e p a r t n e r s in t h e i r t w i s t e d
identify the victim. But w e are chronicling an incredible
schemes, and if so. arc w e perpetuating such behavior? If
e v e n t , and are publishing history. T h e p h o t o g r a p h in
w e fail to r e p o n . are w e shirking our duty? What is the
q u e s t i o n likely will b e the p i c t u r e — o r o n e of the
public's need a n d right to know about these events?
p i c t u r e s — u s e d in t h e years ahead w h e n t h e a w e s o m e
Figure 1 3 - 7 G e o r g e W e d d i n g m a d e this p h o t o of a v i c t i m of t h e 1980
e r u p t i o n of M t . St. H e l e n s in s o u t h e r n W a s h i n g t o n state. (George Wedding/
San Jose Mercury-News)
 fury of the eruption is detailed T h o u s a n d s of w o r d s On shore, gathered around a p i c n i c table, a g r o u p o f
.ibout gas velocities, air temperatures, and ash falls don't p e o p l e nervously w a t c h e d . S o m e w e r e w e e p i n g . It didn't
begin to tell the story o f the v i o l e n c e and instant death as take m u c h to tell t h e y w e r e the missing boy's family. I
that o n e p i c t u r e . 2 6 used a Nikkor 180 o n an FM2 to record the s c e n e s of t h e
r e s c u e w o r k e r s and t h e family h o p i n g against the odds. I
The Photographer Responds Keep in mind the also had my F3, w i t h a 2 4 m m . I p h o t o g r a p h e d those
quotes at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c h a p t e r a s y o u r e a d t h e s c e n e s for about 15 minutes, trying to b e as unobtrusive
to the family as possible.
nights o f G e o r g e W e d d i n g as h e e x p r e s s e d t h e m s e v -
T h e n it h a p p e n e d , and a s c e n e o f hysteria spread
eral years a f t e r t h e i n c i d e n t :
like a wildfire. T h e little b o y ' s b o d y w a s f o u n d and a
I think any g o o d n e w s p h o t o g r a p h e r w o u l d h a v e m a d e rescue w o r k e r c a m e o v e r to tell the family. As t h e boy's
that picture. Maybe a lot o f t h e m w o u l d h a v e c h o s e n not tiny b o d y w a s p l a c e d in a bag, the m o t h e r c o l l a p s e d in
to transmit it or publish it. Maybe if I had it t o d o o v e r tears. T h e n the entire family w e n t into hysterics. P e o p l e
again. 1 might h a v e m a d e that d e c i s i o n myself. I don't w e r e s c r e a m i n g and b e i n g carried off all around m e . It
know. . . . t o o k a f e w m i n u t e s for things to settle d o w n . T h e m o t h e r
I don't believe that it's a p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s j o b to g o w a s taken a w a y in a car, and t h e hysteria of the
out and blindly m a c h i n e gun pictures of e v e r y t h i n g that remaining family and friends had turned to quiet s o b s and
h e s e e s and leave it solely u p to an e d i t o r in an air- soft s p o k e n w o r d s of comfort.
c o n d i t i o n e d o f f i c e isolated from t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d . From a photojournalist's standpoint, as s i c k e n i n g as
I don't agree w i t h b o d y pictures. Ninety-nine t i m e s this s o u n d s , I w a s satisfied w i t h w h a t I had shot. T h e r e
out o f o n e hundred I w o u l d not run b o d y pictures in m y w a s the search, the reaction and t h e r e m o v i n g o f the
n e w s p a p e r if I w e r e an editor. I think t h e y have t h e final b o d y . I figured that w a s probably it. I w a t c h e d as the bag
decision. But I'm t h e p e r s o n out in t h e field and I'm the c o n t a i n i n g the b o d y o f Edward R o m e r o w a s carried to a
p e r s o n to make the first d e c i s i o n . waiting s h e r i f f s v e h i c l e . As is c o m m o n practice, it w o u l d
In s o m e stories, if I don't w a n t an e d i t o r to s e e a b e p l a c e d in t h e back of t h e car until t h e c o r o n e r arrived
picture. I just don't take the picture. If an e d i t o r n e v e r to pick it up. But Elroy Romero, Edward s father,
s e e s it. it n e v e r s e e s publication. . . . w o u l d n ' t let it b e that w a y . He w a n t e d to s e e his boy-
II]t w a s n ' t really fair to that family to publish t h o s e right t h e n and there. H e w a n t e d to hold him, t o kiss him,
pictures w i t h o u t c o n t a c t i n g them, w i t h o u t g i v i n g t h e to say good-bye. It w a s an intensely personal m o m e n t in
authorities time to identify the b o d y . . . . And it w a s n ' t t h e darkest o f his life. H e d e m a n d e d that the bag b e
fair to the family to read about their child's death in the o p e n e d s o h e c o u l d v i e w t h e b o d y o f his son.
newspaper. . . . W h e n I s a w t h e bag placed o n the ground, instead of
(But s | o m e say it w o u l d h a v e b e e n unfair to in the car, I m o v e d toward it. A s h e r i f f s lieutenant
w i t h h o l d that kind o f information in light o f the p o i n t e d a finger and d e m a n d e d , "I don't w a n t any pictures
e n o r m o u s i m p a c t the story had. . . . T h e p h o t o h e l p e d taken o f this!" I kept m o v i n g forward. T h e o n l y o t h e r
capture the e s s e n c e o f the story o f Mount St. Helens.-" cameraman o n t h e s c e n e , from o n e o f the TV stations,
c o m p l i e d and backed off. I s a w it u n f o l d i n g — t h e bag
Bcikersfield Drown ing b e i n g u n z i p p e d , the father o n his knees. T h e lieutenant
again yelled "No pictures!" but this w a s a get-at-any-cost
Although I h o p e y o u will never have to cover major
picture. They w o u l d h a v e to arrest m e to k e e p m e from
t r a g e d i e s s u c h as t h o s e j u s t d i s c u s s e d , it i s n o t u n l i k e l y
taking this picture. I w a s about ten feet from the s c e n e
that e v e n t u a l l y y o u w i l l h a v e t o c o n f r o n t t h e k i n d s o f
w h e n a d e p u t y spread his arms in front of m e and said
d e c i s i o n s m a d e i n t h i s c a s e . T h e s t o r y m i g h t b e a fu-
"No." h i o n e m o t i o n I identified myself and d u c k e d under
neral. fire, traffic a c c i d e n t , o r v i c t i m s o f a v i o l e n t
his o u t s t r e t c h e d arms. I e x p e c t e d to b e grabbed f r o m
crime. You will have to m a k e your o w n decisions
behind, but I w a s left a l o n e to take m y pictures. . . .
about w h a t to shoot, and y o u will return to the n e w s -
I t o o k the pictures from a distance o f about three to
p a p e r o f f i c e w i t h p i c t u r e s that w i l l n o t c h a n g e the
five f e e t w i t h the F3 and 2 4 m m lens at 2.8 and 1/250. In
c o u r s e of w o r l d e v e n t s and m a y n o t have local signifi- all. I took eight frames of that s c e n e . At first there w a s
c a n c e b e y o n d the day's n e w s . Yet t h e y m i g h t b e hon- just Elrov R o m e r o and Edward. I p h o t o g r a p h e d h i m
est, dramatic i m a g e s that c a p t u r e a m o m e n t o f life in t o u c h i n g t h e b o y ' s face. As h e p i c k e d the boy u p and
your t o w n . Y o u will have to w e i g h the reporting of the h u g g e d him. a y o u n g b o y believed to be Edward's older
n e w s against sensitivities of the subjects, their families, brother raced up. s a w the b o d y and s c r e a m e d in horror.
and your readers. At the s a m e time. Elroy buried his face in his hands and
r e s c u e w o r k e r J o e Colbert reached to c o m f o r t t h e m
T h e p h o t o in q u e s t i o n is r e p r o d u c e d in figure 13-8.
both. It w a s t h e p i c t u r e o f that instant that w o u l d run in
H e r e is p h o t o g r a p h e r J o h n H a r t e ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e e v e n t :
the Californian the n e x t m o r n i n g . 2 8
[WJhen I pulled u p t o the lake. I w a s jarred b y o n e o f the
eeriest sights I've s e e n . Nestled b e t w e e n t w o trees, a Readers React T h e reaction from readers was quick
team of m e n w e r e w a d i n g through the water, l o c k e d arm and strong. T h e Californian received m o r e than 400
in arm. T h e \ w e r e searching the 3-foot-deep waters for a p h o n e calls. 500 letters, about 80 subscription cancella-
body.
tions. and a b o m b threat. C o m m e n t s included w o r d s
Figure 1 3 - 8 A local b o y d r o w n e d in a park lake, a n d J o h n Harte of the
Bakersfield California/! took this picture. (John Hane/Bakersfield Caiifomian)

such as insensitive, in vasion of privacy. poor taste, yel- "I am o u t r a g e d at this latest e p i s o d e of tasteless
low journalism, and sensationalism. Here are s o m e journalism. T h e stories involved may be n e w s w o r t h y ,
quotes from letters received by the paper: but the photos aren't."
" T h i s w a s a n d s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a p r i v a t e mo- That picture will remain in my mind, as well as in
ment. . . the minds of countless other people, forever."
". . . 1 realized your n e w s p a p e r has n o concept of "What h a p p e n e d to h u m a n d e c e n c y ? Some
n e w s versus sick." e m o t i o n s are intimate and should not be used to sell
"Most of the caring people in Bakersfield can under- newspapers."
stand and relate to the grief of the family without that "The photograph reaches the height of insensitivity
picture." and oversteps the principles of freedom of the press." 2 9
 In . i ewsroom staff, managing editor Bob The goal is simplicity itself—to show exactly what is
Bentl- h e r e a r e m a n y l e s s o n s t h a t c a n be going on in front of the lens from a neutral viewpoint. In
le.ir s
specific i n c i d e n t . . . . I think the shon. to get an unbiased picture of anything and
everything that happens, good, bad or indifferent,
gn rk validation of w h a t readers—and for-
regardless of mitigating excuses.
saying. . . : That the news media is seri-
ich with our audiences, and it is costing The split-second at the taking of the picture is
.. id perilously in respect, support, and credi- not the moment to think if it will be used. Nor are all the
[IIt c o n c e r n s m e greatly that w e can think psychological hoopla, philosophical ramblings and
c so right and they can think w e are so w r o n g . " 3 0 personal hangups relevant or necessary.
i:or Bentley w r o t e a column explaining that the What is necessary at the precise lime is well-
decision to print the picture w a s a mistake and apolo- composed. sharp, correctly exposed interpretive images
gizing to r e a d e r s w h o w e r e o f f e n d e d . P h o t o g r a p h e r of exactly what is going on. That's what the
Harte. h o w e v e r , said there w e r e three d r o w n i n g s that photographer is there for. nothing else
day. and drownings w e r e a problem in that community. Seldom is the wisdom of exhibiting the resultant
pictures up to the photographer. At a subsequent time, in
Perhaps printing t h e s e kinds of p i c t u r e s might c a u s e
a supposedly calmer period of reasoning, the wisdom of
others to be more cautious. Harte said:
running what had been taken can be discussed and
judged by an allegedly broader and wiser group of
I do not agree with the apology. If there is something to
evaluators of which, if one is lucky, the photographer
be sorry for. it's that a young boy drowned. But we
will have a voice. ' 2
shouldn't be sorry we ran the picture. We'll never know
if any lives were saved because a parent took extra
One Photographer's Guidelines
precautions after being shocked by this picture. But if
just one life was saved, if one family was spared the Here are s o m e questions photojournalist Gam* Bryant
agony that the Romeros suffered, then the picture was asks himself w h e n faced with difficult situations:
worth it. I can t agree with Bentley s comment that
1. I have to determine if the private m o m e n t of pain
"ITJhe obvious disadvantages of publishing the picture
and suffering I find myself watching needs to be
far outweigh any possible benefits."
seen. Should this m o m e n t b e c o m e public? If so.
How does Harte feel about taking the picture? d o e s it tell the story or part of the story of this
event?
I feel guilty. On one hand I was excited about getting that
kind of picture. But it came at the expense of a family 2. Are the p e o p l e involved in such shambles over the
that lost a son. I didn't sleep that first night. Now I feel a m o m e n t that being photographed will send t h e m
lot better about it. I'm sorry Edward died, but I'm sure into greater trauma?
the picnire did some good somewhere. 3- Am I at a distance trying to be as unobtrusive as
Would he have trouble taking the same type of
possible?
picture again? "None whatsoever."
4. Am I acting with compassion and sensitivity? 53
The Photographer 's Decisions
You might not be comfortable with J o h n Harte's deci- Summary
sions. Should you shoot first and edit later, or d o you
have some responsibilities on the scene? Is there a rea- We have had space here to examine only a f e w of the is-
son for running a p h o t o beyond its shock value—is the sues and a f e w of the questions such issues raise, but I
wreck or drowning picture effective in preventing such h o p e it is evident that there are n o clear-cut answers.
things from happening? Should w e play the role of the The real world is full of variables that make broad state-
doctor, administering foul-tasting medicine to o u r read- m e n t s of what is right difficult to follow. On the o n e
ers because w e have decided it will be good for t h e m in hand, it would be easy to deal with conflicts of interest
the long run? by avoiding those situations that lead to them, but it is
O n e c o m m e n t a t o r said. "It is w r o n g as a general impossible to be a photojournalist w i t h o u t getting in-
principle for o n e human being (an assignment editor, volved in your community.
perhaps, or a n e w s director) to say to another human It would also be easy to say that n o o n e w a n t s to
being (a camera operator in the field): You get the pic- read about the tragedies, so they shouldn't be printed.
tures; we'll decide w h e t h e r to use them.'" 3 1 However, that would be a form of censorship that is not
But the other view could be summarized like this: appropriate in o u r society.
r - dil'fic ;it f- r me to understand the lack of Part of the professional goal of most photojournal-
:\ • 'ii •:" many photographers as to just what ists is to be h o n e s t and sensitive, but t h e f o r c e that
the fob of a r.eu s photographer is Basically he/she is at pushes t h e m is revealed in the quote from Lewis Hine
any even: s the extended eye. through the media, of t h a t o p e n e d c h a p t e r 1: " T h e r e w e r e t w o t h i n g s I
t h e public wanted to do. I w a n t e d to s h o w the things that had to
be corrected. I w a n t e d to s h o w the things that had to 1" Tom Hubbard, AP Photo Chief, AEJMC Professors
b e a p p r e c i a t e d . " T h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r s o m e of Discuss Ethics, Electronic Pictures at Convention.
those things should be shared, and w h o should decide News Photographer, J a n u a n 1987, 33.
will probably never be satisfactorily answered. You will
18 Stewart Brand, Kevin Kelly, and Jay Kinney, "Digital
have to set your o w n standards, ones that are realistic,
Retouching: T h e End of Photography as Evidence of
carefully thought out. and that you can live with
Anything. Whole Earth Review. July 1985, 46.
19 Fred Ritchin, "An Image Based Society, in Ethics,
Endnotes Copyright and the Bottom Line: A Symposium on
Digital Technologies and Professional Photography,
1. For example, in describing University of San Diego ed. Stewart McBride (Camden. ME: Eastman Kodak
law professor Bernard Siegan. a Reagan nominee to Co., 1992). p. 31-
the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. T h e Fresno 20. Lou Hodges, "Chemical to Digital Manipulation: T h e
Bee said in an editorial, "Thus, he argues, the First Moral Imperative for Photojournalism," in The NPPA
A m e n d m e n t . . . free s p e e c h protections only bar Photojournalism Ethics Protocol, ed. Chris Harris
Congress, not the president, from imposing (Durham. NC: National Press Photographers
censorship." "Another Bork?," The Fresno Bee. Association, 1991), p. 8.
6 January 1988. 21. A thorough discussion of this story can be found in
2. Michael J. Okoniewski. "Photograph or Help?" N e w s Photographer. May 1987. 20-39. All of the
(letter). N e w s Photographer, July 1983, 20. material and quotes presented here are based on o r
3. Parade, 20 July 1986. arc directly from that report.
4. Betsy Brill. "Town Protests Staged Picture. Hooker 22. Mark Godfrey, "Ethics, Responsibility and Integrity,"
Image,'" N e w s Photographer. September 1986. 4. N e w s Photographer. November 1974. 11.
5. Jack Corn, q u o t e d in "Discussion Topic: To Pose or 23. T w o of the surveys, reported on p. 22. 34. and 35 of
Not." N e w s Photographer, January 198". 41. the May 1987 News Photographer, did not indicate
6. For a c o m p l e t e discussion of this and its use by Life w h e t h e r the AP or UPI photos w e r e used, but since
magazine photographers, see Wilson Hicks, Words both series w e r e almost identical, the illustrations
here will serve to indicate the shots discussed.
and Pictures: An Introduction to Photojournalism
( N e w York: Harper, 1952), 128ff. T h e "Spanish 24. "All a Big Game." News Photographer. August 1980.
Village" essay ran in Life on April 9. 1951. 12.

7. Hicks, W o r d s and Pictures, 130. 25. William H. Kitts. quoted by Don Brazier.
8. "Discussion Topic: To Pose or Not." N e w s "Unforgettable but Unpleasant Photograph," APME
News, July 1980. 11.
Photographer, January 1987, 41.
26. James C. Heckman. quoted by Brazier. Ibid.
9. Jim Gordon. "Foot Artwork Ends Career." N e w s
Photographer. November 1981. 32ff. Also see 27. "George: National. R-10 Newspaper Photographer
accompanying sidebars. of the Year George Wedding," N e w s Photographer.
Januan- 1982. 17.
10. "Panda Pictures Are Fraud, Geo Says," News
Photographer. November 1981. 36. 28. From a written account provided to the author by
photographer John Harte.
11. "Discussion Topic: T o Pose o r Not." News
Photographer. January 198"". 41. 29. These quotes were excerpted from letters printed
in the August 2. 1985 edition of T h e Bakersfield
12. ibid. 40.
Califomian.
13- According to an article in Photo District News, such 30. Internal memorandum. The Bakersfield Califomian.
alterations are not unusual in TV news. The dated July 31. 1985.
magazine q u o t e d o n e TV source as saying that
31. David Dick, quoted in "No Ethical Justification."
artists are u n d e r heavy deadline pressure and "do it
N e w s Photographer, May 198". 29.
as fast as possible and worry about the
c o n s c q u c n c c s later." May 198". 20. 32. Harvey Weber, "The Extended Eye" (letter). News
Photographer. August 198". 68.
14. Shiela Reaves, "Digital Retouching: Is There a Place
for It in N e w s p a p e r Photography?," Journal of Mass 33. Garry Bryant. Ten-fifty P.I.: Emotion and the
Media Ethics 2. no. 2 (Spring/Summer 198"): 46. Photographer's Role," Journal of Mass Media Ethics
2. no. 2. (Spring/Summer 1987): 34.
15. "Make a Good Picture Better: Turn Horizontal to
Vertical," N e w s Photographer. January 198" 25.
16. Jack Corn, quoted by Reaves. "Digital Retouching.
46.
 c h a p t e r

14
The Legal Limits
by John Zelezny*

OUTLINE

T h e First A m e n d m e n t : Invasion of Privacy

Not U n l i m i t e d
Intrusion
Access to t h e News Commercial Appropriation
Private Property and Trespass Publication of Private Facts
Accidcnt, Crime, and Disaster False Light
Scenes
Privacy in Perspective
Government Property
Libel
and Proceedings
Taking the Photo Acquisition by Authorities
Search Warrants and Subpoenas
Courtrooms
Shield Laws
Private Property
Copyright On-the-Spot Confiscation
Summary

" C O N G R E S S S H A L L M A K E N O LAW R E S P E C T I N G A N E S T A B L I S H M E N T O F R E L I G I O N , O R

P R O H I B I T I N G T H E F R E E E X E R C I S E T H E R E O F ; OR A B R I D G I N G THE F R E E D O M O F

S P E E C H , OR OI T H E PRESS; OR THE RIGHT OF THE PEOPLE PEACEABLY TO ASSEMBLE,

A N D T O P E T I T I O N T H E G O V E R N M E N T FOR A R E D R E S S O F G R I E V A N C E S . "

— F I R S T AMENDMENT, U . S . CONSTITUTION

"Copyright © 1990. 1994 by John Zelezny The author is a member of ihe Slate Bar of California and a
professor of mass communication and journalism at California State University. Fresno
 r h e Fir.'-t n d m e n t : Not Unlimited land or structures w h e r e permission—either express or
implied—docs not exist. Trespass can occur at the mo-
In \ ur :'(» meet deadlines, c a p t u r e telling images, ment of entry, w h e n you h o p the fence, for example. If
and \v t e c h n i c a l precision, it is easy to overlook you originally had permission, trespass could also occur
il v. Vc: legal rules d o a p p l y t o m a n y a s p e c t s of later—if you e x c e e d the scope of consent, or if consent
hsm. and a w o r k i n g k n o w l e d g e of t h e s e is revoked and you fail to leave.
n o t h e r mark of the true professional. Legal For example, s u p p o s e you entered a restaurant dur-
are sometimes subtle and complicated. There ing its regular business hours. There is no trespass, be-
i - l c n t y of incentive to learn at least the basics, how- cause u n d e r w h a t t h e law r e c o g n i z e s as c u s t o m and
•ver. because legal oversights can mean personal has- usage, there is implied conscnt for the public to enter.
sles. p u b l i c e m b a r r a s s m e n t , a n d s e r i o u s f i n a n c i a l However, the implied consent would not e x t e n d to all
liability for you and your employer. purposes, such as your roaming through the restaurant
Like everyone else, photojournalists are p r o t e c t e d to p h o t o g r a p h p a t r o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , the r e s t a u r a n t
from government interference by the First A m e n d m e n t management could end any claim of implied conscnt by
to the U.S. Constitution, w h i c h states: "Congress shall expressly asking you to leave. Now should you linger,
make n o law . . . abridging the freedom of s p c c c h , o r trespass will occur. 2
of the press. . . . " But this a m e n d m e n t ' s protection is News p h o t o g r a p h e r s have run into legal trouble by
not absolute, say the courts. So despite the a m e n d m e n t , assuming that the right of police o r o t h e r e m e r g e n c y
there are some laws that restrict your activities, as well personnel to enter property also implies consent for the
as some that protect them. In this chapter, we'll cover n e w s media to follow. Courts usually reject this con-
the most relevant of these laws. tention. In fact, even the express consent of police o r
Please remember, however, that w h a t follows is a fire officials may be insufficient, as a 1986 ruling in
general overview; it is n o t a detailed p r e s e n t a t i o n of Miller v. NBC illustrates. 3
your state's laws. Some national uniformity is achieved A television camera crew, working on a minidocu-
by the U.S. Supreme Court's First A m e n d m e n t interpre- mentary about paramedics, obtained conscnt to accom-
tations, but considerable diversity remains. The specific pany a unit of Los Angeles Fire Department paramedics
legal rules in your area might be different from a neigh- and film all aspects of their work. The unit was called to
boring state's, o r from the national norm. For the legal a private residence, and the c a m e r a c r e w followed—
details of your jurisdiction, contact your employer's at- right into the bedroom, w h e r e a man lay on the floor,
torney or a press association in your state. dying of a heart attack. TV c r e w m e m b e r s stayed to film
the resuscitation efforts, but they never sought consent
to enter from the o n e person, under the circumstances,
Access to t h e N e w s w h o could give it. That p e r s o n w a s the victim's wife,
w h o anxiously waited in another room of the apartment
In some cases t h e t h r e s h o l d q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r you and realized only later that a television c r e w had b e e n
may even gain access to n e w s w o r t h y places—the h o u s e present. T h e California Court of Appeal held that s h e
w h e r e a homicide occurred, the industrial yard w h e r e could pursue a trespass claim against the TV station.
d r u m s of toxic chemicals have b e e n d u m p e d illegally,
o r a military testing site. O n this q u e s t i o n t h e First The Florida Supreme Court reached a different re-
A m e n d m e n t is usually i m p o t e n t . With limited e x c e p - sult 10 years earlier, holding that n o trespass occurred
tions, the First Amendment is not interpreted to guaran- w h e n a Florida Times-Union p h o t o g r a p h e r accompa-
tee you access to information or places. As Chief Justice nied fire and p o l i c e officials into a burned-out h o u s e
Burger w r o t e in 1978: "There is an u n d o u b t e d right to w i t h o u t the o w n e r s ' c o n s e n t . ' O n e distinguishing fea-
gather news from any source by means within the law." ture. h o w e v e r , is that in this case the o w n e r s of the
. . . but that affords n o basis for the claim that the First house w e r e out of t o w n at the time of the fire, so con-
A m e n d m e n t c o m p e l s o t h e r s — p r i v a t e persons or gov- sent of the authorities w a s the best the p h o t o g r a p h e r
ernments—to supply information."' In o t h e r words, the could obtain. Indeed, the authorities in this situation
First Amendment works defensively, as a shield against could be v i e w e d as t h e t e m p o r a r y custodians of the
government suppression, but not offensively, as a bat- p r o p e r t y , legally able to a u t h o r i z e o t h e r s ' p r e s e n c e .
tering ram to o p e n doors to the news-gathering process. W h e t h e r most courts would actually follow this reason-
It d o e s not. for example, make you i m m u n e to the law ing, however, is uncertain.
of trespass. Trespass is a tort, a civil w r o n g for w h i c h the ag-
grieved party may collect damages in court. It need not
Private Property and Trespass be s h o w n that you entered the property with any mis-
c h i e v o u s or malicious intent. If a t r e s p a s s is willful,
Trespass is the u n c o n s e n t e d intrusion on property that
though, it can sometimes constitute a crime as well as a
is in the rightful custody of others. For the photogra-
tort. A crime is an act punishable by the government.
p h e r . this typically m e a n s w a n d e r i n g t h r o u g h private
 F i g u r e 1 4 - 2 If police d e c l a r e a n area a crime scene, y o u
will h a v e to stay behind the lines. (Russell Yip/The Fresno Bee)

collisions, chemical spills, scenes of violent crime, or

areas damaged by earthquake, storm, o r fire. Unautho-
rized persons w h o e n t e r t h e s e enclosed sites may be ar-
rested and prosecuted for misdemeanors.
Of c o u r s e , it is just such n e w s w o r t h y areas that
you 11 want access to as a photojournalist. Fortunately,
n e w s people are granted access rather routinely. Some
law enforcement agencies issue standing press passes to
employed n e w s people—something you should inquire
a b o u t b e f o r e a n e w s w o r t h y c a l a m i t y strikes. T h e s e
passes serve as a handy form of identification for the
agency, and letting credentialed photographers past the
F i g u r e 14—1 In Florida, a p h o t o g r a p h e r a c c o m p a n i e d barricades is c o m m o n policy. However, in most cases
officials into a b u r n e d - o u t h o u s e a n d m a d e this picture. The this practice, w h i c h you may c o m e to take for granted,
m o t h e r of the fire victim l e a r n e d of her d a u g h t e r ' s d e a t h b y is not required by law. So even with a pass there art-
s e e i n g the p u b l i s h e d p h o t o a n d s u e d the p a p e r for times w h e n you might be held behind the lines with the
t r e s p a s s i n g . In this c a s e , the c o u r t s h e l d that no t r e s p a s s general public—a humbling and frustrating experience.
h a d o c c u r r e d . (Bill Cranford/Florida Times-Union)
In California a u n i q u e statute specifically allows
n e w s p e o p l e to cross police lines, but even that statute
State statutes specify a variety of criminal trespass situa- is interpreted narrowly. A court in 1986 said the statute
tions, such as refusing to leave clearly posted or fenced was meant to allow n e w s people to assume the risk of
lands after being so asked. injury and enter sites that w e r e closed solely for public
A final n o t e about trespass: Suppose you have wan- safety. If authorities believe media access will i m p e d e
d e r e d o n t o the b a c k lot of a m a n u f a c t u r i n g plant to emergency operations, o r if the closure is related to in-
p h o t o g r a p h dangerous storage tanks. The foreman ap- vestigation of a crime, then n o media privilege exists.
p r o a c h e s and says, "You're trespassing. Hand over your For example, the court upheld the conviction of a TV
film." Arc you legally b o u n d to comply? No. The mere news cameraman w h o disobeyed police orders and en-
act of civil trespass docs not give the property occupant tered an airline crash site w h e r e officers w e r e investi-
authority to seize your film or equipment, though this is gating a possible criminal cause. 5
o f t e n p r e s u m e d . T h e legal r e m e d y f o r t r e s p a s s is If authorities at a calamity s c e n e d o order you to
through the courts. Confiscation of your film by force stay away, d o n ' t e x p e c t an on-the-spot a r g u m e n t to
or threat w o u l d b e in turn a violation of your property prove fruitful. In fact, if you forcc a confrontation you
rights. T h e rule can be different, however, if your ac- could be arrested and prosecuted for interference with a
tions amount to a crime and officials arc seizing your police officer, even if your presence was consistent with
film as evidcncc. More about that later. prevailing policy. Courts are likely to give deference to
the judgment of police officers in emergency situations. 6
Accident, Crime. and Disaster Scenes If you believe an officer is unreasonably or even illegally
Even in t h e m o s t p u b l i c of places, t h e r e are t i m e s standing in the way of your job. ask to speak to a supe-
w h e n police or o t h e r authorities may closc areas in the rior officer, o r avoid the impeding individual and find
interest of p u b l i c safety. Typical e x a m p l e s arc traffic a n o t h e r v a n t a g e p o i n t . File a c o m p l a i n t l a t e r
Figure 1 4 - 3 In 1978 Palm Beach Post p h o t o g r a p h e r s r o b b e r y s u s p e c t s . T h e Patrol later a p o l o g i z e d a n d a d o p t e d
Ken Steinhoff a n d C. J. W a l k e r w e r e h a s s l e d by this Florida a m e d i a rights policy. (Ken Steinhoff/The Palm Beach Post)
H i g h w a y Patrol officer at the s c e n e of the arrest of s o m e

For t h e b e n e f i t of y o u r long-term w o r k i n g relation- There is, however, a significant diffcrcnce b e t w e e n

ship, set u p a m e d i a / l a w e n f o r c e m e n t m e e t i n g w h e r e government-controlled property and purely private
b o t h sides can d i s c u s s p r o b l e m s and a g r e e to s o m e property. For the most part, possessors of private prop-
guidelines. erty may invite o r e x c l u d e w h o m e v e r they wish. But
All in all, the wisest tactic at c r i m e and a c c i d e n t government, o n c e it does o p e n property or proceedings
s c e n e s may be to maintain a l o w profile. This h e l p s to the general public, cannot single out the press for ex-
avoid c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i t h a u t h o r i t i e s and t h e time- clusion. Nor may it admit the n e w s media generally but
consuming hassles that can r e s u l t — e v e n if t h e law is e x c l u d e a particular p h o t o g r a p h e r or media organiza-
on your side. tion b e c a u s e of u n h a p p i n e s s w i t h its past c o v e r a g e .
Courts have ruled that such government discrimination
(ion rn merit Property and Proceedings violates the First Amendment.^
Government property—military bases, prisons, p o w e r
plants, and so on—exists for a public p u r p o s e , but that Meetings If it is access to a government meeting you
d o e s not mean it must be o p e n to t h e public, o r to desire, then the law swings m o r e forcefully to your aid.
you Hntry can be limited to t h a t w h i c h s e r v e s t h e T h e federal government and all 50 states have enacted
p r o p e m s purpose, and the laws of civil and criminal open-meetings statutes that require government deliber-
trespass appl ations to be o p e n to the public.
 The federal 1; iw, called the Sunshine Act, requires is that whatever and w h o m e v e r the public is free to see,
most federal regulator) agencies and commissions to you are free to photograph, and officials cannot act as
p r o v i d e a d v a n c e public n o t i c e pi t h e i r m e e t i n g s and on-site censors.
then to c o n d u c t t h e s e meetings openl\ There are ex- There are some occasions, however, w h e n the very
ceptions. of course. Three of the more important ones act of photographing can be legally prohibited.
are discussions of national security matters, personnel
matters, and criminal investigations. Courtrooms
State o p e n - m e e t i n g laws vary greatly and can be For the best illustration of instances when photograph-
quite c o m p l i c a t e d , c o v e r i n g local g o v e r n m e n t bodies ing can b e legally p r o h i b i t e d , w e need only pick up
( s u c h as s c h o o l b o a r d s , p l a n n i n g c o m m i s s i o n s , and w h e r e w e left off—in the courtroom. Courts have long
city c o u n c i l s ) , s t a t e a g e n c i e s , a n d e v e n t h e legisla- perceived a clash b e t w e e n journalistic coverage and a
tures t h e m s e l v e s . Like t h e federal law. the states also defendant's constitutional right to a fair trial. Tradition-
allow executive, or closed, sessions for specified top- ally. photography has been the facet of journalism that
ics of deliberation. courts have abhorred the most.
If y o u f i n d y o u r s e l f s h u t o u t of a g o v e r n m e n t Television and still photography have been consid-
meeting, d o n ' t just p r e s u m e the agency has legal au- ered distracting to juries, intimidating to witnesses, and
t h o r i t y to d o so. C o n t a c t y o u r e m p l o y e r ' s l a w y e r . g e n e r a l l y d i s r u p t i v e of c o u r t r o o m d e c o r u m . F o r
O p c n - m c c t i n g s violations o c c u r frequently, especially d e c a d e s most c o u r t systems across the nation main-
w i t h small, local-government b o d i e s that may b e ill- t a i n e d strict b a n s o n t h e u s e of c a m e r a s . T h e U.S.
i n f o r m e d of t h e o p e n m e e t i n g s r e q u i r e m e n t s . O f t e n S u p r e m e Court first c o n f r o n t e d t h e issue in 1965. A
o n e call f r o m a l a w y e r is e n o u g h to p r o m p t t h e man had b e e n convicted of large-scale fraud in Texas,
p r o p e r o p e n - d o o r policy. and despite the d e f e n d a n t ' s objections t h e trial judge
permitted the proceedings to be televised. (Texas was
Courts Finally, w h a t about c o u r t r o o m proceedings? one of just t w o states that allowed televised trials at the
Open-meeting laws d o not cover the courts. They don't time.) The U.S. Supreme Court overturned the convic-
need to. This is the o n e place w h e r e the First Amend- tion, ruling that the use of TV cameras had contami-
m e n t is interpreted to guarantee public access. nated the ideal of d u e process. 1 1
In 1980 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the pub- In the years that followed news organizations lob-
lic (and press) has a First A m e n d m e n t right to attend bied vigorously for the use of cameras, and in the mid-
criminal trials. This ruling, contrary to the general prin- 1 9 7 0 s t h e t i d e b e g a n t o t u r n ; c o u r t s b e g a n to
ciple that the First Amendment docs not guarantee ac- experiment. In 1981 the Supreme Court faced the issue
cess, was based on the tradition of o p e n criminal trials again, this time ruling that the presence of cameras does
at the time the a m e n d m e n t was adopted. According to not inherently render a trial unfair. 12 The ruling further
Chief J u s t i c e Burger, this tradition suggests constitu- o p e n e d the door for experimentation with cameras.
tional i n t e n t that trials remain o p e n . " T h e r e f o r e , you Today a vast majority of states have abandoned the
and the public may be locked out of a criminal trial only strict prohibition on cameras in the courtroom. Some
if truly essential to protect the defendant's right to a fair limits remain, though; the n e w rules seek a balance be-
proceeding—a very rare circumstance. t w e e n your legitimate photographic needs and the par-
In 1986 the S u p r e m e Court e x t e n d e d First Amend- ties' rights to dignified proceedings. For example, the
m e n t access to preliminary hearings in criminal cases, statutes and court rules typically give wide discretion to
at least in states w i t h a tradition of public access to the judges. Frequently the rules require you to get ap-
such hearings. 9 Some jurisdictions have also e x t e n d e d proval in advance from the presiding judge. In proceed-
ings w i t h e x t r a o r d i n a r y media i n t e r e s t you may be
First A m e n d m e n t access t o civil trials as well as crimi-
required to enter into a pooling arrangement with other
nal ones. 1 0
n e w s organizations—a situation w h e r e o n e photogra-
p h e r is admitted and shares the p i c t u r e s with all the
Taking the Photo o t h e r s . Y o u r state s c o u r t r u l e s might also p r o h i b i t
close-up p h o t o g r a p h y of jurors and the use of motor-
N o w s u p p o s e you've legally gained access to the news- ized drives or flash.
w o r t h y location. Do you have a legal right to do what Although state courts are often allowing the pres-
you c a m e t o d o — t o take photos? In most cases the an- e n c e of cameras, t h e federal court system is a n o t h e r
swer is yes. Consider the accident scene, for example. If matter. Most federal courts remain strictly off limits for
you're in an area that is o p e n to observers, police do cameras, w h i c h is w h y network n e w s broadcasts often
not have the authority to single you out and order, No resort to sketches of federal c o u r t r o o m action. In 1991
photos!" Overzealous o r overprotective officials often a handful of federal courts began a three-year experi-
make such c o m m a n d s . However, the general legal rule m e n t with camera access in civil p r o c e e d i n g s . If the
 works both ways. If you use your camera to r e p r o d u c e
P I C T U R E TAKING o t h e r s ' c o p y r i g h t e d w o r k s w i t h o u t permission, then
you risk liability for copyright infringement. The federal
PROHIBITED
copyright law does, however, provide an important ex-
UNLESS APPROVED c e p t i o n to t h e original c r e a t o r ' s b r o a d c o n t r o l . It's
called fair use, the limited use of the copyrighted work
BY COURT
for certain socially desirable p u r p o s e s . " Let's consider a
real-life example to help sort through these rules.
A graphic arts c o m p a n y o w n e d the copyright of a
piece of art titled Ronbo. It w a s a photograph that su-
perimposed President Ronald Reagan's facc on a muscu-
lar b o d y firing a m a c h i n e g u n — a p o s e i n t e n d e d t o
mimic the title character from the movie Rambo. The
g r a p h i c s c o m p a n y s o l d t h i s i m a g e in t h e f o r m of
Figure 1 4 - 4 State c o u r t s h a v e generally o p e n e d their
posters. In 1986 a n e w s p a p e r photographically repro-
d o o r s to p h o t o g r a p h y , p r o v i d e d p e r m i s s i o n is o b t a i n e d in
d u c e d the Ronbo poster across a full page in order to il-
a d v a n c e . F e d e r a l c o u r t s r e m a i n off-limits to p h o t o g r a p h e r s .
(Steve Hanks/Lewiston Morning Tribune)
l u s t r a t e a n e w s s t o r y o n t h e " R e a g a n i z a t i o n " of
American cinema. This w a s d o n e w i t h o u t the copyright
h o l d e r ' s authorization. So, is this a copyright infringe-
e x p e r i m e n t r u n s s m o o t h l y , c a m e r a s m i g h t s o o n be ment? T h e a n s w e r is yes, unless the fair-use exception
p e r m i t t e d in o t h e r federal c o u r t s , in b o t h civil a n d can c o m c to the n e w s p a p e r ' s rescue.
criminal proceedings.
The federal copyright law says, "the fair use of a
copyrighted work, including such use by reproduction
Private Property
in copies . . . for p u r p o s e s such as criticism, c o m m e n t ,
When you are admitted to privately o w n e d p r o p e r t y or news reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research, is
a privately sponsored event, you d o not necessarily gain n o t an i n f r i n g e m e n t of c o p y r i g h t " ( e m p h a s i s added).
t h e right to p h o t o g r a p h . T h e p e o p l e in c o n t r o l may Was the n e w s p a p e r in the clear? The reproduction was
specify- that your p r e s e n c e is subject to certain limita- for a news reporting p u r p o s e , so this factor weighed in
tions. Perhaps it's a sign at the entrance of a Las Vegas favor of fair use. H o w e v e r , the p u r p o s e of the use is
stage production: NO CAMERAS ALLOWED. Or maybe only the first consideration in a four-part test that courts
it's the fine print on your ticket to a figure skating exhi- use to determine fair use. The o t h e r factors are the na-
bition: NO FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY. ture of the copyrighted work, the substantiality of the
T h e p r i v a t e s p o n s o r s of art, e n t e r t a i n m e n t , and portion used, and the effect on the market.
sporting events have s o m e t h i n g to sell, and t h e y may
As to the nature of the work, Ronbo was creative.
p a c k a g e and sell their p r o d u c t s almost any w a y they
Creative, imaginative w o r k s are generally entitled to
wish. Restrictions on photography are usually intended
m o r e p r o t e c t i o n than w o r k s that arc purely informa-
to prevent distractions to other patrons o r to maximize
tional. Therefore, this factor w e i g h e d against fair use.
marketing opportunities. For example, p r o m o t e r s of a
And as to the substantiality 7 of the portion used, the en-
skating exhibition might wish to sell exclusive photog-
tire w o r k was r e p r o d u c e d . So this factor also weighed
raphy rights to a leading sports magazine, w h i c h means
against fair use. Finally, w o u l d the n e w s p a p e r ' s repro-
prohibiting photography by all others.
duction have a negative effect on the copyright holder's
Since the law regards entertainment as a product, m a r k e t for its poster? T h e c o u r t c o n c l u d e d that t h e
t h e fact that it might also be n e w s w o r t h y d o e s n o t n e w s p a p e r reproduced Ronbo so prominently that the
change the rules of proprietary control. If you a c c e p t copy, w h i c h could be clipped from the paper, w o u l d
admission to such an event, you have implicitly agreed likely reduce demand for the original poster. So the final
to the stated restrictions, and this agreement is binding. f a c t o r also w o r k e d against t h e n e w s p a p e r , a n d t h e
In New York a statute even provides that theaters may court held that the photographic c o p y was not fair use,
temporarily confiscate p h o t o g r a p h i c e q u i p m e n t from making the p a p e r subject to liability for copyright in-
persons admitted to live theater s h o w s unless they have fringement. 1 5 If the n e w s p a p e r had reproduced Ronbo
written permission to p h o t o g r a p h . 1 5 in a significantly smaller size, or as just a background el-
ement in a p h o t o with o t h e r content, then the fair-use
Copyright privilege probably would have applied.
Another p r o p e r t y interest is copyright, t h e exclusive
What if you w e r e to copy another's p h o t o without
right to control the r e p r o d u c t i o n and distribution of
consent, but then alter it or add to it so that a different
creative w o r k As a p h o t o g r a p h e r , the copyright law
image is created? Would this still constitute copyright in-
works to > -conomic benefit by preventing others
fringement? For example, suppose you found a dramatic
from pirating \ »ur m a g e s ( s e e chapter 16). But the law
magazine picture of a charging mustang and electronically
Figure 1 4 - 5 P h o t o g r a p h e r Sarah F a w c e t t c o u l d not without his or her permission c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d an
h a v e p h o t o g r a p h e d this y o u n g l e u k e m i a victim without the invasion of privacy. (Sarah Fawcett)
c o n s e n t of her p a r e n t s . P h o t o g r a p h i n g a n y o n e in a hospital

