– 71 –

4.2.4. Stair design

Stairs consist of steps arranged in a series for purpose of giving access to different floors of a building.
Since a stair is often the only means of communication between the various floors of a building, the
location of the stair requires good and careful consideration. In a residential house, the staircase may be
provided near the main entrance. In a public building, the stairs must be from the main entrance itself and
located centrally, to provide quick accessibility to the principal apartments. All staircases should be
adequately lighted and properly ventilated. The staircase is an important component of a building, and
often the only means of access between the various floors in the building. It consists of a flight of steps,
usually with one or more intermediate landings provided between the floor levels. The horizontal top
portion of a step is termed tread and the vertical projection of the step is called riser. Generally tread of
300 mm and Riser of 150 mm are ideally suited for public buildings. For residential and factory buildings
lower values of tread up to 250 mm combined with higher values of riser up to 190 mm are preferred. The
width of the stair is generally around 1.1 – 1.5m, and in any case, should normally not be less than 850
mm. The horizontal projection (plan) of an inclined flight of steps, between the first and last risers, is
termed going of flight. Generally, risers in a flight should not exceed about 12 in number.
In other word the Staircase is an inclined structural system for the movement from one level to another.
Since it is stepped, it is called staircase. The geometrical forms of staircase may be quiet different
depending on the individual circumstances involved. The stairs and landing slab can angle in different
form to get different types of staircase. A staircase behaves like an ordinary slab. It may span either in the
direction of the steps or in the direction of going. Structurally, staircase may be classified largely into two
categories, depending on the predominant direction in which the slab component of the stair undergoes
flexure – stair slab spanning transversely and stair slab spanning longitudinally. The design of staircase
requires proportioning of its different components and determination of reinforcement and it’s detailing to
satisfy both the serviceability and strength requirements.
The design of staircase is made for serviceability requirements of deflection and cracks. The
serviceability requirement of deflection is controlled by the effective span to effective depth ratio. The
design of reinforcement is made to satisfy the strength requirements for moments and shears. The design
for moment is made for maximum moments either by the working stress method or by the limit state
method. The area of steel is expressed as diameter and spacing of bars. It is provided along the span of
staircase and necessary curtailment is made wherever it is not required as in the case of edge-supported
slabs. Generally, the shear reinforcement is not required in staircase as the shear strength of concrete is
much greater than the nominal shear stress. The shear strength of concrete in staircase is determined as in
the case of edge- supported slab. The detailing of reinforcement in staircase shall be similar to that of the
edge supported slab except at the junction of landing and flight of staircase where it should ensure that the
reinforcement bars in tension tending to straighten out do not cause cracking in concrete.
 – 71 –
4.2.4.1. Components of staircase

Tread: the upper horizontal portion of step over which foot is placed during ascending and descending a
stairway.
Riser: the vertical member of step.it is used to support and connect successive treads.
Headroom: the vertical height between the tread of one flight and ceiling of overhead construction.it
should be sufficient so as not to cause any difficulty to person using the stairs.
Stringers: these are the sloping members of the stair, used to support the end of steps winders: these are
the steps used for changing the directions of stairs .these are usually triangular in plan.
Flight: this consist of series of steps provided between landings
Run or going: total length of stairs in horizontal plain including length of landings
Landing: this is the horizontal platform provided at the head of series of steps .it is used as a resting place
during use of stairs .it facilitates change of direction of flight
Hand rail: it is an inclined rail provided at convenient height over steps .it serves as guard rail and
provide assistance to user of stairs.
Balusters: it is individual vertical member made of timber, metal or masonry fixed between string and
hand rail to give support to hand rail.
Nosing: it is the projecting part of tread beyond the face of riser.it is usually rounded to give pleasing
effect to tread and make staircase convenient and easy to use.
Line of nosing: this is the straight line touching the nosing of various steps and parallel to slope of line.
Pitch or slope: vertical angle made by line of nosing with horizontal
 – 72 –
– 73 –

