MECH 318

Fluid Mechanics I
Chap. 1: Introduction
Abdelouahab Abrous, Ph.D., P.E.

[email protected]

Lecture Slides Derived from Class Textbook

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 7th edition, by Bruce R. Munson, et al. John
Wiley & Sons, 2013. (ISBN-13: 978-1-118-11613-5)

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 1. Introduction
Chapter Objectives

After completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

 determine the dimensions and units of physical
quantities.
 identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis
of fluid behavior;
 calculate common fluid properties given
appropriate information;
 explain the effects of fluid compressibility;
 use the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and
surface tension.

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 1. Introduction
Main Topics

1. Some Characteristics of Fluids

2. Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and
Units
3. Analysis of Fluid Behavior
4. Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight
5. Ideal Gas Law
6. Viscosity
7. Compressibility of Fluids
8. Vapor Pressure
9. Surface Tension
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 1. Introduction

 Fluid mechanics is the discipline that is

concerned with the behavior of liquids and
gases at rest (Fluid Statics) or in motion (Fluid
Dynamics).

 Three of the important parameters that describe

a fluid flow are: (1) the physical size of the flow,
ℓ; (2) the speed of the flow, V; and (3) the
pressure p.

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 1. Introduction

Characteristic value some fluid parameters for a variety of flows:

(a) object size, (b) fluid speed, (c) Fluid pressure
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 1. Introduction
1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids

 Solids have densely spaced molecules with large

intermolecular cohesive forces that allow the
solid to maintain its shape.

 Liquids have molecules that are spaced farther

apart, their intermolecular forces are smaller
than for solids, and the molecules have more
freedom of movement.

 Gases have even greater molecular spacing and

freedom of motion with negligible cohesive
intermolecular forces.
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 1. Introduction
1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids

 A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms

continuously when acted on by a shearing
stress of any magnitude.
 Both liquids and gases are fluids.
When solids are acted upon by a
shearing stress, they will initially
deform but they will not
continuously deform (flow).

However, common fluids such as

water, oil, and air will flow when
acted upon by a shearing stress

Shear force creates

shear stress
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 1. Introduction
1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids

 Some materials, such as slurries, tar, putty

toothpaste are not easily classified since they
behave as a solid if the applied shear stress is
small, but if the stress exceeds some critical value,
the substance will flow.

 The study of such materials is called rheology

and does not fall within the province of fluid
mechanics. All the fluids we will be concerned
with in this class will conform to the definition
of a fluid given previously.

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 1. Introduction
1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids

 It is not yet practical to study the behavior of

individual molecules when trying to describe the
behavior of fluids at rest or in motion. Rather we
characterize the behavior by considering the
average, or macrosopic, value of the quantity of
interest, where the average is evaluated over a
small volume surrounding the point.
 We assume that all the fluid characteristics vary
continuously throughout the fluid – that is, we
treat the fluid as a continuum.

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 1. Introduction
1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids

 One area of fluid mechanics for which the

continuum concepts breaks down is in the study
of rarefied gases such as would be encountered at
very high altitudes. In this cases, the spacing
between air molecules can become large and the
continuum concept is no longer acceptable.

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units

 Fluid characteristics are described both

qualitatively and quantitatively.

 The qualitative aspect serves to identify the

nature or type of the characteristics in terms of
the primary quantities (length L, time T, mass M,
temperature Θ) whereas the quantitative aspect
provides a numerical measure of the
characteristics. The primary quantities are also
referred to as primary dimensions.

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units

 For a wide variety of problems involving fluid

mechanics, only the three basic dimensions, L
(length), T (time), and M (mass) are required.
Alternatively, L, T, and F could be used, where F
is the basic dimensions for force (F = MLT-2).

 All theoretically derived equations are

dimensionally homogeneous – that is, the
dimensions on the left side of the equation must
be the same as those on the right side, and all
additive separate terms must have the same
dimensions.
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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units

 Equations that are restricted to a particular

system of units can be denoted as restricted
homogeneous equations (ex. d = 16.1 t2), as
opposed to equations valid for any system of
units (ex. d = ½gt2), which are general
homogeneous equations.