s c a n n e d the p h o t o into your c o m p u t e r . Then, on the Invasion of Privacy

computer screen, you added some photographic images
of your o w n to create a n e w work—a picture of a charg- Among the m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d legal barriers that you
ing mustang, surrounded by high mountain peaks, with a f a c e today is invasion of privacy—a relatively y o u n g
nest of burrowing owls in the foreground. Is this use of area of law. Although trespass, libel and copyright law-
the mustang picture within a new, broader work a per- have b e e n with us since colonial times, the invasion-of-
missible use of the copyrighted photo? privacy c o n c e p t w a s first p r o p o s e d in 1890 by legal
T h e a n s w e r is, p r o b a b l y not. A c o p y r i g h t o w n e r s c h o l a r s r e a c t i n g to t h e a f f r o n t s of g o s s i p - o r i e n t e d
holds a b u n d l e of exclusive rights in the copyrighted n e w s p a p e r s in the yellow journalism era. Courts and
work, and a m o n g t h e m is the right to incorporate the l e g i s l a t u r e s b e g a n d e v e l o p i n g t h e law in t h e early
w o r k into derivative works. A w o r k is derivative if based 1900s. but its evolution is far from complete.
on some preexisting material that remains clearly identifi- To understand invasion of privacy, you must note
able in the n e w version. Therefore, copyright infringe- that it is developing four distinct branches: intrusion, ap-
m e n t may o c c u r if the m u s t a n g p h o t o is recognizable propriation. public disclosure of private facts, and false
within the newly created mountain scene—even if the light. The first of these, intrusion, occurs in the news-
n e w w o r k does not resemble the original in its entirety gathering process, and the others occur on publication.
The question is simply w h e t h e r the n e w work is substan-
tially a cop)' of the earlier work in some respect. As ad- Intrusion
vancing computer technology makes it easier and more
You will commit an invasion of privacy of the intru-
inviting to copy and then manipulate preexisting photos,
sion t y p e if you invade a p e r s o n ' s physical seclusion
the courts are sure to deal with an increasing number of
in a m a n n e r that w o u l d be highly offensive to reason-
t h e s e cases. T h e critical factual issue in many such in-
able p e o p l e . Ordinarily, this m e a n s p e e r i n g into a pri-
s t a n c e s will be w h e t h e r the p r e e x i s t i n g copyrighted
vate residence or some o t h e r enclosed place w h e r e a
w o r k is indeed identifiable in the new. altered picture
p e r s o n is e n t i t l e d t o believe he o r s h e is safe f r o m
F i g u r e 14—6 ou w o u l d have no
p r o b l e m us ng a p h o t o s u c h as this for
any p i " s>i e there is nothing in the
i m a c - • r : • be identified. (Tony

u n w a n t e d observation. A claim of intrusion is some- Although the o t h e r areas of privacy law are b e i n g de-
times joined with a claim of trespass. For example, in fined by judges and juries, many states have specific
the previously discussed case of Miller v. NBC, the TV s t a t u t e s relating to c o m m e r c i a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n . It is a
c r e w entered a private residence to film paramedics in l a w t h a t p r o t e c t s p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s as w e l l as
action. T h e court ruled that in addition to trespass, the celebrities.
wife could sue the TV station for intrusion. "Reasonable Here's the typical scenario: You take a handsome,
people." the court wrote, could regard the NBC cam- close-up p h o t o of a college track star clearing the hur-
era c r e w ' s intrusion into Dave Miller's b e d r o o m at a dles. You then provide the p h o t o to the display advertis-
time of vulnerability and c o n f u s i o n occasioned by his ing d e p a r t m e n t a t y o u r n e w s p a p e r , w i t h o u t t h e
seizure as highly offensive' conduct." 1 6 athlete's consent, and it is used prominently in an adver-
However, you can also commit this civil w r o n g by tisement for a brand of running shoes. Sure, some track
s n o o p i n g a r o u n d w i t h a 1 0 0 0 m m lens, e v e n t h o u g h stars p r o b a b l y w o u l d be f l a t t e r e d . O t h e r s , h o w e v e r ,
you aren't trespassing. Remember the key question: Is might feel e x p l o i t e d o r embarrassed, and they w o u l d
your subject in a place w h e r e he or s h e can reasonably have g r o u n d s to sue.
expect privacy? In a house, probably yes. In other set- You will be safe from an appropriation claim if the
tings. rarely. individual in a p h o t o is not readily i d e n t i f i a b l e — a n
Consider this case from the state of Washington: A anonymous figure in a crowd, for example. Nor will ap-
television station was pursuing a story about a pharma- propriation o c c u r if a p h o t o is used purely in a n e w s
cist w h o w a s f a c i n g criminal c h a r g e s . A c a m e r a m a n context. Only w h e n used in a commercial context will
walked up to the exterior w i n d o w of the pharmacy dur- you need to have consent. Courts have consistently up-
ing closed hours and filmed the pharmacist talking on held this critical distinction, though it is not always an
the p h o n e inside. T h e court held t h e r e could be n o easy o n e to make.
claim of intrusion and explained: "It is not c o n t e n d e d Use of a p h o t o is not classified as commercial sim-
that the film recorded anything other than that w h i c h ply because the m e d i u m itself is operated for a profit, as
any passerby would have seen. . . . The filming w a s ac- most n e w s p a p e r s are. There must be a direct link cre-
complished without ruse or subterfuge." 1 " ated b e t w e e n the person in the p h o t o and the promo-
T h o u g h the case decisions t h u s far d o not supply tion of a specific p r o d u c t or service. Appropriation laws
solid guidelines, there are some places other than resi- exist to p r o t e c t p e r s o n s f r o m unwilling, implied en-
d e n c e s w h e r e p h o t o g r a p h y w o u l d be risky. Most no- d o r s e m e n t s and to give individuals c o n t r o l over the
tabh you should refrain from p h o t o g r a p h i n g patients commercial marketing of their o w n likenesses.
in hospital rooms or ambulances unless you have their H o w a b o u t s e l f - p r o m o t i o n s by t h e n e w s media?
clear consent. Even here, if the individual in a p h o t o is only incidental
to the promotion, courts have held the media immune
Con mercial Appropriation from appropriation lawsuits. A 1986 Oregon case illus-
The second branch of invasion of privacy is appropria- trates this p o i n t . A television n e w s c a m e r a m a n pho-
tion :mcs called misappropriation or infringement tographed an auto accident sccne, including footage of
of the . blicity It is the unauthorized use of a a victim w h o w a s bleeding and receiving e m e r g e n c y
p e r s o n s n.i< - or 'ikeness for a commercial p u r p o s e . medical treatment. The videotape did not a p p e a r on the
n e w s program, bin it w a s used s o m e time later—in a
p r o m o t i o n a l s p o t for an u p c o m i n g special report on M o d e l Release A g r e e m e n t
e m e r g e n c y care. The accident victim sued for appropri-
Dot*
ation, claiming his likeness was used without consent
f o r the TV s t a t i o n ' s o w n c o m m e r c i a l advantage. T h e To: PHOTOGRAPHER

Supreme Court of Oregon ruled in favor of the station Address

Although the footage was used for a commercial pur-
pose, the victim's appearance w a s merely incidental to
that p u r p o s e , t h e c o u r t said. The p r o m o t i o n did not For v a l u a b l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n , I h e r e b y i r r e v o c a b l y c o n s e n t t o a n d
a u t h o r i z e the use a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n b y y o u . o r a n y o n e a u t h o r i z e d
imply t h a t the victim e n d o r s e d the f o r t h c o m i n g pro- b y y o u , o f o n y a n d a l l p h o t o g r a p h s w h i c h y o u h a v e this d a y t o k e n
gram about emergency care, and "the identity of the ac- o f m e , n e g a t i v e or p o s i t i v e , p r o o f s o f w h i c h o r e h e r e t o a t t a c h e d ,
f o r o n y p u r p o s e w h a t s o e v e r , w i t h o u t f u r t h e r c o m p e n s a t i o n t o me
cident victim w a s immaterial." the court said. 18 A l l n e g a t i v e s a n d p o s i t i v e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h the p r i n t s s h a l l c o n s t i t u t e
your property, solely o n d completely.
So, the basis for appropriation lawsuits is not sim-
ply an individual's unauthorized p r e s e n c e in a p h o t o I a m over 21 years of a g e . Yes o r n o

that serves a promotional role. There also must be a link

b e t w e e n the p r o m o t i o n and the individual's personal
attributes—looks, position, name, reputation. It is the Address:

exploitation of these personal attributes that the individ-

ual has the legal right in commercial settings to control,
Witnessed by:
or to be c o m p e n s a t e d for.
T h e r e are times, t h o u g h , w h e n you might photo- (If t h e p e r s o n s i g n i n g is u n d e r a g e , t h e r e s h o u l d b e a c o n s e n t by
g r a p h p e r s o n s f o r integral u s e in a d v e r t i s e m e n t s o r p a r e n t or g u a r d i a n , as f o l l o w s )

o t h e r trade o r p r o m o t i o n a l materials. Sometimes you I h e r e b y c e r t i f y t h a t I a m t h e p a r e n t or g u o r d i a n o f

w o n ' t e v e n k n o w h o w your p h o t o s ultimately will be
- the
used. In t h e s e instances you must protect against appro- m o d e l n a m e d a b o v e , a n d for value received I d o g i v e m y consent
priation lawsuits by obtaining the consent of your pho- w i t h o u t r e s e r v a t i o n s t o t h e f o r e g o i n g o n b e h a l f o f h i m or her or
them.
tographic subjects. Dated:

Witnessed by:
Model Releases In s o m e states t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n
laws say valid p h o t o g r a p h i c consent must be in writing,
and that's a p r u d e n t idea in any event. Your p h o t o kit Figure 14-7 A n y time y o u s u s p e c t that a p h o t o might
should contain model releases o r photo consent forms b e u s e d o u t s i d e of a news context, g e t a m o d e l release
so you'll be p r e p a r e d o n the spot. A typical release form s u c h as this one.
is s h o w n in figure 14-7.
To play it safe, you should obtain signed releases
w h e n e v e r y o u r p h o t o s m i g h t be used in o t h e r than Gratuitous consent is not a binding contract, and you
hard-news contexts. Many magazines and book publish- must h o n o r a s u b j e c t ' s c h a n g e of mind. Finally, even
ers r e q u i r e a signed release b e f o r e they will publish though a release may be w o r d e d very broadly, c o u r t s
your w o r k . Courts have not b e e n entirely predictable in sometimes hold that reasonable limitations are implied.
deciding w h e t h e r the pictures in magazines and books For example, the release might be deemed invalid after
appeared in a n e w s context or a commercial context. the passage of many years, or it might not cover drastic al-
For example, in N e w York a black teenager w o n an ap- terations to the photo.
p r o p r i a t i o n l a w s u i t against t h e p u b l i s h e r of a b o o k What if you have a good p h o t o you'd like to mar-
about getting into college. T h e teen was not a subject of ket, but you w e r e not able to get a release? Y'ou can pro-
the book, but h e r picture was used on the cover to help tect yourself by c o m m u n i c a t i n g this to the p u r c h a s e r
boost sales to minorities. This was deemed a commer- and perhaps stamping the back of the photo: "Not to be
cial u s e u n d e r t h e s t a t e ' s a p p r o p r i a t i o n statute. T h e used for advertising o r trade p u r p o s e s . No model re-
publisher w a s u n a w a r e that the freelancer w h o took the lease available." This action will h e l p assure that the
p h o t o never obtained a written release. 1 9 p h o t o is used properly, and in any event, that you sold
it only for a legal use. If the p h o t o is misused at some
A f e w tilings to remember about consent: First, per-
point, the legal liability will then have to fall elsewhere.
sons u n d e r 18 years old, minors, may be deemed inca-
pable of giving valid consent, so make sure a parent or
guardian signs the release form on the minor's behalf. Sec- Pu blication of Private Facts
ond, w h e n consent is given gratuitously, not in exchange Mention invasion of privacy and it is this third branch—
for money or something else of value, then the consent u n w a r r a n t e d publicity about p r i v a t e life—that o f t e n
may legally be withdrawn at any tune prior to publication c o m e s to p e o p l e ' s minds. You may indeed be sued if
vou p.- aic facts of a highly embarrassing o r of- N o w let's look at the s e c o n d element of this law.
fence without a n e w s w o r t h y purpose. Even if you reveal truly private information, you w o n t
i .:aiens American precepts about freedom face legal trouble unless the revelation is highly offen-
of \ ilowing you to be sued for the dissemina- sive to prevailing notions of decency. For example, a
. information. In practice, though, success- p e r s o n m a y h a v e k e p t his p e t d o g u n d e r w r a p s —
. linsi the media have been infrequent. Let's a guarded secret even from close friends. Yet. to pub-
. r look at the elements of tills law. lish a p h o t o of the ugly dog would not normally be the
can be liable only if the publicized information sort of publication that offends a community's sensibili-
cn truly private. That is. prior to your publica- ties regarding privacy. Areas of revelation that are likely
•n the information had been guarded and not gener- to be considered offensive include sexual matters, un-
ally available to t h e p u b l i c . T h e r e f o r e , e v e n t s t h a t usual physical disorders, and mental disorders.
o c c u r in a public place may almost always b e published Finally, and p e r h a p s most important, private-facts
w i t h o u t w o r r y of a l a w s u i t . In a 1976 case, Neff v. claims are limited to revelations that are not newswor-
Time, Inc.. a p h o t o g r a p h e r for Sports Illustrated pho- thy. You might publish information that is both private
t o g r a p h e d a g r o u p of P i t t s b u r g h S t e e l e r s f a n s w h o and highly embarrassing, but if it's reasonably connected
w e r e hamming it u p atop a dugout prior to a football w i t h a newsworthy event, you're safe. This news worthi-
game at Cleveland. From 30 pictures of the group, the ness defense is a legal acknowledgment of the public's
magazine published o n e to illustrate an article titled "A legitimate right to know. So. what is the legal definition
Strange Kind of Love." about the Steelers' rowdy fans. of n e w s w o r t h y ? As you can imagine, this has b e e n a
The p h o t o , h o w e v e r , clearly s h o w e d o n e of the fans tough problem for the courts, and the articulated news-
with his trousers fly o p e n , and that fan. Neff. sued f o r w o r t h i n e s s tests van* f r o m state to state. Generally,
publication of private facts. T h o u g h the p h o t o was not though, courts avoid the quagmire of strict definitions
anatomically revealing, t h e federal court acknowledged by simply asking juries to c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r the pub-
that the magazine deliberately exhibited Neff in an em- lished information is in line with customary news-media
b a r r a s s i n g m a n n e r . H o w e v e r , this c o n d i t i o n w a s n ' t c o n t e n t . W h a t will not be c o n s i d e r e d n e w s w o r t h y is
enough. The court d e n i e d his claim because the p h o t o s e n s a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l p u b l i s h e d f o r its o w n s a k e —
simply did not reveal private facts. Neff s behavior w a s material published not because it will h e l p enlighten,
o b s e r v a b l e by t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c , a n d h e h a d e v e n but precisely because it is offbeat and embarrassing in it-
taunted the p h o t o g r a p h e r to take pictures. The court self. In the f u n h o u s e case, for example, the picture of
w r o t e : "A p h o t o g r a p h taken at a public event w h i c h indecent e x p o s u r e w a s characterized as a mere curiosity
everyone present could see. w i t h t h e k n o w l e d g e and piece, published specifically for its embarrassing quality,
implied consent of t h e subject, is not a matter c o n c e r n - rather than a legitimate complement to the write-up on
ing a private f a c t . ' 2 0 the state fair. Some m o d e m courts would likely reach a
different conclusion. As for public figures—sports heros,
This rule that p h o t o s of public s c e n e s c a n n o t b e movie stars, and the like—a greater portion of their lives
deemed privacy invasions is frequently stated in court may be within the scope of legitimate public concern.
opinions and is well w o r t h r e m e m b e r i n g . Still, t h e r e Courts have frequently stated, though, that even public
can be exceptions. For example, contrast the Neff case figures are entitled to k e e p some information of their do-
with the often-cited 1964 case of Daily Times Demo- mestic activities and sexual relations private.
crat v. Graham.11 Flora Graham and h e r t w o sons w e n t
through the fun house at a c o u n t y fair, unaware of w h a t
to e x p e c t . As s h e e x i t e d . Mrs. G r a h a m ' s d r e s s w a s False Light
blown up by air jets beneath the f u n house platform. As The final branch of invasion-of-privacy law. false light.
fate would have it. a n e w s p a p e r p h o t o g r a p h e r captured will be raised if you represent s o m e o n e in a false and
this m o m e n t on film. A f e w days later the picture ap- highly offensive m a n n e r b e f o r e the public. This civil
p e a r e d on the f r o n t page, s h o w i n g Mrs. G r a h a m ex- w r o n g is similar to libel (treated in t h e next section),
posed from the waist d o w n , e x c e p t for h e r underwear. except that false light claims aim to compensate people
The Supreme Court of Alabama u p h e l d an invasion-of- for their personal embarrassment and anguish, not nec-
privacy judgment for Mrs. Graham, even though it ac- essarily f o r d a m a g e to reputation. It is c o m m o n for a
knowledged she had b e e n part of a public scene. Unlike claim of false light invasion of privacy to accompany a
the Net'l situation, Mrs. Graham's embarrassing predica- claim for libel.
ment was instantaneous and nonvolitional. T h e court
w r o t e To hold that o n e w h o is involuntarily and in- The false light problem ty pically arises w h e n a story
stanuuicouslx e n m e s h e d in an embarrassing p o s e for- or outline falsely implies disturbing facts about individu-
feits her r hi of privacy merely because she h a p p e n e d als in an accompanying photo. You should take care to
at the moment t be part of a public scene would be il- assure that your pictures, including file p h o t o s of the av-
logical. wrong, and unjust." erage person on the street, are not used in a distorted or
fictitious context.
Figure 1 4 - 8 A s part of a story a b o u t this d a n c e r , the c o u l d face a false light c l a i m if your cutline m a d e untrue
p i c t u r e itself is u s a b l e , s i n c e e v e r y o n e k n e w the statements a b o u t the behavior of the individuals in the
p h o t o g r a p h e r w a s m a k i n g p h o t o s for publication. But y o u photo. (Gary Kazanjian)

A classic 1952 case serves well to illustrate. A maga- In the article, love at First sight was said to be based solely
zine photographer had taken a candid photo of a couple on sexual attraction, a short-lived type of love sure to be
seated in an ice cream parlor at the Los Angeles Farmers followed by divorce. The couple sued for invasion of pri-
Market. 'ITie photo depicted them in an affectionate pose, vacy. and an appellate court ruled the claim was suffi-
sitting side by side and cheek to cheek. So far so good ciently sound to go before a jury. The court wrote: 'It is
However, the photo of this happily married couple was apparent from the article and caption under the picture,
used to illustrate an article segment about the wrong that they are depicted as persons whose only interest in
kind of love. The photo caption read: Publicized as glam- each other is sex. a characterization that may be said to
o r o u s . d e s i r a b l e , love at first sight is a bad risk. impinge seriously upon their sensibilities."- 2
 ; yet evolved to the point w h e r e
edict exactly w h e r e courts will
You re tree, though, to use
.he street to illustrate n e w s stories
>n't take the liberty of linking t h e s e
e to specific, shameful characteristics,
would be fine to a m a picture of a man
d e p a r t m e n t store w i n d o w to illustrate a
.if h a b i t s of holida\ s h o p p e r s , but that
mid not be paired with a caption about com-
shoplifters.
You should get into t h e p r u d e n t habit of writing
md affixing accurate captions to your o w n p h o t o s be-
• »re forwarding t h e m to editors or f r e e l a n c e markets.
"Phis step reduces the chances of photos being used out
ot context. In addition, if photos d o eventually appear
in a distorted manner, then you personally will not have
to share in the liability because you will not be a m o n g
those at fault.

Privacy in Perspective
Together these four branches of privacy invasion can be
intimidating. But they needn't be. The vast majority of
your photos will be taken in public places, will be of le-
gitimate public interest, and presumably will be pub-
lished in an accurate context. Such photos cannot be the
Figure 1 4 - 9 These two girls w e r e p h o t o g r a p h e d trying
basis for privacy claims, even if the depicted persons are
t o k e e p w a r m w h i l e w a t c h i n g a Softball g a m e T h e r e is n o
enraged by your work for o n e reason or another. i n v a s i o n of p r i v a c y if the p h o t o is u s e d in a n e w s c o n t e x t ,
You should, however, examine all the circumstances s u c h a s a story a b o u t t h e w e a t h e r or the g a m e . H o w e v e r , if
carefully w h e n you e n c o u n t e r the w a r n i n g situations: y o u w a n t e d to u s e t h e p h o t o for a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t , y o u
shooting individuals in private, vulnerable, and highly de- must have model releases iLane turner)
meaning settings: using photos in commercial messages:
and the careless linking of photos to factually unrelated
doctor comes to work drunk, then it could be devastating
stories or cutlines. liven in these situations, sou can often
to his reputation, and this can b e the basis for a libel
publish without fear by simply taking the necessary pre-
lawsuit.
cautions. such as obtaining written consent.
Though very rare in practice, it is also possible for a
picture alone to be libelous. Cropping or creative dark-
Libel room modifications could create a photo that conveys a
false and defamatory image—even without an accompa-
Libel is a legal w r o n g recognized throughout the history nying cutline or story. Such would be the case if you
of this country It is the printed form of defamation, the blended t w o photographs, o n e of a local banker and o n e
w r o n g f u l injury to a r e p u t a t i o n . Claims are usually of an organized-crime figure, to make it look like the t w o
based on verbal accusations—of professional incompe- m e n w e r e conversing on a secluded park bench.
tence criminal acts, immoral behavior, and so on—that As you probably suspect by now. there are several el-
.ire not true. So w h a t does this have to d o with you as a ements to the law of libel. For the photographed com-
nh »tojournalist? p l a i n a n t t o w i n in c o u r t , h e m u s t s h o w all of t h e
- with false light invasion of privacy, libel in the following:
graphic c o n t e x t is usually g e n e r a t e d by an III-
1. That your work contains a defamatory message.
tline o r d i s p a r a g i n g c o n t e x t . For e x a m p l e ,
alleged facts that would tend to harm a person's
sp per composes a story about emergency-
ins w h o show u p to work under the in- esteem in the eyes of others.

fluenc< illustrate this story, an editor asks 2. That your work was published. This criterion is
you tc '* o of an FR p h y s i c i a n — a n y FR met w h e n the n e w s p a p e r hits the stands, but
physic patient. This situation should publication can o c c u r even before that, w h e n you
signal it line or overall c o n t e x t of t h e s h o w the harmful depiction to c o w o r k e r s o r
photo to mean that this particular personal acquaintances.
Figure 1 4 - 1 0 This portrait a c c o m p a n i e d a story a b o u t a b o u t v a n d a l s s p r a y i n g o b s c e n i t i e s o n walls all over t o w n
this y o u n g graffiti artist. There is no libel as l o n g as the the c a p t i o n a n d p h o t o together c o u l d constitute libel
c u t l i n e states the f a c t s . If the p h o t o is u s e d with a story (Mike Penn)

3. That the person was identified in connection with disregard for the truth. In many states private
this defamatory communication. Identification persons are allowed to recover on a lesser showing
can be accomplished by a cutline description, the of fault, mere negligence, on your p a n .
visual image, o r a combination of the two.
4. That the defamatory portrayal is false. If the
Acquisition by Authorities
defamatory facts alleged in your photo/caption are
true, there is no libel. N o w let's examine those instances w h e n government
5. Wat you were at fault. It is not considered libel if officials might seek to acquire the fruits of your labor.
the untruthful publication was simply an honest For example, s u p p o s e the police request your film be-
mistake. This fault requirement is a First cause it would aid them in a criminal investigation. You
A m e n d m e n t standard mandated by the U.S. might be quite willing to comply, but then again, you
Supreme Court. It is intended to assure you some might not. The n e w s media sometimes resist such re-
breathing space for the inevitable factual errors that quests because of significant inconvenience or to avoid
can occur despite your best efforts. Public persons becoming arms of police agencies, in effect or in per-
such as government officials and celebrities, must ception. By what m e t h o d s and for what p u r p o s e s can
s h o w that you published with actual malice, with government agencies demand or confiscate your work?
k n o w l e d g e of the message s falsity or with reckless
Sear, I' ' its and Subpoenas Shield Laws
In 1 ~ w e r e called to r e m o v e d e m o n s t r a t o r s Though s u b p o e n a s are c o n s i d e r e d p r e f e r a b l e to war-
whi the administrative offices at Stanford rants for search and seizure, n e w s professionals have
\ r ; ital. W h e n police forcibly entered a hall- long argued that they should have a far-reaching
. attacked and beaten by s o m e demonstra- privilege to d e c l i n e s u b p o e n a d e m a n d s as well. T h e
. j with sticks and clubs. The Stanford Daily c r u x of this argument is that journalists, if they are to
ished photos of the demonstration, and policc pursue investigative-type stories and cultivate reluctant
i his student n e w s p a p e r had additional photos sources, must be free to k e e p some information confi-
v.ould help identify the perpetrators of the criminal dential. It is also argued that it would be too easy for au-
. nit. So the police decided to obtain the additional t h o r i t i e s to e x p l o i t n e w s o r g a n i z a t i o n s by r o u t i n e l y
p h o t o s in t h e m o s t d i r e c t m a n n e r p o s s i b l e ; t h e y serving subpoenas to obtain negatives or notes related
s h o w e d u p at the Daily office with a search w a r r a n t to crime scenes or e v e n civil litigation.
and p r o c e e d e d to search the p h o t o labs, file cabinets, Here again, many legislatures have b e e n persuaded
desks, and wastepaper baskets. They found nothing that by these arguments and have concluded that in the long
had not already b e e n published. run society's need for information is best served by pro-
T h e Daily, h o w e v e r , s u e d t h e p o l i c e chief a n d tecting n e w s p e o p l e from forced disclosure of informa-
other officials, claiming that the search violated the pa- t i o n . So, slightly m o r e t h a n half of t h e s t a t e s h a v e
p e r ' s First A m e n d m e n t rights. T h e search process, ar- enacted shield laws. These laws grant news personnel
gued the Daily. is physically disruptive, intimidating to the privilege to decline investigatory or evidentiary re-
the n e w s staff, and a threat to t h e cultivation of confi- quests by the justice system.
dential sources. T h e ease eventually r e a c h e d t h e U.S. Find out if your state has a shield law. If it does,
Supreme Court, w h e r e the students lost. T h e court held look closely at its provisions. The strength and breadth
that as long as a search warrant is s u p p o r t e d by proba- of shield laws van* greatly. Some things to look for: Ex-
ble cause to believe that e v i d e n c e of a c r i m e will be actly w h a t is privileged from disclosure? Is it any and all
found, then a search is acceptable. Nothing in the Con- i n f o r m a t i o n and materials a c c u m u l a t e d while on t h e
stitution gives the press a special privilege to avoid this job, including prints and negatives, or is it something
process, the court said.^ much narrower, such as the identities of sources? Does
Some states and Congress, h o w e v e r , a c c e p t e d the the privilege e x t e n d in all instances, w h e t h e r o r not you
notion that the press should be p r o t e c t e d against the in- originally obtained the sought-after information through
trusiveness of police searches and that n e w s organiza- a confidential relationship? Does it apply to you if you
t i o n s ' m a t e r i a l s s h o u l d b e r e q u e s t e d by s u b p o e n a w o r k as a freelancer, o r only if you're employed by a
i n s t e a d . C o n g r e s s , in t h e Privacy P r o t e c t i o n Act of news organization?
1980.-"' provided the protection that the Supreme Court
w o u l d not. T h e f e d e r a l s t a t u t e p r o h i b i t s n e w s r o o m On-the-Spot Confiscation
searches and seizures of documentary materials, includ- Another aspect of this acquisition problem remains all
ing p h o t o g r a p h s and film. Exceptions apply w h e n the too c o m m o n : on-the-spot decisions to seize film and
p h o t o g r a p h e r himself is s u s p e c t e d of t h e c r i m e , o r e q u i p m e n t , without a warrant. Since search and seizure
w h e n a search is deemed necessary t o avert destruction of journalistic w o r k , e v e n w i t h a p r o p e r w a r r a n t , is
of the materials or to prevent death or serious injur)' to rarely allowed u n d e r the federal statute, seizure without
a person. In the a b s e n c e of o n e of these e x c e p t i o n s , a warrant should be even less acceptable. In fact that is
t h o u g h , law e n f o r c e m e n t p e r s o n n e l m u s t use a sub- t h e law. H o w e v e r , t h e p r o b l e m t e n d s to c r o p u p in
p o e n a r a t h e r than a s e a r c h w a r r a n t to obtain p h o t o - e m e r g e n c y situations, w h e n officials may b e on edge
graphic evidence from n e w s organizations. and decisions arc made too quickly.
From the standpoint of the press, the subpoena is a For e x a m p l e , on a May m o r n i n g in 1985, p o l i c e
preferable p r o c e d u r e to deal with. It is a court-backed w e r e e n g a g e d in a v i o l e n t a t t e m p t t o e v i c t f r o m
order that the n e w s organization turn over specified ma- a P h i l a d e l p h i a r o w h o u s e t h e m e m b e r s of a radical,
terials, o r c o p i e s of t h o s e m a t e r i a l s . T h e s u b p o e n a heavily armed g r o u p called MOVE. T h e riotous s c e n e
allows a number of days to respond, so it is less disrup- was closed to onlookers, but Greg Lanier, a photogra-
tive to a news production schedule. Also, the newspa- p h e r for The Philadelphia Inquirer paid "rent" to se-
per has time to consult an attorney and may decide to cure a vantage point in a house across the street. When
appear in court to resist the subpoena. p o l i c e s p o t t e d Lanier t h e y d e c i d e d to e v a c u a t e t h e
Figure 14-11 W h i l e c o v e r i n g a protest rally in San c o n f i s c a t e film a n d e q u i p m e n t on the spot. However, this is
F r a n c i s c o , p h o t o g r a p h e r M i c h a e l R o n d o u w a s arrested almost never p e r m i s s i b l e under the First a n d Fourth
b e c a u s e his c r e d e n t i a l s w e r e three months out of d a t e A m e n d m e n t s to the Constitution. (Mike Maloney/
More c o m m o n than an arrest is a n a t t e m p t b y p o l i c e to San Francisco Chronicle)

p r e m i s e s . H o w e v e r , f o r r e a s o n s u n c e r t a i n , they also This is essentially t h e s t a n d a r d r e q u i r e d by t h e

b o d y - s e a r c h e d Lanier a n d c o n f i s c a t e d all of his film, f e d e r a l p r i v a c y p r o t e c t i o n s t a t u t e and t h e F o u r t h
c a m e r a s , and o t h e r e q u i p m e n t . T o his crcdit. Lanier A m e n d m e n t to the U.S. Constitution. What it m e a n s is
p h o n e d his n e w s p a p e r , rather than staying to protest. that g o v e r n m e n t officials c a n n o t confiscate your work
By m i d a f t c r n o o n t h e Inquirer had o b t a i n e d a c o u r t or property, e v e n temporarily, for p u r p o s e s of reprisal
o r d e r forcing police to r e t u r n the film and e q u i p m e n t . or to k e e p you from covering a story. Even w h e n your
T h e o r d e r also p r o h i b i t e d police from "seizing with- w o r k is s o u g h t as criminal e v i d e n c e , an on-the-spot
o u t a w a r r a n t any film, c a m e r a . . o r o t h e r news- seizure would virtually be limited to an instance w h e n
g a t h e r i n g material absent exigent c i r c u m s t a n c e s and you are c o m m i t t i n g a serious c r i m e and. b e c a u s e of
p r o b a b l e cause to believe that such e m p l o y e e has y o u r f l e e t i n g a c t i o n s , p o l i c e h a v e n o t i m e to get a
c o m m i t t e d o r is c o m m i t t i n g a c r i m i n a l o f f e n s e to written warrant.
w h i c h the materials relate."
Summary 3. Miller v. NBC, 187 Cal.App.3d 1463(1986).
4. Florida Publishing Co. v. Fletcher, 340 So.2d 914
Though K is always a danger in oversimplifying o r (1976).
gen- ng the law, it is helpful to restate legal rules in 5. Leiserson v. City of San Diego. 229 Cal.Rptr. 22
tc o f s o m e working principles to help you in the (1986).
i >« m t h i s chapter w e can construct some general
6. See State v. Lashinsky, 404 A. 2d 1121 (1979),
guidelines: w h e r e New Jersey's Supreme Court upheld the
:.i areas wide o p e n to the public, such as streets, conviction of a press pass-earn ing p h o t o g r a p h e r for
sidewalks, parks, and aiiport lobbies, you can arguing with a state trooper at the scene of a fatal
photograph whatever and w h o m e v e r is within automobile accident.
public view, even if people object. 7. For example, see Borreca v. Fasi, 369 F.Supp 906
2. In privately run facilities for the general public, (1974). w h e r e a federal trial court ruled the mayor
such as sporting arenas, markets, and office and of Honolulu could not exclude a particular news
hotel lobbies, you can p h o t o g r a p h freely unless reporter from his press conferences.
management objects or states restrictions, w h i c h 8. Richmond Newspapers v. Virginia. 448 U.S. 555
you must h o n o r immediately. (1980).
3. In government facilities with restricted uses, such 9. Press-Enterprise v. Superior Court of California.
as courtrooms, offices, prisons, and military 106 S.Ct. 2 7 3 5 ( 1 9 8 6 ) .
installations, photographing may be subject to prior 10. See Publicker Industries v. Cohen, 733 F.2d 1059
permission or to specified restrictions. (1984).
4. Within areas intended for privacy, such as 11. Estes v. Texas, 381 U.S. 532 (1965).
residences, physician offices, and hospital rooms, 12. Chandlery. Florida, 449 U.S. 560 (1981).
you should take pictures only with permission of
the person controlling the property and the person 13. N e w York Arts and Cultural Affairs Code sec. 3 1 0 1 .
to be p h o t o g r a p h e d . 14. 17 U.S.C. sec. 107.
5. Regardless of w h e r e you take the p h o t o , it should 15. Update Art, Inc. v. Maariv Israel Newspaper, Inc.,
not be published in a n o n n e w s o r distorted and 635 F.Supp. 2 2 8 ( 1 9 8 6 ) .
objectionable context unless you have the 16. Miller v. NBC, 187 Cal.App.3d 1463, 1484(1986).
individual's written consent. 17. Mark v. King Broadcasting, 618 P.2d 512, 519
(1980).
Of course, w e ' v e seen there are lots of e x c e p t i o n s
to these general rules, as well as factual situations that 18. Anderson v. Fisher Broadcasting Co., 712 P.2d 803
are hard to categorize. Although you are g u a r a n t e e d (Or. 1986).
much f r e e d o m under the First Amendment, our increas- 19. Spellman v. Simon & Schuster, 3 Med L. Rptr. 2406
ingly litigious society nevertheless presents legal pitfalls. (1978).
When in doubt, talk with an editor or attorney w h o has 20. N e f f v . Time, Inc., 406 F.Supp. 858 (1976).
e x p e r i e n c e with the laws of your state.
21. Daily Times Democrat v. Graham, 162 So.2d 474
(1964).
Endnotes 22. Gill v. Curtis Publishing Co., 3 8 C2d 273 (1952).
23. Zurcher v. Stanford Daily. 436 U.S. 547 (1978).
1. Houchins v. KQED, Inc., 438 U.S. 1 (1978). 24. 42 U.S.C. sec. 2000aa.
2. See Le Mistral. Inc. v. CBS, 402 N.Y.S.2d 815
(1978), w h e r e a television station was held liable
for trespass.
 / c h a p t e r \ ^

15
Education
and Careers
OUTLINE

Your Education J o b Hunting

Broadening Your Knowledge Stringing
The Photojournalism Realistic Goals
Personality Office Politics
Building a Portfolio About Answering Machines
Careful Editing Freelancing
Portfolio Cliches Querying the Editor
Feedback Payment and Rights
Print Portfolios Copyright
Slide Portfolios The Big Story
Internships Photo Agencies
Summary

66
P H O T O J O U R N A L I S M I S N ' T MAKING PICTURES FOR YOURSELF OR YOUR EGO. I T IS

M A K I N G PICTURES FOR T H E R E A D E R . P H O T O G R A P H E R S W H O U N D E R S T A N D THIS

MOVT A H E A D \ T R Y FAST.