Based on the types of reinforcement: the reinforced concrete columns are classified into three groups:
(i) Tied columns: The main longitudinal reinforcement bars are enclosed within closely spaced lateral
ties. It is usually used in square and rectangular column but not always (Fig.4 a).
(ii) Columns with helical reinforcement: The main longitudinal reinforcement bars are enclosed within
closely spaced and continuously wound spiral reinforcement, Circular and octagonal columns are mostly
using of this type but not always (Fig. 4b).
(iii) Composite columns: The main longitudinal reinforcement of the composite columns consists of
structural steel sections or pipes with or without longitudinal bars (Fig. 4 c and d).

– 74 –

tie bars spiral

Longitudinal
bars

(a)tied column (b)spiral column

structural
steel section

(c)composite column
Based on Slenderness Ratio: the slenderness ratio columns may be classified into the following two
types, depending on whether slenderness effects are considered insignificant or significant:
1. Short columns: A Short column is a column whose effective length/height does not exceed 12 times its
Least Lateral Dimension. A short column being relatively not very long as compared to its least lateral
dimension, hence when a load acts through its axis, it mainly tends to be compressed, and when its
compression bearing capacity exceeds the ultimate value, then it crushes and fails. Therefore, in case of
short column failure mainly occurs by Compression Failure.
2. Long columns: A Long column is a column whose effective length/height does exceeds 12 times its
Least Lateral Dimension. A Long column being relatively long (and sometimes very long) as compared to
its least lateral dimension hence it tends to bend sideways deviating from its axis under the action of load.
It is similar to like why a stick of jute or other similar long stick if placed vertically on a firm hard surface
and pressed vertically downward from its top, then it will be observed that the stick will try to bend itself
deviating from the central axis and eventually will fail mainly due to its bending than direct compression.
Slenderness is a geometrical property of a compression member which is related to the ratio of its
‘effective length’ to its lateral dimension. This ratio is called slenderness ratio.
Buckling of slender columns if a long, thin, flexible rod is loaded axially in compression, it will deflect a
noticeable amount. This phenomenon is called buckling and occurs when the stresses in the rod are still
well below those required to cause a compression/shearing-type failure. Buckling is dangerous because it
is sudden and, once started, is progressive. Although the buckling of a column can be compared with the
bending of a beam, there is an important difference in that the designer can choose the axis about which a
beam bends, but normally the column will take the line of least resistance and buckle in the direction
where the column has the least lateral unsupported dimension. As the loads on columns are never
perfectly axial and the columns are not perfectly straight, there will always be small bending moments
induced in the column when it is compressed. There may be parts of the cross-section area where the sum
of the compressive stresses caused by the load on the column could reach values larger than the allowable
or even the ultimate strength of the material.
Based on braced columns & unbraced column: In most of the cases, columns are also subjected to
horizontal loads like wind, earthquake etc. If lateral supports are provided at the ends of the column, the
lateral loads are borne entirely by the lateral supports. Such columns are known as braced columns.
(When relative transverse displacement between the upper and lower ends of a column is prevented, the
frame is said to be braced (against sideway). Other columns, where the lateral loads have to be resisted by
them, in addition to axial loads and end moments, are considered as unbraced columns. (When relative
transverse displacement between the upper and lower ends of a column is not prevented, the frame is said
to be unbraced (against sideway).