 It is recommended that problem solving follows

the GFSC methodology, i.e, Given, Find,
Solution, Comment. Also, it is always helpful to
draw a sketch of the problem.

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units

EXAMPLE 1.1

Restricted and General Homogeneous

Equations

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units

 In the International System (SI), the unit of

length is the meter (m), the time unit is the
second (s), the mass unit is the kilogram (kg), and
the temperature unit is the Kelvin (K).

Temperature K = oC + 273.15
Force (Newton) 1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2)
Work (Joule) 1 J = 1 N∙m
Power (Watt) 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N∙m/s2

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units

 In the British Gravitational (BG) System, the unit

of length is the foot (ft), the time unit is the
second (s), the force unit is the pound (lb), and
the temperature unit is the Fahrenheit (oF) or the
absolute temperature unit is the degree Rankine
(oR).

Temperature oR = oF + 459.67
Force 1 lb = (1 slug)(1 ft/s2)
Weight W (lb) = m(slugs) g(ft/s2)
(1 slug weighs 32.2 lb under standard gravity)

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units

 In the English Engineering (EE) System, units for

force and mass are defined independently; thus,
special care must be exercised when using this
system in conjunction with Newton’s second law.
 The unit of length is the foot (ft), the time unit is
the second (s), the force unit is the pound (lb),
and the absolute temperature unit is the degree
Rankine (oR). The basic unit of mass is the pound
mass (lbm), and the unit of force is the pound
(lb).

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units

 To make the equation expressing Newton’s

second law dimensionally homogeneous, we
write it as

where gc = 32.174 is a constant of proportionality,

which allows us to define units for both force and
mass. For the EE system, a 1-lb force is defined
as that force which gives a 1-lbm a standard
acceleration of gravity, which is taken as 31.274
ft/s2.
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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units

1 slug = 32.174 lbm

In this class, we will

primarily use the BG system
and SI for units.

DO NOT MIX SI AND BG

UNIT SYSTEMS!

Conversion factors are

expressed by using computer
exponential notation:
5.154E+2 = 5.154x102
2.832E-2 = 2.832x10-2

Comparison of SI, BG, and EE Units

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units

EXAMPLE 1.2

BG and SI Units

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units

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 1. Introduction
1.2 Dimensions, Homogeneity & Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units

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 1. Introduction
1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behavior

 The study of fluid mechanics involves the

fundamental Newton’s laws of motion,
conservation of mass, and the first and second
laws of thermodynamics.
 The broad subject of fluid mechanics can be
generally subdivided into fluid statics, in which
the fluid is at rest, and fluid dynamics, in which
the fluid is moving.
 We will first start defining and discussing certain
fluid properties that are intimately related to
fluid behavior.
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 1. Introduction
1.4 Measure of Fluid Mass & Weight
1.4.1 Density

 The density of a fluid is defined as the mass per

unit volume. In the BG system, ρ has units of
slugs/ft3 and in SI the units are kg/m3.

 The specific volume, v, is the volume per unit

mass and therefore the reciprocal of the density

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 1. Introduction
1.4 Measure of Fluid Mass & Weight
1.4.1 Density

Density of water as a function of temperature

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 1. Introduction
1.4 Measure of Fluid Mass & Weight
1.4.1 Density

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 1. Introduction
1.4 Measure of Fluid Mass & Weight
1.4.1 Density

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 1. Introduction
1.4 Measure of Fluid Mass & Weight
1.4.2 Specific Weight

 The specific weight of a fluid is defined as its

weight per unit volume. Thus,

 In SI, the unit of specific weight is N/m3 and in

BG it is lb/ft3.