— R I C H CLARKSON, PAST PRESIDENT,

NATIONAL PRESS PHOTOGRAPHERS ASSOCIATION
Your Education The Photo journalist's Personality

\ col - < ' s a r e q u i r e m e n t for e m p l o y m e n t at In today's market, the photojournalist must be intellectu-
m;u s p a p e r s . S t u d y i n g j o u r n a l i s m gives you a ally aware, technically skilled, and physically strong. Most
in the field and a ground-zero starting point good photojournalists are patient, stubborn, imaginative,
of a c a m p u s publication. This e x p e r i e n c e tireless, quick thinking, decisive, curious, diplomatic, and
t than likely be the source of material for your assertive, yet not offensively aggressive. They are good
fn st portfolio. politicians and psychologists, have a love of people and
Education also h e l p s you learn to think critically work, have a broad range of interests, an ability to antici-
id analytically. as well as broaden your perspective on pate events, and an understanding of what readers want
p e o p l e and the world. Remember the ston- from chap- and need. A good photojournalist is willing to take risks
ter 8 about the young p h o t o g r a p h e r w h o asked the old- and k n o w s w h e n and h o w far to push.
timer h o w the old-timer got such great p i c t u r e s — t h e Give careful thought to your o w n traits. If you are
old-timer said. "F/8 and be there." T h e r e is little room, uncomfortable approaching strangers and making photos
t h o u g h , in this business for s o m e o n e w h o is n o t h i n g of them, or if you prefer photographing scenery and ob-
more than a button pusher. jects, p e r h a p s photojournalism is not the best area of
photography for you. This business is intensely competi-
Broacleti iiig } 'on r K>toivledge tive. The slow or indecisive photographer will be left be-
It is t e m p t i n g to take all t h e p h o t o classes y o u c a n hind, pictures made by the ignorant will be empty, and
possibly fit into your schedule. W h e n y o u ' r e e x c i t e d the timid and withdrawn will be in constant turmoil over
about the medium, it is hard to resist all t h o s e inter- dealing with n e w people and situations on a daily basis.
esting courses. Many schools offer a d o z e n or m o r e ,
and in a c o u p l e of e x t r e m e s , it is p o s s i b l e to take as
many as 60 o r 7 0 units of p h o t o g r a p h y . 1 Although this Building a Portfolio
r o u t e might be r e a s o n a b l e f o r s o m e o n e h e a d e d f o r
o t h e r areas of p r o f e s s i o n a l p h o t o g r a p h y , b e w a r e of One of the greatest problems for the beginning photo-
isolating yourself from classes that b r o a d e n your over- journalist is that first p o r t f o l i o — w h a t to include and
all b a c k g r o u n d . As a p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t , y o u will r u n h o w to arrange it. There is n o magic formula; the con-
a c r o s s all k i n d s of p e o p l e a n d s i t u a t i o n s . T h e b e s t tent should s h o w w h a t you d o best. To say there should
p h o t o s c o m e from p h o t o g r a p h e r s w h o have confi- be five n e w s photos, five sports p h o t o s , and so on is
d e n c e and a b r o a d p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e w o r l d . T h e just not appropriate for every photographer. With that
well-rounded p h o t o g r a p h e r u n d e r s t a n d s the issues of in mind, h e r e are some points to consider as you assem-
the day, the subject and the a u d i e n c e , and can use t h e ble this important sales tool.
technical tools n e e d e d to c a p t u r e t h e message. I urge First, edit c a r e f u l l y . Go t h r o u g h all y o u r w o r k ,
you to talk w i t h your a c a d e m i c adviser about a s t r o n g w a t c h i n g f o r the s t r o n g image that might h a v e b e e n
liberal arts program, including classes such as history, overlooked. Second, and this is important, have another
literature, art. sociology, p s y c h o l o g y , a n t h r o p o l o g y , photojournalist look over your first selects with you. He
and so on. Explore s o m e of the classic issues of o u r or she can help you avoid photos you are subjectively in-
cultures. Give serious t h o u g h t to learning a s e c o n d or volved with. W e all have favorite images that have per-
even a third language. sonal meaning but aren't strong enough for a portfolio.
What kind of pictures should you include? Try to
F u r t h e r , I firmly b e l i e v e t h a t b e i n g a visual re-
s h o w s o m e versatility. T h e traditional categories are
p o r t e r is not e n o u g h — y o u must be a c o m p l e t e jour-
news, feature, p h o t o story, sports, and illustration, but
nalist. Writing skills are just as i m p o r t a n t as skill with
d o n ' t try to fill all these categories unless the images
the camera. If you are in a p r o g r a m that requires only-
a r c s t r o n g . If you are w e a k in s p o r t s , f o r e x a m p l e ,
o n e writing c o u r s e , talk with your adviser about tak-
d o n ' t include sports shots just to s h o w that you w e n t
ing at least a s e c o n d - s e m e s t e r class. I believe t h e r e is
to a f e w games.
n o b e t t e r way to learn to organize t h o u g h t s and infor-
mation than by l e a r n i n g to w r i t e n e w s . As a b o n u s ,
the skills you learn will m a k e you m o r e valuable to Careful Editing
prospective employers. H o w many p i c t u r e s s h o u l d you include? T h e r e is n o
magic n u m b e r — a b o u t 20 seems c o m m o n . O n e p h o t o
Plan too for the future. Right n o w , shooting might
editor said, however, that the best way to say that you
be the most exciting thing in your life, but you c a n n o t
have only 19 good p h o t o s is to include a weak 20th.
guarantee where your career will take you. Put a variety
Show only your best work, no excuses, no exceptions.
of things in your educational savings bank. Fifteen years
If you have to explain a photo, then it isn't telling its
from n o w you might want to make a withdrawal.
o w n story and should be eliminated.
 fit

** I If

1
Figure 1 5 - 1 This is a p a g e of slides from p h o t o g r a p h e r sports, a n d feature photos. A s e c o n d p a g e (not s h o w n )
Lane T u r n e r s portfolio. It c o n t a i n s a selection of news, c o n s i s t s of p h o t o stories.

O n the other hand, if you have a number of pictures Finally, it should be obvious that your print quality
that arc portfolio quality, you can tailor your portfolio must be tops. A c o m m o n flaw I see in beginners' portfo-
for each publication you apply to. If the publication has lios is inconsistent printing. All your prints should be as
extensive sports coverage, include more sports. If the close to each other in contrast and density as possible,
paper uses many color illustrations, s h o w more of those. carefully burned and dodged w h e r e needed, and spot-
Beware, h o w e v e r , of p r e s e n t i n g a false impression of ted to perfection. Use the same brand of print p a p e r
your capabilities. If you arc hired because of a mislead- throughout so the image tones are consistent.
ing portfolio, both you and your employer will be un- Slides must be sharp and clean. Use the same film
happy, and you'll soon be looking for another job. and lighting for the entire set so the color balance is the
Color is increasingly important for the graduating same t h r o u g h o u t . W h e n making portfolio slides from
student o r beginning professional, but edit your color prints, trim the white border off the print and set it on a
just as carefully as black and white. Never include color piece of black matte board. This way you'll have a neat
just for the sake of including color. Be sure t h e r e is edge to the image if it does not quite fill the slide frame.
strong message c o n t e n t in t h o s e color shots and that
they are technically flawless. Portfolio Cliches
Have s o m e contact sheets from recent work avail- The p h o t o s on the following list are t h o s e that a p p e a r
able, too. Many editors like to see h o w you handle the frequently in collegiate portfolios. R e m e m b e r that t h e
camera and h o w you cover an assignment. p e o p l e w h o look at your w o r k p r o b a b l y h a v e s e e n
h u n d r e d s of o t h e r c o l l e g i a t e p o r t f o l i o s a n d w a n t
s o m e o n e w h o is not just a c a r b o n c o p y of t h e pack. If
\ o u have an e x a m p l e of a cliche that is the best ever
m k use it. If t h e r e is the slightest d o u b t , t h o u g h ,
pull it out.
• Kids playing in sprinklers
• Second-base slides
• Levitated football players
• Basketball jumping-under-the-basket shots
• Sunsets, silhouettes, babies, and flowers
• Dogs wearing sunglasses (and most o t h e r "cutsey"
animal pictures)
• Most shots of celebrities
• Rock musicians performing (and most other
performance photos)
• People (particularly children) holding protest signs
• Photos from your trip to Europe
• Any p h o t o that d e p e n d s solely on a special
photographic technique
• Color shots that aren't strong communicators
Figure 15-2 G e t as m u c h f e e d b a c k on y o u r work as
When deciding w h e t h e r to include a particular y o u c a n . Take your portfolio to e v e n t s s u c h as the NPPA's
color photo, ask yourself: "If this shot was in black and Flying Short C o u r s e a n d ask the e d i t o r s a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r s
white, would I put it in my portfolio?" If the a n s w e r is in a t t e n d a n c e for their o p i n i o n s . (Jim Gordon/
no. then p r o c e e d with great caution. Be sure that the News Photographer)
color adds to the message content of the p h o t o and is
not just adornment. Photo editors are quick to spot the
color shots that w e r e included just to s h o w that you ran This size is large e n o u g h to s h o w off your w o r k yet
a f e w rolls of color film through your camera. small e n o u g h f o r s o m e o n e to handle w h i l e sitting at a
d e s k . I h a v e n ' t h e a r d a n y p h o t o e d i t o r s o b j e c t to
Feedback 8 x 10s, but this size is u n c o m m o n . Avoid larger prints
An excellent way to get feedback o n your portfolio is to or t h o s e oversize multiring p o r t f o l i o binders. Editors
take it to professional c o n f e r e n c e s and ask the p r o s for w a n t to see a neat presentation, but they are unlikely
a critique. Many of the seminars sponsored by groups to b e impressed by fancy cases or special m o u n t s and
such as the National Press P h o t o g r a p h e r s Association mats. Mount the prints neatly, carefully trimming t h e
and the Society for Newspaper Design include portfolio m o u n t tissue so it d o e s n ' t s h o w . Use a black felt-tip
critiques. (Addresses for these groups are in the appen- marker to darken the edges of the m o u n t board. Win-
dix.) Judging p h o t o g r a p h s is quite subjective, and you'll d o w mats, w h i c h are s e c o n d layers of mat board with
probably get some conflicting comments. Therefore, try cut-out w i n d o w s , are c o m m o n in the a n field but not
to get at least a half dozen critiques before c o m i n g to generally used in photojournalism.
any conclusions about your work.
Display your p h o t o stories on three 11 x 14-inch
Keep your portfolio u p to date. There is an old say- boards hinged t o g e t h e r with black tape so they o p e n
ing: y o u ' r e only as g o o d as y o u r last a s s i g n m e n t . Al- like a book. Give the layout on the boards the same care
though an old picture can still be a good picture, the you would a page in a publication.
photo editor wants to k n o w what you can d o for him o r If you have an entire n e w s p a p e r page you want to
h e r today. If you discover that most of your portfolio is include, a neat way to k e e p torn, yellowed newsprint
more than a year old, p e r h a p s you need to step back out of y o u r p o r t f o l i o is to p h o t o g r a p h t h e page and
and see h o w you are progressing. m a k e a p r i n t . K e e p grain to a m i n i m u m by u s i n g a
3 5 m m fine-grain film such as T-Max 100 or Technical
Print Portfolios Pan. or a larger format such as 120 or 4 x 5.
The physical format of your portfolio is less important I d o n ' t r e c o m m e n d that you s h o w clips w h e n
than the images, but there are s o m e c u s t o m s in photo- prints can be made. Clips are rarely your work alone,
journalism that you w o u l d be w i s e to f o l l o w . Print but also include editor's decisions about selection, crop-
p o r t f o l i o s at sually p r i n t e d on 11 x 14-inch p a p e r ping, and size. Also, n e w s p a p e r reproduction can never
a n d m o u n t e d o n 11 x 1 4 - i n c h b l a c k m a t b o a r d . match the quality of a print.
Figure 1 5 - 3 Prints s h o u l d b e m o u n t e d o n 11 x 14-inch b o a r d s . This p h o t o
story has b e e n m o u n t e d o n three b o a r d s h i n g e d with b l a c k tape.
(Photo story: Mark Mirko)

A professional w a y to p r e s e n t prints is in a fiber Internships

print case that can also double as a shipping container.
You should be able to get such cases at a n supply stores. An i n t e r n s h i p gives you the c h a n c e to get practical
Avoid old print-paper boxes and makeshift containers. training that is not available in school. Many newspa-
p e r s offer t h e s e short-term spots during the s u m m e r ,
Slide Portfolios and some internships are available during the school
Slide portfolios are c o m m o n , particularly w h e n apply- year. Internships typically run from six weeks to three
ing for internships and in o t h e r situations w h e n a port- or four months, and pay varies from none to the equiva-
folio must b e mailed. Keep in mind, h o w e v e r , that a lent of the paper's starting salary.
busy e d i t o r reviewing 50 applicants' portfolios is un- To qualify for an internship, you should have some
likely to use a magnifier o n even" image. I have seen experience on a c a m p u s publication. Although you'll be
good p h o t o s passed over because they did not stand out looking forward to learning from the experience, most
in a 3 5 m m slide. This is an u n f o r t u n a t e d r a w b a c k to papers expect you to be able to handle assignments as
slide portfolios and your only r e c o u r s e is to edit with o n e of the regular staffers. They w o n ' t have time to
the small image size in mind. s h o w you the basics under deadline pressure.
Sec the appendix for details on h o w to make port- The time to start looking for an internship is in the
folio slides. Even if you have made such slides before, I late fall and early winter. Contact the p h o t o directors or
urge you to c h e c k that section as it tells you h o w to managing editors at the papers you'd like to work for,
avoid c o m m o n pitfalls. T o present your slides, use plas- and check with the National Press Photographers Asso-
tic slide pages. Try to find stiff ones that can be held u p ciation for the internship list they sometimes have avail-
to the light without flopping over. As an alternative, you able for student members. W h e n applying, be sure to
can get black mat boards that are die-cut to hold slides. follow the application instructions. Prepare a resume o r
T h e s e make a h a n d s o m e presentation w h e n s h o w i n g cover letter and limit it to o n e page. Present the facts,
your w o r k in person, but they add bulk to a mailed ship- and avoid getting carried away with philosophical es-
ment; therefore, if the application instructions call for says on the meaning of photojournalism.
plastic pages, d o n ' t use die-cut black boards. Internships are quite competitive, so apply f o r a
Be s u r e the slide m o u n t s arc clean and neatly la- n u m b e r of them at the same time. If you use a onc-at-a-
beled with your name. T h e r e arc c o m p u t e r programs time technique, deadlines will pass and you may elimi-
that print on special die-cut labels designed for 3 5 m m n a t e o t h e r g o o d o p p o r t u n i t i e s by w a i t i n g f o r a
slide mounts. Use these if you can. W h e n applying by particular p h o t o editor to make a decision.
mail, include a cover letter and caption sheet, number- If you are asked to appear for an i n t e n i e w . look at
ing the slides to m a t c h the captions on the sheet. By the the paper before you arrive. Get some back issues and
way, p r e p a r e your captions with as m u c h care as the examine its style. For the i n t e n i e w , dress like the pro-
p h o t o s . D o n ' t just dash o u t a f e w w o r d s describing fessional that you are. and try to anticipate some of the
the image. Follow the guidelines on page 222 and have i n t e r v i e w e r ' s questions. T h e easy o n e s will be about
s o m e o n e go over your work with you. A spelling error your background Tougher ones include w h y you w a n t
in a caption could be quite embarrassing. the internship and w h a t do you expect to get out of it.
Organize the slides on the pages, grouping similar While on the internship, take advantage of every
types of shots in the same row. Use a second page for possible chance to learn. Plan on putting in many more
p h o t o stories, and a separate slide for each shot in the hours than you are scheduled for; try to o b s e n e w h a t
story. h a p p e n s in o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s of t h e p a p e r . Get as
Figure 15-4 P h o t o j o u r n a l i s m is a h i g h l y c o m p e t i t i v e field. There are relatively
few jobs, a n d there is little r o o m for the slow or t i m i d p h o t o g r a p h e r .
(Judy Griesedieck/San Jose Mercury-News)

many staffers to critique your w o r k as possible. If you Stringing

d o n ' t get a f o r m a l e v a l u a t i o n by a b o u t t h e h a l f w a y Stringing is a form of freelancing. The name stems from
point, ask for one. the early days w h e n freelance writers w e r e paid by the
c o l u m n i n c h , a n d total i n c h e s w e r e tallied by tying
Job Hunting knots in a piece of string.
P u b l i c a t i o n s use stringers w h e n t h e y need extra
T h e r e are f e w e r than 1800 daily n e w s p a p e r s nation- help during busy times or vacation periods. Your work-
wide. and there is considerable competition for the few- as a part-timer can demonstrate your talents to the edi-
jobs available. T h e r e f o r e , be p r e p a r e d to apply to tors and possibly lead to a full-time spot. I have o n e
d o z e n s of publications and to m o v e away f r o m y o u r friend w h o was a stringer for the Associated Press and
h o m e t o w n area if necessary. carried a belt pager so the p h o t o desk could reach him
Many jobs arc not advertised, but are filled through at any time. At first the calls w e r e f e w and far apart, but
w o r d of m o u t h . O n e w a y to get into t h e information as he demonstrated his skill and reliability, they called
network i> to join the professional organizations listed him often. W h e n a full-time slot opened, he w a s hired.
in the appendix and get involved in their activities. At-
tend professional c o n f e r e n c e s , n o t only to learn, but Realistic Goals
also to s h o w your portfolio and develop professional Perhaps you aspire to a staff position at Time. Sports Il-
contacts. Sometimes these groups have job referral ser- lustrated. National Geographic, or a major newspaper.
vices. but don i rc!\ on these alone. Although that goal is worthwhile, it is more likely that
your first j o b will be at a small n e w s p a p e r such as a t h a t ' s o n e of the frustrations of the business. II you
community weekly o r small daily. There you'll be ex c o m e on as ii you are always right and they are always
p e c t e d to shoot everything f r o m Dog of the Week to wrong, you'll be ignored and labeled a complainer and
the C u b Scout jamboree. T h e pay won't c o m p a r e with a hothead.
the major publications, but you'll probably have a cer-
tain kind of f r e e d o m that tends to disappear as the size About Answering Machines
of t h e p u b l i c a t i o n grows. More than likely , you'll be
Another item that relates to professonal behavior is the
able to c o m e u p with a story idea and carry it all the
outgoing message on your a n s w e r i n g m a c h i n e . Many
w a y t h r o u g h , including writing, laying out the page,
people enjoy putting humorous greetings on their ma-
and even paginating it on the c o m p u t e r o r pasting it up
chines. but your sense of h u m o r might not be shared by
in the backshop.
a potential employer or freelance client. I k n o w of jobs
As you gain experience, you'll move to larger publi- lost because of offensive p h o n e messages. After all the
cations with better pay and benefits and more opportu- effort you have put into your portfolio and resume, why
n i t i e s t o s h o o t m a j o r e v e n t s . T h e r e will be m o r e risk offending a potential employer with an answering
resources such as equipment, lab technicians, and bud- machine message? A telephone that might receive busi-
gets f o r travel a n d logistical s u p p o r t . T h e trade-off, ness calls should be answered in a business-like fashion.
though, is less control over your images. As long as you are in the job market or freelance world,
T h e r e is certainly nothing w r o n g with aiming for a simple statement of the p h o n e n u m b e r and "I'll return
t h e top. Keep in mind, h o w e v e r , the advantages and your call as soon as possible," is a sure way to avoid of-
disadvantages of both large and small publications, and fending callers.
d o n ' t automatically forsake the latter at the beginning of
your career.
Freelancing
By the way, w h e n you land a job or internship, be
s u r e you h a v e a w r i t t e n u n d e r s t a n d i n g at the begin-
n i n g a b o u t the o w n e r s h i p of your negatives. Try to Freelancing is o n e of the toughest routes for the p h o t o
w o r k o u t s o m e t h i n g so t h e n e g s will r e v e r t to you journalist to follow. If you choose this route, you must
after t h e p a p e r is d o n e with them. Your pictures rep- be a business person as well as a photographer, and you
resent your professional history, and you shouldn't let will probably spend more time on the business side of
t h e m sit in a file f o r a f e w years only to end up in the photography than with your camera.
trash. If the p a p e r insists on keeping the material, ask O n e c o m m o n m i s c o n c e p t i o n is that all you have
f o r a w r i t t e n a g r e e m e n t giving you a c c e s s to m a k e to d o is send your portfolio to m a j o r magazines and
prints for your o w n use. w a i t f o r t h e m to call w i t h an a s s i g n m e n t . N o t h i n g
could be farther from reality. Magazine editors have al-
ready dealt with a h u n d r e d p h o t o g r a p h e r s w h o s e skills
Office Politics
are proven, and editors are unlikely to call on an un-
T h e r e are s o m e things you might want to keep in mind k n o w n photojournalist. T h e r e is a way, h o w e v e r , to
on your first job or internship. In school, you may be get on the p r e f e r r e d list.
used to having your work run the way you w a n t it to
Robert Gilka, f o r m e r director of p h o t o g r a p h y for
and b e i n g a b l e t o a p p r o a c h t h e e d i t o r d i r e c t l y and
National Geographic, has said that w e are u p to our
argue about a point. Professional reality is often quite
necks in p h o t o g r a p h e r s but only u p to o u r ankles in
different. As the n e w kid on the staff, you'll be watched
ideas. There lies the key to success as a freelancer. If
closely and you might h a v e less f r e e d o m t o e x p r e s s
you can c o m e u p with good ideas that editors can use,
y o u r o p i n i o n s than y o u did o n y o u r c a m p u s p a p e r .
you'll eventually sell those ideas and the pictures that il-
W h e n an e d i t o r asks y o u to shoot a p h o t o that you
lustrate them.
think is a cliche, d o n ' t argue or try to be a camera hot-
shot. Shoot the p h o t o and then try o n e your o w n way Start by researching the publications you w a n t to
Be aware of the chain of c o m m a n d and move cautiously shoot for to see w h a t types of stories they cover. Look
within it. Don't bypass your immediate supervisor un- at at least o n e years' w o r t h of issues. T h e n find some-
less the issue is w o r t h risking your job for. Also, there thing they haven't covered and suggest it to the editor.
are sometimes t w o different structures, the official o n e
and the unofficial one. T h e old-timers might see y ou as Querying the Editor
a threat, so be p r e p a r e d to prove yourself through the When you have an idea you think would be of interest
quality of your work. to a publication, send a query letter. Catch the editor's
attention with the first sentence, and briefly outline the
Most i m p o r t a n t , c h o o s e your battles. Don't fight story Consider writing the first paragraph of the letter
for every shot. Editors will b u t c h e r some of your pho- as you w o u l d the lead of the story. Send a couple of
tos and reject s o m e of y o u r g o o d ideas. Unfortunately . photos if they are available.
 Most cclii' >!"s are weighed d o w n with mail, so d o n ' t money for you over the years. W h e n you grant usage
burden this person with more than a half dozen photos. rights to a publication, be sure the editor understands
Be sure to provide a stamped, self-addressed envelope the rights involved. T h e ASMP has useful forms available
for ivpl\ and the return of your work. Don't forget for this p u r p o s e . The c o m m o n rights granted are 'one-
this np rt;tnt detail, since editors are not bound by ei- time rights," w h i c h means the publication can use the
ther thies or law to return unsolicited material. p h o t o o n c c in a particular issue. Additional uses must
s
v;.i/ines take s o m e time to answer; six to eight be paid for.
v is about normal. While waiting, k e e p working on T h e business of freelance photography is a compli-
•: hi ! ideas for o t h e r magazines. Freelancing is a lot like cated o n e filled with perils for the uninitiated. Unfortu-
going fishing. You'll have to t h r o w a lot of bait into the nately, there is not space here for a detailed discussion
w a t e r , and >ou"II get a f e w nibbles. O n c e in a w h i l e of rights, rates, and business practices. If you w a n t to
you'll get a strike. But unlike fishing, don't t h r o w o n e b e c o m e a f r e e l a n c e p h o t o g r a p h e r , contact the ASMP
hook in at a time and then sit in the boat waiting while and c h e c k some of the business-oriented books listed in
the line floats d o w n s t r e a m . Treat ideas as a bulk com- the bibliography.
modity. Try to c o m e u p w i t h a f e w story ideas e v e n '
day. Not all will be salable, but the exercise will leave Copyright
you with a good collection at the end of each w e e k . Federal copyright law p r o t e c t s your w o r k f r o m being
Only a f e w of t h o s e have to be workable. used w i t h o u t your p e r m i s s i o n . U n d e r c o p y r i g h t law,
Also, the enterprising freelancer considers all possi- you retain control of your w o r k and collect the profits
ble m a r k e t s f o r p h o t o s , i n c l u d i n g g r e e t i n g c a r d s , you deserve. If you are o n t h e staff of a publication,
posters, product packaging, books, and audiovisual pro- your employer o w n s the work you produce, but all the
ductions. T h e list is almost endless. Consult the free- w o r k you d o as a freelancer can be copyrighted in your
lance market guides listed in the bibliography. name.
If you get an a s s i g n m e n t , m e e t t h e a g r e e d - u p o n Your w o r k is automatically c o p y r i g h t as s o o n as
d e a d l i n e . Pack y o u r w o r k s e c u r e l y , b u t d o n ' t m a k e you p r o d u c e it. For additional protection, mark it like
t h e c o n t a i n e r i m p o s s i b l e to o p e n . All p h o t o s m u s t this:
have c a p t i o n information, including n a m e s f o r recog-
nizable p e o p l e . In s o m e eases, you will n e e d model Copyright © by (photographer's name), 19
releases. Keep releases in your file. See c h a p t e r 14 for All Rights Reserved.
details o n releases. In the blank for the year, insert the year the w o r k
w a s created or first published. T h e term of a copyright
Payment ancl Rights is your lifetime plus 50 years. You can have a r u b b e r
Most publications pay freelancers w h e n the material is s t a m p made with small t y p e so t h e n o t i c e will fit on
published, but everything is negotiable and you might 3 5 m m slide mounts.
work out a different arrangement. Be sure you have a This notice is adequate p r o t e c t i o n in most cases,
written understanding about payment and rights to the but to collect damages from a copyright violation, you
material before agreeing to the assignment. O n e organi- must also register your copyright with the government.
zation that has w o r k e d hard in this area is the American You can get the necessary forms from the Register of
Society of Magazine Photographers. The ASMP publishes C o p y r i g h t s , L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s , W a s h i n g t o n , DC
several useful guides that include a thorough discussion 20559.
of c o m m o n b u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e s a n d s u g g e s t e d legal
forms. The ASMP's address is listed in the appendix. The Big Story
Publications usually pay in o n e of t w o ways: p e r If you suddenly found yourself at the scene of a major
day of shooting or p e r page of printed material. This is story—a large-scale disaster for e x a m p l e — w h a t would
known as the day/space rate. Photographers and editors you d o with the photos you took? If you marketed t h e m
should agree on both day and space rates and. ideally, p r o p e r l y , t h e y c o u l d be q u i t e p r o f i t a b l e , b u t if you
the photographer should be paid by w h i c h e v e r method didn't, you could end u p w i t h some great p h o t o s that
is higher. For example, s u p p o s e the day rate is $500 per go no farther than your portfolio.
day. and the space rate is $500 p e r page. If you worked H e r e ' s a ease history: In 1983 there w a s a strong
o n e day but the editor used t w o pages of photos, you'd earthquake in California's central valley that destroyed
get $ 1000, the rate for t h e t w o pages used. If the editor the business district of the small t o w n of Coalinga. The
used only a half page of photos, you'd get $500, the rate q u a k e struck in late afternoon, and several of my ad-
for o n e day of shooting. vanced students raced to the s c e n e (possibly setting a
As a freelancer, you should never sell photos. Rent n e w s p e e d r e c o r d for m o t o r c y c l e s in the p r o c e s s ! ) .
the rights to use them. Photographs often have lives far They w e r e able to shoot about four rolls of color shots
b e y o n d t h e i r original u s e a n d c a n c o n t i n u e to e a r n
Figure 1 5 - 5 This is o n e of the p h o t o s of the e a r t h q u a k e from the take d u e to a m a r k e t i n g mistake b y the
m e n t i o n e d in the text. Unfortunately, no sales w e r e m a d e p h o t o g r a p h e r . (Al Grillo)

before the sun went down. To the best of our know- One of my former students did just that after the 1989
ledge, this was the only color shot that first afternoon. San Francisco earthquake and made over SI0.000 from
The photographers called a major news magazine, the pictures.
and sent the unprocessed film there by air for the edi- You'd be wise to keep a list of such agencies in
tors to develop and examine. The magazine paid the your wallet just in case. Most agencies arc in New York,
p h o t o g r a p h e r s a small fee for this privilege. But the check your local library for the Manhattan Yellow Pages
canhquake happened on a Monday and the magazine's and contact some of the agencies listed for information.
deadline was Thursday. The editors sat on the pictures On stories with only local impact, call your newspa-
until the Thursday deadline and decided not to use any per's city or photo desk and tell them what you have.
of t h e shots. By then, all o t h e r potential customers Time is of the essence. Go straight to a telephone—do
needs had been filled by other photographers, and the not process your film first. Keep in mind typical news-
story became history. paper deadlines. Most morning papers make a prelimi-
The students' mistake was in sending the photos to nary decision on news photos by late afternoon of the
the wrong spot. By sitting on the shots until the story previous day. T h e front page is usually p l a n n e d by
was dead, the magazine kept them out of competitors 6:00 P.M. or so. and unless your shot is a major story, it
hands. However, if the students had sent the photos to will probably be too late to consider after that. (After-
an agency such as those described in c h a p t e r 1 the noon papers make their final decisions around noon.)
shots would have been offered to many outlets instead As the day moves into evening, the magnitude of the
of one. and t h e international marketing expertise of t h e event must increase for it to warrant a change in the pa-
agency could have brought more profit to the students per's decisions, but make no presumptions. Give them
(a)
Figure 1 5 - 6 If the p h o t o g r a p h e r has o b t a i n e d m o d e l
releases, p h o t o g r a p h s s u c h as these h a v e potential as
stock i m a g e s b e c a u s e they c o u l d b e u s e d in m a n y
contexts. There is little to d a t e t h e m or tie t h e m to a s p e c i f i c
event. ((a.b):Thor Swift; (c):Gary Kazanjian/Hanford Sentinel) (c)

the c h a n c e to decide. Before delivering the film, be sure and markets that the p h o t o g r a p h e r could never reach
you have an u n d e r s t a n d i n g about the rights sold, the on his or h e r o w n . On the o t h e r hand, the agency takes
payment, and the credit line. about half of the p r o c e e d s as its commission, so t h e
p h o t o g r a p h e r must keep producing a volume of mate-
Photo Agencies rial in order to profit.
As m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 1, t h e r e are p h o t o agencies One of the biggest letdowns to me w h e n I started
that deal with f r e e l a n c e r s f o r a s s i g n m e n t s and stock in p h o t o g r a p h y w a s t h e realization that t h e a g e n c y
photos. Agencies match clients' n e e d s with photogra- business deals in p h o t o s almost as a bulk commodity.
phers talents or act as sales brokers for material already T h e 10 tcrrific p h o t o s I had struggled to make, and was
produced by the photographers. Some agencies empha- so p r o u d of, w e r e insignificant in the s h a d o w of a pic-
size breaking news; others concentrate on in-depth cov- ture file of three million. T o succeed with an agency,
e r a g e or single p h o t o s t h a t are not b o u n d to a t i m e you need to submit n e w material on a regular basis and
e l e m e n t Be c a u s e t h e a g e n c y h a n d l e s t h e b u s i n e s s think in terms of building u p several thousand p h o t o s
end—sales billing, filing, and so o n — t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r before you will receive any significant income. If your
can s p e n d m o r e t i m e m a k i n g p i c t u r e s . F u r t h e r , t h e agency sells a p h o t o for $150 and takes a typical 50
agency usually has access to a large n u m b e r of clients p e r c e n t c o m m i s s i o n , you w o n ' t pay m u c h rent with
the remaining $75. i don't warn igc you from The exact format isn't as important as the photos them-
this avenue, but I do want you to have ;» realistic idea selves II you have to make excuses or explanations,
of what it takes to succeed. then an overhaul is necessary
A vital part of your training is an internship where
Summary you can work under real conditions and get feedback
on your work. We used to call it OJT (on-the-job train-
ing) Start applying for summer spots in early winter by
To be successful as a photojournalist, you must be more
contacting the papers you'd like to work for.
than a photographer. Technique is necessary, but mam
people have that and aren't good photojournalism. You Your first job probably will be on a small paper
need confidence and a broad perspective on the world, where you'll be able to refine your skills and exercise
and you must be sensitive and perceptive. Expand your considerable control over your work. Frustration about
interests into as many areas as you can. Don't just hang the misuse of your work goes with the territory, so be
around with other photographers, but get out into your sensitive to the office politics and avoid rolling out the
community. Read. The daily newspaper is a must, but heavy artillery for every problem.
so are the interpretive journals that provide depth and If you are t e m p t e d to try f r e e l a n c i n g , be fore-
perspective on events, and so is the literature that ex- warned that this is a tough route to follow. In the begin-
plores the fundamental questions of life. ning. assignments for major magazines will be the
exception, not the rule. You'll need as good a business
Take a good look in the mirror. Photojournalism re-
sense as a photographic one and probably some other
quires certain personality traits; curiosity, tenacity, and
source of income until you are established.
an ability to deal with people arc high on the list. If you
aren't comfortable approaching strangers with your
camera, then perhaps photojournalism isn't the photo- Endnote
graphic specialty for you.
As you grow, get feedback from others on your 1. A computerized list of photography programs and
work. Being a photojournalist is a lot like being an ath- courses offered in the U.S. has been compiled by
lete or a musician. You must practice even' day. Prof. Howard Le Vant at Rochester Institute of
Your portfolio represents your talents. Of course it Technology, 1 Lomb Memorial Drive. Rochester,
should contain only your best images, but it should NY, 14623- Your instructor can contact Professor
b e flawless in t e c h n i q u e and p r e s e n t a t i o n as well. Le Vant for information.
 c h a p t e r

\ 16 )

A Brief History of
Photojournalism
by Beverly M. Bethune*

OUTLINE

E s t a b l i s h i n g Roles i n New Tools

t h e 19th Century German Magazines
Capturing the Image T h e 1930s
Putting the Processes to Use
N e w s p a p e r Photojournalism
Documentarians and Journalists in the 1930s
Emergence of the Photojournalist American Picture Magazines
Transition Years The Farm Security Administration
Social Documentary War
W o m e n Become Photographers Troubled Decades
Jimmy Hare
Magazines Weaken
National Geographic
Was Photojournalism Dead?
T h e 1920s
P h o t o j o u r n a l i s m Revived
The Battle of the Tabloids W h a t ' s Next?

" T H E Q U E S T I O N IS N O T W H A T T O P I C T U R E N O R W H A T C A M E R A T O U S E . E V E R Y

P H A S E OI O U R TIME A N D O U R S U R R O U N D I N G S H A S VITAL S I G N I F I C A N C E A N D A N Y

C A M E R A LN G O O D REPAIR IS A N A D E Q U A T E I N S T R U M E N T . T H E J O B IS T O K N O W

E N O U G H A B O U T T H E S U B J E C T MATTER T O F I N D ITS S I G N I F I C A N C E IN ITSELF A N D IN

55
R E L A T I O N T O ITS S U R R O U N D I N G S , ITS T I M E , A N D ITS F U N C T I O N .

— R O Y STRYKKR. ADMINISTRATOR O F THE F S A DOCUMENTARY PROJECT

' T h e author is an associate professor of journa ism and mass communication at the University of Georgia
 a b l i s h i n g R o l e s i n t h e 1 9 t h Century'

ong the- earliest portrayals of a p h o t o g r a p h e r in liter-

ature was that of Holgrave in The House of the Seven
Cubles. a novel w r i t t e n by N a t h a n i e l H a w t h o r n e in
18^ 1. This grave and earnest young daguerreotypist was
H w t h o r n e s vision of the man of the future, a blending
cientist and artist, of technical and creative skills. "I
make pictures out of sunshine," Holgrave said.
Today s photojournalists have fulfilled Hawthorne's
vision and e x t e n d e d it to include not only the roles of
scientist and artist, but also of documentarian and jour-
nalist. T h e y h a v e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p h y s i c a l
sciences—chemistry and the physics of light and optics.
They bring to their work the creative eye of the artist,
often in split-second situations. They d o c u m e n t life on
F i g u r e 1 6 - 1 N i e p c e ' s earliest existing p h o t o g r a p h ,
this planet, exploring to its farthest reaches, s h o w i n g
m a d e in 1826. (Gernsheim Collection. Harry Ransom Humanities
vast audiences social and environmental conditions. Fi- Research Center University of Texas at Austin)
nally. they are journalists, r e c o r d i n g the h a p p e n i n g s ,
both large and small, of the age. Few other professions
d e m a n d that their practitioners p e r f o r m such a multi-
of the w o r l d beyond the lens. Increasing demand for a
plicity of roles.
lasting and replicable image spurred both artists and sci-
Although photography is only some 150 years old— entists to w o r k on the problem.
and photojournalism is younger still—its history is rich in O n e w a s a F r e n c h m a n . J o s e p h N i c e p h o r e Niepce,
significant people and events. To cover such a history ad- w h o w o u l d b e c o m e t h e first p e r s o n to fix an image
equately in the space allotted here is impossible. At best, permanently. A gentleman inventor, Niepce b e c a m e in-
w e can present only a f e w highlights and urge interested t e r e s t e d in l i t h o g r a p h y b u t c o u l d n o t d r a w , so h e
readers to seek more detailed information elsewhere. b e g a n to e x p e r i m e n t to see if he could obtain views
photographically.
Capturing the Image By the early 1820s he had found a method to make
T h e i n v e n t i o n of p h o t o g r a p h y d r e w on t h e observa- a p e r m a n e n t image obtained from his camera obscura.
tions, dreams, inventions, and failures of many p e o p l e He c o a t e d a light-sensitive b i t u m e n m i x t u r e o n t o a
across centuries. Ancient Greeks understood that light glass, pewter, o r c o p p e r plate and e x p o s e d it through
rays p a s s i n g t h r o u g h a tiny p i n h o l e w o u l d f o r m an his camera for eight hours. W h e r e light struck the plate,
image. In his study of optics in the 10th century, Arab t h e m i x t u r e h a r d e n e d . W h e n the e x p o s u r e w a s fin-
mathematician Alhazen of Bazra observed inverted im- ished. Niepce washed the plate in lavender oil. which
ages of o u t d o o r scenes on the walls of darkened tents. removed the soft, u n e x p o s e d (and still light-sensitive)
T h e images w e r e c r e a t e d by light e n t e r i n g t h r o u g h mixture and left the hardened image, a relief negative.
small holes in the tent walls. T h e only surviving picturc made by Niepce is dated
These darkened tents or rooms w e r e called "cam- 1826. There is some evidence, h o w e v e r , that this was
eras obscura." or "dark chambers," and by the Renais- not his first success; he may have made s o m e perma-
sance they w e r e well k n o w n . Leonardo da Vinci nent photographs as early as 1822.
p r o d u c e d a drawing of a camera o b s c u r a in his note- Although Niepce was always a p o o r businessman
books. Artists and draftsmen used the device as a tool, a n d in n e e d of m o n e y , h e k e p t t h e d e t a i l s of t h e
tracing the image p r o d u c e d on the wall. process secret. So in 1826. w h e n he received a letter
At first the camera w a s actually a room, a portable f r o m Louis D a g u e r r e asking a b o u t N i e p c e ' s e x p e r i -
room one could erect quickly w h e r e v e r it was n e e d e d . m e n t s a n d telling a b o u t his o w n . N i e p c e at first re-
But it soon shrank to a m o r e practical size, first as a s p o n d e d warily. D a g u e r r e w a s a Paris artist and
sedan chair and then as a two-foot b o x with a lens on e n t r e p r e n e u r , already f a m o u s for his creation of the
o n e end and a sheet of frosted glass on the other. With Paris Diorama, a vast building c o n t a i n i n g e n o r m o u s
this small box. the image cast on the glass by the lens paintings so real that visitors sometimes thought they
could be seen outside the camera. w e r e structures inside the building.
Of course the image made in the camera obscura Money problems and illness overtook Niepce, how-
was not permanent, merely an upside-down projection ever. and after three years of cautious c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
w i t h Daguerre, h e agreed t o a pa With i m p r o v e m e n t s to lenses and the daguerreo-
tributing his invention and Daguerre ontri still type process, portraiture b e c a m e a principal direction
experimental camera obscura, as well as his youth and of photograph) Answering a long-felt need f o r c h e a p e r
cntrepreneurship. Niepce died in 1833 before he could portraits than those d o n e in oils by the painters of the
reap any reward for his work. day. there w e r e 86 portrait galleries in New York City
Daguerre, on the o t h e r hand, made a fortune Ik- by 1853-
worked on Niepce's invention until he had perfected a French author and caricaturist C.aspard Felix Tourna-
process that he modestly named the daguerreotype. An- chon, known as Nadar, became a master of the collodion
n o u n c e m e n t of the process in 1839 created a sensation wet-plate process and made portraits of most of the intel-
T h e day after the a n n o u n c e m e n t , Daguerre published a ligentsia of Paris. Using the same process, Julia Margaret
79-page manual explaining the process, and the edition Cameron made dynamic photographs of her illustrious
sold out in a f e w days. Within a year it had been trans- friends in England. T h e work of these and o t h e r early
lated into many languages and printed in all the capitals portraitists bring to life for us the people of this era.
of Europe and in N e w York City. Daguerre's greatest
In addition to portraiture, photographers made im-
c o n t r i b u t i o n to p h o t o g r a p h y — p e r h a p s e v e n greater
ages of l a n d s c a p e s and a r c h i t e c t u r e . They p r o d u c e d
than his p e r f e c t i o n of N i e p c e ' s invention—may have
photographs of their travels to faraway, exotic places. A
b e e n this swift, w o r l d w i d e dissemination of information
group of artists, both professional and amateur, devel-
on the n e w science of photography.
oped a pictorial photography in the romantic tradition.
T h e b e a u t y of the d a g u e r r e o t y p e and Daguerre's C o n f l i c t i n g v i e w s f r o m t h i s d i v e r s i t y of d i r e c t i o n
skill at marketing it distracted the public from its most spawned a debate on the merits of photography as a n
obvious weakness: each photographic plate comprised that would last a century.
the finished image and could not be replicated. It was
an Englishman, William Henry Fox Talbot, w h o laid the Docunwntarians and Journalists
true f o u n d a t i o n f o r m o d e r n p h o t o g r a p h y with his in- The term documentary photography is vague and defies
v e n t i o n of t h e p a p e r n e g a t i v e f r o m w h i c h m u l t i p l e precise definition. The Life Library of Photography calls
prints could be made. The n u m b e r of people w h o could it "a depiction of the real world by a photographer w h o s e
v i e w a single image was increased exponentially. intent is to communicate something of importance—to
Fox Talbot a n n o u n c e d his negative-positive process m a k e a c o m m c n t — t h a t will b e u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e
in 1839 only days after Daguerre's preliminary report viewer."
had b e e n released. Most of the public was already so en- That is a modern definition, but modern documen-
thralled by the daguerreotype that they virtually ignored tary evolved over a c e n t u r y and had its roots in early
the p a p e r negative. Of those w h o did take notice, many p h o t o g r a p h e r s as r e c o r d e r s . T h e y r e c o r d e d b o t h
felt t h e process was inferior, that the image from the the familiar—family, friends, and community—and the
negative w a s unacceptablv soft. unfamiliar—distant, and exotic places, and events. T h e
Neither of the initial photographic processes had a c a m e r a preserved the family history and b r o u g h t
long life. In 1851, British sculptor and p h o t o g r a p h e r the world into the home. It saw more than the human
Frederick Scott Archer invented the collodion wet-plate eye. w h i c h tends to see selectively, and. to t h e
p r o c e s s , w h i c h r e p l a c e d t h e d a g u e r r e o t y p e and t h e 19th-century mind, the camera's documents w e r e literal
p a p e r n e g a t i v e , a n d w a s t h e reigning p h o t o g r a p h i c recordings of truth.
process for more than 30 years. In addition to shortening P h o t o g r a p h i c d o c u m e n t a t i o n of n e w s events oc-
e x p o s u r e time to several seconds, it produced on glass c u r r e d as early as 1842, a n d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g ,
plates photographs of fine detail and great tonal beauty. n e w s p a p e r s w e r e interested in publishing sueh pho-
t o g r a p h s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e w a s n o m e t h o d of
Putting the Processes to Use t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e i m a g e directly to t h e p r i n t e d p a g e
As s o o n as the n e w p h o t o g r a p h i c processes w e r e an- until the last quarter of the 19th c e n t u r y , so newspa-
n o u n c e d , scientists and artists everywhere began to use p e r s e m p l o y e d "sketch artists" to c o p y p h o t o g r a p h s
and perfect t h e m , adapting the technology to their in- o n t o w o o d e n o r m e t a l p l a t e s for r e p r o d u c t i o n . By
terests and skills. Among the first Americans to use the midcentury some newspapers frequently published
daguerreotype p r o c e s s was Samuel F. B. Morse, a New p i c t u r e s such as railroad w r e c k s , b u r n i n g buildings,
York University professor and inventor of the telegraph parades, and o t h e r events. T h e p h o t o g r a p h e r had be-
Morse not only made daguerreotypes, but he also taught c o m e a journalist, visually d o c u m e n t i n g t h e occur-
the process to others, including Mathew B. Brady. Brady rences of the time f o r publication.
then o p e n e d his o w n studio w h e r e he made portraits of News photographs for h o m e viewing could be pro-
m a n y w e l l - k n o w n Americans. Brady w o u l d go on to d u c e d by m e a n s other than newspapers, h o w e v e r . In
greater fame as a Civil War photographer the 1850s a binocular camera was invented for making
F i g u r e 1 6 - 2 D e a d C o n f e d e r a t e s h a r p s h o o t e r at the foot of Little R o u n d T o p
G e t t y s b u r g , b y A l e x a n d e r G a r d n e r . (Alexander Gardner/From the collections of the
Library of Congress)