– 75 –

Based on Type of Loading

a) Columns with axial loading (applied concentrically)
b) Columns with uniaxial eccentric loading
c) Columns with biaxial eccentric loading

P P ex= Mx /P P
e = M/P ey= My /P

centroidal axis

Dx
D X

CROSS Dy Y Y ey
SECTION
e ex
X
(a) (b) (c)
axial loading loading with loading with
(concentric) uniaxial eccentricities biaxial eccentricities

– 76 –

Axial Load Capacity of Columns

In actual practice, there are no perfect axially loaded columns, but a discussion of such members provides
an excellent starting point for explaining the theory involved in designing real columns with their
eccentric loads. Several basic ideas can be explained for purely axially loaded columns, and the strengths
obtained provide upper theoretical limits that can be clearly verified with actual tests. It has been known
for several decades that the stresses in the concrete and the reinforcing bars of a column supporting a
long-term load cannot be calculated with any degree of accuracy. You might think that such stresses
could be determined by multiplying the strains by the appropriate moduli of elasticity. But this idea does
not work too well practically because the modulus of elasticity of the concrete is changing during loading
due to creep and shrinkage. Thus, the parts of the load carried by the concrete and the steel vary with the
magnitude and duration of the loads. For instance, the larger the percentage of dead loads and the longer
they are applied, the greater the creep in the concrete and the larger the percentage of load carried by the
reinforcement. Though stresses cannot be predicted in columns in the elastic range with any degree of
accuracy, several decades of testing have shown that the ultimate strength of columns can be estimated
very well. Furthermore, it has been shown that the proportions of live and dead loads, the length of
loading, and other such factors have little effect on the ultimate strength. It does not even matter whether
the concrete or the steel approaches its ultimate strength first. If one of the two materials is stressed close
to its ultimate strength, its large deformations will cause the stress to increase quicker in the other
material. For these reasons, only the ultimate strength of columns is considered here. At failure, the
theoretical ultimate strength or nominal strength of a short axially loaded column is quite accurately
determined by the expression that follows, in which Ag is the gross concrete area and Ast is the total
cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement, including bars and steel shapes:
PU = σC ∗ Ac + σst ∗ Ast
Axial Load and Bending: All columns are subjected to some bending as well as axial forces, and they
need to be proportioned to resist both. Columns will bend under the action of moments, and those
moments will tend to produce compression on one side of the columns and tension on the other.
Depending on the relative magnitudes of the moments and axial loads,

– 77 –

Design of Long Column Step By Step Guide Fastest Technique

The Design of RCC Columns Design may be of different types, according to its behavior under the action
of the loading. Primarily we can differentiate as Short Column Design and Long Column Design or
Slender Column Design, a column is a structural member which is vertical and loaded through its
Longitudinal Axis (in case of Axially Loaded Column) or through parallel to its Longitudinal Axis (in
case of eccentricity of Load) and also there is another condition, that is the effective height of the column
must be greater than three times its least lateral dimension.
STEP 1:- Influence Area of the Columns:
The first step is to find out the Influence Area of the Column to be designed. The Influence Area of a
column is the area of which load is being transferred to the column to be designed for. For our project the
design of column is done for the column whose Influence Area is the largest hence the load coming on the
column will be so the greater of the any other column in that building hence all the other column having
lesser Influence Area hence lesser Loads if provided with the same Designed parameters that required for
the column having largest Influence Area, then the whole Structure will automatically become safe
against the Loads, the columns have different influence area because it depend on the span of the beam
and slab which transferred the load into the column, in designing we concerned the heaviest column load .

Fig. 4.10 Section of slab supported by beams

– 78 –

STEP 2:- Loads Coming on Columns from the Influence Area:

