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Ch2. The Physical Layer

The document discusses different aspects of the physical layer of the OSI model including analog and digital signals and data, line coding techniques to convert digital data to digital signals, and different switching techniques like circuit switching, message switching and packet switching.

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Himanshu Nimje
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46 views26 pages

Ch2. The Physical Layer

The document discusses different aspects of the physical layer of the OSI model including analog and digital signals and data, line coding techniques to convert digital data to digital signals, and different switching techniques like circuit switching, message switching and packet switching.

Uploaded by

Himanshu Nimje
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Ch2.

The Physical Layer


The Physical Layer
• This is the lowest layer in the OSI model.
• It’s main task is to transmit the raw bits over
communication channel.
• It has to provide services to the data link layer
as well as take care of the underlying physical
medium below.
Analog and Digital
• The physical layer transfers a stream of bits from one
node to another using a transmission medium.
• To be transmitted, data must be transformed into
electromagnetic signals.
• Signals are nothing but electrical or electromagnetic
representation of data. Data transmission is nothing
but communication of data by the transmission or
propagation of electromagnetic signals through either
wired/wireless media (channel).
• Both data and the signals that represent them can be
either analog or digital .
• Analog data refers to information that is continuous ;
digital data refers to the information that has discrete
states.
Analog and Digital
• Signals can also be analog and digital . When
digital data transmitted over n/w it has to be
converted to digital signal.
value value

Time
Time

Analog Signal
Digital Signal
Line Coding
• It is the process of converting digital data to digital
signals.
• Line coding converts a sequence of bits to digital
signal.
• At the sender, digital data are encoded into digital
signal ; at the receiver, the digital data are
recreated by decoding the digital signal.
Line Coding
• Unipolar
– NRZ
• Polar
– NRZ-I
– NRZ-L
– Manchester
– Differential Manchester
Unipolar
• Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage
level to represent data.
• In this case, to represent binary 1, high voltage
is transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is
transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-Non-
return-to-zero (NRZ ), it either represents 1 or
0.
•
Polar
• Polar encoding scheme uses two voltage levels ,
positive and negative to represent binary values.
• Polar encodings is available in four types:
• Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)
– It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary
values.
– NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
– NRZ-L: 0 is positive voltage and 1 is negative voltage.
changes voltage level at when a different bit is
encountered.
– NRZ-I : fixed voltage levels are not assigned to represent
0 or 1 but an inversion of existing voltage represents 1
and non-inversion 0 .changes voltage when a 1 is
encountered.
Return to Zero (RZ)
• Problem with NRZ is that a long string 0f 0’s and 1’s
can make receiver lose synchronization.
• RZ uses three levels – positive, negative and zero.
• It requires the signal to return to 0 in the middel of
its bit period i.e. for every bit, there has to be
transition in the middle.
• Bit 1 is represented as +ve to 0 and 0 is represented
as –ve to 0.
Manchester
• A Manchester Line Encoder works by encoding
each data bit to be either low-then-high or
high-then-low – for equal amounts of time.
• This code requires a transition in the middle of
each bit interval.
• A negative to positive transition represents 1
and positive to negative represents 0.
Where is it used?
10BASE-T (10Mbps Ethernet over Twisted Pair) applications use the Manchester
Line Code.
Switching
• A network is a set of connected devices.
• We have multiple devices
– How to connect them to make one –to-one
communication possible
• Solution :
– Using Topology
• But it is impractical wasteful; when applied to large
network.
• A better solution is switching.
• A switched network consist of a series of
interlinked nodes , called switches.
Simple Switched network
Types of Switching
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Message Switching
Circuit Switching

• In this an end to end path or circuit is established


between the communicating machines.
• The machines have exclusive use of this path
until the connection is released.
• It is used in telephone system, because voice
traffic requires no transmission delay.
Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching
• In the fig, the six rectangles represent
switching offices, each having 3 incoming and
3 out going lines.
• When a call is placed, a physical connection is
established between the incoming line and
one of the output lines (shown by dotted
lines).
• The circuit or path is a connected sequence of
links between nodes in a network.
Circuit Switching
• This involve 3 phases:
1. Circuit establishment: Before any data transfer
can begin, an end to end path has to be set up.
Some setup time is required.
2. Data Transfer: Once the circuit is established,
analog or digital data can be transmitted
depending upon the nature of the network. The
only delay is propagation delay. There is no
danger of congestion or a busy line.
3. Circuit disconnection: The circuit can be
released by either of the connected stations
after data transfer takes place.
Circuit Switching
• Advantages:
– Transfers data in real time with only delay in
circuit setup.
• Disadvantages:
– It can be inefficient. Even if no data is being
transferred, the channel remains dedicated for the
duration of the connection.
Message Switching
• No physical path is set up between the sender
and receiver.
• When the sender has block of data to send, it is
sent to intermediate switching station which
store it and sends it to the appropriate station
when an output line is free.
• This method is referred as ‘Store and forward’.
• Each block is received as a whole, checked for
errors and retransmitted.
• Thus, a block may visit several switching stations
before reaching destination.
Message Switching
• Advantages:
– No circuit has to be set up in advance
– The sender can send data whenever it wants to
and does not need to check the status of the
receiver whether it is busy or idle.
• Disadvantages:
– It requires sufficient large data buffers to hold the
message.
– If there is a lot of traffic on the network, the delay
will be very high thereby reducing throughput.
Packet Switching
• An alternate method to message switching is to ‘break
up’ the message into several blocks called ‘packets’.
• A limit is placed on the maximum block size, making it
easier to store packets and route them through
network.
• Each packet contains control information including
source and destination address.
• Packets are routed independent of others to the same
destination.
• Two packets for the same destination may be sent via
different paths. Thus it is possible that the packets
arrive out of order.
• So some identification scheme has to be implemented.
Packet Switching
• Advantages:
– Call setup phase is avoided
– If congestion develops in one part of the network,
the packets can be routed via different paths.
• Disadvantages:
– There is no guarantee that packets will be
delivered.
– Requires more overheads since each packet has to
carry a lot of control information.
– The packets may arrive out of order.

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