Human Anatomy & Physiology II – Dr.

Sullivan

Unit II – Autonomic Nervous System – Chapter 15

The autonomic nervous system is a system of reflex arcs that control the body's homeostasis and responses
to stimuli (blood pressure, respiratory rate, pupil dilation, etc). It utilizes all the components of any other
reflex arc. Sensory Receptors, Sensory Neurons, Integrating Center, Motor Neurons, and Effectors.

There are two different divisions to the motor portion of the ANS, but only one sensory division. When
sensory receptors are stimulated, they send impulses along the sensory neurons to the hypothalamus
(integratng center). The hypothalamus decides whether this stimulus needs a reaction from the
Sympathetic or Parasympathetic motor division (see notes for different responsibilities of each).

Each motor division of the ANS uses two different motor neurons to get from the CNS to the
effector. Since it takes two neurons to get there, there has to be a synapse between the two. The area
where these synapses occur is called the Autonomic ganglion. There’s a motor neuron that goes from the
CNS to the ganglion and a second motor neuron from the ganglion to the effector. The first is called the
‘preganglionic neuron’ and the second is called the ‘postganglionic neuron’ because of their position
relative to the ganglion.

For the sympathetic divison, the sympathetic ganglion is one of 3 common structures. All preganglionic
sympathetic neurons must lead to one of those 3 structures. They are the Left & Right Sympathetic Chain
Ganglia or the Prevertebral Ganglia. They are all immediately outside the spinal cord and therefore the
sympathetic preganglionic neurons are short, synapse quickly, and may synapse with multiple
postganglionic neurons. The postganglionic neurons then leave the ganglia and travel to and innervate their
individual effector.

The parasympathetic division does not have common structures for ganglia. Instead the preganglionic
neurons leave the CNS and travel all the way to the effector where they synapse with the postganglionic
neuron at or near their individual effector. Then the short postganglionic neuron innervates the effector.

I. Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems (ANS)

a) The hypothalamus is the integrating center of the ANS
b) The ANS regulates the activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and certain glands.
c) It is part of the PNS
d) It includes autonomic sensory neurons, integrating centers and autonomic motor neurons.
e) The ANS operates without conscious control and requires constant sensory input from the visceral
organs.
i) Autonomic Sensory Neurons: bring sensory information from the organs to the CNS
ii) Autonomic Motor Neurons: bring autonomic motor responses from the CNS to the PNS.
f) All motor pathways in the ANS consist of two motor neurons that synapse in the Autonomic
Ganglion.
i) proximal motor neuron (preganglionic) is myelinated and the distal motor neuron
(postganglionic) is unmyelinated and synapses with the effector.
g) The motor portion of the ANS has two major branches:
i) Sympathetic Division
ii) Parasympathetic Division
(1) Most organs have innervation from both
(2) Depending on the organ, one division excites the organ, and the other division inhibits the
organ.
iii) All preganglionic Sympathetic neurons emerge from the T1-L2 segments of the spinal cord
and travel to the entire body after exiting the autonomic ganglion. It is therefore referred to as
the thoracolumbar division.
 iv) All preganglionic Parasympathetic neurons emerge from the brainstem and S2-S4 spinal
segments and travel to the entire body reaching the autonomic ganglion. It is therefore
referred to as the craniosacral division.
II. Parasympathetic Cranial Nerves:
a) the Parasympathetic Division utilizes the following cranial nerves:
b) Oculomotor (III): narrows the pupil and thickens the lens
c) Facial (VII): regulates the lacrimal glands, salivary glands, and nasal glands.
d) Glossopharyngeal (IX): regulates other salivary glands
e) Vagus (X): carries about 90% of all parasympathetic nerve fibers.
f) Regulates heart rate, respiratory rate, and swallowing

