PART I: Simple Apprehension -a term that expresses two or more

- the first act of intellect different unrelated feeling

- knows the essence of nature without -ex. Aristotle’s foot is one foot long
affirming or denying anything about it. C. Analogous
- through which intellect forms a mental -expresses a meaning that is partly
image of a thing called idea different and partly the same
A. Idea- mental product of apprehension -ex. Exam is hard
-mental or intellectual image of an object Wood is hard
-formed through abstraction(in which the According to Application or Extension:
intellect "strips" the object of its non- A. Singular
essential qualities to form into one image) -terms that apply to a single designated
-abstract, universal, immaterial, spiritual, individual or group
and constant -may be a proper noun or name
B. Term-external manifestation or sign of an -ex. Freddie is a hardworking man.
idea B. Universal
-an idea that is expressed or manifested -terms that extend or apply to each of all
verbally. objects or members of a designated groups
-a sign, stands for something -always expresses a universal idea
Comprehension- sum total of the attributes -usually prefixed by: all, every, no, each,
or thought-elements which constitute the none, etc.
idea -ex. Every employee is an asset to the
-the meaning, signification, thought- company.
content or connotation of the idea C. Particular
-definition of a term -terms that extend or apply to some
Extension- sum total of all the individuals, members of a designated groups
things or beings, or groups to which the idea -term that applies to part of a given
can be applied group
-expresses denotation or the application -usually prefixed by: some, few, several,
of the idea to different individuals or things majority, etc.
-example of the term -ex. Some employees are lazy.
*as the comprehension of the idea D. Collective
increases, the extension decreases and -one that applies to a collective idea
vice-versa. -represents a group or class
-ex. The family went on a vacation to
Classification of terms Cebu
According to Significance or Meaning:
A. Univocal Part II. Judgement
-a term used in an identical sense - second act of the intellect
-expresses only one meaning when - pronounces the agreement or
applied to an object disagreement between terms or idea
-ex. Horses are animals - the intellect relates or combines ideas
Cats are animals or concept
B. Equivocal Proposition
 - a judgement expressed in sentence or -Quantity of proposition: (expresses the
a sentence pronouncing the agreement or number of individual to whom the
disagreement between terms proposition applies
- makes a claim about a subject matter 1. Universal
- always a sentence 2. Particular
- must express an assertion or claim that 3. Singular
is meaningful or coherent 4. Collective
Types of Proposition: *base on “According to Application or
A. Categorical Extension”
-expresses a direct judgement or **Singular and collective terms are
assertion of the agreement or disagreement considered universal proposition because
of two terms in an absolute manner their subjects denote universal extention
-makes a direct claim so the truth value -Types of proposition according to quality
is directly known. and quantity combined (+schema):
-affirmation of two terms 1. (A) Universal affirmative
-parts of the proposition: -ex. All dogs are cute
1.Subject (S) – the term designating the Su + Pp
idea about which something is affirmed or The subject is universal, indicated by
denied the word “All”. As stated in the rules, the
2.Predicate (P) – the term designating the predicate is particular if the copula is
idea which is affirmed or denied of the affirmative, unless
subject -ex. Henry Ford is the father of mass
3.Copula (C) – the term expressing the production
mental act which pronounces the Su + Pu
agreement or disagreement of the subject The predicate is the definition of a
and predicate subject. The only father of mass production
4.Quantifier (Q) – expresses the application is Henry Ford which makes the predicate
or extension of the proposition singular, therefore universal
2. (E) Universal Negative
-ex. (All(Q) dogs)(S) are(C) adorable(P) -ex. No dogs are ugly
-Quality of proposition: Su + Pu
1. Affirmative (+) – a proposition whose Another way to rephrase this would
predicate is affirmed of its subject be “All dogs are not ugly” which shows that
-The predicate of an affirmative the copula is negative. The negative copula
proposition is always particular except if the then dictates that the predicate is universal.
predicate of the proposition is a definition of 3. (I) Particular Affirmative
the subject -ex. Some dogs are attentive
-ex. All cats are cute Sp + Pp
-example of exception: Freud is the The word “some” indicates that it is
father of Psychoanalysis particular which makes the subject
2. Negative (-) - a proposition whose particular. As for the predicate, the copula is
predicate is always denied of its subject affirmative which makes the predicate
-ex. No cats are ugly particular.
4. (O) Particular Negative
 -ex. Some dogs are not attentive -cannot be both true but may be
Sp + Pu both false, if one is true the other is
The word “some” yet again indicates false. If one is false, the other is
that it is particular which makes the subject doubtful
particular. The copula is negative, which -the opposition is between the two
makes the predicate universal. universals: A and E
-ex.
A = All dogs are loyal
E = No dogs are loyal

C. Sub-contrariety
-the opposition existing between two
proposition having the same subject,
predicate, and quantity but different
quality
-cannot be both false but may be
both true, if one is false the other is
true. If one is true, the other is
doubtful
-the opposition is between the two
particulars: I and O
-ex.
Logical Opposition
I = Some dogs are big
A. Contradiction
O= Some dogs are not big
-the opposition existing between two
proposition having the same subject,
D. Sub-alternation
and predicate but different quantity
-the opposition existing between
and quality.
propositions having the same
-both proposition cannot be true at
subject, predicate, and quality, but
the same time or false.
different quantity
-the oppositions are: A and O, E and
-If the universal is true, the particular
I
is true, if the particular is true the
-ex.
universal may be doubtful
A = All dogs are cute
- the oppositions are: A and I, E and
O = Some dogs are not cute
O
-ex.
E = No dogs are ugly
A = All dogs are cute
I = Some dogs are ugly
I = Some dogs are cute
B. Contrariety
E = No dogs are ugly
-the opposition existing between two
O = Some dogs are not ugly
proposition having the same subject,
predicate, and quantity but different
quality
 step 4: Retain the quantity
-Obvertend: original proposition
-Obverse: derived proposition
-Obverse Propositions:
A is to E and vice versa
I is to O and vice versa