The loads acting within the influence area are broadly classified as Dead Load (DL) and Live Load (LL).
Dead Loads are the load of objects which cannot be moved from one place to another like the loads of
Brick Work, Beams, Slabs etc. and the Live Loads are the loads coming from movable objects such as
Humans, Chair, and Table etc. Thus We Need to Calculate the Dead Loads as well as Live Loads within
the Influence area. These are as follows in the general case of a Building:
Load from users-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------400kg/m2
Permanent load ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------150kg/m2
Finishes load -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------80kg/m2
Presumption slab self-load------------------2200kg/m3×0.15m------------------------------------------330kg/m2
Total stress on Slab--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------960kg/m2
Load from slab in kg -------------------------960kg/m2 × 6.1m × 3.07m------------------------P1=17977.9kg
Load from beam in kg-------------2200kg/m3 × 0.2m(0.75 − 0.15)m × 6.1m-----------------P2=1610.4kg
Load from column in kg---------------2200kg/m3 × 0.2mm × 0.4m × 3m -------------------------P3=528kg
Pre-assumed self-load of ground column in kg-------2200kg/m3 × 0.2m × 0.4m × 4𝑚----------P4=704kg
Total point load-----------------------7 × (17977.9𝑘𝑔 + 1610.4𝑘𝑔 + 528𝑘𝑔) + 704𝑘𝑔----------
P=141518kg
Ground floor interior column PT-------------------------------------------------------------------------- (141518kg)
First floor interior column PT------------------------------------------------------------------------------(141518kg)
Second floor interior column PT---------------------------------------------------------------------------(141518kg)
Third floor interior column PT-----------------------------------------------------------------------------(141518kg)
Fourth floor interior column PT----------------------------------------------------------------------------(141518kg)
Fifth floor interior column PT------------------------------------------------------------------------------(141518kg)
Sixth floor interior columns PT----------------------------------------------------------------------------(141518kg)
Seventh floor interior column PT--------------------------------------------------------------------------(141518kg)
This is the total load that is subjected to the main column of interior ground floor columns with its self-
weight and this load comes from the adding loaded area of upper floors, the area of columns are wider
downward and lighter upward.

– 79 –
STEP 3: Finding Cross-Sectional Area Required For The design of Column:

Where, P Ultimate Load of the Column in kg

σC Yield Strength of Concrete in kg/cm2
AC Area of Concrete of Column in cm2
σST Yield Strength Of Steel in kg/cm2
AST Area of Steel in Column in cm2

This is the one of the most important and main step of the Design of Column because we determine the
cross section area of the ground floor, by the following equation, also we use this formula each columns:
P = σC ∗ AC + σST ∗ AST − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − [Equation 1]
Now the column consists of Concrete and as well as Steel in the form of Reinforcements hence the Total
Cross-Sectional Area of Column is made of Area of Concrete part and Area of Steel using reinforcement.
The Total Cross-Sectional area of Column can be also termed as Gross Cross-Sectional Area of Column
and it is the total area of the column that can resist the load safely and it’s denoted by Ag.
Hence, Gross Cross-Sectional Area of Column = C/S Area of Concrete + C/S Area of Steel
Therefore, Ag = Ac + Ast
and hence, Ac = Ag – Ast
Now putting the above obtained value in the original equation (Equation I) we get,
P = σC ∗ (Ag − Ast) + σST ∗ AST − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −[Equation 2]
Now Assume the Percentage of Steel you want to use ranging anywhere from 0.8% to 6% with Respect to
Gross Cross-Sectional Area of the Column (Ag). Assuming Steel as 0.8% of Ag it means Area of Steel
Ast = 0.8% of Ag = 0.008Ag
Therefore, we know the Grade of Concrete and Grade of Steel to be used and assuming the Percentage of
steel required appropriately then we can Very Easily Calculate the Gross-Sectional Area (Ag) of the
Column required from the above form of the equation.
P = σC ∗ (Ag − 0.008Ag) + σST ∗ 0.008Ag
141518 = 75 ∗ (Ag − 0.008Ag) + 1400 ∗ 0.008Ag
141518 = 75 ∗ (Ag − 0.008Ag) + 1400 ∗ 0.008Ag
141518 = 74.4Ag + 11.2Ag
141518 = 85.6Ag
Ag = 1653 cm2
Now as the Ag is obtained thus the Lateral Dimensions of the Column that are the sides of the column can
be easily determined. The Ag or Gross-Sectional Area of the Column means that it is the product of the
two lateral sides of a column [Breadth (b) * width (w)], hence reversely knowing the Ag we can
determine the Lateral dimensions, knowing that we are in ground floor we assume side of the column is
width w = 30 cm and obtained breadth is:
Ag 1653
b= = = 55 cm say b = 60 cm
w 30