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 1. Introduction
1.4 Measure of Fluid Mass & Weight
1.4.3 Specific Gravity

 The specific gravity of a fluid is defined as the

ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of
water at some specified temperature. Usually
the specified temperature is taken at 4 oC (39.2 oF),
and at this temperature the density of water is
1.94 slugs/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3. In equation form,
the dimensionless specific gravity is expressed as

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 1. Introduction
1.5 Ideal Gas Law

 Gases are highly compressible in comparison to

liquids, with changes in gas density directly
related to changes in pressure and temperature
throughout the equation

where p is the absolute pressure, ρ is the density,

T is the absolute temperature, and R is a gas
constant. This equation is commonly termed the
ideal gas law or the equation of state for an ideal
gas.
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 1. Introduction
1.5 Ideal Gas Law

 Pressure in a fluid at rest is defined as the normal

force per unit area exerted on a plane surface (real
or imaginary) immersed in a fluid and is created
by the bombardment of the surface with the fluid
molecules.
 Absolute pressure is measured relative to zero
pressure (perfect vacuum) whereas gage pressure
is measured relative to the atmospheric pressure.
 In the ideal gas law, absolute pressures and
temperatures are to be used.

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 1. Introduction
1.5 Ideal Gas Law

EXAMPLE 1.3

Ideal Gas Law

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 1. Introduction
1.5 Ideal Gas Law

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 1. Introduction
1.5 Ideal Gas Law

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 1. Introduction
1.5 Ideal Gas Law

 The gas constant, R, which appears in the ideal

gas law, depends on the particular gas and is
related to the molecular weight of the gas.

 Values of the gas constant for several common

gases are listed in Tables 1.7 and 1.8.

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 1. Introduction
1.5 Ideal Gas Law

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 1. Introduction
1.5 Ideal Gas Law

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

Consider a hypothetical experiment in which a solid material

is placed between two very wide parallel plates.

To resist the applied force, P, a

shearing stress, τ, would be
developed at the plate-material
interface. For elastic solids, the
shearing strain δβ is proportional
to τ.

(a) Deformation of solid material placed between two

parallel plates, (b) Forces acting on upper plate
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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

Hypothetical experiment in which a fluid is placed between

two very wide parallel plates. The shearing stress will
deform the fluid continuously.

Constant velocity
gradient

Behavior of fluid placed between two parallel plates

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

The usual experimental

observation that the fluid
“sticks” to the solid
boundaries is a very
important one in fluid
mechanics and is usually
referred to as the no-slip
condition.

All fluids, both liquids

and solids satisfy this
condition.

Velocity gradient is not constant

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

 For common fluids such as water, oil, gasoline,

and air the shearing stress and rate of shearing
strain (velocity gradient) can be related with a
relationship of the form

where the constant of proportionality μ is called

the absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or
simply the viscosity of the fluid. [Units are N-
s/m2 in SI or lb-s/ft2 in BG].
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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

The actual value of the

viscosity depends on the
particular fluid, and for a
particular fluid the viscosity
is also highly dependent on
temperature.

Fluids for which the shearing

stress is linearly related to
the rate of shearing strain are
designated as Newtonian
fluids. Most fluids and gases
are Newtonian.
Linear variation of shearing stress with rate of
shearing strain for common fluids
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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

Fluids for which the shearing stress is

not linearly related to the rate of
shearing strain are called non-
Newtonian fluids. The slope of the
stress-strain curve is denoted as the
apparent viscocity, μap.
For shear thinning fluids the apparent
viscosity decreases with increasing
shear rate (latex paint).
For shear thickening fluids the
apparent viscosity increases with
increasing shear rate (water-corn starch
mixture & water-sand mixture).

Variation of shearing stress with rate of shearing strain for

several types of fluids, including common non-Newtonian fluids

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

The other type of behavior is that of

Bingham plastic, which is neither a
fluid nor a solid. Such material can
withstand a finite, nonzero shear stress,
τyield, the yield stress, without motion
(therefore, it is not a fluid), but once the
yield stress is exceeded it flows like a
fluid (therefore, it is not a solid).

Toothpaste and mayonnaise are

common examples of Bingham plastic
materials.

Variation of shearing stress with rate of shearing strain for

several types of fluids, including common non-Newtonian fluids

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

Viscosity is mildly dependent on

pressure and the effect of pressure is
usually neglected. It is however very
sensitive to temperature.

Viscosity of liquids decreases with an

increase in temperature, whereas for
gases an increase in temperature
causes an increase in viscosity.