B. Conversion- The process of eduction in

which the subject and predicate takes each
other’s place
A E I O Ex.
If A is X False True False ((All)(Q) dogs)(S) (are)(c) (mammals)(P) ->
true ((Some)(Q) mammals)(S) (are)(c) (dogs)(P)
If A is ? ? True step 1: Interchange the subject and
false predicate
If E is False X False True step 2: Retain the quality
true
step 3: Take note that the extention of the
If E is ? True ?
false converse may not be greater than the
If I is ? False X ? extension of the convertend
true -Convertend: original proposition
If I is False True True -Converse: Derived Proposition
false The Converse Proposition A is either A or I
If O is False ? ? X The Converse Proposition E is E
true
The Converse Proposition I is I
If O is True False True
false The O proposition does not have a valid
converse proposition
Logical Equivalence
Equivalence- the similarity in terms of Categorical Syllogism
meaning between propositions -A deductive, mediate, inference
-may be different in in expression but consisting of three categorical propositions.
they express the same meaning Two of them are premises while the third
Eduction- the process of forming equivalent one is the solution
proposition -Comprised of (Remote material
Two types of Eduction: elements)
A. Obversion- The process of eduction in 1. Major Term(P)- The predicate of the
which the derived proposition retains the conclusion, found in the major premise
subject, but has the contradictory for the 2. Minor Term(S)- The subject of the
predicate conclusion, found in the minor premise
Ex. 3. Middle Term(M)- term found in both major
((All)(Q) dogs)(s) (are)(C) (cute)(P) -> ((All)(Q) and minor premise, but not in the conclusion
dogs)(S) (are not)(C) (ugly)(P)
step 1: retain the subject -(Proximate material elements)
step 2: Contradict the predicate 1. Major Premise (MjP)- premise containing
step 3: Negate the Copula the major term
2. Minor Premise (MnP)- premise containing Fallacy of Affirming what is denied in the
the minor term Premise- if one premise is negative, the
3. Conclusion ()- premise containing both conclusion must be negative
the major and minor term Fallacy of Wider Conclusion- If one premise
Principles of syllogism: is particular, the conclusion must be
1. The principle of reciprocal identity- two particular
terms identical with the third term are Fallacy of Concluding from 2 Particular
identical to each other Premise- no conclusion can be drawn from
2. The principle of reciprocal non-identity- 2 particular premises
Two terms of which, one is identical with the -Figures:
third term while the other is not, are non- Figure 1. Sub-Pre
identical with each other Figure 1
3. Dictum de Omni- Whatever is affirmed Sub-Pre
universally of a certain term is affirmed of MjP M P
every term that comes under that term MnP S M
4. Dictum de Nullo- Whatever is denied  S P
universally of a certain term is denied of -the middle term is the subject of the
every term that comes under that term major premise and predicate of the minor
-Rules: premise
Fallacy of Equivocation- the middle term -the minor premise must be affirmative
must be used in the same sense on the first -the major premise must be universal
two premise Name Major Minor 
Fallacy of Four Terms- A categorical Premise Premise
syllogism must contain three and only three bArbArA A A A
terms cElArEnt E A E
Fallacy of Misplaced Middle Term- the dArII A I I
middle term must not appear in the fErIO E I O
conclusion
Fallacy of Illicit Major- The major term may Figure 2. Pre-Pre
only be universal in the conclusion if they Figure 2
are universal in the premise Pre-Pre
MjP P M
Fallacy of Illicit Minor- The minor term may
MnP S M
only be universal in the conclusion if they
 S P
are universal in the premise
-the middle term is the predicate of both
Fallacy of Undistributed Middle- The middle
major and minor premise
term must be universal (or distributed) at
-One premise must be negative
least once in the premise
-The major premise must be universal
Fallacy of Two Negative Premise- No
Name Major Minor 
conclusion can be drawn from 2 negative Premise Premise
premises cEsArE E A E
Fallacy of Negative Conclusion drawn from cAmEstrEs A E E
Affirmative Premises- only an affirmative fEstInO E I O
conclusion can be drawn from two bArOcO A O O
affirmative premises
Figure 3. Sub-Sub
Figure 3
Sub-Sub
MjP M P
MnP M S
 S P
-the middle term is the subject of both
major and minor premise
-the minor premise must be affirmative
-the conclusion must be particular
Name Major Minor 
Premise Premise
dArAptI A A I
dIsAmIs I A I
dAtIsI A I I
fElAptOn E A O
bOcArdO O A O
fErIsOn E I O

Figure 4, Pre-Sub
Figure 4
Sub-Pre
MjP P M
MnP M S
 S P
- the middle term is the predicate of the
major premise and subject of the minor
premise
- If the major premise is affirmative, the
minor premise must be universal
- if the minor premise is affirmative, the
conclusion must be particular
- if either premise is negative, the major
premise must be universal
Name Major Minor 
Premise Premise
brAmAntIp A A I
cAmEnEs A E E
dImArIs I A I
fEsApO E A O
frEsIsOn E I O