stereo pictures, and f e w h o m e s w e r e without a stereo- with official credentials to cover the Crimean War. With
scope and slides for viewing. Factories capable of pro- him w e r e an aide, all his p h o t o g r a p h i c supplies, cam-
d u c i n g t h o u s a n d s of s t e r e o g r a p h s a d a y w e r e in eras. four horses, and a wagon that w o u l d be his dark-
operation, some commissioning p h o t o g r a p h e r s to shoot room. W h e n he returned to England m o n t h s later, he
n e w s events as well as the usual views of landscapes had more than 300 negatives of battlefield scenes and
and architecture. portraits. 77)e Illustrated London News published w o o d
Cartes-de-visite, small p h o t o g r a p h s t h e size of a engravings made from the most interesting of these, and
standard visiting card, w e r e also i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r . exhibitions of the prints w e r e held in London and Paris.
They w e r e made by a camera with four lenses, capable Fenton may not have been the first to d o c u m e n t a
of producing eight small photographs on a single plate. war. Daguerreotypes are said to have b e e n made of the
Although t h e s e p h o t o g r a p h s w e r e portraits, they fre- Mexican War in 1846. but n o n e has b e e n found, and
quently w e r e of persons involved in the n e w s and could Fenton is the first battlefield p h o t o g r a p h e r w h o s e work
be mass p r o d u c e d . Within a w e e k after C o n f e d e r a t e is k n o w n .
troops u n d e r P. G. T. Beauregard attacked Fort Sumter, T h e Civil War in America w a s r e c o r d e d by many
for example. E. & H. T. Anthony Co. in N e w York w a s photographers, the most famous of w h o m was Mathew
p r i n t i n g and distributing daily m o r e than a t h o u s a n d Brady, already well known as a portraitist. He had made
cartes-de-visite of the Union c o m m a n d e r at the fort. a portrait of Abraham Lincoln that w a s the president's
It was a n e w s p a p e r , h o w e v e r , that published the favorite, and at the outbreak of the war. Brad)' called on
first battlefield photographs, made by British photogra- his favor to ask for federal funds to cover the conflict.
p h e r Roger Pernor, In 1855 Fcnton arrived in Balaclava Although President Lincoln refused, he did give Brady
Figure 1 6 - 3 Ruins of R i c h m o n d , Virginia, from the
B r a d y Collection. M a t t h e w B r a d y a n d his staff m a d e
t h o u s a n d s of p h o t o g r a p h s of the war. the b u l k of w h i c h
w e r e s o l d to the g o v e r n m e n t w h e n B r a d y w a s s t r a p p e d by
the financial p a n i c in 1873. (The Brady Collection/From the
National Archives)

the w o r l d ' s first press pass: "Pass Brady—A. Lincoln."

signed on the back of Brady's business card.
After losing his e q u i p m e n t and almost losing his life
Figure 1 6 - 4 P h o t o g r a p h y also d o c u m e n t e d the
at the first Battle of Bull Run. Brady left photographing
w e s t w a r d e x p a n s i o n . Timothy O'Sullivan m a d e this shot of
the rest of the w a r to his assistants: Alexander Gardner,
the ruins at C a n y o n De Chelly in N e w M e x i c o in 1873.
Cieorge Barnard, Timothy O'Sullivan, and others. In all,
(Timothy O'Suflivan/Frorn the National Archives)
t h e y t o o k s o m e 7 0 0 0 p h o t o g r a p h s , m a n y of w h i c h
a p p e a r e d in n e w s p a p e r s as w o o d e n g r a v i n g s a n d
l i t h o g r a p h illustrations with t h e credit line: "From a field, p h o t o g r a p h e r s had to have t h e i r d a r k r o o m s at
p h o t o g r a p h by Mathew Brady." h a n d — h e n c e the large w a g o n that followed Fen ton.
War w a s not t h e only subject for the early docu- Brady, Jackson, and other working photographers over
m e n t a r i a n s . G a r d n e r , O'Sullivan and o t h e r Civil War mountains, deserts, and battlefields. The slow e x p o s u r e
p h o t o g r a p h e r s d o c u m e n t e d the westward expansion in times of the plates required a camera on a tripod and
t h e l a t t e r p a r t of t h e c e n t u r y . A r t i s t - p h o t o g r a p h e r precluded action photographs.
William H e n r y J a c k s o n p h o t o g r a p h e d t h r o u g h o u t the Then in 1871. English physician Richard Leach Mad-
West, taking the first p h o t o g r a p h s of the Yellowstone d o x invented a dry plate process using a gelatin emul-
area. He made a catalog of 12 Yellowstone images, then sion, and in 1878 another Englishman, Charles Bennett,
hand-printed e n o u g h of the catalogs to p u t o n e c o p y on i m p r o v e d t h e p r o c e s s to a l l o w e x p o s u r e t i m e s of
the desk of even 1 U.S. senator. T h e p u r p o s e was to per- 1/25 second. The wet plate was obsolete, the traveling
suade Congress to set aside the Yellowstone area as the d a r k r o o m w a s discarded, and the tripod b e c a m c op-
c o u n t r y ' s first national park. tional. Photographers' shots w e r e limited only by the
n u m b e r of p l a t e s they could carry, and they did not
even have to process their o w n film.
Emergence of the Photojournalist
Although in the late 19th century the stage seemed set The second invention that made the photojournalist
f o r p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t s , t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e on the s c e n e possible was George Eastman's 1889 invention of flexi-
awaited several inventions. First was the invention of ble, transparent film. This invention made it feasible to
dry film. The collodion wet-plate process had shackled roll u p a large piece of film in a camcra and make a
p h o t o g r a p h e r s to their d a r k r o o m s b e c a u s e t h e plate n u m b e r of e x p o s u r e s on a single strip.
had to be kept wet with the highly volatile collodion Both inventions gave photographers speed and mo-
m i x t u r e in o r d e r to be light-sensitive So even in the bility. necessary attributes of photojournalism. The third
invention / the p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s work directly on the Social Documentary
printed i w i t h o u t t h e helping h a n d of t h e artist. The time w a s ripe for the social reformers w h o formed
This \ ' lialftonc process, so called because it en- the b a c k b o n e of the Progressive movement, and jour-
abk - presses to re-create the gray t o n e s in a nalists w e r e a m o n g the r e f o r m e r s . In fact, historian
p ; i i T h e p h o t o g r a p h is c o p i e d t h r o u g h a Richard Hofstadter says.
a breaks the image into dots on an engraving
ue dots p r o d u c e the s h a d o w areas of the pho- To an extraordinary d e g r e e the w o r k o f t h e Progressive
m o v e m e n t rested u p o n its journalism. T h e fundamental
>h. small dots p r o d u c e t h e highlight areas and a
critical a c h i e v e m e n t o f American Progressivism w a s the
ety of in-between-sized dots p r o d u c e the "halftones"
b u s i n e s s o f e x p o s u r e , and journalism w a s the chief
of gray.
o c c u p a t i o n a l s o u r c e of its creative writers. It is hardly an
The process was the invention of photo-mechanical exaggeration to say that the Progressive mind w a s
expert Stephen Horgan, w h o w o r k e d for the New York characteristically a journalistic mind and that its
Daily Graphic In 1873, on the last page of the Decem- characteristic contribution w a s that o f the socially
ber 2 issue of the Graphic, there appeared a picture of r e s p o n s i b l e reporter-reformer.
an imposing building. O n another page of the issue an
a n n o u n c e m e n t said: One such reporter-reformer was Danish immigrant
J a c o b Riis. w h o s e p o l i c e beat for the New York Sun
On t h e last p a g e will b e f o u n d a p i c t u r e o f Steinway and T/je Evening Sun e x p o s e d him to urban poverty.
Hall. . . . It is w o r t h y o f i n s p e c t i o n , t o o . as b e i n g the His position as a reporter, magazine writer, and author
first picture e v e r printed in a n e w s p a p e r directly from a of s e v e r a l b o o k s b e c a m e a p u l p i t f r o m w h i c h h e
p h o t o g r a p h . There h a s b e e n here n o intervention o f artist preached housing reform with an evangelical zeal.
or engraver, but the picture is transferred directly from a
Riis is generally credited with being the first Ameri-
negative by m e a n s o f o u r o w n p a t e n t e d p r o c e s s o f
can to use p h o t o g r a p h y as a tool for social reform. With
granulated photography.'
the invention of flash p o w d e r in 1887, w h i c h allowed
In spite of the significance of the n e w process, it him to take photographs at night and in other low-light
was years b e f o r e it came into general use. The u n i o n of c o n d i t i o n s , he and a g r o u p of p h o t o g r a p h e r f r i e n d s
w o o d c u t t e r artists w a s strongly o p p o s e d to p h o t o m e - began touring Manhattan's slums, usually after dark. At
chanical methods. Editors, p r o u d of the artistry of their considerable risk to their lives from startled and irate
w o o d c u t illustrations, refused t o consider the process, subjects, they took photographs inside tenements, flop-
in 1893. w h e n Horgan w a s working for the New York houses, cafes, and saloons. Later, w h e n Riis's friends
Herald. he suggested to o w n e r James Gordon Bennett. tired of the adventure, he bought his o w n camera and
Jr.. that they print some halftones. The suggestion got made the photographs himself.
him fired. T h e p h o t o g r a p h s w e r e c o p i e d by an artist at t h e
Horgan then moved to the New York Tribune, and Sun for reproduction in the n e w s p a p e r (which did not
by 1897. the Tribune's high-speed presses w e r e the first use halftones until 1900), made into lantern slides to ac-
in the country to use t h e halftone proccss regularly. By company Riis's lectures b e f o r e p h i l a n t h r o p i c g r o u p s ,
1910. the process was in widespread use. T h e scientist/ and r e p r o d u c e d in his books.
artist/documentarian could n o w also be a journalist. T h e o d o r e Roosevelt, s o o n to b e c o m e N e w York
Speed, mobility, and direct connection to the press City police commissioner, was so impressed by Riis's
n o w brought the various roles of the p h o t o g r a p h e r to- 1890 book. Ho w the Other Half Lives, he left a message
gether to create the 20th century photojournalist. at Riis's h o m e , saying, "I have read your b o o k , and I
have c o m e to help." Later, as police commissioner, he
j o i n e d Riis on fact-finding n o c t u r n a l forays into t h e
Transition Years slums. Roosevelt and o t h e r s m o u n t e d a r e f o r m cam-
paign that cracked d o w n o n s o m e of the worst abuses.
In the late 19th century, the United States was in the
When Riis felt he had enough photographs to suit
early Progressive era. a period of d e e p cultural crisis,
his purpose, he s t o p p e d making them. His reputation as
b r o u g h t a b o u t by a c c e l e r a t e d u r b a n a n d i n d u s t r i a l
a p h o t o g r a p h e r rests on 412 glass plate negatives, only
growth, by the disappearance of the frontier, and by a
about 250 of w h i c h most likely w e r e made by Riis. and
flood tide of European immigrants. Millions of p e o p l e
all of w h i c h w e r e made b e t w e e n 1887 and 1898.
were crowded into city t e n e m e n t s unfit for human habi-
tation Children e v e r y w h e r e — s o m e only a f e w y e a r s Social d o c u m e n t a r y a c h i e v e d g r e a t e r a e s t h e t i c
o l d — w e r e working in mines, fields, and mills. Crime, h e i g h t s w i t h its s e c o n d principal p r a c t i t i o n e r , Lewis
disease, and p r e m a t u r e death w e r e rampant. Hine, w h o brought a p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s eve and skill to the
genre. As a sociologist, he also brought an association
Figure 1 6 - 5 L o d g e r s in a c r o w d e d B a y a r d Street b e i n g the first A m e r i c a n to u s e p h o t o g r a p h y as a tool for
t e n e m e n t , b y J a c o b Riis. Riis is generally c r e d i t e d with social reform. (Jacob Rns/Museum of the City of New York)

with social s c i e n c e and academia, a relationship that series of articles and p h o t o g r a p h s in several issues of
would be found frequently in social documentary. the magazine. Almost a hundred Hine photographs ap-
Like Riis. Hine began his photography as an adjunct pear with the survey report.
to his other interests. He was teaching sociology at the Hine's work with children led him to a staff photog-
Ethical Culture School in N e w York City in 1903 w h e n rapher position with the National Child Labor Commit-
his s u p e r i n t e n d e n t gave him a camera and suggested he tee. a group lobbying strongly for effective child labor
use it in his teaching. He taught himself h o w to use the laws. For 13 years, as he traveled across t h e nation,
e q u i p m e n t and began photographing immigrants arriv- Hine m a d e vivid and e l o q u e n t pictures of children—
ing at Ellis Island as w e l l as b l a c k a n d o t h e r s l u m starving and exploited children working e v e r y w h e r e :
dwellers in N e w York and Washington. DC New England cotton mills. Southern cotton mills. Balti-
W h e n Hine left teaching in 1908 to devote full time m o r e c a n n e r i e s . California c a n n e r i e s . C o l o r a d o beet
to his photography, the N e w York Charities Organiza- fields. S o u t h e r n c o t t o n fields. N e w York t e n e m e n t
tion Society (COS), hired him as staff p h o t o g r a p h e r for sweatshops, and Pennsylvania coal mines. Many histori-
its m a g a z i n e Charities. Hine w a s w i t h the magazine ans credit Hine's photographs with a major share of the
w h e n t h e staff made the Pittsburgh Survev a pioneering committee's success in child labor reform.
undertaking of i m m e n s e scope, w h i c h analyzed social During World War I Hine recorded the war work of
conditions in that city. T h e survey was published as a the American Red Cross in Europe, and after the war he
 F i g u r e 16—6 A social reformer with a
came- . n e m a d e p h o t o s s u c h as
this ">t families H e also t u r n e d
his c i o n w o r k i n g c h i l d r e n a n d his
: • s e i p e d the p a s s a g e of c h i l d
. o _ ewis Hme. from the International
• Dtography at George Eastman

p h o t o g r a p h e d m e n at work in various settings, includ- Women Become Photographers

ing construction of the Empire State Building. He also Few w o m e n e n t e r e d the field of p h o t o g r a p h y b e f o r e
d o c u m e n t e d a T e n n e s s e e Valley Authority p r o j e c t f o r the 1880s. There w e r e strong attitudes about appropri-
g o v e r n m e n t a l agencies and w o r k e d briefly for t h e ate a c t i v i t i e s f o r w o m e n , a n d p h o t o g r a p h y ' s h e a v y
Works Progress Administration in 1936. e q u i p m e n t and c o m p l e x p r o c e s s e s p u t it outside t h e
But the world of the Progressive reformer was long limits of socially a c c e p t e d behavior. Those w h o w e r e
past by then, and w o r k was increasingly hard to find. active usually f o l l o w e d in t h e tradition of C o n s t a n c e
Hine died in great poverty and obscurity in 1940. His Fox Talbot, learning photography from their husbands
negatives w e r e left to the N e w York City Photo League, and acting as their assistants.
w h o gave the collection to George Eastman House in
However, the invention of dry plates, roll film, and
Rochester, N e w York w h e n the g r o u p disbanded.
smaller cameras—the same inventions that made possi-
T h e social d o c u m e n t a r y p h o t o g r a p h y of Riis and ble t h e m o d e r n photojournalist—made photography ac-
Hine w a s p h o t o g r a p h y w i t h a p u r p o s e , p h o t o g r a p h y cessible to all and attracted w o m e n in particular.
that s o u g h t to p e r s u a d e an a u d i e n c e to m a k e m u c h - Photography b e c a m e an acceptable activity, within
n e e d e d social c h a n g e s . It w a s a n o b l e legacy to t h e
limits, for w o m e n . Taking family s n a p s h o t s — s m i l i n g
20th-century photojournalist.
babies, gatherings of friends, and family occasions—
Figure 16-7 The Secret S e r v i c e a n d the c h i l d r e n of White H o u s e p h o t o g r a p h e r a n d first w o m a n p r e s s
T h e o d o r e Roosevelt, b y Frances J o h n s t o n , the unofficial p h o t o g r a p h e r . (Frances B. Johnston/From the collections of the
Library of Congress)

connected photography to the domestic scene and the At t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d

domain of w o m e n . Darkrooms and studios could be women w e r e working as professional photographers.
maintained at home. The camera was seen by society as A c e n t r a l figure a m o n g t h e m was t h e first w o m a n
one of t h e f e w mechanical devices a woman was capa- press p h o t o g r a p h e r , Frances B. J o h n s t o n . The only
ble of operating. daughter of wealthy, supportive parents in Washing-
Early o n G e o r g e Eastman s a w in t h e n a t i o n ' s ton, DC, J o h n s t o n studied art in Paris and afterward
women a vast market potential, and he stressed the sim- worked as an illustrator for a Washington newspaper.
plicity of the Kodak camera. Advertising in w o m e n ' s She was among t h e early illustrators w h o recog-
magazines, he aimed his message at the middle-class nized that photography would play a significant role in
woman with her new-found leisure bought by the In- journalism. She wrote to George Eastman to ask him to
dustrial Age. T h e "Kodak girl," w h o l e s o m e and all- recommend a camera suitable for press photography,
American, photographing everywhere, was featured in and he sent her one of his recently marketed Kodaks.
the advertisements and stretched the still-Victorian soci- After studying photography under the photography di-
ety's definition of "lady-like" behavior. rector at the Smithsonian Institution, she was ready to
launch her career in the early 1890s.
 Job- • - by using her distant relationship to He is also k n o w n tor the first published photograph
Preside- er Cleveland's wife to gain access to the of an airplane in flight. The Wright brothers adamantly
Whin From t h e r e s h e b e c a m e the unofficial refused to allow* witnesses to their flight e x p e r i m e n t s
Whi:e - p h o t o g r a p h e r , p h o t o g r a p h i n g n o t only long after the first successful flight in 1903. So in 1908
Ck ' .ni i also four o t h e r presidents and their fami- Hare and a group of reporters w e n t to North Carolina,
. W ashington photography representative of located the stretch of b e a c h at Kitty Hawk w h e r e the
< *a l\ tormed Bain N e w s Service, s h e shot the elite tests w e r e going on and waited in the bushes. When, to
c ishington as well as special events, such as the their amazement, the observers finally saw an airplane
ing of expositions and the signing of treaties. In take off. Hare was able t o get t w o quick shots, later
i '9 s h e p h o t o g r a p h e d aboard Admiral D e w e y ' s flag- published in Collier's.
ship as it returned triumphantly from the Philippines.
Johnston also d o c u m e n t e d American life as s h e saw National Geographic
it. p h o t o g r a p h i n g in mines, factories, rural areas, and Literally thousands of magazines, appealing to both gen-
schools for blacks and Indians. These w e r e not the dis- eral and specialized audiences, came and w e n t in the
turbing p h o t o g r a p h s of the Riis and Hine social docu- latter p a n of the 19th century. Many offered opportuni-
mentary tradition, however. Rather, they reflected the ties for the emerging photojournalists.
eye of the middle-class Victorian/Progressive female of Among the specialized magazines was National
the time. Geographic, f o u n d e d in 1888 by t h e National Geo-
Always supportive of o t h e r w o m e n . Johnston w r o t e graphic Society to disseminate geographic knowledge.
articles urging w o m e n to b e c o m e p h o t o g r a p h e r s and Early issues w e r e stuffy and overly scientific, scaring
c o r r e s p o n d e d with t h e m a n y p r o f e s s i o n a l s and ama- away more readers than they attracted. Eleven years later
teurs w h o wrote to h e r seeking advice and reassurance. the society was deeply in debt, and the magazine was on
In 1900 she organized an exhibition of p h o t o g r a p h s by the verge of bankruptcy. Then the society's president, in-
28 American w o m e n for the International Photographic ventor Alexander Graham Bell, hired his future son-in-
Congress of the Paris Exhibition. The s h o w established law, Gilbert H. Grosvenor, to rescue the operation.
the significance of w o m e n ' s w o r k as photographers. Grosvenor would lead the society and the magazine
Also active in these years was Jessie Tarbox Beals. A for 6 6 y ears. He turned the Geographic into a publica-
Massachusetts school teacher, Beals bought a camera for tion supported by member-subscribers, gave it a popular
S1.75 and began to use it to work for t e n e m e n t reform approach to science, and most importantly in photojour-
and for prevention of cruelty to animals. For a brief time nalism history, made it into a picture magazine over the
(1902-1904), she was a staff p h o t o g r a p h e r for the Buf- opposition of many of its scientist members.
falo Inquirer & Courier in New York state before s h e He c h o s e the halftone p r o c e s s so h e could run a
b e c a m e a freelancer. Her w o r k was published in N e w larger n u m b e r of photographs, w h i c h by 1908 made u p
York City newspapers and national magazines. more than half the magazine's pages. In 1910 the Geo-
graphic had its o w n p h o t o lab and began to pioneer the
Jimmy Hare use of color photographs, made at first by the Lumiere
In 1889, a colorful English p h o t o g r a p h e r named Jimmy- A u t o c h r o m e process.
Hare arrived in America. He w o u l d b e c o m e the first of
the 20th century's great war photographers and w o u l d
establish t h e s t e r e o t y p e of t h e s w a s h b u c k l i n g m a l e The 1920s
photojournalist/adventurer that exists today.
T h e decades around the turn of the century created the
Hare p h o t o g r a p h e d in N e w Y o r k f o r The Illus-
modern photojournalist. From the 1920s onward, it was
trated American. a publication that regularly used
h a l f t o n e s as early as 1896. Shortly a f t e r h e left t h e time for the photojournalist to grow, broaden, and pol-
American, t h e b a t t l e s h i p Maine b l e w u p in Havana ish skills acquired over a century .
harbor. Hare immediately signed on with Collier's mag-
The Battle of the Tabloids
azine as a special c o r r e s p o n d e n t to c o v e r the subse-
quent Spanish-American War. T h e frivolity of t h e Jazz Age masked d e e p social and
e c o n o m i c problems, some unsolved from the 19th cen-
H a r e s h o t t h e w r e c k a g e of t h e Maine, Teddy
tury. others created by a change in morals and a search
Roosevelt and his Rough Riders, and battlefields all over
for n e w directions. The publications of the nation w e r e
Cuba He used a light, hand-held, folding camera, and
a part of that mask, particularly with their photojournal-
12-exposure roll film, giving him greater speed and mobil-
ism. N e w s p a p e r s b e c a m e as p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h s e x .
ity than his colleagues w h o were still using heavy 5 x 7 -
crime, and entertainment as the rest of the nation was.
inch cameras During his long association with Collier's,
Prohibition brought rumrunners, speakeasy operators,
Hare also covered the Russo-Japanese War, the Mexican
and gangsters into the spotlight, and they made terrific
Revolution, the First Balkan War, and World War I.
c o p y and p i c t u r e s . So did t h e n e w H o l l y w o o d stars
R u d o l p h V a l e n t i n o , Fatty A r b u c k l c and Clara How
sports stars s u c h as Jack D e m p s e y , Bobby J o n e s , a n d
Babe Ruth, and celebrities like Charles Lindbergh
A n e w kind of n e w s p a p e r was born to provide this
kind of journalism, the tabloid. Its smaller size, which
made it easier to read on the subways, its extreme sen
sationalism, giant headlines, and lavish use of pictures
w e r e characteristic of t h e tabloid.
T h e first of these in America was the New York Il-
lustrated Daily News, w h i c h f o u n d its c i r c u l a t i o n
a m o n g the immigrant and poorly e d u c a t e d American-
b o m population of N e w York City. It was put on news-
stands w h e r e only f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e p a p e r s had sold
b e f o r e , and its p i c t u r e s sold t h e p a p e r to t h o s e w h o
could not read the English words.
In 1924 the News had the largest circulation in the
United States. That same year it was challenged by two
n e w tabs, t h e New York Daily Mirror and the New
York Daily Graphic. The Graphic quickly became the-
most notorious. Its reporters w r o t e first person stories to
be signed by persons in the news, and the stories carried
such lurid headlines as "He Beat Me—I Love Him and
"Boys Foil Death Chair; Mothers W e e p as Governor Halts
Execution; Would Have Kicked Off With a Grin." It was
the Graphic that invented the "Composograph," a faked
picture of w h a t the editors believed had taken place.
Figure 1 6 - 8 Chicago Tribune p h o t o g r a p h e r T o m
There w e r e tabloid stories and p h o t o s of a Broad-
H o w a r d s t r a p p e d a c a m e r a to his ankle a n d went to the
way p r o d u c e r giving a party featuring a nude dancing
execution of m u r d e r e s s Ruth S n y d e r p o s i n g as a reporter.
girl in a b a t h t u b of c h a m p a g n e , of the m u r d e r of a
W h e n the electricity w a s t u r n e d on, he carefully p u l l e d u p
p r e a c h e r and a singer in his choir, and of a wealthy real
his pant l e g a n d m a d e this e x p o s u r e . (N.Y. Daily News Photo)
e s t a t e m a n ( " D a d d y " ) a n d h i s 15-year-old b r i d e
( " P e a c h e s " ) f r o l i c k i n g o n a b e d w i t h Daddy saying,
"Woof, w o o f , I'm a goof!" New Tools

These p h o t o s w e r e t o p p e d by another murder case T w o improvements in e q u i p m e n t in the 1920s would

in w h i c h an art editor w a s killed by his wife and h e r m a k e p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t s " jobs easier. Most A m e r i c a n
corset salesman lover. T h e night before the execution of n e w s p a p e r photographers in the 1920s were using the
the wife, Ruth Snyder, in the electric chair, the Graphic 4 x 5-inch Speed Graphic camera, a medium-sized cam-
advertised: "Don't fail to read t o m o r r o w s Graphic. An era with a folding front and bellows, and film carried in
installment that thrills and stuns! . . . A w o m a n ' s final a holder, t w o shots to the holder. It was a bulky, heavy-
thoughts just before she is clutched in the deadly snare camera but was considered an improvement over the
that sears and burns and FRIES AND KILLS!" tripod-mounted. 5 x 7-inch glass plate cameras preva-
lent among the earliest photojournalists.
But it was the News that scooped them all. Photog-
raphers, though not reporters, w e r e banned from the ex- However, in Germany, t w o n e w cameras w e r e de-
ecution scene. So the News brought in Chicago Tribune veloped that eventually would revolutionize photojour-
p h o t o g r a p h e r Tom Howard, w h o was unknown to local nalism: the Leica and the Ermanox. Oscar Barnaek. a
a u t h o r i t i e s and n e w s p e o p l e . Posing as a writer, he scientist with the optical firm of E. Leitz, invented the
strapped a miniature camera to his ankle and ran a cable Leica in 1913- It was a high-quality small camera that
release up the inside of his trouser leg to his pocket. Just used a roll of 35mm movie film, and had a film-advance
as t h e clcctric c u r r e n t hit Snyder's body, he casually system similar to that of a movie camera and a lens that
lifted his trouser leg just enough to expose the lens and could be focused. World War I interrupted large-scale
make his shot. The photograph covered the front page production of the Leica, but it was marketed in 1923. It
of the News the next day and created a sensation. was not the first 35mm camera on the market, but it
was the first successful one.
T h e tabloids w e r e actually f e w in number, but all
w e r e sensational to some degree. It The same year the Leica was introduced to the pub-
i m p a c t that the Snyder p h o t o g r a p h w o u l d b e c o m e a lic, so was the Ermanox. It was a small, old-fasliioncd glass
symbol of the journalism of the 1920s. plate camera that had the fastest lens in the world at the
time, f/2 and, later, f/1.8.
 Figure 16-9 his candid style of
phot . as b e g u n by Erich
Salor : D specialized in
p h o t o g r a p h i n g dignitaries in a way that
. ' human qualities.
E"c: a 'omon/Magnum)

The small size of both cameras further advanced the The technique was s o m e w h a t an outgrowth of the
mobility of photojournalists and enabled t h e m to shoot S u n d a y r o t o g r a v u r e p a g e s b e g u n by t h e New York
less obtrusively. W i t h t h e h i g h - s p e e d lens of t h e Er- Times in 1914. Grouping most of the best p h o t o s to-
m a n o x . p h o t o g r a p h s could be m a d e indoors w i t h o u t gether on o n e page and using the special rotogravure
flash. Photographs could be more natural as subjects, un- p r o c e s s to p r i n t t h e m gave t h e Times, and later t h e
aware of the camera, w e n t about their usual business. o t h e r n e w s p a p e r s that a d o p t e d the process, better re-
The way was cleared for m o d e r n documentary style. p r o d u c t i o n . Most of t h e p h o t o g r a p h s on t h e p i c t u r e
Another 1920s improvement w a s the invention of p a g e w e r e unrelated, however.
the flash bulb. Flash p o w d e r , w h i c h had b e e n invented In an effort to c o m p e t e with the Berlin magazine,
in the late 1800s, had b e e n a continuing hazard for early the Miinchner Illustrierte Presse, a publication with a
photojournalists. T h e p o w d e r was p o u r e d into a flash m u c h smaller circulation, hired Stefan Lorant as a Berlin
pan and ignited, causing a cloud of s m o k e that made a editor. Lorant stole away m a n y of the Zeitung's best
s e c o n d p h o t o g r a p h impossible and left p h o t o g r a p h e r photographers and assigned topics to t h e m individually,
and subject gasping f o r air. P h o t o g r a p h e r s f r e q u e n t l y allowing t h e m to generate their o w n ideas but also sug-
suffered b u r n s and injuries; at least o n e lost a hand from gesting some himself.
the exploding p o w d e r . This a p p r o a c h resulted in the publication of stories
So, in spite of the fact that flash bulbs added bulk to shot entirely by o n e photographer. T h e pictures w e r e
the p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s bag, they w e r e clean, safe, and wel- published simply and naturally, without cropping them
come. Many photojournalists b e c a m e expert in creating into fancy shapes or using other layout gimmicks. There
dramatic images with multiple lights. was a lead p h o t o , run large, and several smaller photos
arranged for m a x i m u m unity and effect—a p h o t o story
German Magazines resembling those of t h e 1980s. Lorant's success in at-
Also developing in Germany, in addition to n e w photo- tracting good photographers and producing good p h o t o
graphic tools, w a s a n e w and robust photojournalism stories was reflected in the b u r g e o n i n g circulation of
that would profoundly affect the development of photo- the magazine.
journalism in America. These w e r e the p i c t u r e maga- T h e p h o t o g r a p h e r s d r a w n to Berlin by t h e s e and
zines. and their photographers w e r e a m o n g the first to other magazines represent an h o n o r roll of photojournal-
use the n e w cameras. ists: Felix Man, Wolfgang Weber, Martin Munkacsi, Al-
In 1928 the magazine with the largest circulation in fred Eisenstaedt, Robert Capa, Fritz Goro, Andre Kertesz,
the world w a s the Berliner Illustrierte Zeitung, noted for and t h e Gidal b r o t h e r s , Tim and Cieorg, w e r e a m o n g
the quality and journalistic impact of its p h o t o g r a p h s . them. Most would soon flee Nazi Germany. Some would
One technique of editor Kurt Korff and publishing direc- end up in the United States, w h e r e they played major
tor Kurt Szafranski was to create a primitive p h o t o essay, roles in developing American picture magazines.
a group of photos on o n e topic. But although each pho- One p h o t o g r a p h e r w h o did not survive the war was
tograph might have b e e n strong, frequently there was Erich Salomon, k n o w n as "the father of candid photog-
not a cohesive visual effect in the layout. raphy." He was a 42-year-old German lawyer in 1928
w h e n he purchased an Ermanox with .1 last lens, hid ii
Newspaper Photojournalism in the 1930s
in a briefcase, and secretly took p h o t o g r a p h s .it .1 sensa-
Yet throughout the hard days of the Depression, news-
tional m u r d e r trial. The p h o t o s sold so well that he be
p a p e r s t h r i v e d and g r e w fat a n d c o m p l a c e n t T h e
came a freelance p h o t o g r a p h e r
tabloids g r e w considerably m o r e s o b e r . N e w s p a p e r
Salomon specialized in p h o t o g r a p h i n g dignitaries photojournalism stagnated.
and heads of state, try ing to s h o w their human quali-
O n most n e w s p a p e r s the p h o t o staff w o r k e d di-
ties by catching them at unguarded m o m e n t s in meet-
rectly under the city editor, w h o rarely had any train-
ings and social f u n c t i o n s . He was not always w e l c o m e
ing in visual c o m m u n i c a t i o n His lack of expertise-
at t h e s e g a t h e r i n g s , and he d e v e l o p e d a n u m b e r of
showed in t h e p h o t o s he c h o s e and the way his selec-
ploys to get past the guards and get his p h o t o g r a p h s
tions w e r e displayed, usually in o n e or t w o c o l u m n s
o n c e h e w a s inside. He carried his camera in an arm
unless it w a s a sensational p h o t o . Assignments w e r e
sling, in hollowed-out books o r in a flower pot. O n c e
nearly always routine, most o f t e n t h e "grip-and-grin
he made a h o l e in the c r o w n of his derby hat for his
s h o t s of a w a r d p r e s e n t a t i o n s o r m u g s h o t s Strong
lens and carried his camera there. At formal diplomatic
n e w s p h o t o s w e r e trophies, w o n in the dog-eat-dog
m e e t i n g s h e w o r e a d i n n e r jacket or w h i t e tie and
w o r l d of the street, w h e r e attacks on p h o t o g r a p h e r s
tails, like the participants. An urbane man w h o spoke
had b e c o m e a serious problem.
several languages, he b l e n d e d in with his subjects. He
o f t e n stood several feet from his camera, using a long Considered merely technicians since the days of the
cable release and waiting for the candid m o m e n t . Fi- newspaper sketch artist, photographers were the second-
nally. his p r e s e n c e at state f u n c t i o n s b e c a m e custom- class citizens of the news operation. They had little or n o
ary. leading the F r e n c h p r e m i e r Aristidc Briand to say- formal education to help them forge ahead in the world
that n o o n e w r ould believe a m e e t i n g was i m p o r t a n t of word people. To make matters worse, in 1937, follow-
unless Salomon p h o t o g r a p h e d it. ing the sensational trial of Bruno Hauptmann for the kid-
napping and murder of Charles Lindbergh's young son.
In 1929 Salomon w e n t to the United States on as- p h o t o g r a p h e r s w e r e b a n n e d f r o m t h e nation's court-
s i g n m e n t for William R a n d o l p h Hearst. Pleased w i t h rooms by Canon 35 of the American Bar Association's
S a l o m o n ' s w o r k . Hearst o r d e r e d 50 E r m a n o x e s sent Canons of Judicial Ethics.
over f r o m G e r m a n y f o r his p h o t o g r a p h e r s . However.
Photographers, reporters, and famous writers from
Hearst f o u n d out it w a s the man. not the camera, that
around the world attended the Hauptmann trial in great
made the picture. Salomon used an Ermanox until 1932.
numbers, and the sheer size of the press, in addition to
w h e n he b o u g h t a Leica and a telephoto lens.
their lurid stories, helped to create the impression of a
Although Salomon w a s a J e w , he refused to leave "Roman holiday." However, it was only the photogra-
Germany until it w a s almost too late. He finally sought phers w h o w e r e accused of wild and obtrusive behavior
refuge in the Netherlands during World War II but was and flagrant invasion of privacy. Although these charges
betrayed by a Dutch Nazi. He and all his family , except would later prove false, the damage was done, and the
o n e s o n . P e t e r H u n t e r - S a l o m o n , w e r e k i l l e d at ABA's ruling stood for decades, as did the image of the
Auschwitz. T o t h e world, he left a legacy of remarkable press photographer.
photography. To future photojournalists. he left a new-
T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s
m e t h o d of p h o t o reportage.
Wirephoto network in 1935 and the United Press Tele-
p h o t o n e t w o r k in 1936 brought additional p h o t o s to
n e w s p a p e r pages, enabling the publications to present
The 1930s
p h o t o s of breaking news from many distant locations.
However, this n e w source of photos also made newspa-
Few decades have e n d e d with such an abrupt change as
pers less dependent on their o w n photographers. Fre-
did the 1920s. For most of 1929 America was prosper-
quently local p h o t o coverage suffered.
ous, optimistic, and wildly carefree. By early 1930 the
nation had plunged into an economic depression, abject
American Picture Magazines
poverty, and despair. T w o years later 34 million men.
w o m e n , and children—28 percent of the p o p u l a t i o n - While n e w s p a p e r p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m w a s languishing,
w e r e without any i n c o m e whatsoever. O n the road were magazine photojournalism came to the forefront, w h e r e
approximately t w o million persons, "dispossessed share- it would remain for decades. In November 1936, Henry
c r o p p e r s , f o r e c l o s e d f a r m e r s a b a n d o n i n g farm land Luce's Time. Inc.. published the first issue of Life, a
p a r c h c d by three summers of drought; ragged bands of weekly picture magazine, and it was an instant, enor-
youths w h o had graduated from school and could not mous success. In the first three years of the magazine,
find jobs—members of w h a t w a s called the l o c k e d out' the printers w e r e never able to p r o d u c e enough copies
generation." writes historian William Manchester. to meet the demand.
 usually a s s i g n e d to o n e p h o t o g r a p h e r and t h e final
p r o d u c t w a s that p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s vision. Using this sys-
tem. Life brought the p h o t o essay to its finest form.
In 1937 Look magazine w a s born. In the beginning
there w a s not m u c h resemblance to Life, e x c e p t that
both p u b l i s h e d pictures. Look w a s initially a cheese-
cake, Hollywood gossip magazine. Eventually, however,
it improved editorially and by the mid-1950s w a s out-
pacing Life in its presentation.
The influence of the picture magazines, especially
Life, on photojournalism w a s considerable. Working for
Life b e c a m e the highest goal f o r almost every photo-
journalist in the late 1930s. Yet as Life began publica-
tion. another group of photographers had gathered w h o
w o u l d equally i n f l u e n c e p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m and d e f i n e
modern social documentary photography.