This difference in the effect of

temperature can be traced back to the
difference in molecular structure.
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity of some common fluids
as a function of temperature
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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

 The effect of temperature on viscosity can be

closely approximated using two empirical
formulas. For gases the Sutherland equation can
be expressed as

 For liquids an empirical equation known as

Andrade’s equation can be expressed as

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

EXAMPLE 1.4

Viscosity and Dimensionless Quantities

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

EXAMPLE 1.5

Newtonian Fluid Shear Stress

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

 Quite often viscosity appears in fluid flow

problems combined with the density in the form

 This ratio is called kinematic viscosity with units

of m2/s in SI units and ft2/s in BG units.

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 1. Introduction
1.6 Viscosity

 Although in this text we are primarily using BG

and SI units, dynamic viscosity is often
expressed in the metric CGS (centimeter-gram-
second) system with units of dyne-s/cm2. This
combination is called a poise, abbreviated P. Also,
1 dyne = 10-5 N or 10 μN.

 In the CGS system, kinematic viscosity has units

of cm2/s, and this combination is called a stoke,
abbreviated St.

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 1. Introduction
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.1 Bulk Modulus

A property that is commonly used to

characterize compressibility is the bulk
modulus Ev (pressure FL-2) defined as

Since a decrease in volume with result in

an increase in density, thus

Large values of Ev indicate that the fluid is

relatively incompressible.

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 1. Introduction
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.2 Compression & Expansion of Gases

 If the compression or expansion of a gas takes

place under constant temperature conditions
(isothermal process) then

 If the compression or expansion is frictionless

and no heat is exchanged with the surroundings
(isentropic process), then (k = cp/cv)

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 1. Introduction
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.2 Compression & Expansion of Gases

For an isothermal
process

For an isentropic
process

Isentropic Ev = 20.6 psi for air

at standard atmospheric
conditions and for water it is
312,000 psi! i.e. air is 15,000 as
compressible as water.

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 1. Introduction
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.2 Compression & Expansion of Gases

EXAMPLE 1.6

Isentropic Compression of a Gas

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 1. Introduction
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.2 Compression & Expansion of Gases

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 1. Introduction
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.2 Compression & Expansion of Gases

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 1. Introduction
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.3 Speed of Sound

 An important consequence of the compressibility

of fluids is that disturbances introduced at some
point in the fluid propagate at a finite velocity.

 For example, if a fluid is flowing in a pipe and a

valve at the outlet is suddenly closed (thereby
creating a localized disturbance), the effect of the
valve closure is not felt instantaneously
upstream. It takes a finite time for the increase
pressure created by the valve closure to propagate
to an upstream location.

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 1. Introduction
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.3 Speed of Sound

 The velocity at which small disturbances

introduced in a fluid propagate is called the
acoustic velocity or the speed of sound c.

 For gases undergoing an isentropic process,

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 1. Introduction
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.3 Speed of Sound

EXAMPLE 1.7

Speed of Sound and Mach Number

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 1. Introduction
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.3 Speed of Sound

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 1. Introduction
1.8 Vapor Pressure

 Liquids will evaporate if they are placed in a

container open to the atmosphere because some
liquid molecules at the surface have sufficient
momentum to overcome the intermolecular
cohesive forces and escape into the atmosphere.

 If the container is closed with a small air space

left above the surface, and this space evacuated to
form a vacuum, a pressure will develop in the
space as a result of the vapor that is formed by the
escaping molecules.

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 1. Introduction
1.8 Vapor Pressure

 When an equilibrium condition is reached so

that the number of molecules leaving the surface
is equal to the number entering, the vapor is said
to be saturated and the pressure that the vapor
exerts on the liquid surface is termed vapor
pressure pv.

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 1. Introduction
1.8 Vapor Pressure

Similarly, if the end of a completely

liquid-filled container is moved as
shown in the figure without letting
any air into the container, the space
between the liquid and the ends
becomes filled with vapor at a
pressure equal to the vapor pressure.

The value of the vapor pressure for a

particular liquid depends on
temperature (Appendix B – B.1,B.2).