III. Autonomic Ganglia

a) Sympathetic Ganglia
i) The site of synapses between pre- and postganglionic sympathetic neurons.
ii) Divided into to 2 groups
(1) Sympathetic Chain Ganglia: lie in a vertical row on either side of the vertebral column
from the base of the skull to the coccyx.
(a) In general, postganglionic neurons from the sympathetic chain innervate the organs
superior to the diaphragm.
(2) Prevertebral Ganglia: lie anterior to the vertebral column close to the abdominal aorta
and its branches.
(a) In general, postganglionic neurons from the prevertebral ganglia innervate the organs
inferior to the diaphragm.
b) Parasympathetic Ganglia
i) Preganglionic neurons synapse with postganglionic close to or actually within the effector
organ it innervates.
IV. Autonomic Plexuses
a) Tangled networks of both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons which lie along major
arteries.
b) Major Plexuses:
i) Cardiac Plexus: innervates the heart
ii) Pulmonary Plexus: innervates the lungs
iii) Celiac Plexus: digestion (stomach, pancreas, gall bladder, liver), diaphram, kidneys, testes,
ovaries, and adrenal gland.
iv) Superior Mesenteric Plexus: Small and large intestine (digestion)
v) Inferior Mesenteric Plexus: Large intestine (excretion)
vi) Hypogastric Plexus: Pelvic viscera (uterus, ureters, etc.)
V. Postganglionic Neurons
a) After a preganglionic neuron of the sympathetic division reaches the sympathetic chain, it may or
may not ascend or descend to another level before it synapses with a postganglionic neuron.
i) Sympathetic innervation may be of several different organs or effectors.
ii) Sympathetic preganglionic neurons have many synaptic terminals and can synapse with as
many as 20 or postganglionic neurons.
b) Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons synapse directly near or within the effector and therefore
can only innervate that effector.
VI. Physiological Effects of the ANS
a) Most body organs are innervated by both divisions of the ANS.
b) The divisions typically work in opposition of each other.
c) Some organs have only Sympathetic Innervation
i) Sweat Glands
ii) Arrector pili muscles of hair follicles
iii) Kidneys
iv) Most blood vessels
v) Adrenal Medulla of the adrenal glands
d) Sympathetic Responses
i) During physical and emotional distress, the sympathetic division dominates.
 ii) Sympathetic activity favors body functions that can support vigorous physical activity and the
rapid production of energy.
iii) At the same time, the sympathetic division reduces functions that favor the storage of energy,
such as digestion.
iv) In addition to physical emotion, emotions such as fear, embarrassment, or rage can also
stimulate the sympathetic division.
v) Activating these “E situations” (exercise, emergency, excitement, embarrassment) cause a
group of responses known as the fight-or-flight response, producing the following effects:
vi) Pupil dilation
vii) Increase in heart rate, force of contraction, and blood pressure
viii) Bronchial dilation allowing faster air movement in the lungs
ix) Constriction of blood vessels that allow non-essential organs
x) Kidneys, gastrointestinal
(1) Dilation of blood vessels that supply organs involved in exercise or fighting off danger
xi) Skeletal muscles, cardiac muscle, liver, and fat tissue
(1) Liver cells liberate stored sugar and fat cells liberate stored fat for energy
(2) Glucose released from liver
(3) Digestion is inhibited
e) The effects of sympathetic stimulation are longer lasting that those of parasympathetic stimulation.
i) Many more tissues activated at one time
ii) Norepinepherine (neurotransmitter associated with sympathetic division) lingers longer in the
synapse.
f) Parasympathetic Responses
i) Enhances “rest and digest” activities. (SLUDD)
(1) Salivation
(2) Lacrimation
(3) Urination
(4) Digestion
(5) Defecation
ii) Also reduces heart rate and bronchial diameter, and constricts the pupils.
iii) Although fear causes a sympathetic response, “Paradoxical Fear” which is the fear one might
have when backed into a corner with no way to win or escape can cause an accelerated
parasympathetic response.
iv) Loss of bowel and bladder control is associated with the parasympathetic response to
paradoxical fear.
VII. Autonomic Reflexes
a) Reflex arcs similar to somatic reflexes that are used to regulate blood pressure, respiratory rate,
digestion, and excretion.
i) Uses a receptor, sensory neuron, integrating center, motor neuron, and effector.
ii) Blood Pressure
(1) Sensing high blood pressure, the response may be to decrease the heart rate or force of
contraction, and/or blood vessel diameter.

VIII. ANS Neurotransmitters & Receptors

a) Cholinergic Neurons and receptors
i) Cholinergic neurons are named so because they release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
(ACh).
ii) all sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons
iii) all parasympathetic post-ganglionic neurons
iv) sympathetic post-gangilionic neurons that innervate sweat glands
a. Cholinergic receptors:
v) the receptors on the post-synaptic membrane that ACh binds to.
vi) Two types:
b) Nicotinic receptors: found in the dendrites of sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic
neurons
i) Also found in the post-synaptic neuromuscular junction.
 ii) Nicotine mimics the effect of ACh by binding to these receptors.
iii) Activating nicotinic causes depolarization of the postsynaptic cell.
(1) Muscarinic receptors: present in the post-synaptic membranes of all effectors of the
parasympathetic nervous system.
iv) Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands (including sweat)
v) Named because a mushroom poison called ‘muscarine’ mimics the effects of ACh by binding
to these receptors.
vi) Activation of muscarinic receptors causes depolarization in some cells (i.e. smooth muscle
cells of the iris causing contraction and constriction of the pupil) and hyperpolarization of in
other cells (i.e. inhibing the smooth muscle fibers of the GI tract’s sphincters, or valves,
causing them to relax).
(1) ACh is quickly deactivated by an enzyme called acetycholine esterase the effects
triggered by ACh and its cholinergic receptors are brief.
c) Adrenergic Neurons and Receptors
i) Adrenergic neurons release the transmitter norepinepherine (aka noradrenaline) at the
synaptic cleft
ii) Most sympathetic post-ganglionic neurons are adrenergic.
iii) Adrenergic Receptors
(1) the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane that are stimulated by norepinephrine
released as a neurotransmitter and norepinephrine and epinephrine released as hormones
by the adrenal gland.
(2) Norepenephrine is removed from the synapse by either re-uptake by the presynaptic
membrane or it is enzymatically deactivated by one of 2 enzymes:
(a) catechal-O-methytranserase (COMT)
(b) monoamine oxidase (MAO)
(3) norepinephrine lingers in the synapse longer than ACh making its effects longer-lasting.