The Farm Security Administration

l nder President Franklin Roosevelt's N e w Deal adminis-
tration. the Resettlement Administration, later renamed
the Farm Security Administration (FSA). was established
within the Department of Agriculture. It was created to
provide for the rehabilitation of h u n d r e d s of thousands
of destitute farm families w h o w e r e victims of both the
e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n a n d t h e n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s of
drought and dust storms. O n e of the first actions of the
n e w agency w a s to create the largest information staff
the nation's capital had ever seen, all to k e e p the gen-
eral public informed about the problems so many peo-
ple w e r e facing.

Heading the photographic p r o c u r e m e n t section

w a s C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y e c o n o m i c s i n s t r u c t o r Roy
Stryker. As a graduate student. Stryker had met Lewis
Figure 16-10 Life's first c o v e r . (Margaret Bourke-White/
Hine, w h o s e techniques had fascinated him. He brought
Life Magazine© 1936 Time Inc.)
many of Hine's ideas and a p p r o a c h e s to the FSA. Al-
though not a p h o t o g r a p h e r himself, he w o u l d prove to
Initially the magazine w a s patterned after the Ger- be a genius in selecting and guiding talent. The first per-
man picture magazines, in particular the Berliner Illus- son he hired was his o w n undergraduate teaching assis-
trierte Zeitung. w h o s e e d i t o r s Kurt Korff and Kurt tant. w h o s e p r i n c i p a l interest w a s physics. This w a s
Szafranski had left Germany and acted as consultants for Arthur Rothstcin. w h o set u p the lab for the FSA and
the n e w publication. Wilson Hicks of the Associated then b e c a m e o n e of its most important photographers.
Press was later hired as p i c t u r e editor, and he immedi- O t h e r p h o t o g r a p h e r s w h o worked for the FSA dur-
ately set his o w n stamp on the organization. ing its existence w e r e Walker Evans, J o h n Vachon, Carl
T o t h e original staff of p h o t o g r a p h e r s — M a r g a r e t M y d a n s , D o r o t h e a Lange. Russell Lee, Ben S h a h n ,
Bourke-White, w h o had p h o t o g r a p h e d for Fortune mag- T h e o d o r Jung. Paul Carter. Marion Post Wolcott, Jack
azine; Alfred Eisenstaedt, o n e of the early German maga- Delano, J o h n Collier, Jr., and Arthur Siegel. They would
zine p h o t o g r a p h e r s ; and Peter Stackpole and Thomas b e c o m e f a m o u s f o r t h e i r p h o t o g r a p h s of rural a n d
McAvoy—he added, by 1941. 40 more. Most of the best- small-town America, the sharecropper in the South, the
known photojournalists of the era would w o r k at some Okie immigrant in California, dust storms in the Mid-
time for Life, including Gordon Parks. W. Eugene Smith. west. and farming conditions even-where.
Eliot Elisofon. Robert Capa, David Douglas Duncan, and D o r o t h e a Lange w a s o n e of t h e most significant
many others. p h o t o g r a p h e r s of the g r o u p , and she w a s the o n e to
Hicks established a working operation that is still w h o m the others o f t e n turned for advice and opinions.
used by almost .til magazines that p r o d u c e p h o t o es- She d o c u m e n t e d the w e s t w a r d trek of migrant work-
says. Although the essay was the cooperative w o r k of ers driven from their land in the dust bowl of the Mid-
several p e o p l e — e d i t o r s and w r i t e r s — e a c h essay w a s w e s t t o t h e s q u a l i d t r a n s i e n t c a m p s in C a l i f o r n i a .
Figure 16-11 K n o w n as " M i g r a n t Mother this i m a g e has b e c o m e a s y m b o l
of the G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n Dorothea L a n g e p h o t o g r a p h e d the w o m a n a n d her
c h i l d r e n in California's Central Valley in 1936. (Dorothea Lange/From the collections
of the Library of Congress)
Figure 16-12 "Dust Storm. C ~ a r r o n County. 1936 N'r. la D o r o t h e a L a n g e ' s
p h o t o " f i g u r e 1 6 - 1 1 s t o o d for the h j m a n c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the D e p r e s s i o n , this
p h o t o b y A r t h u r Rothste " s y m b o ; i z e d the d e v a s t a t i o n of the !and.
-T r>jr Rc:"Sie " r'om :re collecvons c' Te Library of Congress/

J o h n Steinbeck w r o t e The Grapes of W rath after seeing Beyond reportage, they b e c a m e works of art. prized for
Lange's p h o t o g r a p h s , and t h e m o v i e m a d e f r o m t h e image as well as message. They significantly influenced
novel often imitates her images. succeeding generations of documentary photographers.
Her p h o t o g r a p h of a migrant m o t h e r may b e the
b e s t - k n o w n p h o t o g r a p h in the world. It is closely ri-
War
valed by Arthur Rothstein s p h o t o g r a p h of a farmer and
hi< rwo sons in an Oklahoma dust storm.
World W a r II brought a halt to e c o n o m i c depression in
In all. the FSA p h o t o g r a p h e r s made 2 " 0 . 0 0 0 nega-
the United States and gave a n e w impetus to photojour-
tive •» FSA p h o t o s w e r e r e p r o d u c e d in t h o u s a n d s of
nalism. Roy Stryker w a n t e d to send his entire FSA team
newspapers and magazines in the 1930s and had m u c h
to Europe. Instead, they w e r e incorporated into the Of-
t o <i with the p u b l i c ' s a c c e p t a n c e of the N e w Deal
fice of Strategic Serv ices, w h i c h would later b e c o m e the
farm - >gr.im< The first documentary p h o t o g r a p h s to
Central Intelligence Agency.
be kn wn n\ that name, they set the standards for mod-
ern s cial d can entary photography in their simplicity H o w e v e r , t h e r e w e r e many o t h e r p h o t o g r a p h e r s
and stark. p :gn.. :: realism. They increased knowledge w h o w o u l d roam both theaters of the w a r . some still
of public facts but the; also sharpened those facts with u n k n o w n , but o t h e r s already famous. Margaret
feeling and sens;::zed the intellect a b o u t actual life Bourke-White w a s t h e only foreign p h o t o g r a p h e r in
Russia in t h e s p r i n g and s u m m e r of 1941 w h e n t h e
Germans invaded the c o u n t n After P u r l Harbor she
w a s a c c r e d i t e d as an official I .S. Air Force photogra-
pher* and s h e f o l l o w e d t h e w a r from North Africa to
Italy and finally to Germany At the close of the war
s h e m a d e stark and horrifying p h o t o g r a p h s in the lib-
erated Nazi c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s .
In 1950 she w e n t to Korea to another war. On her
last night there s h e stayed in a tiny mountain village
that, u n k n o w n to her, was in the midst of an encephali-
tis epidemic. Not long afterward she discovered she had
Parkinson s disease, a degenerative ailment that turns
muscles and joints rigid. She may have contracted it as a
result of that stay in the Korean village. From the mid-
1950s until h e r death in 1971, photography had to be
largely put aside.
Robert Capa, w h o had begun his career on German
picture magazines, p h o t o g r a p h e d as a Paris-based free-
lancer during the Spanish Civil War. Working for Life
after America entered World War II, he covered most of
the important invasions and campaigns of that war. He
w a s at N o r m a n d y ' s O m a h a Beach on D-Day. scene of Figure 1 6 - 1 3 Liberation of B u c h e n w a l d . by Margaret
o n e of t h e bloodiest landings of the invasion. He shot Bourke-White. (Margaret Bourke-White/Ufe Magazine © Time Inc.)
h u n d r e d s of pictures there, most of which were lost in
a p r o c e s s i n g a c c i d e n t . In 1954 C a p a w a s killed in
French Indochina w h e n h e stepped on a land mine. He
was the first American correspondent killed in that con-
flict. w h i c h w o u l d later b e c o m e the Vietnam War.
Another important p h o t o g r a p h e r was noted French
p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t . d o c u m e n t a r y f i l m m a k e r , and artist
Henri Cartier-Bresson, w h o w a s captured near the be-
ginning of World War II and imprisoned by the Ger-
mans for three years. He finally escaped to work in the
Paris underground and. w h e n France was liberated, to
organize French p h o t o g r a p h e r s ' coverage of the Nazi
retreat. Cartier-Bresson "s c o n c e p t of "the decisive mo-
m e n t , " t h e instant within a s c e n e "'at w h i c h the ele-
ments in motion are in balance," became a standard for
photojournalists.
Probably t h e leading p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t of this cen-
tury. W. Eugene Smith, first made his name with his
World War II p h o t o g r a p h y for Life magazine. He was so
seriously w o u n d e d at O k i n a w a in the Pacific that he
t h o u g h t he w o u l d never be able to p h o t o g r a p h again.
Figure 16-14 Robert C a p a m a d e this p h o t o of the
He did recover, though, and after the war he went on to D - D a y l a n d i n g o n N o r m a n d y in W o r l d War II. The b l u r n n e s s
make p h o t o essays for Life that took the essay form to s e e m s to e m p h a s i z e the tension of the landing.
its highest expression. Much of Smith's reputation today (Robert Capa/Magnum)
rests on five essays he shot for Life: "Countn Doctor."
"Great Britain," "Nurse Midwife." "Spanish Village," and
"A Man of Mercy" (the ston* of Dr. Albert Schweitzer)
These p o w e r f u l essays speak eloquently of Smith's sen-
sitivity and compassion for his subjects

Smith insisted on having complete control over the

layout and captions of his w o r k in order to preserve his
o w n c o n c e p t . It w a s an i n s i s t e n c e in conflict w i t h
Life's n o r m a l p r o c e d u r e , a n d Smith b r o k e f r o m the
magazine. He shot t w o more major essays, one o n t h e
Figure 16-15 In what has b e c o m e o n e of the m o s t m e n raising the f l a g over Mt. S u r i b a c h i on Iwo J i m a d u r i n g
f a m o u s war p h o t o s of all time. J o e Rosenthal c a u g h t t h e s e W o r l d W a r II. (Joe Rosenthal/AP-Wide World)

city of Pittsburgh and. m u c h later, o n e on Minamata, a military conflict evolved. His World War II photographs
J a p a n e s e fishing village w h o s e inhabitants w e r e poi- emphasized military operations, while his later images
s o n e d by mercury waste from a nearby chemical plant. more and more often portrayed suffering and death. In
At M i n a m a t a he a l m o s t lost his life again, this t i m e / Protest!, a collection of his Vietnam photographs made
w h e n thugs hired by the chemical c o m p a n y severely at Khe Sanh. he wrote. "I'm just a veteran combat pho-
beat him. Until his death in 19~8. his health continued t o g r a p h e r and f o r e i g n c o r r e s p o n d e n t w h o c a r e s in-
to decline, and he did very little shooting. Smith's in- tensely about my country and the role w e are playing.
tense c o m m i t m e n t , perfectionism, and his efforts to "il- . . . And I w a n t to shout loud and clear protest at what
luminate and try to give compassionate understanding" has h a p p e n e d at Khe Sanh and in all of Vietnam. "
w i t h his p h o t o g r a p h s are hallmarks of his w o r k and
Duncan, of course, was not alone in his protest of
have inspired many c o n t e m p o r a r y photojournalists.
the Vietnam War. Indeed, since Roger Fenton first pho-
H o w e v e r , it w a s David D o u g l a s D u n c a n w h o s e tographed Crimean War battlefields, the reality of pho-
name became almost synonymous w i t h war photogra- tographs increasingly w e a k e n e d the public's romantic
phy. D u n c a n covered three wars: World War II in the notion of war as the Grand Adventure. When television
Pacific as a Marine photographer, and the Korean and joined p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m in bringing the senseless ob-
V i e t n a m W a r s as a Life p h o t o g r a p h e r . As h e p h o - scenity of w a r into the family living room, the notion
tographed e a c h o n e . his attitude toward the horrors of was put to rest forever.
 Figure 16-16 "Tomoko in Her
Bath, from the p h o t o essay Minamata.
by W Eugene Smith a n d Aileen Smith
(W Eugene Smith/Black Star)

Troubled Decades Still others, like W. Eugene Smith with his Minamata
p h o t o g r a p h s , turned t o b o o k s as a m e d i u m for their
In the 1950s, the 3 5 m m camera came into almost uni- work. Yet another group, w h o c a m e to be called the
versal u s e a m o n g magazine photojournalists. The day of New Photojournalists." took their inspiration from a n
the Speed Graphic, w h o s e photos were typified by the p h o t o g r a p h y . T h e s e p h o t o g r a p h e r s a b a n d o n e d tradi-
harshly lit night scenes of Arthur Fellig (the New York tional photojournalism values such as "the decisive mo-
City f r e e l a n c e n e w s p a p e r p h o t o g r a p h e r k n o w n as ment and emphasized personal vision.
"Weegee ). was essentially over. This "snapshot aesthetic" had its roots in the work
T h e s m a l l e r 3 5 m m c a m e r a s w i t h t h e i r roll film of Robert Frank, published as a book called The Ameri-
made photojournalists m o r e mobile. The invention of cans. Frank was a Swiss fashion photographer w h o used
portable electronic flash units did away with the chang- his 1955 Guggenheim Fellowship to travel the United
ing of flash bulbs after e v e n ' shot. Tri-X film, first at a States, taking h u n d r e d s of photographs. He made the
speed of 200. later boosted to 400. added more oppor- images randomly, seemingly unplanned, and they
tunities to use available light. N e w and improved color s h o w e d A m e r i c a n s of the 1950s isolated f r o m each
films made some color c o m m o n p l a c e in magazines. other, empty and humorless—not at all the way Ameri-
in spite of these added advantages, there w e r e very cans thought of themselves.
f e w fresh a p p r o a c h e s to photojournalism in the 1950s. Unable to get his w o r k p u b l i s h e d in t h e United
Most of t h e journalistic creativity was in television in States. Frank had it published in France in 1958. Later,
the hands of CBS N e w s ' s Edward R. Murrow and Fred w h e n it w a s finally published in this country, it w a s
Friendly. Magazines w e r e as fat. prosperous, and com- hailed by some as the best single volume of contempo-
placent as n e w s p a p e r s had b e e n earlier. W orking for rary documentary photography.
Life. with its unlimited e x p e n s e accounts, worldwide as- The influence of Frank began to show strongly by the
signments. and vast readership, remained the highest mid-1960s in the work of Diane Arbus. Lee Friedlander.
goal of almost all photojournalists. and they looked to and Garry Winogrand, the so-called "social landscape'
magazines for their inspiration. p h o t o g r a p h e r s , and in the early 19~0s in the w o r k of
Annie Liebovitz. chief p h o t o g r a p h e r of Rolling Stone
Magazines Weaken magazine.
In the 1960s, the magazine world came apart. Virtually
e v e n national magazine was in financial trouble, caused Was Photojournalism Deadf
principally by c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h television for the na- In 19~2 at President Richard Nixon's directive. Gifford
tional advertising dollar. O n e by one. the weakest maga- Hampshire, formerly of National Geographies illustra-
zines folded. T h o s e that remained c u t page sizes and tions staff, began Project Documerica. Like the FSA al-
n u m b e r s along with budgets. They sold out or merged. most 40 years before. Documerica had a mission, this
time to d o c u m e n t the environment. Professional photo-
Magazine photojournalists w e r e forced to turn to
journalists. d r a w n from all over the nation f o r short-
o t h e r work. Some b e c a m e commercial photographers
t e r m a s s i g n m e n t s , s h o t t h o u s a n d s of 3 5 m m c o l o r
O t h e r s , like G o r d o n P a r k s , t u r n e d t o f i l m m a k i n g
transparencies. However, in t w o years the project died Topeka Capital-Journal, b e c a m e k n o w n for their ability
from lack of f u n d s and interest from both the federal to train and nurture n e w talent.
government and the public. Photojournalists themselves changed. They began
In the early 70s Life and Look ceased publication. A to seek equal treatment as professionals and to be re-
late: attempt to revive Look failed quickly. Life returned garded as visual journalists w h o s e contributions to the
in :he late 70s as a monthly, but critics called it "soft." It p r o d u c t h a d as m u c h v a l u e as any o t h e r e l e m e n t .
lacked the n e w s e m p h a s i s and the sparkle of the old Slowly, they began to shed some of their "second-class
Life, as did the n e w . gossipy People magazine. In an citizen" image. They began to feel—and be—an essen-
essav accompanying a 19 7 8 p h o t o exhibition at the Mu- tial part of the n e w s organization.
seum of Modern Art in New York, director of photogra- These changes did not take place entirely as a result
phy J o h n Szarkowski a n n o u n c e d that photojournalism of the death of the p i c t u r e magazines, however signifi-
w a s dead. cant that event was. There w e r e several o t h e r causes of
a more vigorous photojournalism, not the least of w h i c h
was t h e National Press P h o t o g r a p h e r s Association
Photojournalism Revived (NPPA). Founded in 1946 to improve press photogra-
phy and the image of the press photographer, the NPPA
Of course, photojournalism was not dead. It was alive saw its influence spread far beyond its membership as
and well and living in n e w s p a p e r s across the country. the g r o u p took u p First A m e n d m e n t and ethical ques-
The d i s a p p e a r a n c e of strong magazine photojour- tions. By the 1990s, t h e NPPA had about 8000 mem-
nalism may h a v e b e e n t h e best t h i n g that e v e r hap- bers. an extensive educational program, and a series of
p e n e d to n e w s p a p e r p h o t o g r a p h e r s . W i t h o u t t h e noted publications. It had funded studies on such issues
m c c c a of magazines to m o n o p o l i z e their d r e a m s and as health hazards in the darkroom and the coming elec-
w i t h o u t the magazine photojournalist to w o r s h i p and tronic era.
imitate, n e w s p a p e r p h o t o g r a p h e r s at last w e r e forced
to focus on w h a t was essentially the only outlet left to Another factor in the n e w status of n e w s p a p e r pho-
them, the n e w s p a p e r . tojournalism was the increasing n u m b e r of college grad-
uates in the ranks. Since their degrees matched those of
Slowly, n e w s p a p e r p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m b e g a n to im- reporters, t h e s e n e w photojournalists e x p e c t e d to be
prove. T h e shift to offset printing improved reproduc- t r e a t e d as e q u a l m e m b e r s of t h e n e w s team. A w a r e
tion quality, which, in turn, helped motivate n e w s p a p e r there could be life after street shooting, many saw their
p h o t o g r a p h e r s . More p h o t o s w e r e r u n . and m o r e of o w n organizations as a p l a c e to m o v e up. And many
t h e m h a d significant story-telling c o n t e n t and "mo- did—to p h o t o editor, graphics editor, or the higher edi-
ment." They w e r e displayed better and c r o p p e d m o r e torial positions of the p a p e r .
sensibly. Frequently an entire page w a s d e v o t e d to a
grouping of p h o t o g r a p h s that told a single story—the Greater emphasis on the visual image throughout so-
p h o t o story or essay, d o n e so well by W. Eugene Smith ciety also gave more impact to photojournalism. Compe-
and others for magazines, n o w h o n e d and adapted to tition with USA Today and with television p u t greater
the n e w s p a p e r page. stress on all the visual aspects of newspapers. There was
a n e w concern for visual literacy in colleges and universi-
One such story w a s Brian Lanker's childbirth story ties, spurred by support from the Association for Educa-
"The M o m e n t of Life: An E x p e r i e n c e Shared." W h e n t i o n i n J o u r n a l i s m a n d Mass C o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e
Lanker, at that time a Topeka Capital-Journal photo- popular success of the photograph as art gave all photog-
journalist. w o n the 1973 Pulitzer Prize for this story, ed- raphy more prestige. T h e International Center of Photog-
itors began to realize that p h o t o stories on "sensitive" raphy. f o u n d e d in N e w York City by Cornell Capa in
topics like childbirth w e r e not just acceptable but wel- memory of his brother Robert, provided photojournalism
c o m e . Lanker's t h o u g h t f u l n e s s , g o o d taste, and great an international home, including a museum, a gallery , a
emotional rapport with his subjects s t r e n g t h e n e d the school for photojournalists, and a gathering place for
photo story and o p e n e d the door for photographers to documentary photographers from all over the world.
cover other stories previously considered too "delicate"
for the n e w s p a p e r reader. A growing n u m b e r of p h o t o agencies gave photo-
journalists additional outlets for their work, e i t h e r by
N e w s p a p e r s such as the San Jose Mercury-News,
acting primarily as p h o t o g r a p h e r s ' r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s to
The Courier-Journal of Louisville, the Miami Herald.
generate assignments lor them or primarily as a library
the Seattle Times, and the Orange County Register be-
of stock photographs. Black Star is a m o n g the oldest of
came known for their excellent photographic coverage,
the photographers' representatives, established in New
and their excellence b e c a m e the n e w goals for young
York City in 1935 by three German emigres w h o had
photojournalists Photography directors such as Brian
b e e n c o n n e c t e d to the German p i c t u r e magazines of
Lanker's mentor Rich Clarkson. for many years at the
t h e 1920s. American picture magazines w e r e already on
 The Moment of Life

Experience
Shared

phmfagr BRIAN LANKER

s u b j e c t matter t h o u g h t a p p r o p r i a t e for n e w s p a p e r p a g e s .
Figure 1 6 - 1 7 This p a g e of p h o t o s by Brian Lanker w o n
(Brian LankerfTopeka Capital-Journal)
the Pulitzer Prize in 1973 a n d m a r k e d a turning point for
the draw v; hoards, and Black Star's founders had ac- What's Next?
cess to i . n photographers and photographs they
knew v\ > uJd be in demand. Black Star currently has a Photojournalists have moved into the last decade of the
st . graphers working exclusively under con- 20th century far better equipped than any of their pro-
;or the agency and also a considerable number of fession before them. Using lightweight cameras, they
i-r photographers located around the world. continue to make pictures from sunshine, but they also
Another long-time o r g a n i z a t i o n . Magnum, w a s make pictures from electronic light and. with incredibly-
mm as a cooperative agency in 194"7 by Robert Capa fast film, from almost no light at all. Matrix metering
.oid a small group of war photographer friends. In band- guarantees good exposures, and motor drives capable
ing together, they hoped to obtain higher fees for their of advancing film many frames per second capture all
p h o t o g r a p h s and r e t e n t i o n of their negatives. The the action for the photographer.
agency remained a cooperative through the years but Images also can be recorded on tiny CCD (charged
accepted some work from nonmembers. coupled device) chips in still video cameras and trans-
More recently on the scene was Contact Press Im- mitted electronically from the sccnc of a story to a com-
ages. a small but significant agency with an emphasis on puterized picture desk at the newspaper, w h e r e they
c o m p r e h e n s i v e , in-depth stories. It w a s f o u n d e d in can be enhanced and laid out directly on a newspaper
19~6 by Robert Pledge and David Burnett, b o t h for- page. In addition, the readership for photojournalism
merly with the French agency. Gamma. Pledge had has become more visually sophisticated than ever be-
been a magazine editor in France and ran Gamma s New fore. and the boundaries of subject matter for pho-
York office. Burnett had spent 18 months covering the tographs have been expanded.
Vietnam War before becoming a Ciamma photographer. Yet state-of-the-art equipment and appreciation do
Although Contact was comprised of only a handful of not automatically equal excellence in photojournalism.
photographers, it w o n more awards than any o t h e r Some critics have observed that the strength of photo-
agency of its size. journalism images is waning. They note a sameness to
In addition to these and other agencies, grants from the photographs, a lack of original approach, and too
organizations and institutions were a source of support much emulation among the photographers. Color pho-
for photojournalists that allowed them time to develop tography has come under special fire: too much "color
their ideas in d e p t h . For e x a m p l e . April Saul spent for color's sake" in newspaper photography, they say.
months covering Hmong refugees as they w e r e relo- Some believe the integrity of the documentary photo-
cated about the United States. For seven years. Herman graph is e n d a n g e r e d by the glitzy, "perfect" photo-
LeRoy Emmet spent part of each year living with and graphic illustration with which it often has to compete.
photographing a family of migrant farm workers. Mary Observers at one recent Pictures of the Year Con-
Ellen Mark photographed the lives of prostitutes in the test. the national annual p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m competi-
brothels of Bombay and women in a mental institution, tion. called the spot news entries "generally p o o r "
b o t h projects requiring considerable time. All three and felt there was "a diminished treatment of social is-
photojournalists w e r e able to involve themselves in sues." They recommended a return to the basic con-
long-term stories because of their grant support. cepts of photojournalism—truthful, honest, objective
Many more contemporary photojournalists are re- reporting—and a concern for informing readers, not
defining the medium as it moves into the next century. winning contests.
The authors regret there is not space to devote to all of In getting back to basics, the photojournalists of the
them and their work. The images these men and women, future will need to examine these and other questions.
including a significant number of minority photogra- In doing so. they might consider W. Eugene Smith's
phers, arc making can be seen in periodicals, mono- words: "My beliefs, my camera, and some film—these
graphs. and self-published works as the digital revolution were the weapons of my good intentions.'" They have
simplifies the technical end of the publishing proccss. been the weapons of concerned photographers since
photography began.
 / part \

^ V V>

Advanced
Techniques

Graffiti Artist. 'Mike row)

 chapter

V 17 )

Introduction
to Color
OUTLINE

C o l o r in P h o t o j o u r n a l i s m P r o c e s s i n g C o l o r Film
Light a n d C o l o r Color Prints
The Color Wheel Black-and-White Prints from
Color Negatives
Color Temperature
Tips a n d Techniques for
Dealing with Color Balance
Advanced Photographers
Correcting Color Balance
Making a Quick Print from
with Filters
a Chrome
C o l o r Films f o r P h o t o j o u r n a l i s m
C o m m u n i c a t i n g in C o l o r
Positive or Negative?
Color for Color's Sake?
Summary

" D O N ' T OVERLOAD YOI R PICTURE WITH COLOR JUST BECAUSE YOU HAVE PAID FOR

COLOR. A LOT OF COLOR DOES NOT NECESSARILY MAKE A G O O D COLOR PICTURE.

— E L I O T EUSOFON,
FARLY LIFE MAGAZINE PHOTOGRAPHER AND COLOR EXPERT
C o l o r iii P h o t o j o u r n a l i s m particular color cast in a scene or in a print. Comple-
mentary colors are opposite each other on the color
There is no question that color has become a major ele- wheel in color plate 23- A filter in any color on the
ment in news publications today. Magazines have been wheel will allow its own color to pass through vet block-
using color for decades, and n e w s p a p e r s have been its complement..
-v. itching to color as fast as they can afford it. Readers
. ;u color, and the discussions about the aesthetic dif- The Color Wheel
: rences between black-and-white and color are some- The color wheel mentioned in the last paragraph is use-
what moot in our market-driven business. ful in solving many color problems, so I suggest you
Color is more difficult for publications to print than memorize it. The primaries arc placed opposite their
black and white. Changes in color film, prepress tech- secondaries around the wheel. When drawing the
niques, printing presses, and paper stock were required wheel, I usually start with yellow and move clockwise,
before newspapers could print high-quality color on a using this nonsense sentence as a memory device: You
regular basis. Although black and white is still the logi- Get Candy By Melting Rainbows. That may be dumb,
cal starting place f o r the beginning p h o t o g r a p h e r , but it works for me. By the way, here's how I remem-
knowledge of color is a requirement for anyone w h o ber the complementary colors: General Motors; Race
wants a complete understanding of photojournalism. Cars: Burn Yogurt.
As you move around the color wheel, any primary
color can be created by combining the two adjacent
Light a n d C o l o r
secondary ones. For example, blue can be created by
placing cyan and magenta over the light source.
The best place to start is with light itself. As explained
in chapter 6, white light is a mixture of many colors, Color Temperature
from red to violet. Chances are vou ve seen a prism
Besides the color wheel and its primary and secondary
splitting a light beam, or at least, the spectrum created
colors, another feature of light important to color pho-
by a rainbow. The idea that white light is a composite
tography is color temperature, which is a way of de-
of all other colors is important, because much of your
scribing the predominant color of light. A candle flame
control over color is based on removing selected colors
or a campflre is very heavy in red, with a low color tem-
from the assortment.
perature. Tungsten light, which comes from the bulbs
Actually, all colors including white can be created commonly used in household lamps, is a bit higher, fol-
by mixing only three: red, green, and blue. These are lowed by the color of special photoflood bulbs. Day-
the primary colors of light. The primary colors are used light could b e considered the dividing point between
in additive color processes, where three separate col- warm light sources and cool ones, such as skylight or
ored light sources are added together to create a variety electronic flash tubes.
of colors. You can see a crude example of this additive
process in your own home. Turn on your TV and look Color temperature is important because your brain
at the screen with a magnifying glass. You'll see that the compensates for the differences in the color of light, and
image is made u p of a series of primary-color dots, you won't ordinarily see the changes. Photographic film,
which are lit by three separate sources inside the pic- however, is not so flexible. It expects to find the specific
ture tube. When you step back from the screen, the color temperature it was designed to record. If you use a
dots seem to blend, creating different colors as the indi- film designed for daylight conditions under tungsten light,
vidual dots change brightness. the film will record the scene as orange-yellow. Photos
shot under fluorescent light will be a sickly green. You
Although useful for TV screens, the additive system probably have some snapshots in your family album that
isn't c o m m o n in p h o t o g r a p h y today. A much more are off-color because of this problem. See plates 5, 6, 8.
practical system is the subtractive system. Instead of and 9 for examples of color temperature.
adding from separate light sources, t h e subtractive
method removes unwanted colors from a single white
light to produce the result. Like the additive process, Dealing w i t h Color Balance
subtractive color is also accomplished with three col-
ors, which are known as secondary* colors. The second- The first solution to the problem of color temperature is
aries are yellow, magenta, and cyan. By placing filters of matching the film to the light source. The most com-
these colors over a white light source, specific colors mon color film is balanced for daylight, and when this
are subtracted from the light, leaving those desired. film is used outdoors, colors appear normal. Most of the
Primary and secondary colors work together in pairs time you'll use daylight-balanced film, and in fact, that is
known as complementary colors. An understanding of what you'll get at the camera store unless you ask for
complementary colors is useful w h e n reproducing a tungsten-balanced film. This special film is designed to
 TABLE 17-1 Light-Balancing Filters
Film Type Light Source Filter Exposure I n c r e a s e
Daylight S h a d e or overcast 81A. 81B a
/J stop
I n c a n d e s c e n t or floodlights 80A 2 stops
Photofloods 80B 1K stops
Fluorescent lights CC30M or FLDD A s t o p (30M); 1 Stop (FLD)
Vapor lights
CC20 - 50M + 20-50Y ; 'A - 1 stop
Tungsten Daylight 85A or B v< stop
Fluorescent lights FLB 1 stop
3
T h e 8 1 A is a l s o u s e a w i t h s o m e s t u d i o f l a s h s y s t e m s / : n e n t h e " a g e re c o n s
- T h e C C 3 0 M is m o s t p o p J a r w i t h t h e p h o t o g r a o n e ' s i k n e w , a l t h o u g h
i e FLD i d for Dest re
n u m b e r 2'A v a r i a b l e - c o n t r a s t p r i n t i n g t i t e r se a

c j h e r e are m a n y t y p e s of l i g h t s m u s e a test s h o u i o o e r u n first - critical situations

>oiograpners
w i t h o u t fiitrauon a n d m a k e c o r r e c t i o n s in t h e i a b w h e n p r i n t i n g

r e c o r d c o r r e c t c o l o r in s c e n e s p h o t o g r a p h e d u n d e r match daylight film t o tungsten light and vice versa. The