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 1. Introduction
1.8 Vapor Pressure

Boiling , which is the formation

of vapor bubbles within a fluid
mass, is initiated when the
absolute pressure in the fluid
reaches the vapor pressure.

Boiling can be induced at a given

pressure acting on a fluid by
raising the temperature, or at a
given fluid temperature by
lowering the pressure.

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 1. Introduction
1.8 Vapor Pressure

 In flowing liquids it is possible to develop very

low pressure due to the fluid motion, and if the
pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure,
boiling will occur.
 When vapor bubbles are formed in a flowing
fluid, they are swept along into regions of higher
pressure where they suddenly collapse with
sufficient intensity to actually cause structural
damage. The formation and subsequent collapse
of vapor bubbles in a flowing fluid is called
cavitation.
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 1. Introduction
1.9 Surface Tension

 At the interface between a liquid and a gas, or

between two immiscible liquids, forces develop in
the liquid surface that cause the surface to behave
as if it were “skin” or “membrane” stretched
over the fluid mass.
Razor blade floats on water because
tension developed in the hypothetical
skin supports it.
Small droplets of mercury will form
into spheres when placed on a smooth
surface because the cohesive forces in
the surface tend to hold all the
molecules together in a compact
shape.
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 1. Introduction
1.9 Surface Tension

 These various types of surface phenomena are

due to the unbalanced cohesive forces acting on
the liquid molecules at the fluid surface.
Molecules in the interior of the fluid mass are
surrounded by molecules that are attracted to
each other equally. However, molecules along
the surface are subjected to a net force toward
the interior.

 The apparent physical consequence of this

unbalanced force along the surface is to create the
hypothetical skin or membrane.
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 1. Introduction
1.9 Surface Tension

 A tensile force may be considered to be acting in

the plane of the surface along any line in the
surface. The intensity of the molecular attraction
per unit length along any line is called the surface
tension, and is designated by σ, with FL-1 unit.

The surface tension decreases

as the temperature increases.

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 1. Introduction
1.9 Surface Tension

The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be

calculated using the free-body diagram below. The
force developed around the edge due to surface
tension is 2πRσ. This force must be balanced by the
pressure difference acting over the circular area πR2.

Pressure inside the drop is

greater than the surrounding
pressure.
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 1. Introduction
1.9 Surface Tension

 Among common phenomena associated with

surface tension is the rise (or fall) of a liquid in a
capillary tube.

 If a small open tube is inserted into water, the

water level in the tube will rise above the water
level outside the tube.

 The liquid is said to wet the solid surface.

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 1. Introduction
1.9 Surface Tension

 If adhesion of molecules to the solid surface is

weak compared to the cohesion between
molecules, the liquid will not wet the surface
and the level in a tube placed in a nonwetting
liquid will actually be depressed.

 Mercury is a good example of a nonwetting liquid

when it is in contact with a glass tube.

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 1. Introduction
1.9 Surface Tension

Effects of capillary action in small tubes. (a) rise of

column for a liquid that wets the tube. (b) free-body
diagram for calculating column height. (c) depression of
column for a nonwetting liquid
1/2/2018 Abdelouahab Abrous, Ph.D., PE
 1. Introduction
1.9 Surface Tension

The height, h, is governed by the

value of the surface tension, σ, the
tube radius, R, the specific weight of
the liquid, γ, and the angle of contact,
θ, between the fluid and tube.

For water in contact with clean glass θ ≈ 0 oC. For

nonwetting liquids, θ > 90 oC (for mercury θ ≈
130 oC)
1/2/2018 Abdelouahab Abrous, Ph.D., PE
 1. Introduction
1.9 Surface Tension

EXAMPLE 1.8

Capillary Rise in a Tube

1/2/2018 Abdelouahab Abrous, Ph.D., PE

 1. Introduction
1.9 Surface Tension

1/2/2018 Abdelouahab Abrous, Ph.D., PE

 1. Introduction
1.9 Surface Tension

END OF CHAPTER 1

1/2/2018 Abdelouahab Abrous, Ph.D., PE