tungsten Ught. This film is useful w h e n you are on a n a s - most c o m m o n are the SOB. which is a blue filter that
signment tfiat Has b e e n lit by a TV crew, since TV lights m a t c h e s tungsten light to daylight-balanced film, and
a re y il 11 ^ Pffljralanced. the salmon-colored 85 filter, which matches day light to
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o t all lights fall into daylight or tungsten-balanced film.
tungsten categories. Some artificial light sources d o n ' t Color-compensating filters are more subtle and are
emit a c o n t i n u o u s spectrum, and if you split the light used w h e n only a slight correction is needed. They are
apart with a prism, there would be an uneven distribu- identified by a series of n u m b e r s and letters that indi-
tion of colors, w i t h some colors possibly missing. Fluo- cate color and density. For example, a CC30M is a ma-
rescent and vapor light sources arc typical examples. genta filter with a density of .30. CC filters are also used
F l u o r e s c e n t lights arc the l o n g t u b e s f o u n d in class- to correct color balance in color printing and slide du-
rooms. offices, and stores. They are deficient in red. and plicating. The CC30M just mentioned is a handy filter
p h o t o s made u n d e r fluorescent light have a green cast. for correcting the excessive green cast caused by fluo-
Vapor lights are used in parking lots, industrial sites, sta- rescent lights.
diums, and many arenas. There are a n u m b e r of types of
Although most filters intended for black-and-white
vapor lights, s o m e of w h i c h emit a very narrow band of
film are made of glass. CC filters are made of thin sheets
c o l o r e d light. T h e p r o b l e m in c o r r e c t i n g t h e s e light
of gelatin, somewhat like cellophane. Three-inch-square
sources is that some colors n e e d e d for natural-looking
gelatin filters are less expensive than glass and can be
images are missing. See Color Plate 4 for an example.
cut with scissors to fit as needed.
Because filters can only r e m o v e t h o s e colors that
Correcting Color Balance with Filters are excessive, they can't c r e a t e color w h e r e there is
In some cases, corrections can be made with filters, ei- none. Some parking lot lights emit such a narrow band
ther over the lens o r the light source. To correct such a of color that they are almost impossible to correct. The
color shift, u s e a filter of the c o m p l e m e n t a r y color. If c h a n in table 17-1 lists filters that can be used for vari-
you refer to the color wheel, you can estimate what fil- ous t y p e s of lights. W h e n p h o t o g r a p h e r s find them-
ters would be needed to correct daylight/tungsten mis- selves faced with narrow-band lights, they usually have
m a t c h e s . T o t u n g s t e n - b a l a n c e d film, daylight w o u l d little c h o i c e but to bring in their o w n floodlights or
a p p e a r too blue, so the correction calls for a filter that flash units.
falls s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n yellow and red. Daylight film Color t e m p e r a t u r e meters can m e a s u r e the color
s h o t u n d e r t u n g s t e n light results in an o r a n g e cast, t e m p e r a t u r e of a light s o u r c e , and the data from the
w h i c h can be c o r r e c t e d by using a bluish filter. When meter can be used to d e t e r m i n e the filter needed for
using filters, d o n ' t forget to make any exposure correc- correct color rendition. Color t e m p e r a t u r e meters are
tions required by the filter. (Note: Be sure to use the expensive but useful for critical work.
exposure-increase values in the chart. Light meter read- In practice, photojournalists often shoot color nega-
ings taken through filters are not reliable, because of dif- tive films without correction, rely ing on adjustments in
ferences in color sensitivity between meters and film.) the printmaking process to p r o d u c e normal-looking re-
There are t w o types of color correction filters: con- sults. Digital image processing, which involves scanning
version f i l t e r s and color-compensating filters. Conver- the negative into a c o m p u t e r w h e r e c o r r e c t i o n s arc
sion filters are rather deeply c o l o r e d and are used to made, makes these corrections s o m e w h a t easier since
 you can see the results immediately on t h e c o m p u t e r a quality loss.) Transparencies arc m u c h more p r o n e to
screen Although this m e t h o d is c o m m o n for the pros, loss of highlight and shadow detail than negatives; this
keep in mind that s o m e color shifts are so great that is a particular problem if the scene is high contrast or
thc\ . in • be corrected in the lab. Transparency film the e x p o s u r e is slightly off.
is ibrgiving and harder to correct than negative ma- T h e main disadvantage of color negative films is
tcri.tl. he best results c o m e from solving color balance that it lakes p r a c t i c e f o r a p h o t o g r a p h e r or editor to
p r o b l e m s w h e n the p h o t o is taken. evaluate a color negative on the light table. Fortunately,
these d r a w b a c k s are rapidly b e i n g o v e r c o m e by elec-
tronics. There are simple TV cameras designed to send
Color Films for Photojournalism the negative image to a TV screen w h e r e it can be seen
as a positive. Also, by scanning the color negative di-
In the earliest days of color p h o t o g r a p h y , film speeds rectly to a c o m p u t e r , you can see the image as a posi-
w e r e in the range of ISO 10 to 25. paralyzinglv slow for tive a n d c a n m a k e c o l o r c o r r e c t i o n s q u i c k l y . S e e
n e w s photography. Speeds gradually increased, and in c h a p t e r 18 for details on digital image processing.
the last ten years, n e w technology has p r o d u c e d films
with speeds u p to ISO 3200.["As a rule, use the slowest^ Transparency film, however, reveals its color imme-
{jjlra that lighting conditions will allow\ As film s p e e d diately, so it is m u c h easier for an editor to k n o w h o w
goes up, grain increases and sharpness and color satura- the final image will look. When shooting transparency
tion d e c r e a s e (see plate 4). Color film can be push- film, h o w e v e r , e x p o s u r e is critical, and extra lighting
processed, but there is always some quality loss. (Push such as fill-in flash is more o f t e n needed. In the editing
p r o c e s s i n g is a t e c h n i q u e t h a t a l l o w s y o u to u s e a process, the original transparency is subject to damage
higher ISO than the film's official rating. See the appen- if it is passed around in the production process, while a
dix for details.) negative can b e p r i n t e d and filed safely away. Some
p u b l i c a t i o n s m a k e black-and-white p r i n t s f r o m t h e i r
transparencies to be used just for editing purposes. Al-
Positive or Negative? though the prints arc reversed in tone, they can be used
I s u s p e c t that clerks at film c o u n t e r s d o n ' t get m a n y for c r o p p i n g a n d so o n w i t h o u t risking t h e original
questions about color balance, but hear instead, "Is this chrome.
film for prints or slides?" Films that result in prints are
negative films, as are the black-and-white films you have Some c o n s u m e r p h o t o magazines run articles from
b e e n using. Films for slides are reversal films; the slide time to time c o m p a r i n g various brands of color films,
you hold in your hand is the same piece of film that w a s the headline usually being a variation of, "Which color
in the camera. Although w e o f t e n call t r a n s p a r e n c i e s film is best?" All the materials on the market w o r k well,
" s l i d e s , " y o u ' l l a l s o h e a r p r o f e s s i o n a l s call t h e m the differences being more a matter of personal taste.
"chromes." Both types of film are used in photojournal- Professional photojournalists most often use films made
ism. the decision usually being determined by the publi- by Fuji and Kodak because of their quality, availability,
cation's reproduction methods. and reliability. I w a n t e d to include a list of photojournal-
ists' f a v o r i t e c o l o r f i l m s h e r e , b u t t h e m a r k e t h a s
By t h e way, b e c a u s e c h r o m e s are t h e actual film changed so m u c h in the last f e w years that anything I'd
from the camera, there is n o b a c k u p in case of damage. say would probably be out of date by the time you read
The emulsion layer is quite fragile, and o n e fingerprint it. At the m o m e n t , photojournalists seem to be using a
can prove fatal to a transparency. Protect your p h o t o s w i d e variety of materials, but the brand of film you use
by keeping them in plastic file pages or holders of s o m e is far less important than w h a t you d o with it.
s o n . Because c h r o m e s are one-of-a-kind items, commer-
cial photographers have collected damages amounting, Because color can shift in film stored too long o r in
in some cases, to h u n d r e d s of thousands of dollars for hot conditions, be sure the film you use c o m e s from a
lost or damaged c h r o m e s . If you are ever entrusted with reliable s o u r c e . If you must store it for m o r e than a
transparencies from another photographer, handle w e e k o r two, k e e p it in the refrigerator in its o w n plas-
t h e m with extreme care. tic container. Don't o p e n the c o n t a i n e r until the film
has w a r m e d u p to r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e . Avoid leaving
From the p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s viewpoint, negative films c o l o r film in y o u r c a r o n a h o t day. Always p r o c e s s
are easier to shoot. Negatives d o n ' t need the careful ex- color as soon as possible.
posure and color balancing w h e n shooting that trans-
Another important note about brands: There is o n e
parencies require. Exposure variations in transparency
well-known color transparency film—Kodachrome—that
films should be kept to about a half stop, while negative
must be processed by a specially equipped lab. Although
films can be as m u c h as o n e stop under- or o n e to t w o
Kodachrome has b e e n hailed by many photographers as
stops overexposed and still yield a usable print. (Push
the best color film on the market, its c o m p l e x processing
processing is possible for both films, but there is always
makes it a poor choice for deadline news. If you have the
lime to send film off to a lab. try it. Otherwise, stick with If you want an occasional print from your work, for
films that can be processed in C-i 1 (for negatives) or E-6 your portfolio for example, it is more efficient to have it
(for transparencies) chemicals. Check the film package made by a professional lab. II you want to experiment
for the processing requirements. with color printing, kits of chemicals are available. You
can use the same basic equipment you use for black and
white printing, but you should have a print-processing
Processing Color Film
drum, which insures even development and more con-
sistent results from print to print.
The proliferation of one-hour processing labs has made
it so easy to get film processed that it is hardly worth it Because color printing is no longer a common pro-
to p r o c e s s your own. You certainly w o n ' t save any cedure in photojournalism, detailed instructions on
money by doing it yourself. Further. I am not aware of print making will not be presented here. Your instruc-
any newspaper or magazine that processes color film by tor or photo dealer can show you materials and guides
hand; processing machines are much faster and easier. that will give you all the information you need.
However, you can develop your own film if you want
to, and kits of the necessary chemicals are available at Black-cnicl-White Prints from Color Negatives
photo stores. One big advantage of color negative film is that black-
and-white prints are easy to make if the editors decide
The directions that come with the chemicals arc
not to use a shot in color. Kodak makes a special paper,
thorough and there is n o need to repeat them here.
Panalure, that works quite well, and Seagull has one
Nevertheless, there are a few points to keep in mind.
called RP Panchromatic. Because these p a p e r s are
First, t h e c h e m i c a l s used in c o l o r w o r k are m u c h
stronger than those used in black and white. Some panchromatic, you must use them in total darkness.
color chemical ingredients can cause burns to skin and Some photographers are satisfied with the results from
eyes, and the fumes can be highly irritating. Read the ordinary variable-contrast paper, but the black-and-
warnings on all packages and take them seriously. Also, white rendition is slightly distorted because of the lim-
color materials are very sensitive to contamination. ited color sensitivity of the paper. Blues print too light
Even-thing must be kept clean. and reds print too dark.
In addition, there are many more variables in color
lab work than in black and white. To keep these vari- Tips a n d T e c h n i q u e s f o r
ables under control, be consistent. Chemical mixing Advanced Photographers
and storage, time and temperature, agitation and so on
must be kept exactly the same, down to the smallest de- The problem of matching the color of the light to the
tail, for consistent, repeatable results. Be extremely color balance of the film can be compounded when you
careful about the slightest bit of cross-contamination be- need to mix two different light sources. You are most
tween color chemicals. Also be sure your thermometer likely to facc this situation when you need to combine
is accurate and that developer temperature is held to flash w i t h fluorescent or some o t h e r artificial light
within half a degree of the required temperature. source. For example, suppose you are in a room lit with
Finally, b e sure your chemicals arc fresh. Mixed fluorescent light and you want to use a flash as a fill
chemicals don't last, and if they have been around for light. These two sources are quite different in color. If
two weeks, start getting suspicious. Film processed in you shoot daylight-balanced film without a filter, the
old chemicals can't always be saved. It's poor economy flash will be correct but the fluorescent light will be
in the long run to stretch the useful life of color chemi- green. If you shoot with a filter to correct the fluores-
cals beyond the manufacturer's recommendations. cent. the flash will be too magenta. The solution to this
problem is to filter one of the light sources so they are
Color Prints both the same, and then use a filter over the lens if nec-
essary to match the pair of light sources to the film. Put
Color print making is disappearing from newspapers as
a green filter, such as a Rosco Tough Plusgrcen. over
they convert to digital image processing. Many papers
the flash to match it to the fluorescent light, and then
skipped this episode in the evolution of photojournal-
use a CC30 magenta filter over the lens to take out the
ism altogether because they converted to color and digi-
green of both the flash and the fluorescent. Check a
tal processing at the same time. Not only is digital
well-stocked camera store for Rosco filter material. To
processing faster, easier, and less expensive than con-
balance flash for tungsten light, cover the flash head
ventional printmaking, color chemicals can be a health
with an orange filter such as the Roscosun 85. Color
hazard and can't be dumped into most municipal
plate 6 is a good example of combining flash with the
sewage systems. These factors will soon cause almost
warm colors of tungsten light.
every publication to abandon its color print lab.
 H e r e s a tip that should only be used w i t h some of the best-known documentary' p h o t o g r a p h s of
caution—you'll rarely have time for this technique in a the Great Depression and was director of photography
n e w s situation, and t h a t ' s not the place to take risks at Look magazine, said:
anyway You can c h a n g e the color saturation of your
Compared to color photography, shooting in black and
p h o t o by making subtle c h a n g e s in e x p o s u r e . Trans-
white is simpler in some ways, hut far more complex in
parency films w o r k particularly well for this p u r p o s e . others. The photographer who works in black and white
slightly overexposing transparency film, you can de- must learn to disregard color and evaluate his subject in
crease c o l o r s a t u r a t i o n . A slight u n d e r e x p o s u r e in- shades of gray. He emphasizes contrast, shapes, lines and
creases the intensity of the color. W h e n experimenting texture. Through the use of filters he can darken skies or
with this technique, bracket your exposures. Shoot t w o create dramatic impressionistic effects. The black and
on the o v e r e x p o s e d side, t w o o n t h e u n d e r e x p o s e d white photographer thinks of color in terms of its
side, and o n e at the meter's recommendation, changing transformation into gradations of light and dark. A good
the aperture by increments of one-third. T h e n c o m p a r e black and white photograph may be more exciting for
your results. the viewer than a color photograph of the same scene,
because the viewer's imagination must provide missing
Making a Quick Print from a Chrome color information. The essence of a picture may be more
easily understood in black and white without the added
If you have digital image processing e q u i p m e n t , it is a
and sometimes confusing qualities of color. For example,
s i m p l e m a t t e r to scan a t r a n s p a r e n c y into t h e com- a slum in color may become more aesthetically pleasing
p u t e r . d r o p out the color and print it out in black and than pitiable.
white. If you d o n ' t have access to such e q u i p m e n t , the The approach of the color photographer is decidedly
best a l t e r n a t i v e is to c o p y t h e c h r o m e w i t h a slide- different. Far from disregarding color, he is very
d u p l i c a t i n g a t t a c h m e n t f i t t e d to y o u r c a m e r a . For conscious of its attributes. He develops an eye for color
shooting the copy, a fine-grain film such as T-Max 100 which is sensitive to shifts in color intensity, brightness,
is best, but for n e w s p a p e r work, trusty old Tri-X will and saturation. He develops an appreciation for color
do. In an e m e r g e n c y . I have seen p h o t o g r a p h e r s just harmony and the psychological effects of color. The
put the c h r o m e d o w n on a light table and shoot it with photographer often will use great restraint and selectivity
in creating a color image. He discovers that in a color
a macro lens on the camera. Dust on the transparency-
photograph contrast results from the colors themselves
will s h o w u p as black specks in the final print, so be rather than from the tonal value differences or minor
sure the c h r o m e is clean. changes in lighting.1
If you need only a quick print for yourself o r an edi-
tor to c h e c k , just put the c h r o m e in an enlargcr. print it T h e psychological e f f e c t s of c o l o r that Rothstein
on ordinary black-and-white p a p e r and accept the rever- mentioned arc possibly the most difficult p a n of color
p h o t o g r a p h y to understand. So m u c h of the interpreta-
sal image that will result. If you're in a h u m ' for a posi-
tion of color d e p e n d s on c o n t e x t and cultural defini-
tive. first make a print in the ordinary way. Because its
tions that generalizations are hard to make. Standard
tones will be reversed, this print can be used as a full-
classifications divide colors into t w o groups: warm col-
sized negative and contact-printed on another p i e c e of
ors s u c h as e a r t h t o n e s , reds, y e l l o w s , o r a n g e , a n d
paper to create a positive image. If time is short, d o n ' t white, and cool colors, such as green, blue, violet, and
bother to wash and dry the negative print; just put an black. Warm colors are said to advance, and cool colors
u n e x p o s e d piece of paper in t h e print w a s h tray and arc said to recede.
s a n d w i c h it with t h e negative print u n d e r the water,
which should insure even contact. Then expose the W e can also assign certain emotional characteris-
tics to colors. For example, red is usually associated
pair as you w o u l d a c o n t a c t sheet. Sometimes the pa-
w i t h danger, violence, and hate. Red is also a political
p e r ' s brand name is incorporated in the p a p e r ' s back-
color, and the color of fire and war. Green is a calm
ing: if so, it will s h o w in your final positive. To avoid
color. Ideas associated w i t h g r e e n i n c l u d e coolness,
this problem, find a brand not marked in this way.
freshness, nature, and g r o w t h . Like green, blue is also
a cool c o l o r . Blue is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e p t h , w a t e r ,
Communicating in Color height, t r u t h , and d i s t a n c e . Many m o r e a s s o c i a t i o n s
exist, but it is important to n o t e that many of t h e m are
Before w e leave the topic of color, I should suggest a culturally based. In some parts of the world, w h i t e is a
few thoughts about what color docs to the photo- color of m o u r n i n g and death, w h i l e black is that sym-
graphic image. W h e n s h o o t i n g color, most p h o t o g r a - bol e l s e w h e r e . Royalty is o f t e n associated w i t h d e e p
p h e r s say they use different thinking than w h e n they r e d s and gold, and certain colors arc often c o n n e c t e d
s h o o t black-and-white. A r t h u r Rothstein. w h o m a d e with specific religions.
 Skillful use of color in the p h o t o g r a p h must go be- On the o t h e r hand, Hicks points out that color can
yond the full-spectrum assortment found at the county p r o d u c e its o w n interpretive result, through variations
fair. It's not unusual f o r p h o t o g r a p h e r s w h o are just in e x p o s u r e o r filtration, f o r e x a m p l e . T h e special
starting to work seriously in color to look for a variety colors of a gray m o r n i n g or the warm late a f t e r n o o n
of color in e v e n ' image. However, this approach is not sun can be altered subtly by slight c h a n g e s in expo-
always best. I r e m e m b e r w h e n a misguided printer de- sure. (Be sure to c h e c k the cutlines accompanying the
manded that a headline be nin in red over a cemetery o t h e r c o l o r p l a t e s f o r a d d i t i o n a l t h o u g h t s on t h i s
shot of mine that was limited to misty greens and the topic.)
greenish-white of the headstones. Even color photo, he We must r e m e m b e r that, as Adam D. Weinberg has
said, should include at least some red. Unfonunately, I suggested in a commentary on color photojournalism, 5
wasn't able to overrule him. See color plates 7, 9, 11. color itself should not be the subject. A documentary
16. 19. and 21 for examples of limited-palette color. p h o t o g r a p h should not exist solely for the p u r p o s e of
its beautiful color. You d o n ' t necessarily want to see the
Color for Color's Sake? color first, for its o w n sake, but as an integrated p a n of
I've heard p h o t o editors get rather emotional over this the message. If the color is only an innocuous element,
topic, particularly t h o s e w h o w e n t through the intro- fine. Better yet is w h e n t h e color c o n t r i b u t e s to the
duction of color in their papers. Some have had publish- message. However, w h e n the color b e c o m e s the p h o t o
ers w h o , like t h e p r i n t e r w h o r u i n e d m y c e m e t e r y o r w o r k s at c r o s s - p u r p o s e s t o the rest of the image,
p h o t o , d e m a n d e d that t h e r e b e a full-color p h o t o on problems begin.
page o n e every day, and if the p h o t o didn't have lots of
colors in it. heads w o u l d roll. Skilled editors arc past the
novelty of color in their publications and understand Summary
that they shouldn't run a color p h o t o just because it is
in color any more than they should run a paragraph just Modern photojournalism has b e c o m e a color medium.
because the writer used a f e w nifty words. The classic black-and-white news p h o t o is seen less fre-
quently as improved technology lowers the price and
Just as the geometry of the composition is an inte- production time required to print color.
gral p a n of the photo, color can t be divorced from the
Color begins with light. White light is a mixture of
image. Color contributes its share just as the lines and
colors, three of which are the primaries red, green, and
shapes of an image add their statements. The p h o t o by
blue. T h e three secondaries are yellow, magenta, and
David Burnett in color plate 1 o w e s m u c h of its success
cyan. Colors opposite each o t h e r on the color w h e e l
to the redness of the blood on the m a n ' s hands. In black
are complementaries. An example of using complemen-
and w h i t e , t h e h a n d s could look like t h e y had b e e n
tary colors is shooting a scene that has a color shift, pos-
d i p p e d in m o t o r oil.
sibly d u e to an off-color light s o u r c e . By u s i n g t h e
S o m e t i m e s , t h o u g h , t h e r e a l i t y of c o l o r is t o o complementary color as a filter over the lens, the scene
strong. W h e n t h e Reno Gazette printed a color p h o t o of can be color-corrected.
a suicide victim w h o had shot himself on a public side-
Another quality of light is color temperature. Low-
w a l k , t h e s h o c k of t h e b l o o d o n t h e p a v e m e n t w a s
t e m p e r a t u r e s o u r c e s are w a r m ones, such as c a n d l e
m o r e than s o m e readers could bear. P e r h a p s readers
flames and household light bulbs. As t h e light source
c o u l d h a v e a c c e p t e d t h e p h o t o in black a n d w h i t e ,
b e c o m e s m o r e blue, its color t e m p e r a t u r e increases.
w h e r e the color of the pavement and the blood would
Light from the sky. for example, is very cool and has a
have b e e n the same indistinguishable shade of gray.
high color temperature.
For t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r , c o m p o s i t i o n in c o l o r be-
Color film is made to p r o d u c e correct color rendi-
c o m e s more complex, because the elements and princi-
tion under certain color temperatures, specifically those
ples discussed in chapter 7 are modified by the colors
of daylight o r tungsten. When daylight-balanced film,
of t h e image. On t h e o n e h a n d , t h e black-and-white
for example, is shot u n d e r any o t h e r t y p e of light, a
image is s o m e w h a t abstracted from reality. By present-
color shift will probably be noticeable in the image. But
ing its information only in shades of gray, certain emo-
by placing a correction filter over the lens, these color
tions and m o o d s are s t r e n g t h e n e d . Because the event
shifts can be neutralized. For example, a CC30M ma-
has already b e e n taken out of its time context and the
genta filter works well to c o n e c t the green cast of fluo-
viewer can't e x p e r i e n c e the other sensory stimuli that
rescent lights.
w e r e p a n of the scene, removing the color keeps the
viewer's attention focuscd on the most basic level of im- W h e n deciding w h e t h e r to use either negative or
a g e r y . It is, as W i l s o n H i c k s says, an i n d e p e n d e n t transparency films, c h e c k the requirements of the publi-
reality. 2 See color plate 10 for an example. cation you're shooting for. When transparency films are
p r o c e s s e d , the result is a positive image on the film,
k n o w n as a slide or a chrome. In- photojournalism, this Endnotes
image is the o n e sent to the printer. Negative (print)
films are s o m e t i m e s printed b e f o r e being sent to the 1. R. Smith Schuneman, ed., "The Editor-Photographer
printer, although digital p h o t o processing is quickly Team," in Photographic Communication:
making printing unnecessary. Principles, Problems and Challenges of
W h e n processing c o l o r film, be clean and consis- Photojournalism (New York: Hastings House.
tent. Small errors that w e r e tolerable w h e n processing 1972), p. 9495.
black-and-white may cause trouble in color work. Black- 2. Wilson Hicks, Words and Pictures: An
and-white prints can be made from color negatives. For Introduction to Photojournalism (New York:
best results, use Panalure paper, w h i c h must be handled Harper. 1952), p. 140.
in complete darkness.
3. Adam I). Weinberg, On The Line: The New Color
In photojournalism, color should not b e c o m e the
Photojournalism (Minneapolis: Walker Art Center.
photograph. Color can add to the message, but it can
1986), p. 42.
also take away from it. Remember that the photojour-
nalist's j o b is to tell the ston* visually, using all tools
available. Although c o l o r is o n e of t h o s e tools, it is
rarely the story by itself.
Plate 1 A Shiite after d i p p i n g his h a n d s in the b l o o d of a
"martyr" killed b y the S h a h ' s troops, Tehran, J a n u a r y . 1979.
This w e l l - k n o w n shot b y D a v i d Burnett o w e s m u c h of its
s u c c e s s to the d r a m a t i c interplay of the bright r e d b l o o d o n
the m a n ' s h a n d s a g a i n s t the m u t e d t o n e s of the
b a c k g r o u n d . In b l a c k a n d white, the i m a g e w o u l d b e o n l y
o n e - t e n t h as effective. (© 1988 David Burnett/Contact Press
Images)

Plate 2 Five p e o p l e d i e d in this a p a r t m e n t - h o u s e fire.

W h i l e the d r a m a of the m o m e n t w o u l d h o l d u p well in b l a c k
a n d white, the f l a m e s w o u l d a p p e a r white a n d a c e r t a i n
level of intensity w o u l d b e lost. The rescuers' f a c e s a n d
hats a r e b a l a n c e d against the r e d flames, while the rest of
the i m a g e is m u t e d . Look at any of t h e s e i m a g e s t h r o u g h a
strongly c o l o r e d filter ( s u c h a s a 2 5 A d e e p red) for an idea
of what they might b e like in b l a c k a n d white.
(Charles Bertram/Lexington Herald-Leader)
Plate 3 P h o t o g r a p h e r R i c a r d o Ferro s a i d the f l a m e s w e r e
s o hot the victim w a s s t u c k to the c a r ' s m e l t e d upholstery.
The t r a p p e d m a n w a s freed with s e c o n d s to s p a r e . While
f l a m e s a l w a y s j u m p out in a c o l o r p h o t o g r a p h , it is the
b l o o d y arm just visible in the b r o k e n w i n d s h i e l d that is the
visual e x c l a m a t i o n point for this i m a g e . To b e s u c c e s s f u l ,
the shot also has to run l a r g e e n o u g h so the a r m c a n b e
readily seen. (Ricardo Ferro/St Petersburg Times)

Plate 4 P h o t o g r a p h e r Robert T o n g s a i d this g y m is a

difficult o n e in w h i c h to shoot d u e to poor lighting, a t y p i c a l
situation in h i g h s c h o o l g y m s He h a d to p u s h ISO 1600
Fujicolor film to ISO 3 2 0 0 T h e low color saturation a n d
i n c r e a s e d grain a r e c a u s e d by the color b a l a n c e of the
g y m lighting c o m b i n e d with p u s h - p r o c e s s i n g the film.
(Robert Tong/Mar>n Independent Journal)
s e e i n g the m a n ' s w o u n d s in color
i n c r e a s e s the p a i n w e see o n his face
The i m a g e ran f u l l - p a g e in the p a p e r ' s
Sunday magazine, and photographer
Patrick Sullivan s a i d r e a d e r s d i d not
o b j e c t . Sullivan u s e d c o l o r - n e g a t i v e film
for this burn center story b e c a u s e of the
different light s o u r c e s in v a r i o u s p a r t s of
the hospital. N e g a t i v e film e l i m i n a t e d the
n e e d for careful filtration w h e n shooting,
since c o l o r c o r r e c t i o n s c o u l d b e m a d e at
the time of printing. (Patrick Sullivan/
Kansas City Star)

Plate 6 For a story on a military s c h o o l ,

Rick R i c k m a n p h o t o g r a p h e d in this d o r m
under a w a r m - c o l o r e d t u n g s t e n light a n d
u s e d a flash fill near the c a m e r a . The flash,
w h i c h is almost the s a m e color as sunlight,
k e p t the f a c e of the b o y in the f o r e g r o u n d
from b e i n g too yellow. H o w e v e r . R i c k m a n
let the rest of the s c e n e r e c o r d slightly
yellow to a d d to the m o o d . A s l o w shutter
s p e e d a l l o w e d the b a c k g r o u n d to e x p o s e
p r o p e r l y . A s l o w shutter s p e e d c o m b i n e d
with flash is a c o m m o n t e c h n i q u e in color
p h o t o g r a p h y . See also Plate 12.
(Rick Rickman/The Orange County Register)
 7
Plate • s looking for work u n l o a d i n g f o o d s h i p m e n t s
peer • • *te at the M o g a d i s h u port. The simplicity of this
imac. s its statement. (Robert Gauthier/The San Diego

Plate 8 Late afternoon sun is quite w a r m , while the s h a d o w s a r e

blue You c a n s e e this d i f f e r e n c e b y c o m p a r i n g the highlight a n d
s h a d o w a r e a s o n the girl's shawl, the fence, a n d the b a r n in the
b a c k g r o u n d . M a n y m a g a z i n e p h o t o g r a p h e r s s u c h as J i m
B r a n d e n b u r g prefer to shoot early or late in the day, a v o i d i n g the
noon hours, in order to take a d v a n t a g e of the m o r e d r a m a t i c light.
(© Jim Brandenburg)
Plate 9 The w a r m nature of t u n g s t e n light e m p h a s i z e s the colors in this
s c e n e . (Robert Gauthter/The San Diego Union Tribune)
Plate 10 C o l o r is not a l w a y s best. Photographer Tony Bacewicz felt the black-
and-.vhite v e r s i o n of this shot h a d more impact. In color, the people tend to
b l e n d into the b a c k g r o u n d . (Tony Bacewicz/The Hartford Courant)
Plate 11 A s e x p l a i n e d in the text, don't try to p a c k your g r a i n a n d m a d e the p h o t o o n F u j i c h r o m e 1600 film p u s h e d
c o l o r p h o t o s with e v e r y c o l o r in the rainbow. S o m e t i m e s a to 3 2 0 0 . A n a p p r o a c h i n g storm a n d a little of D a v i s o n ' s
limited p a l e t t e a p p r o a c h is best. This m o n o c h r o m a t i c b r e a t h on the lens a d d e d to the effect. (Pat Davison/
i m a g e w a s m a d e with the last light at the e n d of a d r e a r y Albuquerque Tribune)
winter day. Pat D a v i s o n s a i d h e w a s e x p e r i m e n t i n g with
Plate 12 A small h a n d - h e l d flash unit w a s a i m e d t h r o u g h The b l u e in the b a c k g r o u n d is d u e to late-afternoon
the w i n d s h i e l d for this family portrait. Rick R i c k m a n u s e d a s h a d o w s . For a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of flash c o m b i n e d with
s l o w shutter s p e e d to also allow the b a c k g r o u n d to e x p o s e a m b i e n t light, s e e Plate 6. (Rick Rickman)
i-iaic Hiia Heea saia sne
needed an illustration to go with
a story on chocolate. "Lots of
ideas came and went,'' she said.
None ever seemed good
enough. Three elements were
needed: first, chocolate
displayed center stage in all its
beautiful tempting glory; second,
symbolism for richness,
decadence, and maybe even a
touch of evil; third, bold, simple
graphics. She had been
struggling with ideas when she
awoke at 6 A.M. and said out
loud. Original sin. I need a
snake!" She went through three
boas and a python before she
found this milk snake. The main
light is coming from a soft box to
the right and slightly behind the
spoon, a second box was used
for fill, and a third light adds a
highlight to the front rim of the
spoon. (Rita Reed/Cedar Rapids
Gazette)
 riaic n Didu uidvei&un &
orig.'>ai dea was to make a m a p
frcm corn a n d paint the flag on
Tha' dea w a s rejected as
time-consuming but this
r
sion took several evenings a n d
it: ut a dozen ears of corn The
p a i n i e d ear was inserted in husks
from another ear. a difficult task
since the elements w e r e so
fragile. The main light is a soft box
p l a c e d to the camera's right,
.v e another light c o v e r e d with
an orange gel w a s p l a c e d to the
left as an accent. Type ran in the
upper left a n d along the right

Side. (Brad Graverson. reprinted with

permission of The Daily Breeze)

Plate 15 For f o o d a n d small

products, b a c k g r o u n d s are an
important part of the image. Here,
the pizza w a s set on a plastic
panel from a ceiling light. The
panel w a s s u p p o r t e d at the e n d s
so a spotlight c o u l d b e a i m e d at
the u n d e r s i d e to create the r e d
accent. (Rick Rickman/
Orange County Register)
 illustrations, try to c o m e u p with
visual e q u i v a l e n t s of the
c o n c e p t s in the article This
illustration w a s c r e a t e d for a
story o n Guillam-Barr6
syndrome, a neuromuscular
d i s e a s e . Gary C h a p m a n k n e w
he was successful when a
patient said that's e x a c t l y what
s h e felt like. See figure 1 0 - 1 4
for a v i e w of the set-up. (Gary
Chapman/Louisville Courier-
Journal)

Plate 17 W h e n Rick R i c k m a n w e n t to p h o t o g r a p h this

scientist a n d his particle a c c e l e r a t o r , h e f o u n d the m a c h i n e
stuffed in a c l u t t e r e d r o o m in the b a s e m e n t of the b u i l d i n g .
Too large to m o v e , the only w a y h e c o u l d p h o t o g r a p h it a n d
r e d u c e the visual c o n f u s i o n w a s to turn out the r o o m lights
a n d set u p his o w n . The m a i n light is at the right of the
c a m e r a . The light on the left b a c k g r o u n d w a s c o v e r e d with
a blue gel. R i c k m a n also n o t i c e d a portrait of Einstein in the
hallway at the right a n d lit it with a s m a l l strobe. By u s i n g
c o l o r e d gels over a c c e n t lights as R i c k m a n d i d . you c a n
often s a l v a g e s o m e potentially d i s a s t r o u s situations. (Rick
Rickman/The Orange County Register)
story on dreams H the image in (a), a double added some color to the sky. as seen in (b).
e x p o s u r e of t h e sun 3 But the sky l a c k e d (Mark Mirko/Paim Beach Post)
i liiic iv oiiripie piups, burnt;
c o l o r e d gels o n the lights a n d
p h o t o g r a p h e r Mark Mirko's
imagination resulted in this
illustration for a n entertainment story
S i m p l e c o n c e p t s usually are m o r e
s u c c e s s f u l than c o m p l i c a t e d ones.
(Mark Mirko/Palm Beach Post)

Plate 20 P h o t o g r a p h e r
C a r m e n Troesser u s e d a
s i m p l e c o m b i n a t i o n of
artwork a n d a real t o m a t o
to c r e a t e this a w a r d -
w i n n i n g illustration.
(Carmen Troesser/University
of Missouri)
 Plate 22 A t e l e p h o t o lens u s e d at a w i d e a p e r t u r e
c r e a t e s a soft b a c k g r o u n d . (John NelsonfThe San Diego Union
Tribune)
Plate 21 A v o i d direct n o o n - d a y s u n w h e n s h o o t i n g
on location. Robert Gauthier has c r e a t e d a h i g h - k e y
look b y c o m b i n i n g the m o d e l s outfit with soft light a n d
a bright b a c k g r o u n d . (Robert Gauthier/The San Diego
Union Tribune)

COMPLEMENTARY

Plate 23 The color w h e e l . T h e p r i m a r i e s a r e red. g r e e n ,

a n d blue, while the s e c o n d a r i e s a r e yellow, m a g e n t a , a n d
c y a n . See c h a p t e r 17 for a c o m p l e t e explanation. (Reprinted
courtesy of Eastman Kodak Company)
 E18
chapter

Introduction to
Digital Photography
OUTLINE

Digital P h o t o g r a p h y File F o r m a t s
Image Capture Compression
Chips Instead of Film P h o t o CD
Still Video and Digital Imaging Transmission
Electronic Cameras: Pros and Cons ... ., „
l o the Press
Image Input
Summary
Basic Scanning Technique
T h e Digital D a r k r o o m
Digital Printmaking

T H E ILLITERATE O F T H E FUTURE WILL BE I G N O R A N T

O F T H E USE O F CAMERA A N D P E N ALIKE.

— L A S Z L O MOHOLY-NAGY, 1 9 3 6 . EARLY 2 0 T H - C E N T U R Y PHOTOGRAPHIC ARTIST

 Digital P h o t o g r a p h y T h e level of detail, or image resolution, produced
by a c h i p d e p e n d s on h o w small the receptors are made
Digital p h o t o g r a p h y m e a n s taking and processing pic- and h o w many can be p a c k e d o n t o a chip. T h e
iur - ihc use of c o m p u t e r - b a s e d e q u i p m e n t in- i-million pixel chips are. at this point, extremely expen-
>n\entional c a m e r a s , film, a n d d a r k r o o m sive a n d n o t c o m m o n l y available. By c o m p a r i s o n , a
; 4 Image- can be made with electronic cam- 3 5 m m film frame can have the equivalent of as high as
- : don't use film, and p h o t o s can be processed 18 million pixels. Electronic images, therefore, do not
with c o m p u t e r s instead of with chemicals, enlargers, have the resolution of some films: h o w e v e r , for many
and darkrooms. uses they are acceptable.
The technology' of digital photography is changing
-ii fast that some of the details in this chapter will cer- Still Video and Digital Imaging
tainly b e o u t of d a t e b e f o r e this b o o k r e a c h e s y o u r O n c e the image has passed through the CCD, it can be
hands. I almost w i s h I c o u l d i n c l u d e a c o u p o n you saved in t w o ways: as a still video or digital record.
could tear out and send in for up-to-the-minute informa- Still video cameras use the same principles as TV
t i o n ! L a c k i n g t h a t , l e t ' s c o n s i d e r t h i s c h a p t e r an cameras. T h e images are r e c o r d e d m u c h like a video
overview of image gathering and digital processing sys- recording is made, in an analog m o d e on a magnetic
tems. While the specifics may change, t h e principles m e d i u m that could be v i d e o t a p e or a c o m p u t e r - t y p e
w ill more than likely remain the same. disk. It is important to remember, though, that analog
r e c o r d i n g s are c o n t i n u o u s streams of signals that de-
pend on varying their strength or f r e q u e n c y for captur-
Image Capture ing t h e i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e y d e p e n d o n the
quality of the transmission devices and recording media
While most assignments are still shot on conventional for maintaining their quality.
film, electronic cameras are being used m o r e o f t e n as
Unlike analog still video cameras, digital cameras
the technology improves and t h e price of the cameras
r e c o r d their images as a series of n u m b e r s , w h i c h is
c o m e s d o w n . Because there is no film to process, tight-
h o w c o m p u t e r s record information. Some digital cam-
deadline assignments are w h e r e this e q u i p m e n t s h o w s
eras save images on tiny floppy disks that fit into the
its strength. Electronic cameras are also great for jobs
camera or on m e m o r y cards about the size of a credit
far from film-processing facilities because a photogra-
card. Although these digital images can be sent directly
p h e r can c o v e r the assignment and send the p h o t o s
into a c o m p u t e r , analog video must be converted into
back to the n e w s p a p e r office over a cellular phone.
digital information first.

Chips Instead of Film A big advantage of digital information is that n o dis-

cernible quality is lost w h e n the image is sent from o n e
T h e r e are t w o types of e l e c t r o n i c still c a m e r a s : still spot to another, w h e t h e r those spots are inside a partic-
video and digital. In both cameras, the light is f o c u s e d ular device or across the globe. It is easy f o r the com-
by a lens~~onto an e l e c t r o n i c c h i p called a CCD o r p u t e r s to c h a t b a c k a n d f o r t h , c o n f i r m i n g t h a t t h e
charged coupled device, w h i c h acts as a substitute f o r p r o p e r n u m b e r of pixels w e r e sent and received, and to
the film used in a c o n v e n t i o n a l c a m e r a . T h e c h i p is c h e c k the accuracy of their numbers.
like an incredibly small yet organized g r o u p of p h o t o
cells. In fact, if magnified greatly it might look like a Another advantage of digital information is that spe-
solar cell array used to generate electricity. T h e indi- cific n u m b e r s can be changed. You could ask the com-
vidual light-sensitive cells are a r r a n g e d in r o w s a n d p u t e r to c h a n g e all t h e black to. say. dark gray. T h e
columns, and each cell has a specific location on the c o m p u t e r could look for all the Os and change them to
c h i p T h e cells p r o d u c e t h e p i c t u r e e l e m e n t s , called 3s or whatever you wanted. If you e x p a n d on this idea,
pixels. that, w h e n r e c o m b i n e d in the original pattern, you'll see that you can have t r e m e n d o u s control over
make u p the photograph. the image.

W h e n an image is focused o n t h e chip, each cell Ulec trot lie Cameras: Pros and Cons
records its individual light level, m u c h as silver grains T h e main advantages of electronic cameras have already
d o in ordinary film After the p i c t u r e is taken, all the
b e e n mentioned: the elimination of the chemical-based
information about various light levels on t h e CCD is
darkroom and the related time delays in getting p h o t o s
recorded electronically for f u t u r e use. This action is
ready to edit, transmit, o r publish. Another advantage is
quite t e c h n i c a l feat, as a typical CCD c h i p c o u l d
that some cameras use CCDs that are smaller than the
c o n t a i n from tOO.OOO to « million individual p h o t o
cells or pixels. area of a frame of 35mm film. The result is that the focal
length of all your lenses is e x t e n d e d . Depending on the
 Film-based Film-based
camera camera
Conventional Electronic Still-video
process editing camera

p / = \ Q g > / = \ Q

oOTf W3
k
Photo recorded Pnoto r ecoroed
T
Photo recorded
on film on film on computer disk

Return to Return to Transmit mage

darkroom and darkroom and via phone to
process film process film news office

Make print in Scan image with

darkroom film scanner

Edit in the
1
Edit on electronic Edit on electronic
conventional picture desk picture desk
manner

Scan on rotary or I Send to Send to

flat-bed scanner pagination pagination
or make computer for computer for
conventiona half "teg'aiio^ >nto integration into
tone I page page

Use conventional
page makeup
process to
produce page
mechanicals

Ma*e plates Make oiates Make plates

i
Print publication
7
Print publication Pr nt publication

Figure 1 8 - 1 T h i s c h a r t is a r o u g h g u i d e to the s t e p s in t h e p r o d u c t i o n
p r o c e s s under various systems. As publications move toward the electronic
p r o c e s s i n g of i m a g e s , p r o d u c t i o n is s t r e a m l i n e d .
 (b)
(a)
Figure 18 - 2 (a) While it is difficult to d e t e r m i n e the first u s e of digital
p h o t o g r a p h y in p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m this is o n e of the earliest. A s s o c i a t e d Press
p h o t o g r a p h e r Ron E d m o n d s u s e d an e l e c t r o n i c c a m e r a to m a k e this p h o t o of
President B u s h b e i n g s w o r n in in 1989. E d m o n d s then t r a n s m i t t e d the p h o t o
directly from the c a m e r a platform; the i m a g e b e i n g o n its w a y to users in less
than a minute. (Ron Edmonds/Associated Press) ( b ) E d m o n d s transmits the p h o t o in
(a) s e c o n d s after the i m a g e w a s m a d e . The electronic c a m e r a is to the right o n
the tripod b e h i n d E d m o n d s ; the b l a c k b o x h e is o p e r a t i n g is the transmitter.
(Chick Hamty/Associated Press)

camera make, a 50mm lens could b e c o m e a 200mm

lens, for example. If you have covered a football game
w i t h a 300 or 400mm lens, you can appreciate the
thought of going to a game with a lens that weighs
ounces instead of pounds and fits into your coat pocket.
A second advantage is a set of disks or memory
cards is less bulky and easier to load than 35mm film
cartridges, and you can get as many as 50 shots on a
disk. Also, color shifts caused by different light sources
can be corrected as the image is recorded by the cam-
era. Light sensitivity, which w e would otherwise call
film speed, is in the usual range as for film—from 100 to
1600. Some cameras may go higher.
In spite of the advantages of electronic cameras,
there are problems. Some of the current models have
painfully slow recovery times, when the camera is storing
Figure 1 8 - 3 The DCS digital c a m e r a f r o m K o d a k the image and getting ready for the next one. One camera
consists of a '. kon body modified to c o n t a i n a C C D at the currently available can only shoot one image every three
film plane. The camera also has a tiny hard disk a t t a c h e d seconds. This can be a serious problem for fast-action
tothebottc forimag- - go ! im Chapman/Miami Herald) events, but this problem may be overcome soon.
 When the p h o t o is made with conventional cam-
eras and film, however, the image must be scanned by a
device that converts the visual information of the print
or negative into the digital language of the c o m p u t e r
These s c a n n e r s generally break d o w n into t w o cate-
gories: large, high-end. high-quality m a c h i n e s that re-
q u i r e a trained t e c h n i c i a n ; and l o w - e n d . low-priced
machines that sit on a desktop next to a personal com-
puter. These low-end machines are not necessarily low
in quality, h o w e v e r . In both categories arc m a c h i n e s
that can scan prints and o t h e r "flat art. and scanners
that can handle film, either negative or positive. Some
scanners accept both Hat art and film.
T h e high-end s c a n n e r s such as the o n e in f i g u r e
1 8 - 4 w e r e the standard for years. They can scan images
Figure 1 8 - 4 This is the h i g h - e n d s c a n n e r at The San
at high resolutions and may also p r o d u c e the halftone
Jose Mercury-News. The original t r a n s p a r e n c y is p l a c e d on
the d r u m at the left. T h e o p e r a t o r c a n e x e r c i s e
negatives needed for the printing plates. These machines
c o n s i d e r a b l e control over the color b a l a n c e of the final
typically contain their o w n computers that allow the op-
i m a g e b y m a n i p u l a t i n g the c o n t r o l s on the p a n e l at the erator to make adjustments to the image for color bal-
bottom. T h e l i t h o g r a p h i c film, f r o m w h i c h the p r i n t i n g plates ance and the needs of a particular printing press.
are m a d e , is e x p o s e d in the c h a m b e r at the far right. Low-end s c a n n e r s arc usually limited to scanning
the image u n d e r the control of an a t t a c h e d personal
c o m p u t e r (PC). The resolution of desktop scanners is
Another problem is the tendency of some cameras
improving quickly and they have replaced the high-end
t o lose h i g h l i g h t d e t a i l in h i g h - c o n t r a s t s c e n e s . In machines for many classes of work, particularly in the
conventional p h o t o g r a p h y a p h o t o g r a p h e r could do a n e w s p a p e r business. Nikon makes a scanner that can be
little d a r k r o o m d o d g i n g a n d b u r n i n g t o c o r r e c t t h e installed in the case of a Macintosh c o m p u t e r , and the
p r o b l e m . In such digital images, h o w e v e r , the high- Associated Press has adopted it for their portable units.
lights are so w a s h e d o u t t h a t t h e information is not (See fig. 1 8 - 1 1 . )
there and t h e r e f o r e can't be corrected.
Yet a n o t h e r p r o b l e m is r e l a t e d t o s t o r i n g t h e Basic Scanning Technique
image. As resolution increases, t h e size of the digitized
The advent of small, high-quality scanners has made it
image file i n c r e a s e s . For e x a m p l e , t h e small f l o p p y possible for almost any publication to move into digital
disks used in s o m e c a m e r a s can hold 50 low-resolution image processing. While the details of individual scan-
images. But a high-resolution color p h o t o can easily be ners vary', there are some fundamentals.
10 megabytes in size or more, far greater than the ca-
First, start with a good original. Be sure the image is
pacity of t h e c o m m o n f l o p p y disks you may have used sharp and has highlight and shadow detail. While minor
w i t h p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r s . T h e r e are partial solutions p r o b l e m s can be c o r r e c t e d , the best p r o d u c t c o m e s
t o this, w h i c h will be d i s c u s s e d shortly, but as yet, from the best original. When you have a good original,
t h e y are used at image processing stations and arc not you arc ready to face the c o m p u t e r screen.
c o m m o n at the picture-taking stage. Second, before starting work, be sure the c o m p u t e r
A final drawback is cost. As I write this, professional- screen is properly calibrated. It should be obvious that
quality digital cameras cost well over S5000. All these if the screen does not match the final output, you will
problems are solvable, though, and it is quite likely that not get the results you want. Check the instructions for
most of t h e m will be o v e r c o m e during the expected life- your monitor and photo-processing software for details.
span of this book. Then d e t e r m i n e the final image size and cropping
so you'll k n o w w h a t resolution to use w h e n scanning.
Image Input Scanning in unneeded information results in unneces-
sarily large file sizes, while not scanning enough forces
When p h o t o s are made with electronic cameras, trans- the c o m p u t e r to add information. Called interpolation.
ferring the images to a c o m p u t e r for editing is relatively the n e w information is artificially created and the result
can be noticeable. If a change of plans requires a larger
simple. If t h e image is f r o m a digital camera, it can be as
image, rescanning is the best option. Reducing the size
easy as attaching a c o n n e c t i n g wire b e t w e e n the cam-
of an image is not a problem since the u n n e e d e d infor-
era and t h e c o m p u t e r . In the case of still video, the
mation is discarded by the computer.
image must be converted to digital information first.
 Figure 1 8 - 5 Be sure to c h e c k the final
•'doi [
m«v to
resolution b e f o r e s c a n n i n g an i m a g e . T o o h i g h a
rate will result in u n n e c e s s a r i l y l a r g e files. In this
l e r d c l l u e Help
N i k o n C o o l s c a n c o n t r o l w i n d o w , the resolution is
a d j u s t e d in the box l a b e l e d Final Res. (Courtesy
Nikon Electronic Imaging)

Custom

gjjEBulo

The software for your s c a n n e r may calculate scan However, there is a strong c o n c e r n as to h o w far
resolution (sometimes called the sampling rate) based you should go in correcting or manipulating a documen-
on the c r o p and image size information. A general rule tary" photo: any c h a n g e s that affect the content of such
is that the scanned resolution should be twice the final an image t a m p e r with its honesty. See chapter 13 for a
halftone screen. For example, many newspapers u s e 85- discussion of these ethical issues. Also, having a com-
line halftone screens, w h i c h w o u l d require a scanned puter doesn't guarantee technical or artistic success any-
resolution of 1"0 dpi (dots per inch). Remember, scan- more than o w n i n g a piano makes s o m e o n e a musician.
ning at a higher resolution is not necessary and can be Good photographic w o r k takes practice w h e t h e r it is in
counterproductive. Brian Lawler, an expert in scanning, a darkroom or on a c o m p u t e r screen. Regardless of the
says, "It is generally a c c e p t e d that h i g h e r scan rates tools, a good p h o t o g r a p h e r needs to understand the lim-
yield better detail, but there is a diminishing return on its of photographic materials and h o w those limits arc
s c a n n i n g too m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n . Higher scan factors dealt with: contrast and brightness range, color sensitiv-
make for huge files and the difference in output quality ity, the degree of enlargement, the effccts of light and
is seldom visible." I-awler uses a scan rate of 1.25 times lenses, and so on.
the final screen frequency.
Digital Printmaking
In a conventional p h o t o lab, a p h o t o g r a p h e r at w o r k is
The Digital D a r k r o o m
s o m e w h a t of a sorcerer. In a darkened room, he waves
his hands under a beam of light that shines onto a piece
T he electronic darkroom is a relatively n e w term in the
of p a p e r . T h e n he d r o p s the p a p e r in a tray of liquid
history of photography. In reality, it isn't a d a r k r o o m
and in a f e w minutes an image appears. In the digital
but the c o m p u t e r , w h e r e the image is processed elec-
world, the sorccry doesn't end. but takes place on tiny
tronically. O n c e the image is in a digital format and visi-
bits of silicon. Yet in both cases, the p h o t o g r a p h e r must
ble on the c o m p u t e r screen, it can be manipulated just
correct flaws in the raw image and translate it into o n e
as you would change an image in the darkroom. You
that conveys the intended meaning.
can dodge, burn, and adjust color balance, contrast, and
overall density. Here are some tips to making g o o d digital prints.
Remember, start with a good original.
But this is only the beginning, and e n t i r e b o o k s
First, save t h e original scan and make a c o p y to
and semester-long courses are devoted to the subject
w o r k o n so you w o n ' t have to rcscan the image if you
of digital image manipulation. For e x a m p l e , you can
goof. T h e n save it as a n e w file after each major change
lighten the s h a d o w s w i t h o u t affecting the m i d t o n e s or
so you w o n ' t have to start over if you goof again. W h e n
highlights. You can change color balance in a p e r s o n ' s
naming the c o p i e d files, use a naming s c h e m e that will
face w i t h o u t changing the rest of the scene. Parts of
s h o w you w h i c h file is the most recent. For example,
p h o t o s can be removed and c o m b i n e d w i t h o t h e r im-
the original scan could be Portrait.0. Subsequent files
ages to create illustrations. Special e f f e c t s such as blur,
could be: Portrait. 1. Portrait.2 and so o n . Be s u r e to
distortion, m o t i o n , and w i n d s t r e a k s can be a d d e d .
trash the copies w h e n you are d o n e or your hard disk
And yes. you can e v e n s h a r p e n u p s h o t s t h a t a r e
will end up c h o k e d with u n n e e d e d files.
slightly out of focus.
Figure 1 8 - 6 With digital i m a g e - p r o c e s s i n g e q u i p m e n t , y o u c a n c o m b i n e
i m a g e s f r o m several n e g a t i v e s to c r e a t e c o m p o s i t e illustrations. (Mark Mirko/
Palm Beach Post)

Many p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t s t h e n run the s o f t w a r e ' s make corrections with the scanner software. Remem-
sharpening filters, which use mathematical algorithms ber. the computer makes its corrections based on the
to make an image look s h a r p e r . In A d o b e ' s Photo- data it is given, so it is better to give it full data rather
shop, currently the most popular image-processing than ask it to create information as it goes along. As
s o f t w a r e , t h e U n s h a r p Mask is a c o m m o n l y used with Brightness/Contrast controls, there arc several
sharpening filter. It looks for the edges between dif- ways to correct minor and major color shifts in the
ferent colors and tones and increases the contrast be- image. One method that is easy for beginners is the
t w e e n t h e p i x e l s a l o n g t h o s e e d g e s . B e w a r e of Variations w i n d o w in the Image-Adjust menu, which
oversharpening, though, as the image quality will take provides a ring-around view where you can select the
a noticeable drop. correction you like best.
Next, you'll need to set the overall tonal range. By the way, these corrections can be saved as a sep-
There are several ways of doing this in Photoshop, but arate file for use on other photos. For example, the
beginners should start w i t h the Brightness/Contrast lights in a particular stadium will probably require the
control in the Image-Adjust menu. (See fig. 18-7.) same correction for each photo, so having the correc-
These controls are similar to the contrast and den- tion instantly available saves time.
sity adjustments you have made to prints in the dark- Next, burn and dodge highlight and shadow detail.
room. 'There are other, more sophisticated, ways to get Using the selection tool, select the areas to be changed,
the same result, but a full explanation is beyond our and use the levels or contrast/brightness controls to
purpose here. make the changes.
When working in color, then adjust color balance. Finally, retouch dust and scratch marks. In Photo-
If there is a major shift, it might be better to rescan and shop, this is easily done with the rubber stamp tool.
Figure 18 After an m a g e is in the c o m p u t e r system
. o'-i ca . - r e ightness a n d contrast a n d see the
char he screen (Courtesy Adobe Systems)

Bnqhtnetv:

Cornel

• Preuieu»

Figure 1 8 - 8 This display shows you a set of •nainnt

images, e a c h with a slight c h a n g e in color balance. m\ O*—. I 0K i

Called a ringaround. it is an easy way to make color O " - ' f t a n t el '

b a l a n c e decisions. (Courtesy Adobe Systems)

f"? . . | l*Ml— ]

| 1 1

Mm hr»

i e ^
<
OrrMi^U
]
- <

Figure 1 8 - 9 I m a g e - p r o c e s s i n g software allows you to File Edit Mode Image Filler Select Window

make corrections such as s p o t t i n g out s c r a t c h e s a n d dust — PholoLummiMRGB^^

marks that w e r e on the original negative. In this c a s e , the
icon s h a p e d like a r u b b e r s t a m p is the tool used. (Courtesy
Adobe Systems)
Hold the Option key and click the tool on an area adja- File F o r m a t s
cent to the defect. T h e n m o v e the stamp to the defect
and click the m o u s e . T h e tool clones pixels from the When you save your work, the software application can
first area to the second, covering the defect. O n c e you save it in various file formats, w h i c h are just different
stan to play with this and o t h e r digital retouching tools, c o m p u t e r representations of the information. An appli-
you'll see h o w easy it is to add or subtract objects in an cation will most likely have its o w n format, which you
image, and w h y p r o f e s s i o n a l s are d e e p l y c o n c e r n e d should use while you arc working on the image. This
about maintaining ethical standards for image integrin dedicated format offers image manipulation features not
R e m e m b e r , o n c e you make a change and save it. available in o t h e r formats and is the o n e the software
some digital information may be lost. If you don't like can read most efficiently This f o r m a t is usually not
your change, go back to the last-saved version and r e d o t r a n s f e r a b l e b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t types of c o m p u t e r s ,
it. Do not try to correct on the o n e you changed, as the which is why the other formats exist. There are at least
original information may not be there. 30 different file types for various files and c o m p u t e r sys-
tems. Some of these file formats include compression, a
A Hard-Copy Print O n e of the goals of digital pho- means of making the file smaller. C o m m o n file formats
t o g r a p h y for publication is t o eliminate the time and include BMP and PCX for the IBM PC, and PICT for the
e x p e n s e of making a print. Some n e w s p a p e r s have al- Macintosh. TIFF (also c o m m o n on the Macintosh) and
ready bypassed this traditional step, sending the image HPS are formats used to transfer images b e t w e e n various
electronically to the p r e p r e s s d e p a r t m e n t . Yet for vari- hardware and software combinations.
ous reasons including labor a g r e e m e n t s and compatibil-
TIFF, w h i c h is the most p o p u l a r i n t e r c h a n g e for-
ity of e x i s t i n g e q u i p m e n t , s o m e p u b l i c a t i o n s make
mat. stands for Tagged Image File Format. Most applica-
p r i n t s f r o m t h e i r digitally p r o c e s s e d images. Also, a
tions and c o m p u t e r platforms can read TIFF files. HPS
p h o t o g r a p h e r might w a n t a print for a portfolio or for
stands for Encapsulated PostScript, w h i c h is used by
resale. Printers are available that p r o d u c e top-quality re-
graphics applications. JPEG and GIF are also important
sults that can hardly be distinguished from a print made
formats and are explained below. The subject of file for-
in a traditional p h o t o lab; o t h e r less e x p e n s i v e printers
mats can get complicated quickly since agreement on
p r o d u c e lower quality o u t p u t that is acceptable for ref-
industry standards has b e e n difficult.
e r e n c e . Sending the image to o n e of these printers is
little different f r o m sending a d o c u m e n t to any other
Compression
t y p e of c o m p u t e r p r i n t e r . T h e e x a c t p r o c e d u r e de-
p e n d s on the p r i n t e r and h o w it is c o n n e c t e d to the As I previously mentioned, compression is a m e a n s of
c o m p u t e r . Listing p r i n t e r s and s p e c i f i c p r o c e d u r e s reducing the size of a file. Compression is important be-
h e r e could be misleading since tills area of digital imag- cause color photos can take u p lots of c o m p u t e r storage
ing is changing rapidly as costs c o m e d o w n and new- space and can require impractical a m o u n t s of transfer
m e t h o d s are p e r f e c t e d . Getting a print out of your com- time w h e n uncompressed. A c o m m o n compression
p u t e r is not a serious obstacle, and there are compa- s c h e m e is known as JPEG ( p r o n o u n c e d jay-peg), w h i c h
nies. called service bureaus, that will print your p h o t o s stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group, the origi-
for you if you d o not have access to a printer. Some of nal name of the committee that devised it.
these services are set u p to receive an image transmit- Simply stated, compression software looks for simi-
ted over p h o n e lines. C h e e k the t e l e p h o n e book under lar information in a digital file For example, if your
desktop publishing. p h o t o had an inch of black space along the top, an un-
compressed file would include e v e n pixel in that area
and the codes needed to indicate black. A compressed
The Electronic Picture Desk An electronic pic- image would simply contain a code that said. "Make the
ture desk is a p r o d u c t i o n - o r i e n t e d system d e s i g n e d top inch black all the way across." This is. of course, a
f o r n e w s p a p e r a n d n e w s magazine use. and w h i l e it simplification. (JPEG expert Tom Lane says, "How docs
i n c l u d e s digital d a r k r o o m f u n c t i o n s it is also a picture- JPEG work? T h e buzzwords to k n o w are c h r o m i n a n c e
m a n a g e m e n t system for local and w i r e service p h o t o s . s u b s a m p l i n g . d i s c r e t e c o s i n e transforms, c o e f f i c i e n t
quantization, and Huffman or arithmetic entropy cod-
T h e m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m i n c l u d e s a m e a n s of filing
ing." That's something best left to the experts!)
and tracking p h o t o s , and adding captions, as well as
the ability to send the images to page editors and the As an e x a m p l e of t h e v a l u e of c o m p r e s s i o n , I
p r e p r e s s d e p a r t m e n t w h e r e t h e p r i n t i n g p l a t e s are scanned the p h o t o in figure 18-11 in color at a size of
made. T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a digital darkroom and 4 x 3 inches and a final resolution of 170 lpi. The un-
an e l e c t r o n i c p i c t u r e d e s k is m o r e in the w a y t h e compressed TIFF file was 1 megabyte, while the JPEG-
h a r d w a r e is set u p and used rather than in t h e equip- c o m p r e s s e d file w a s only 4 0 kilobytes. T h e n I sent
m e n t itself. t h e s e files t h r o u g h a s t a n d a r d 9 6 0 0 b a u d m o d e m .
riic 1111 file took about 18 minutes, while the JPEG- Transmission
compressed file took less than a minute.
B\ the w a \ . it you have already been exploring The first photos were transmitted over telephone wires
di — i.i i 1: ;ing you probably have discovered the in the 1930s by a machine that was simple in concept.
t ompuser\'e GIF format. This format was an early one A print was wrapped around a drum that spun as a pho-
that supported computers that did not have full color tocell read the light reflected off the print. To make the
. tpabilit) («I1 images are limited to 256 colors, while print required by the transmitter, photographers on lo-
JPHG compression will support 16 million colors. cation had to arrange for darkroom facilities or lug com-
plete setups, including an enlarger and all its related
paraphernalia.
P h o t o CD
This technology continued almost unchanged until
the late 1980s. In the mid-1980s, the world of photo-
One of the most important advantages of digital pho-
journalism was overtaken by a wondrous device: the
tography is the ability to transfer and store images
Leafax transmitter. This suitcase-sized machine allowed
with no loss in quality. With conventional methods,
photographers to send a photo over telephone lines di-
e v e n time the image is moved farther away from the
rectly from the negative, eliminating not only the equip-
original, a quality loss occurs. If you ever tried to make
ment needed for print making, but also the time needed
a copy negative from a print in order to make more
to do the printing.
prints, you have probably experienced the frustrations
of this quality loss. Digital information remains as good Although the Leafax machine was nin by a computer,
as the original. it was limited to minor image correction and cutline writ-
ing. It was also heavy and expensive (over SI5,000) and
However, a serious problem with digital photogra-
available only from Leaf Systems or Associated Press.
ph) is the size of the digital files. As I mentioned above,
There were competing systems, but all were heavy and
a color photo could easily fill ten megabytes of space or
awkward when compared with modem equipment.
more. While this doesn't seem like much on its own.
consider the problems of a professional photographer In a few s h o n years, however, image transmission
w h o has thousands of images to store, or stock photo has jumped from those first heavy, expensive machines
agencies w h o have millions of photos on file. to a new generation of transmission equipment that is
lightweight and available off-the-shelf at many computer
An important solution to the problem is the Photo and photo stores.
CD system pioneered by Kodak. A Photo CD disk is
the same size as an audio or data CD and can hold O n e e x a m p l e is the PhotoLynx Pro, Associated
many images. There are different Photo CD formats de- P r e s s ' s n e w e s t digital p h o t o t r a n s m i t t e r , w h i c h is
pending on use. For example, the Photo CD Catalog essentially a M a c i n t o s h P o w e r B o o k w i t h a Nikon
can contain as many as 4500 or more thumbnail im- C o o l s c a n s c a n n e r a t t a c h e d to its b o t t o m . T h i s
ages and their captions. You may have seen jukeboxes 15-pound combination gives the photographer the abil-
for audio CDs; special 100-disk jukeboxes are available ity to scan photos at the same time other photos are
for Photo CDs. making hundreds of thousands of pho- being sent back to the newspaper, all in a quality-pre-
tos available quickly. serving digital format. Funher, the PowerBook is a fully
functioning c o m p u t e r that can handle all the o t h e r
On the other hand, the Pro Photo CD Master disk tasks a computer can perform. Since the PowerBook
holds between 25 and 100 images depending on resolu- and the Coolscan are available separately, anyone can
tion and film size. This disk is intended for large-format put together a photo transmitter.
images that must maintain maximum resolution. Other
Photo CD formats are available including the Photo CD Transmitting a photo is fairly simple. First compress
Master, which is intended for consumer use. it using JPEG software, then follow the directions with
your modem and communications software for trans-
An advantage of Photo CD disks is that they can be
mitting documents. The receiving station will need to
mass-produced just as audio CDs are made, so photogra-
decompress the image, which is easily done with many
phers can distribute their images to as many users as
photo-processing applications. Problems with transmis-
they wish with no loss in quality. For a nominal fee, you
sions can usually be traced to extraneous noise on the
can have your own photos scanned and put on a Photo
p h o n e line or bad c o n n e c t i o n s ; in some cases, the
CD by labs equipped to do this. Players are available
modems (the devices that connect computers to phone
that will display the image on a TV set or a computer,
lines) at each end are incompatible. Modern modems
and in most cases you can copy the image to your com-
have fewer problems with this, but to guarantee suc-
puter and use it like any other digital image.
cess. use the same brand and model at each end.
 Figure 1 8 - 1 0 The L e a f a x transmitter
w a s o n e of the first p o r t a b l e s c a n n e r s It
w a s u s e d by The A s s o c i a t e d Press a n d
its m e m b e r p a p e r s to transmit an i m a g e
directly from a b l a c k a n d w h i t e or color
negative. This m a c h i n e has b e e n
s u r p a s s e d by m u c h lighter a n d m o r e
versatile e q u i p m e n t

Figure 1 8 - 1 1 A recent d e v e l o p m e n t in s c a n n e r /
transmitters is this M a c i n t o s h P o w e r B o o k with a N i k o n
C o o l s c a n a t t a c h e d to the b o t t o m . It has the a d d e d flexibility
of p e r f o r m i n g all the functions of a p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r
(Courtesy The Associated Press)

To t h e P r e s s trapping, dot gain, screen angle, and rasterization are

n e w to the photojournalist. At this point, prepress is in
Traditionally, t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s job e n d e d w h e n the transition. Some publications relv on photographers to
print was delivered to the process camera operator for handle these tasks; others feel that specialists are still
conversion to a halftone positive or negative. In such a called for. Since it is unlikely that a n e w photojournalist
traditional shop, this work, k n o w n as prepress, required will be e x p e c t e d to have expertise with this technol-
specialists w h o applied as many skills to their work as ogy, a brief definition of those four terms will conclude
the p h o t o g r a p h e r did to his. Increasingly, however, im- this chapter. However, those of you w h o are pursuing
ages are being sent directly to platemaking machines, careers in photojournalism w o u l d be wise to learn as
and p r e p r e s s jobs arc being transferred to the p h o t o de- much about digital prepress technology as you can.
partment as the software b e c o m e s capable of perform- Trapping is a technique that allows for variations
ing those tasks. in registration of c o l o r p l a t e s d u r i n g a p r e s s r u n . A
P h o t o g r a p h e r s are n o w faced w i t h a vocabulary panel of blue, for example, that is adjacent to a panel
that has b e e n the prior domain of the color separator of red. might reveal a tiny w h i t e line along its e d g e
a n d p r o c e s s c a m e r a d e p a r t m e n t . P h r a s e s s u c h as if t h e p r e s s is t h e s l i g h t e s t bit o u t of r e g i s t e r .
 u s .! small overlap, usually only visible rising quickly, and regardless of price, everyone k n e w
u n d e r magnification, t h a t p r o v i d e s s o m e l e e w a y f o r that o u r profession relied on a n o n r e n e w a b l e natural
the press. r e s o u r c e f o r its s u c c e s s . O n e of t h e s p e a k e r s w a s
is the increase in the size of the halftone Emory Kristof, a National Geographic photographer
the characteristics of the ink. p a p e r , and w h o is well-known for his p h o t o g r a p h s f r o m the deep-
Ww paper presses can have as m u c h as 30 per- est parts of the sea. Kristof was convinced that the fu-
v i't dot gain, so halftones must be adjusted to c o m p e n - t u r e of p h o t o g r a p h y w a s e l e c t r o n i c . Most of t h e
tc for this. The amount of correction can be entered attendees, including me, w e r e skeptical, and the pho-
in the image-processing software. tos he showed, taken with video cameras, w e r e crude
Screen angles are t h e angles by w h i c h h a l f t o n e by today's standards.
screens are offset w h e n making p r o c e s s color separa- But Kristof was right. Although e v e n he probably
tions Proper screen angles prevent moire patterns. did not e x p e c t that the electronic images of the future
Rasterization is the process of c o n v e n i n g the digi- would be converted to numbers, high-quality electronic
tal information into halftone dots. You may also hear photography is n o longer a dream.
someone use the term RIP as a verb. RIP means raster From image c a p t u r e t h r o u g h processing, storage,
image processor, and s o m e o n e w h o rips an image is transmission, and o u t p u t , the digital image survives at
rasterizing it. the same level of quality as w h e n it began its journey as
a b e a m of light passing t h r o u g h t h e c a m e r a ' s lens. I
s o m e t i m e s w o n d e r , if w e could go back in time and
Summary bring Niepce, Daugerre. Eastman, and other photogra-
phy pioneers u p to the beginning of the 21st century,
Slightly over 20 years ago. I attended a photojournalism h o w they would react. What would their creative minds
c o n f e r e n c e in Arizona. O n e of the topics of discussion d o with these n e w tools?
was a substitute for silver-based film. Silver prices w e r e
 Appendix
OUTLINE

Section Is Processing Time/ Section 4: Reclaiming Silver

Temperature Charts for from Fixer
Common Black-and-White Films
Section 5: Professional
Section 2: Push Processing Organizations
Section 3: How to Make Portfolio
Slides
 TABLE A-4 Ilford HP5 (ISO 4 0 0 ) —
Development Time in Minutes
r
p ime Temperature Charts for Developer Dilution 68= F 75° F
Black-and-white Films D-76 None 7
> s : i t i m e s listed here are only recommenda-
tions Your specific conditions may require adjust- D-76 1:1 12 8
\ ! w a \ s process a test roll before trying these
HC-110 A 6 4
t u n e s w i t h important film.
Acufine None 5 3A

TABLE A-l Tri-X (ISO 4 0 0 ) —

Development Time in Minutes Section 2
Developer 65= F 68° F 70° F 72 s F 75= F

HC-110 (A) 3% 3% 3 2/ Push Processing

TA 6>S 6 5
Push processing is a common technique that involves
HC-110(B) 8A
shooting film at a speed rating higher than its recom-
D-76 9 8 TA 6'A 5A mended rating, and then compensating somewhat for
the resulting underexposure by special development. It
D-76 1:1 11 10 9* 9 8
is a useful and common technique for getting pictures
T-Max 7 6 6 5A in low-light conditions.
I have placed this information in the appendix be-
cause explaining this technique to beginning photogra-
phers is somewhat like putting a first-time driver in a
Fcrarri Testarossa. I do not think that those of you w h o
TA RLE A-2 T-Max 100 (ISO 100)— are just learning exposure and development should try
D e v e l o p m e n t Time in Minutes this method until you are confident with the normal
routine. The best prints come from properly exposed
Developer 65: F 68; F 70= F 72° F 75 s F and processed film. There is always some compromise
with quality when departing from standard procedures.
T-Max NR 8 7'A 7 6A
A t y p i c a l c a s e f o r p u s h p r o c e s s i n g w o u l d b e at a
D-76 1034 9 8 7 6 night or i n d o o r sporting e v e n t w h e r e t h e existing light
is t o o l o w f o r t h e s h u t t e r s p e e d a n d a p e r t u r e c o m b i n a -
D-76 1:1 14* 12 11 10 8A
t i o n y o u w a n t t o u s e . For e x a m p l e , s u p p o s e y o u w e r e
HC-110(B) 8 7 6A 6 5 u s i n g ISO 4 0 0 film a n d y o u r m e t e r r e c o m m e n d e d a n e x -
p o s u r e o f 1 / 6 0 at f / 2 . 8 . T h i s s h u t t e r s p e e d is w a y t o o
s l o w for sports action.
To solve this problem, set your light meter for a
film speed of 1600. Because each d o u b l i n g of film
TABLE A-3 T-Max 4 0 0 (ISO 4 0 0 ) — speed equals a difference in exposure of one f-stop. you
D e v e l o p m e n t Time in Minutes can now shoot at 1/250 at 2.8. Here's how it might look
if you laid this information out in a chart:
Developer 65 1 F 68; F 70 s F 72 c F 75° F
Suggested exposure at: ISO 400 = 1/60 @ 2.8
T-Max NR 7 6A 6 'A 6 ISOSOO = 1/125 @ 2.8
ISO 1600 = 1/250 <8 2.8
D-76 9 8 7 6A 5-4
At an ISO OF 1600. your meter would then recom-
D-76 1:1 12B 11 10 9
mend an exposure of 1/250 at 2.8. If your lens opened
HC-110(B) 6 5A 5 4A to f/2. you could use 1/500 at f/2 Check your exposure
ruler (see chapter 3) if you are confused by these equiv-
alent exposures.
 TABLE A-5 Push Processing Times TABLE A-6 Push Processing Times
for Tri-X Film for T-Max 4 0 0 Film
Film Developer Time and Film Developer Time and
Speed Temperature Speed Temperature

400 D-76 8 min. at 6 8 ° F

400 T-Max 6 min at 7 5 ° F
H C - 1 1 0 (Dil. B) 7/4 min. at 6 8 ° F
D-76 8 min. at 68° F
800 D-76 12 min. at 6 8 ° F HC-110 6 min. at 68° F

1600 Acufine 10 min. at 6 8 ° F 800 T-Max 6 min. at 75° F

Acufine 6 / - 7 min. at 75° F a D-76 8 min. at 68° F
Edwal FG-7 9 / min at 6 8 ° F b HC-110 (Dil. B) 6 min. at 6 8 ° F
T-Max 834 min. at 75° F
1600 T-Max 8 min. at 75° F
2400 Acufine 8 min. at 75° F c D-76 1 0 / min at 68° F
H C - 1 1 0 (Dil. B) 8 / min. at 68° F
3200 Edwal FG-7 12 min. at 75° FD
H C 110R 8 min. at 70° F d 3200 T-Max 924 min. at 75° F
T-Max 10/' min. at 75° F

E x p e r i m e n t w i t h d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s i n g t i m e s I n c r e a s e a a g i t a t i o n w> r c r e a s e
c o n t r a s t a n d c a n h e l p i m p r o v e n e g s m a d e u n d e r flat l i g h t i n g c o n d i t i o n s
s u c h a s c l a s s r o o m s . For h g h - c o n t r a s t s c e n e s s u c h a s c o n c e r t l i g h t i n g ,
reduce agitation
J
A g i t a t e at b e g i n n i n g a n d h a l f w a y p o i n t o n l y
TABLE A-7 Push Processing Times
° M i x F G - 7 1 o z c o n c e n t r a t e t o 15 0 / w a t e r a n d a d d 1 o z s o d i u m sulfite for Fuji N e o p a n 1600 Film
c
A g i t a t e at b e g i n n i n g o n l y
3
Mix 1 oz H C 11 OR ( r e p i e n i s h e r ) w i t h 15 o z water and a d d l oz sodium
Film Speed Developer T i m e at 75° F
sulfite
1600 D-76 5 min.
H C - 1 1 0 (Dil. B) 5 min.
T-Max 354 min.
In e f f e c t , you are lying to your light m e t e r by-
telling it you have faster film. The photos that result 3200 D-76 10 min.
are underexposed. In the case of a 16(H) setting with T-Max TA min.
400-speed film, your photos will be two f-stops under-
e x p o s e d . This u n d e r e x p o s u r e can then be compen-
sated for s o m e w h a t by extending the d e v e l o p m e n t
time or by using special developers. (Fixing and wash-
ing times remain the same as for normally processed
TABLE A-8 Push Processing Times
film.) Included in this section are processing charts for
for Kodak T-Max P3200 Film
various film and exposure combinations.
As I mentioned earlier, however, push processing Film Speed Developer T i m e at T i m e at
75° F 85° F
includes a trade-off in image quality. Shadows usually
suffer, becoming dark and lacking in detail. Overall 1600 T-Max 7 min. 5 min.
negative contrast is usually affected also. (If your neg- D-76 8 / min. 5 / min.
atives are generally too contrasty, reduce the process- HC-110 6 min. 4'A min.
ing t i m e ; if t o o f l a t , i n c r e a s e t h e t i m e . ) T h e s e
3200 T-Max 9 A min. 6 / min.
d r a w b a c k s are s o m e t i m e s minimal, sometimes seri-
D-76 11 min. TA min
ous, depending on the individual circumstances. Ex-
HC-110 7'A min. 5 / min.
tremes of ISO pushing, lighting contrast in the original
scene, and development technique will result in low- 6400 T-Max 11 min. 8 min
ered image quality. In photojournalism this p o o r e r D-76 1 2 / min. 9 min.
quality is acceptable w h e n the only other option is no HC-110 9 / min. 6/;. min.
pictures.
12,500 T-Max 1 2 / min. 9 min
The relatively new 1600- and 3200-speed films will
reduce the need for push processing in many situations,
but photographers are always stretching the limits of
the technology. Kodak s P3200 black-and-white film can
 TABLE A-9 Push Processing for Color
i ^ Films at 100° F P r o c e s s i n g
Temperature
How to Make Portfolio Slides
Film Stops ISO First Developer Most portfolios are n o w p r e s e n t e d in the form of slides.
Pushed Increase Slides are far easier to ship and handle, and much less
E-6 1 2x normal 2 min. e x p e n s i v e to m a k e t h a n a set of 11 x 14 m o u n t e d
(transparency) 2 4x normal 4 min. prints. You should, however, have a print portfolio on
hand for in-pcrson interviews.
C-41 1 2x normal 30 sec.
In black a n d w h i t e , slides s h o u l d be m a d e only
(negative) 2 4x normal 1 min.
from top-quality prints. Eight-by-ten-inch prints w o r k
well, but there is n o reason not to use any other conve-
nient size. Be sure the prints are the best quality you
can produce; the slides will not hide any defects. All the
prints should be consistent in their contrast and density,
be p u s h e d an equivalent of t w o stops to an astonishing and properly spotted. They need not be mounted.
ISO of 12.500 with results that are acceptable to many The standard copying set-up is s h o w n in figure A-1.
photojournalists. Set the lights so they are at about a 45° angle to the
One more caution. Every photojournalist has his o r print. Either flood or flash will work, but be sure there
h e r f a v o r i t e f o r m u l a , and you will u n d o u b t e d l y en- is n o reflection from the print surface into the camera's
counter advice that runs c o u n t e r to that given here. As lens. You might have to turn out the room lights and
with any special t e c h n i q u e , e x p e r i m e n t b e f o r e using make a cardboard mask to k e e p the c a m e r a ' s o w n
any of these suggestions on an important assignment. image from reflecting back from the print surface. You
can either tack the print to the wall, keeping the cam-
Push Processing Color Films era perpendicular to it, or set the print on a table and
On the whole, push processing color films results in a aim the camera d o w n . (If your prints are u n m o u n t e d ,
greater loss of quality than a similar push in black and you may need to set a piece of clean glass over the print
white. Grain increases and color saturation decreases. to hold it flat.) In either case, the lights should be at the
Further, some color shifts can occur that can be difficult s a m e angle relative to t h e print. I p r e f e r t h e vertical
to correct in the final r e p r o d u c t i o n . Push processing arrangement, attaching the camera to an enlarger using
C - 4 1 and E - 6 process films is d o n e by extending the a photographic C-clamp that includes a ball-head. This
first developer time. All o t h e r s t e p s remain the same. set-up makes it easy to c r o p by raising or lowering the
Kodachromc films can be push processed only by labs enlarger until the image fills the frame. Be sure the cam-
e q u i p p e d to d o so; I d o not r e c o m m e n d pushing Ko- era is exactly perpendicular to the print.
dachromc except in an emergency. Check the labs that Take a m e t e r reading with an incident meter, hold-
advertise in the Photo District News (listed in the peri- ing it at t h e p r i n t p o s i t i o n . Try t o u s e an e x p o s u r e
odicals section of the bibliography) for this service. c o m b i n a t i o n t h a t will a l l o w y o u to s t o p y o u r lens

F i g u r e A - 1 When c o p y i n g prints to make portfolio slides, set up two lights

eci . stant y ne c o p y a n d at 45-degree angles. Be sure the light is spread
evenly a c r o s s the c o p y
clown a f e w stops, w h e r e it will be at its sharpest. F/8 d u p e s yourself. Color negs can be converted directly to
is a g o o d a p e r t u r e to aim for. Use a cable release so slides, although your cropping options are limited. The
t h e camera will not wiggle during t h e e x p o s u r e . If pos- easiest way is to have a print made and then make slides
sible, use a m a c r o lens ( n o t a macro zoom), w h i c h is from that.
less p r o n e to distortion.
Any color slide film will do, but be s u r e its color
balance is a p p r o p r i a t e for the lights you use. Remem- Section 4
b e r , if y o u u s e p h o t o f l o o d s , y o u ' l l n e e d e i t h e r a
tungsten-balanced film o r an 80B blue filter over your
l e n s t o c o r r e c t t h e c o l o r . I'd s u g g e s t a t u n g s t e n - Reclaiming Silver from Fixer
b a l a n c e d film s u c h as K o d a c h r o m e 40, E k t a c h r o m e The silver that conventional photography d e p e n d s on
50, o r F u j i c h r o m e 64 RTP. Off-color results in the final for its light-sensitive emulsions is a n o n r e n e w a b l e nat-
slides can be a p r o b l e m unless you take care to avoid ural r e s o u r c e . A gallon of used f i x e r can c o n t a i n as
t h e m . Use f r e s h film b a l a n c e d to y o u r light s o u r c e , much as one o u n c e of recoverable silver that should not
avoid setting u p y o u r c o p y rig near brightly c o l o r e d be d u m p e d d o w n the drain.
walls, w e a r a neutral-colored s h i n , and have the film There arc a n u m b e r of ways to salvage the silver
processed promptly. that is removed from processed film and paper by the
fixer. Commercial labs use either a metallic replacement
For making slides from black-and-white prints, you
cartridge or an electrolytic device. In the first method,
c a n u s e K o d a k ' s T - M a x 100 b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e f i l m
t h e cartridges are filled w i t h fine steel w o o l . Silver-
processed in Kodak's reversal processing kit. The chem-
bearing solutions are fed through the cartridges and the
icals in the kit will process six rolls of film. The results
steel wool dissolves into the solution causing the silver
are quite good.
to precipitate out as a sludge in the bottom of the canis-
We also u s e a special Kodak black-and-white film ter. Exhausted canisters are then sent to a refiner for
made for copying medical X rays. Called Rapid Process credit. Eastman Kodak offers cartridges and a method of
C o p y Film 2064, it is a direct-reversal film that yields crediting labs for silver returned in used cartridges.
positive images with normal processing. T h e maximum
black (technically k n o w n as D-max) is very high, and The second method uses a system that involves an
the film is capable of c a p t u r i n g all the subtleties and electric charge that flows b e t w e e n t w o electrodes im-
brilliance of the best black-and-white print. Unfortu- mersed in the solution. The silver plates out on o n e of
nately, this material is very slow, with an ISO of about the electrodes in an almost p u r e form. This system is
.06. O u r e x p o s u r e s w i t h 500-watt p h o t o f l o o d s range m o r e sensitive to the condition of the chemicals than
from 15 to 30 seconds at f/4. but I think the superior re- the metallic r e p l a c e m e n t cartridges, and it is used by
sults are w o r t h the wait. The film can be processed in large labs w h e r e conditions can be monitored.
DK-50 at 75° F for about 10 minutes, o r in Dektol at In larger cities, there are companies that will collect
85° F f o r a b o u t 5 m i n u t e s . I p r e f e r t h e results f r o m used fixer and pay a fee for the silver recovered. The draw-
DK-50, but this developer is a little harder to get than backs to this option are that a significant volume is needed
the c o m m o n Dektol. Most camera store personnel are before any worthwhile return is realized and you must
not aware of this film and w o n ' t find it in their catalogs store the used material until you have enough to reclaim.
since it is a rather special item. If they can't order it for Recyclers will not come out to collect just a few gallons.
you, call the Kodak hotline, (800) 242-2424, and ask for I have found a simple silver recovery system that is ef-
the name of a dealer w h o can. T h e catalog number of fective for quantities as small as one quart of used fixer.
the 150-foot roll is 174-6031- Be sure to run a test be- Just save the used fixer in a plastic tank and w h e n the
fore s h o o t i n g too m a n y c o p i e s . E x p o s u r e affects the tank is about full, add a small amount of powdered zinc
whites; processing affects the blacks. If your whites are and stir. The zinc goes into the solution and the silver
muddy, increase the e x p o s u r e . If the blacks are weak, ends up at the bottom of the tank as a black sludge. Add a
increase d e v e l o p m e n t . Use a water bath to keep pro- teaspoon or so of zinc per five-gallon batch, stir and wait
c e s s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e c o n s t a n t . After p r o c e s s i n g , the a day for the sludge to settle. A crude test for remaining
slides can be c r o p p e d o r m a s k e d w i t h q u a r t e r - i n c h silver is to dip a shiny penny halfway into the solution. If
black b o r d e r tape from a graphic arts supplier. the penny comes out looldng silvery, there is still silver to
be reclaimed. A more accurate test can be made with
For copying color transparencies. I think the best Kodak silver estimating papers, which are dipped into the
solution is to send the w o r k out. The time you'll spend solution and c o m p a r e d w i t h the color chart provided
trying to get good color d u p e s is usually not worth any with the papers. When the test shows no more silver to
lab fees that could be saved. Original transparencies can be recovered, the solution is carefully siphoned off and
be d u p e d at a rather low cost. Never send out originals the sludge is dried. Dry sludge is saved until several
in a portfolio since a loss could be catastrophic. If you pounds have accumulated. Then it is sent to a refiner.
have a c c e s s to a slide duplicator, you can c r o p your
 Professional Photographers of America. 1090
E x e c u t i v e Way, Dcs Plaincs, IL 6 0 0 1 8 ; p h o n e ( 7 0 8 )
299-8161. Primarily oriented toward studio photogra-
Profitsn mal Organizations phers. but there are m e m b e r s h i p categories for many
\(/i Press Photographers Association. 3200 Croas- areas of specialization. Also c o n d u c t s training seminars
dailc Or Suite 306, Durham, NC 2""()5; p h o n e (800) and publishes a monthly magazine.
_\s«>-o 1 This premier organization for news photogra- Advertising Photographers of America. 45 E. 20th
phers publishes the monthly magazine The News Photog- St., N e w York. NY 10010: p h o n e (212) 8 0 7 - 0 3 9 9 . The
rapher and offers numerous seminars, portfolio critiques, name implies their orientation, but many freelance pho-
and an AY library; sponsors student chapters and a job in- t o j o u r n a l i s t s also d o c o m m e r c i a l p h o t o g r a p h y and
formation bank; and cosponsors the Pictures of the Year might benefit from membership.
competition and the resulting annual. Tlje Best of Photo- Society of Newspaper Design. The Newspaper Cen-
journalism. Student memberships available. ter. Box 4075, Reston, VA 22090; p h o n e (703) 620-1083.
American Society of Magazine Photographers. 419 For designers and graphic artists. The SND publishes a
Park Ave. S. lOdi Floor, New York, NY 10016: phone (212) journal and an annual compilation of its contest winners.
889-9144. The ASMP publishes several useful guides re- T h e annual is a good source for layout ideas. Student
garding professional business practices and offers many ser- memberships available.
vices to members regarding the business of photograph)'.
This organization works extensively to protect the free-
lance photographer's right to control the ownership and
use of his or her work. Student memberships available.
 A d a m s , A n s e l . Artificial Light
Bibliography Photography. Boston: N e w York
B r o w n . T h e o d o r e M. Margaret
White: Photojournalist.
Bourke-
Ithaca. NY
Graphic Society, 1966. Cornell University Press, 1 9 7 2
Camera and Letts. Boston: N e w Buell. Hal. a n d Saul Pett. The Instant It
York G r a p h i c S o c i e t y , 1 9 7 0 . Happened N e w York Associated
Natural Light Photography. Press, 1975.
Boston: N e w York G r a p h i c Society.
1965.
. The Negative. Boston: N e w Callahan, Sean, a n d Gerald Astor
York G r a p h i c Society. 1981 Photographing Sports: John
. The Print. B o s t o n N e w York Zimmerman. Mark Kauffman
and Neil Leifer. D o b b s Ferry. NY:
G r a p h i c S o c i e t y , 1983
Morgan & Morgan, 1 9 ~ 5
A d a m s . William H o w a r d . Atget's
Capa, Robert. Images of War. New-
Gardens. G a r d e n City. NY:
Douhleday, 1979. York: G r o s s m a n Publishers. 1 9 6 4
Ahlers, Arvel. Where and How to Sell Carroll. J o h n S. Photographic Lab
Hatidbook. N e w York: A m p h o t o ,
Your Photographs. 8 t h e d . Garden
1976.
City. NY: A m p h o t o , 1977.
The American Image: Photographs Cartier-Bresson, Henri. The Decisive
from the National Archives, Moment. N e w York: Simon &
Schuster. 1 9 5 2 .
1860-1960. N e w York: R a n d o m
Cavallo, Robert M . and Stuart Kahan
House, 1979.
Photography: What's the Law?
A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f Magazine
N e w York: C r o w n Publishers.
Photographers. Professional
1976.
Business Practices in Photography.
N e w York: A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f C h e r n o f f . G e o r g e , and Hershel
M a g a z i n e P h o t o g r a p h e r s . 1986. B. Sarbin. Photography and the
August Sander. T h e Aperture History o f Law. 5th e d . Garden City, NY:
A m p h o t o . 1975.
P h o t o g r a p h y Series. Millerton. NY:
C l e m e n t s , Ben. and David R o s e n f e k l
Aperture. 1 9 7 7 .
Photographic Composition. New
York: Van N o s t r a n d R e i n h o l d
Bayer, J o n a t h a n . Reading Photographs: Company, 1979
Understanding the Aesthetics of C o l e m a n . A D. Light Readings: A
Photography Critic's Writings,
Photography. N e w York: P a n t h e o n
Books. 1977.
1968-1978. N e w York O x f o r d
University Press. 19"79.
Ben Shahn. Photographer. Intro, by
C o o k m a n . C l a u d e . A Voice Is Born.
Margaret R. W e i s s . N e w York: Da
D u r h a m . NC: T h e National Press
C a p o . 19^2.
P h o t o g r a p h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n . 1985.
The Best of Life. N e w York: Time-Life
C o o t c , Jack H .Monochrome Darkroom
Books. 1973. Practice: A Manual of Black-and-
B o u r k e - W h i t e . Margaret. The W bite Processing and Printing.
Photographs of Margaret Bourke- Boston: Focal Press. 1 9 8 3
White. Edited by Scan Callahan. Craven, G e o r g e . Object and Image: An
G r e c n w h i c h . CT: N e w York Introduction to Photography.
G r a p h i c Society. 19~*2. E n g l e w o o d ( lifts. NJ: Prentice-Hall.
B o w d e n . Robert. Get That Picture. 1975-
G a r d e n City. NY A m p h o t o . 1 9 7 8 .
B r o o k e . J a m e s T. A Viewer's Guide to
Looking at Photographs. Wilmcttc.
IL: T h e Aurelian Press. 1 9 7 7 .
Davidson. Bruce, fast 100th Street. Fcinberg, Milton. Techniques of H e y m a n , Ken. and J o h n Durniak. The
< . > bridge. MA: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y Photojournalism. N e w York: J o h n Right Picture. N e w York:
Press, 1 9 7 0 . Wiley & Sons. 1970. A m p h o t o , 1986.
S u b w a y Millerton, NY: Feininger, A n d r e a s The Complete Hicks. W i l s o n . Words and Pictures: An
Aperture, 1986. Photographer. E n g l e w o o d Cliffs. Introduction to Photojournalism.
NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1 9 6 6 . N e w York: Harper & Bros.. 1 9 5 2 .
: -.j\-is Phil. Photography 3d ed.
D u b u q u e . LA W illiam C. B r o w n . . The Creative Photographer. Hine. L e w i s . America and Lewis Hine:
1986. E n g l e w o o d Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Photographs 1904-1940.
Diane Arbus Millerton. NY A p e r t u r e . 1975. Millerton, NY: A p e r t u r e . 1 9 7 7 .
1972. . Photography. E n g l e w o o d Cliffs. . Men at Work: Lewis W. Hine
DuBois. William W . and Barbara J. NJ. Prentice-Hall. 1 9 6 9 . Photographic Studies of Modern
H o d i k . A Guide to Photographic . Principles of Composition in Men and Machines. N e w York:
Design. E n g l e w o o d Cliffs, NJ: Photography. G a r d e n City, NY: Dover, 1977.
Prentice-Hall. 1983- A m p h o t o , 1978. H o d g s o n . Pat. Early War Photographs.
D u n e a n , D a v i d D o u g l a s . Self Portrait: . Successful Color Photography. Boston: N e w York G r a p h i c S o c i e t y ,
USA. N e w York: Harry N. Abrams. E n g l e w o o d Cliffs. NJ: Prentice-Hall. 1974.
1969. 1969. Horan. J a m e s D. Mathew Brady.
This Is Warf N e w York: Focal Encyclopedia of Photography. Historian with a Camera. New
Bantam. 1 9 6 7 . N e w York: McGraw-Hill, 1 9 7 5 . York: C r o w n Publishers. 1 9 5 5 .
Frank, Robert. We Americans. Intro, by Horrell. C. William. A Survey: College
Jack K e r o u a c . N e w York: A p e r t u r e . Instruction in Photography
Edey, M a i t l a n d . Great Photographic 1969. ( P u b l i c a t i o n T - 1 7 ) . R o c h e s t e r . NY:
Essays from Life. B o s t o n : N e w F r e e d m a n , Jill. Circus Days. N e w York: Eastman Kodak C o m p a n y . 1 9 8 3 .
York Graphic Society, 1978. Harmony Books. 1975. H o y . Frank P. Photojournalism: The
Edom, C l i f t o n C. Photojournalism: F u s o , Paul, and Will McBride. Photo Visual Approach. E n g l e w o o d Cliffs.
Principles and Practices. 2d ed. Essay. T e x t by T o m Moran. Los NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1 9 8 6 .
D u b u q u e , LA. W m . C. B r o w n . 1 9 8 0 . Angeles: Alskog/Petersen Hurley, F. Jack. Russell Lee
Eidenier, C o n n i e W r i g h t , ed. 1988 Publishing C o m p a n y . 1 9 7 4 . Photographer. D o b b s Ferry. NY:
Photographer 's Market. Cincinnati: M o r g a n & Morgan, 19~8.
Writer's D i g e s t B o o k s . 198"7. Hurley, Gerald D.. and A n g u s
Eisenstaedt, Alfred. The Eye of Garcia. Mario R. Contemporary M c D o u g a l l . Visual Impact in Print.
Eisenstaedt. N e w York: Viking Newspaper Design: A Structural C h i c a g o : A m e r i c a n Publishers
Press. 1969. Approach. 2d. ed. E n g l e w o o d Press. 1 9 7 1 .
. Witness to Our Time. New Cliffs. NJ: 1 9 8 7 .
York: Viking Press. 1 9 6 6 . Gardner 's Photographic Sketch Book of
Erich Salomon. T h e A p e r t u r e History o f the Civil War. N e w York: D o v e r , J a c o b s , Lou. Jr. Free-Lance Magazine
P h o t o g r a p h y Series. Millerton, NY: 1 9 5 9 (reprint o f 1 8 6 6 e d ). Photography. N e w York: H a s t i n g s
Aperture, 1 9 7 8 . G e r n s h e i m , H e l m u t . A Concise History House, 1970.
Erwitt, Elliott. Photographs and Anti- of Photography. N e w York: J o h n s o n . William S., ed. W. Eugene
Photographs. G r e e n w i c h , CT: N e w Grossct & Duniap, 1965. Smith: Master of the Photographic
York G r a p h i c S o c i e t y , 1 9 7 2 . . The History of Photography. Essay. N e w York: Aperture, 1 9 8 1 .
Evans. Harold. Pictures on a Page: N e w York: McGraw-Hill, 1 9 7 0 . Jury, Dan, a n d Mark Jury. Gramp. New
Photo-journalism. Graphics and (iidal. T i m N. Modern Photojournalism: York: G r o s s m a n , 1976.
Picture Editing. N e w York: Holt. Origin and Evolution, 1910-1933•
Rinehart and W i n s t o n , 1 9 7 8 . N e w York: Macmillan. 1973-
Evans. Walker, and J a m e s A g e e . Let Us Kalish. Stanley E.. and Clifton C. E d o m .
Sow Praise Famous Men. Boston: Picture Editing. N e w York:
H o u g h t o n Mifflin. I 9 6 0 ( e x p a n d e d Haas. Ernst. The Creation. N e w York: Rinehart. 1 9 5 1 .
v e r s i o n of 1941 ed.). Viking Press, 1 9 7 1 . Kane. Art, and J o h n O p p y . Art Kane:
Halsman. P h i l i p p e . Halsman on the The Persuasive Image. N e w York:
Creation of Photographic Ideas. A l s k o g / T h o m a s Y. C r o w e l l . 1 9 7 5 .
Fabcr. J o h n Great News Photos and N e w York: Ziff-Davis, 1 9 6 1 . K e n n e r l y , D a v i d H u m e . Shooter. New
the Stories Behind Them. 2d ed. Hattersley, Ralph. Discover Your Self York: N e w s w e e k B o o k s , 1 9 8 0 .
N e w York: D o v e r , 1 9 7 8 . Through Photography. Dobbs K o b r e , K e n n e t h . Photojournalism: 'Ihe
Farber. Robert Professional Fashion Ferry. NY: Morgan & Morgan. 1 9 7 0 . Professionals' Approach.
Photography. G a r d e n City, NY: Henri Cartier-Bresson. T h e Aperture S o m c r v i l l e . MA: Curtin & L o n d o n ,
Amphoto, 1978. History o f P h o t o g r a p h y Series. 1980.
Millerton. NY: A p e r t u r e . 1 9 7 6 .
Lange, D o r o t h e a , a n d Paul S. Taylor. An N e w h a l l . B e a u m o n t . The History of Russell lee. Photographer. D o b b s Ferry,
American Exodus. N e w Haven. CT Photography: Prom 1839 to the NY Morgan & Morgan. 1 9 7 8 .
and N e w York: Y a l e University /'resent Day N e w York N e w York
Press, 1 9 6 9 . G r a p h i c S o c i e t y . 1982
Leekley, Sherylc. and J o h n Leekle\ N e w h a l l , N a n c y , e d . The Daybooks of Sahadi, Lou. a n d Mickey Palmer. The
Moments: We Pulitzer Prize Edward Weston. Vol / and Vol. II. Complete Book of Sports
Photographs. N e w York: C r o w n . Millcrton, NY: Aperture, 1 9 7 3 Photography. N e w York A m p h o t o
1978. N e w m a n . Arnold. One Mind's Eye. 1982
Life Library of Photography. New Boston: Little. B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 San F r a n c i s c o C h r o n i c l e . Through Our
York: Time-Life B o o k s . 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 5 Eyes: We 20th Century as Seen by
Lynn. B o b . e d . The Best of the San Francisco Chronicle. San
Photojournalism/1 J . Durham. NC: O ' N e a l . Hank. ed. .4 Vision Shared: A Francisco: C h r o n i c l e Publishing
National Press P h o t o g r a p h e r s Classic Portrait of America and Its C o m p a n y , 198^
Association, 1988. People. 1935-43- N e w York: S c h u n e m a n , R Smith, ed Photographic
Lyons. N a t h a n , e d . Photographers on St Martin's Press, 19~6. Com munication: Principles.
Photography. H n g l e w o o d Cliffs. NJ: O w e n s . Bill. Documentary Problems and Challenges of
Prentice-Hall. 1 9 6 6 . Photography. Danbury. NH Photojournalism. N e w York:
A d d i s o n H o u s e . 19"*8 Hastings H o u s e , 1 9 7 2
. Suburbia. San Francisco: S h a m a n . Harvey. We View Camera:
McCullin. D o n a l d . Is Anyone Taking Straight A r r o w B o o k s . 1973. Operations and Techniques.
Any Notice? C a m b r i d g e , MA: M.I.T. Working: / Do It for the Money. Ciarden City, NY: A m p h o t o . 1 9 7 7 .
Press. 1 9 7 3 . N e w York: S i m o n & Schuster. Shay. Arthur. Sports Photography: How
McDarrah, Fred W . . ed. Photography 1977. to Take Great Action Shots.
Market Place. Ann Arbor. MI: R R Chicago: Contemporary Books.
Bowker, 1 9 " . 1981.
M a c D o u g a l l . Curtis D. News Pictures Fit Photographic Literature and Shulman. Julius. We Photography of
to Print. . .Or Are They? Photographic Literature Architecture and Design. New
Stillwater. OK: Journalistic S e r v i c e s , 1960-1970. Edited by Albert B o n i . York: Watson-Guptill, 1 9 7 7
1971. D o b b s Ferry, NY: Morgan & Smith. W Eugene. Minamata. New
Mante. Harald. Photo Design: Picture Morgan. 1 9 6 2 and 1 9 7 2 . York: Holt. Rinehart and W i n s t o n .
Composition for Black-and-White Picker. Fred. The Zone VI Workshop. 1975.
Photography. N e w York: V a n W h i t e Plains. NY: Z o n e VI Studios. . W. Eugene Smith: His
Nostrand Reinhold. 1977 1972. Photographs and Notes. Millerton.
Marcus. A d r i a n n e . Photojournalism: Pollack. Peter. The Picture History of NY: Aperture, 1 9 6 9 .
Maty Ellen Mark and Annie Photography. N e w York: A b r a m s . Sontag. Susan. On Photography. New
Leibovitz. Los A n g e l e s : 1970. York: Farrar. Straus & G i r o u x .
Alskog/Petersen Publishing 1978.
Company. 1974. S t e i c h e n , Edward. We Family of Man.
Recovering Silver from Photographic
Mark. Mary Ellen. Ward 8!. N e w York: N e w York: M u s e u m o f M o d e m Art
Materials. R o c h e s t e r . NY: Eastman
S i m o n & S c h u s t e r , 19"9- and S i m o n & Schuster, 1955.
Kodak. 1 9 7 9 .
M e l t z e r , Milton. Dorothea Lange: A . .4 Life in Photography. New
Richards. E u g e n e . Below the Line:
Photographer's Life. N e w York: York: D o u b l c d a y , 1 9 6 3 .
Living Poor in America. Mount
Farrar. Straus & G i r o u x . 1 9 7 8 . Stroebel, Leslie. View Camera
V e r n o n . NY: C o n s u m e r s U n i o n ,
M e r e d i t h . R o y . Mathew B. Brady: Mr. Technique. 5th ed. S t o n e h a m . MA:
1987.
Lincoln's Camera Man. N e w York: Focal Press, 1 9 8 6
Richardson. Jim. High School: U.S.A.
D o v e r . 19"M. Szarkowski, John. From the Picture
N e w York: St. M a r t i n s Press. 1 9 7 9 .
M o e n . Darvl R. Newspaper Layout and Press. N e w York: M u s e u m of
Riis. J a c o b A. How the Other Half Lives.
Design. A m e s : I o w a State U n i v e r s i t y Modern An. 1973.
N e w York: D o v e r . 19~1 (reprint o f
Press, 1 9 8 4 . . Looking at Photographs. New
the 1901 e d ) .
M o r s e , M i c h a e l L., ed. The Electronic York: M u s e u m o f M o d e r n Art and
Robert Frank. T h e A p e r t u r e History o f
Revolution in News Photography G r e e n w i c h . CT: N e w York Graphic
P h o t o g r a p h y Series. Millerton. NT:
D u r h a m . NC: N a t i o n a l Press Society. 1 9 7 3 .
Aperture. 1976.
P h o t o g r a p h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n . 198". R o t h s t e i n , Arthur. The American West
in the Thirties. N e w York: D o v e r ,
Taft. Robert. Photography and the
1981.
N a d l e r , B o b . We Color Printing American Scene. N e w York: D o v e r .
We Depression Years as 1938.
Manual. N e w York: A m p h o t o .
y Photographed by Arthur T h e i s e n . Earl Photographic Approach
l9 S.
Rothstein. N e w York: D o v e r . I 9 " 8 to People. N e w York: A m p h o t o .
N e l s o n , R o y Paul. Publication Design.
Photojournalism. 4th ed 1966.
D u b u q u e . L\: W m . C. B r o w n . 1 9 7 2 .
Garden City. N Y A m p h o t o , 1979-
Turne r Richard locus on Spurts W h i t e . Minor. Richard Zakia. a n d P e t e r Petersen s Photographic Magazine:
Photographing Action. Garden Lorenz. The Xew Zone System 8 4 9 0 Sunset Blvd., Los A n g e l e s . CA
Cit>. NY A m p h o t o , 1 9 ~ 5 Manual. D o b b s F e r n . NY: Morgan 90069. Concentrates on equipment
& Morgan. 1 9 " 6 and techniques.
Tumle\ D a v i d C. W by .4 re They
\\ eeping' <outh Africans under W h i t i n g , J o h n . Photography Is a Photo District Xews: 4 9 E. 21st St.. N e w
Apartheid N e w York S t e w a r t , Language. N e w York: Ziff-Davis. York. N Y 1 0 0 1 0 . An e x c e l l e n t
Tabori & C h a n g . 1988. 1946. publication covering the business
Zakia. Richard. Perception and o f c o m m e r c i a l and f r e e l a n c e
Photography. R o c h e s t e r . NY: Light editorial p h o t o g r a p h y .
W alker Evans N e w York: M u s e u m Impressions. 1 9 7 9 Photographer's Forum: 6 1 4 Santa
o f M o d e r n Art, 1 9 7 1 . Zakia. Richard D . and Hollis N. T o d d . Barbara St.. Santa Barbara. CA
Walker Ivans at Work N e w York: Color Primer / & II. D o b b s Ferry. 9 3 1 0 1 - A high-quality v e h i c l e for
Harper & R o w . 1982. \ Y Morgan & M o r g a n . 1 9 7 4 . the work of emerging
Walker Evans: Photographs for the photographers.
Farm Security Administration. Popular Photography: Ziff-Davis
1935-1938. N e w York: Da C a p o Photographic Periodicals P u b l i s h i n g C o . . 1 Park Ave.. N e w
Press. 1 9 " 6 York, N T 10016. Concentrates on
W ard. J o h n L The Criticism of American Photo: 1515 Broadway. N e w e q u i p m e n t and t e c h n i q u e s .
Photography as Art: The York. N Y 1 0 0 3 6 . Tliis m a g a z i n e Pro Imaging Systems: PTX P u b l i s h i n g
Photographs of Jerry Uelsmann. concentrates on photographers and Co.. 2 1 0 C r o s s w a y s Park Dr..
Gainesville: I'nivcrsity o f Florida their w o r k . W o o d b u r y , N T 1 1 7 9 7 . Primarily
Press. 1 9 7 0 . Aperture: Aperture. Inc.. Elm St.. i n t e n d e d f o r industrial
W e e g e e . Arthur Feilig. Weegee's People. Millerton. NY" 1 2 5 4 6 . A quarterly photographers.
N e w York: Ducll. Sloan & P e a r e e c o v e r i n g all areas o f p h o t o g r a p h y : The Rangefinder: B o x 1 7 0 3 , Santa
and Essential B o o k s . 1 9 4 6 . p r i d e s itself o n quality Monica. CA 9 0 4 0 6 . Primarily
W e i n b e r g . A d a m D. On the Line: The reproduction. devoted to the business c o n c e r n s
Sew Color Photojournalism. The Sews Photographer: National P r e s s of portrait and w e d d i n g
M i n n e a p o l i s : W a l k e r Art C e n t e r . Photographers Association. 3 2 0 0 photographers.
1986. C r o a s d a i l e Dr.. S u i t e 3 0 6 . D u r h a m .
W h i t e . Jan V. Editing by Design: Word NC 2 '05. C o v e r s t h e n e w s
and Picture Communication for p h o t o g r a p h y s c e n e . S u b s c r i p t i o n is
Editors and Designers. N e w York: i n c l u d e d w i t h m e m b e r s h i p in t h e
R R. B o w k e r . 1 9 7 4 . NPPA.
 Abell. Sam, 231 loading film, 3 6
Index accidents, 143 maintenance, 3 6
a c c e s s to. 2 4 7 m o t o r drives. 1 6 0 - 6 1
A d a m s . Ansel, 5 7 , 8 8 obscura, 2 7 4
A g e n c e France Pres.se. 13 S p e e d Graphic, 2 8 3
a g e n c i e s , 13, 2 9 2 3 5 m m . 291
dealing w i t h , 2 6 9 , 2 7 0 - 7 1 C a n n o n , Jimmy, 158
Americans, The, 291 Capa, Cornell, 2 9 2
aperture, 3 0 Capa, R o b e n . 2 8 4 , 2 8 6 . 2 8 9
creative control, 3 2 captions, 154, 163. 199. 2 2 2 - 2 3 . 2 5 6
and d e p t h of field. 3 4 Carter. Paul, 2 8 6
and e x p o s u r e , 3 2 Cartier-Bresson, Henri, 135, 139. 2 8 9
maximum, 64 CCD c h i p . 3 0 8
Arbus. Diane, 291 chemicals
Archer. Frederick Scott, 2 ~ 5 film. 7 8
Associated Press. 13. 2 8 5 mixing. 9 2
printing. 8 5
safety, 9 3
Barnack, Oscar, 2 8 3 children, p h o t o g r a p h i n g . 152
Barnard, G e o r g e , 2 7 7 Civil War, p h o t o s of, 2 7 6 - 7 7
baseball. 1 6 6 - 6 8 Clarkson, Rich. 2 6 1 . 2 9 2
l e n s e s for. 1 6 8 C l e m e n t s . Ben. 118
basketball. 1 6 8 - 6 9 Collier, J o h n Jr., 2 8 6
lighting, 1 6 8 color
Baumann, J Bruce, 190, 2 0 2 balance. 3 0 0 - 3 0 2
Beals. J e s s i e Tarbox, 2 8 2 films, 3 0 2
Bell. A l e x a n d e r Graham, 2 8 2 and filters, 7 1 , 7 5
Bentley, Bob, 2 4 2 i n portfolios. 263. 2 6 4
Berliner llhisirierte Zeitung, 284 psychological effects, 304
temperature. 3 0 0
Bettman Archive, 14
c o l o r temperature, 9 7
Black Star. 14. 2 9 2 - 9 4
composition. 1 2 0 - 3 4 , 2 1 1
Bourke-White. Margaret, 2 8 6 . 2 8 8 - 8 9
c a m e r a angle. 130
b o x i n g , 172
d e v i c e s for. 1 2 4 - 3 1
Brady, M a t h e w , 2 7 6 - 7 7
errors. 132
Bryant, Gary, 2 4 2
compression. 3 1 5 - 1 6
Burnett, David. 2 9 4 . 3 0 5 Contact Press Images. 14, 2 9 4
c o n t a c t sheet, 8 6 - 8 "
contrast
Californian (Bakersfield), 240
film. 4 2
camera
auto-focus, 160
in negative. 171
characteristics of, 1 1 7
print, 9 0
c h o i c e o f , 37
copyright. 2 5 0 - 5 1 . 2 6 8
defined, 22
and digital p h o t o g r a p h y . 251
digital. 3 0 8 - 1 1
Courier-Journal (Louisville). 2 9 2
electronic. 3 8 c o u r t r o o m s . 149. 2 4 9 - 5 0
Ermanox, 283. 2 8 5 credentials, 145. 159
Leica, 2 8 3 c r o p p i n g . 8 8 , 130. 2 1 6 - 1 9
light m e t e r i n g s y s t e m s , 4 9 - 5 2
e t h i c s of, 2 3 2
Crosse. Mark. 211
Daguerre Louis. 2 " 4 - " 5 early, 2 7 7 Frank. Robert, 291
daguerreotype, 2 " 5 e x p o s u r e latitude. 4 4 Fresno Bee, 211
Delano. Jack, 2 8 6 grain. 4 2 Friedlander. Lee, 2 9 1
d«: ' W, 3 4 . 6 6 - 6 8 high-speed, 4 2 f/stops, 3 0 - 3 1 , 49
j , \ . ;'«val length, 6 6 in h o t w e a t h e r . 1 5 0 funerals, 1 4 3
preview 3 5 . 6 8 infrared. 4 4
d e v e l o p e r . 81 loading. 36
diaphragm. 2 8 processing color, 303 Gardner, A l e x a n d e r . 2 7 7
digital cameras. 3 0 8 - 1 1 push processing, 168 Gidal, G e o r g , 2 8 4
digital p h o t o g r a p h y size. 22, 2 4 , 4 5 Gidal. Tim, 2 8 4
and c o p y r i g h t . 251 s p e e d , 4 2 . 49. 168. 1 8 0 golf, 171
ethics, 2 3 3 storage, 4 5 Goro, Fritz. 2 8 4
digital printmaking. 312. 3 1 5 and X rays. 4 5 Griesedieck, Judy, 1 4 6
documentary photography. 2 7 5 - 7 film p r o c e s s i n g , " 8 - 8 4 Grillo, Al, 133, 150
agitation. 81 Gross, Gerald, 2 2 7
social. 2 ~ 8 drying. 81
D o o k s . Ed. 142 Grosvenor, Gilbert H.. 2 8 2
e q u i p m e n t for, 7 9
gymnastics, 170
Duncan. David Douglas. 2 8 6 . 2 9 0 fixer, 7 8
Durell, Bob. 145 s t o p bath. " 8
Haas, Ernest, 103
wash, 79
Eastman, G e o r g e . 2 7 7 , 281 halftone process, 2 7 8
w e t t i n g agent, 7 9
Ebony, 14 Halls. Thorn, 2 1 5
filters. 71-75
Eisenstaedt. Alfred, 284. 2 8 6 Halsman, Philippe, 1 7 7
and color, 7 5 , 3 0 1
electromagnetic spectnim, 9 6 Hanashiro, Robert, 159. 168, 174
factors. 7 5
electronic photography Hare, Jimmy, 2 8 2
haze, 3 7 , 7 2
and c o p y r i g h t . 251 Harte, J o h n , 2 4 0 , 2 4 2
neutral density. 7 2
e l e c t r o n i c p i c t u r e desk. 3 1 5 hazards, 1 4 4 - 4 5
polarizing. 7 2 - 7 4 . 171
Elisofon. Eliot. 2 8 6 . 2 9 9 Hearst, William Randolph, 2 8 5
skylight, 3 7
Emmet. Herman LeRoy, 2 9 4 Hicks, W i l s o n , 10, 117, 2 3 1 , 2 8 6 , 3 0 5
ultraviolet, 7 2
equipment Hine, Lewis, 5, 2 7 8 - 8 0 , 2 8 6
fires, c o v e r i n g . 137, 143
f o r football. 1 6 5 hockey, 172
flash
f o r sports. 1 5 9 H o d g e s , Lou. 2 3 4
for basketball. 1 6 8 - 6 9
f o r studio, l " 8 - 8 0 Horgan, S t e p h e n , 2 7 8
bounce. 107
Evans. Walker. 2 8 6 Hurley, Gerald, 1 9 4
camera connections. 35
e x p o s u r e . 32. 4 6 - 4 9 , 167 electronic, 1 0 4 - 9
bracketing, 5 5 exposure. 104-6 illustrations, 1 2
bright sun. 171
synchronization, 106 ethics of, 230
f o r flash. 1 7 9
fill, 1 0 8 Image Bank. T h e . 14
latitude. 4 4
mistakes with. 109 International C e n t e r o f P h o t o g r a p h y . 2 9 2
reciprocal. 3 2
studio, 1 7 9 internships, 2 6 5 - 6 6
rule-of-thumb. 5 5
Florida Times Union. 246
underwater. 174
focal l e n g t h . 5 8
d e p t h o f field. 6 6 Jackson, William Henry, 2 7 7
normal. 6 2 J o h n s t o n , Frances B., 281
Farlow. Melissa, 2 0 2 - 5
telephoto. 6 2 Jung, T h e o d o r , 2 8 6
Farm Security Administration, 2 8 6
wide-angle, 6 2
fashion. 1 9 0 - 9 1
focus
f e a n i r e p h o t o s . 12. 1 5 0 - 5 3 Kansas City Star, 238
automatic. 6 8
defined. 136 Kennedy, Tom, 9
techniques, 6 7
Feinberg, Milton. 1 3 9 Kertesz, Andre. 2 8 4
Felling. Arthur, 291 focusing
K o o d i s h , Murray. 1 9 9 - 2 0 2
Fenton, Roger. 2 7 6 a u t o m a t i c . 27
film,41-45 g r o u n d glass. 2 5
c h o i c e of, 4 5 rangefinder, 2 6
Lange. D o r o t h e a , 9 6 , 2 8 6
color, 4 5 , 3 0 2 - 3 systems. 2 5 - 2 7
Lanker. Brian. 2 9 2
c o l o r rendition. 4 4 food. 1 8 8 - 9 0
Lee, Russell. 2 8 6
c o l o r sensitivity. 4 4 football. 1 6 3 - 6 6
lens
contrast, 4 2 e q u i p m e n t for, 165
accessories, 6 9
 choosing, 7 0 - 7 1 shutter priority. 5 0 Parade. 230
characteristics, 5 9 - 6 6 t y p e s of. 4 9 parallax. 2 2
and distortion, 6 0 - 6 2 lights Parks. G o r d o n . 2 8 6
close-up, 6 9 ty p e s o f , 102 People. 2 9 2
d e p t h of field. 6 6 Look. 286. 292 Philadelphia Inquirer. 258-59
fisheye. 6 9 Lorant. Stefan. 2 8 4 P h o t o CD. 3 1 6
focal length, 58. 1 3 0 p h o t o g r a p h y , defined, 9 6
normal focal l e n g t h . 6 2 photojournalism
p u r p o s e of. 5 8 magazines. 14 d e f i n e d , 6 - 8 , 10, 1 3 7
refraction. 5 8 Magnum. 14, 2 9 4 in n e w s p a p e r s . 11
speed of, 6 4 Man. Felix. 2 8 4 and personal p h o t o s , 8
t e l e p h o t o . 22, 6 2 . 141. 160. 165. 1 6 8 Mark, Mary Ellen. 2 9 4 u s e s o f . 15
w i d e - a n g l e . 2 2 . 6 2 , 141, 1 5 3 McAvoy, Thomas. 2 8 6 Photoshop. 313
z o o m . 68. 160 McDougall. Angus. 194 Pittsburgh Press. 2 0 2
lenses Memphis Commercial Appeal. 199 pixels, d e f i n e d , 3 0 8
f o r baseball. 1 6 8 meters, using. 1 5 3 Pledge, Robert. 2 9 4
Miami Herald. 292 portfolios. 2 6 2 - 6 5
f o r basketball, 1 6 9
for football. 1 6 5 Miller. Gary. 2 3 7
format. 2 6 4
f o r n e w s . 141 m o d e l releases. 2 5 3 Portland Oregonian, 238
f o r portrait. 181 M o e n . Daryl R . 2 1 5 portrait
libel. 2 2 3 . 2 5 6 - 5 7 Moholy-Nagy. Laszlo. 3 0 " e n v i r o n m e n t a l . 153
Liebovitz. A n n i e . 291 monopod. 35 formal. 1 8 0 - 8 2
Life m a g a z i n e . 10. 14. 2 3 1 , 285. 2 8 9 . 2 9 2 Morse. Samuel F. B.. 2 " 5 window-Light. 153
light motion p o s i n g , e t h i c s of. 2 3 0
artificial. 1 0 3 - 4 controlling. 3 2 - 3 4 p r e s s p a s s e s . 145. 1 5 9
available, 1 0 3 and e x p o s u r e . 51 print making, 8 4 - 9 2
characteristics of. 9 7 - 9 9 m o t o r drive, 3 5 , 1 6 0 - 6 1 . 1 6 8 burning, 9 0
and c o l o r . 7 1 , 3 0 0 Miinchner lllustrierte Presse. 284 chemieals, 85
and filters. "1 Munkacsi. Martin, 2 8 4 digital. 3 1 2
hard. 9 8 . 179, 181 Mydans, Carl. 21. 2 8 6 dodging. 9 0
h i g h key. 9 9 equipment. 8 5 - 8 6
highlights. 101 exposure. 89
National Geographic. 14, 2 3 3 - 3 4 , 2 8 2 p a p e r for, 8 4
l o w key, 9 9
National Press P h o t o g r a p h e r s procedure, 8 6 - 9 2
natural. 103
Association, 2 6 4 . 2 9 2 quality. 9 2
polarized. 7 3
negatives privacy
shadows. 101
handling. 8 1
soft. 9 8 , 179. 181 invasion. 2 5 1 - 5 6
quality of, 81
and t e x t u r e . 1 0 1 Project D o c u m e r i c a . 2 9 1 - 9 2
N e w s , covering. 1 4 0 - 5 0
lighting
n e w s p a p e r s . 11
at arenas. l 6 l
n e w s photos, 12 racing
for basketball, 168
defined. 136 auto and m o t o r c y c l e . 1 7 3
for color. 3 0 3
Newsweek, 14. 2 3 4 rangefinder. 2 6
equipment. 1 7 8 - 1 8 0
New York Daily Graphic. 2"8. 2 8 3 reciprocal e x p o s u r e . 3 2
portrait. 153, 1 8 1 - 8 2
New York Daily Mirror, 283 reflex v i e w i n g . 2 2
product. 185
New York Illustrated Daily News, 283 refraction. 9 7
ratio. 153, 1 8 2
New York Sun. 278 resolution. 3 0 8 . 3 1 2
lighting ratio. 1 0 8
New York Times. 284 retouching. 2 2 1
light m e t e r , 4 9 - 5 5
New York Times Magazine. 234 e t h i c s o f , 232, 2 3 3 - 3 4
and abnormal scenes, 53
New York Tribune. 2"8 Reuters N e w s Pictures Service, 13
aperture priority, 5 0
Niepce, Joseph Nicephore. 2"4-~5 Riis, Jacob, 2 " 8
controls. 35
Nuss. Cheryl. 153 Ritchin. Fred. 2 3 4
hand-held. 5 1 - 5 3
Rolling Stone, 14, 2 9 1
incident, 5 2
Rosenfeld, David. 1 1 8
manual. 5 0
Orange County Register. 234. 292 Rothstein. Arthur. 2 8 6 . 3 0 4
programmed. 50
O'Sullivan. T i m o t h y . 2 7 7
reflected. 52
 S t e i c h e n . Edward. S. 211 Waddell. Lisa. 1 9 9 - 2 0 2
s t e r e o t y p e s . racial and cultural. 251 - 5 2 weather 1 i9
stock p h o t o s 14 hot. 150
s i n k e r R o y 2 " 5 286. 28K rain. ISO
s u h p o e n a v 2s,S W e h e r Wolfgang. 2 8 i
svgma 1 * W e d d i n g . G e o r g e . 186. 258. 2 10
x J 58. 292 Szarkow ski. John. 2 9 2 W e e g e e . 291
v
. . Ben. 286 W e s t o n . F.dward. IIS
wildlife. 1"5
Talbot VC illiam Henry Fox, 2 ~ s W inogrand. G a n . 291
tennis 1"] w ire p h o t o s
and electronic flash 106 T h o m p s o n , \ l i c h a l . I~S transmission of. 5 1 6
and e xposure Time, l -i w ire services. 15
focal-plane 2~ Topeka Capital-Journal. 292 W o l e o t t . Marion Post. 2 8 6
track and field. 1~2
leal 28 w o m e n in p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m . 2 8 0 - 8 2
trespass. 2 »6--»~
.in J motion, 32-3 f Arbus. Diane. 291
t n p o d . 5S. 180
speeds. 29-30 B o u r k e W h i t e . Margaret, 2 8 6
s
iegeI Arthur. 286 Farlow . Melissa. 2 0 2 - S
single-lens reflex, 22. 37 J o h n s t o n . Frances H . 2S1
I "nited Press International. 15 28S
S|pJ. 1 I Lange. D o r o t h e a . 2 8 6
I SA Today. 292
Sizing a photo. 2 h»-2<I Liebovitz. Annie. 291
skiinu. 1~1 Mark. M a n Ellen. 2 9 j
Smith w Eugene, 193,209,231,286, Yachon. John, 286 Nuss, ( . h e n 1. 1 S3
289-90, 291 \ athis. Paul. 2 5 " Saul. April. 2 9 1
smolan. Rick 25» Mew camera. 2 t W addell. Lisa. 1 9 9 - 2 0 2
soccer 169-"~0 view finder. 2 2 W oleott. Marion Post. 2 8 6
S< v iet) i' >r New spaper Design, 26» advantages. 2» W oodfin-Camp. 1 »
Sports Illustrated, 14, 2s i disadvantages. 2 2 wrestling. 1~2
Stackpole, Peter, 286 v i e w i n g sy>tems. 2 2 - 2 a

Yarnold. D a \ id. i 1
 re you looking for basic techniques as ivell as practical
approaches to photojournalism?

Do you want a book with thorough coverage of ethical

and legal issues?

Photojournalism: Content and Technique, 2nd edition, by G r e g

Lewis provides c o n t e m p o r a r y coverage for b e g i n n i n g a n d advanced
photojournalists. W ith the book's clear a n d logical organization,
readers learn the basics of p h o t o g r a p h y before m o v i n g on to the
various principles a n d techniques of p h o t o j o u r n a l i s m . Yet each
chapter f u n c t i o n s as an i n d e p e n d e n t unit, allowing instructors a n d
readers greater flexibility.

Photojournalism also offers:

• Nearly 1 0 0 n e w p h o t o s !
• Ail i n t r o d u c t i o n to the basic principles o f digital p h o t o g r a p h y
• U p d a t e d sections o n :
• Automatic focusing systems
• U s e o f electronic cameras
• Ethical i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c o m p u t e r m a n i p u l a t i o n
• N u m e r o u s a n d o u t s t a n d i n g visuals illustrating principles a n d t e c h n i q u e s

Practical a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e , Greg Lewis' Photojournalism, 2nd editiony

provides readers w i t h t h e principles, t o o l s , a n d t e c h n i q u e s n e e d e d to be
effective p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t s .

ISBN 0-^7-14^2^-4

. -
v^m
• • i v*
* « *

WCB Brown &

- A Benchmark