– 80 –
Step 4: Determination of areas of steel
Concrete is strong in compression, however, longitudinal steel rods are always provided to assist in
carrying the direct loads. A minimum area of longitudinal steel is provided in the column, whether it is
required from load point of view or not. This is done to resist tensile stresses caused by some eccentricity
of the vertical loads there is also an upper limit of amount of reinforcement in RC columns, because
higher percentage of steel may cause difficulties in placing and compacting the concrete. Longitudinal
reinforcing bars are “tied” laterally by “ties” or “stirrups” at suitable interval so that the bars do not
buckle. To find the area of steel we use this equation: P = σC ∗ AC + σST ∗ AST
P = σC ∗ (Ag − AST ) + σST ∗ AST
141518 = 75 ∗ (1653 − AST ) + 1400 ∗ AST
141518 = 123975 − 75AST + 1400 ∗ AST
141518 = 123975 + 1325 ∗ AST
1325 ∗ AST = 141518 − 123975
17543
AST = = 13.24 cm2
1325
Provide the diameter of Bars in the columns ∅16 so:
ASt 13.24 ∗ 4
Nos = = = 6.6 say 8 bars.
Area of one bar π ∗ 1.62
Provide the diameter of lateral ties bar in columns ∅6 @ 150mm
The higher will be the percentage of steel used the lower will be Ag and thus lesser will be the cross-
sectional dimension of the column. But the as the Price of Steel is very high as compared to the Concrete
hence it is desirable to use as less as steel possible to make the structure economical.
STEP 4: Check for Long/Short Columns for Design of Column:
Depending upon the ratio of Effective Length to the Least Lateral Dimension of a column, a column may
be classified as Long Column and Short Column. If the value of this ratio is less than 12 then it’s called as
a short column and if the value is more than 12 then it’s called as a Long Column. A short column mainly
fails by direct compression and has a lesser chance of failure by buckling. And in the case of a long
column the failure mainly occurs due to the buckling alone. Long columns being slender, that is being
thin like stick as compared with its length it grows a tendency to get bended by deviating from its
verticality under the action of loads. Due to this tendency of long columns to get buckled (bended) a long
column of all same properties and dimensions that of a short column will be able to carry much lesser
load safely than that of the short columns.
h 400
Ratio = = = 13 > 12 so the designed column is long column
w 30
A long (slender) column fails by elastic buckling when an axial compressive load reaches a critical value.
The Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler (1707 – 1783) was the first to formulate an expression for the
critical buckling load of a column. Also the column is long column we have to check slenderness to make
lesser chance of failure by buckling. The Euler’s Formula gives the buckling load for an ideal column
with both ends pinned. The formula may be extended to columns with other end conditions through the
concept of an effective length. These are points of zero bending moment.
The effective length is often expressed in terms of an effective length factor K, 𝐿𝑒 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝐿
 – 81 –

Both ends Both ends One end pinned One end free
pinned fixed and one end fixed and one end fixed

Pinned Fixed Pinned Free

L e= 0.707L
L e= 0.50L
L e= 1.0L
Actual

Actual

Actual

Actual
length

length

length

length

Effective length
Effective length

L e= 2.0L
Effective length
Effective length

Pinned Fixed Fixed Fixed

Points of
infection

Points of
infection

K = 1.0 K = 0.50 K = 0.707 K = 2.0

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
P= EI/L P= EI/(0.5L) P= EI/(0.707L) P= EI/(2L)
2 2 2 2 2 2
=4 EI/L =2 EI/L = EI/4L
Fig. 4.9 Euler critical load
When we are solving the critical load of columns we concerning the different conditions of support, now
in our case we have a columns with fixed both ends because of the columns are reinforced concrete casted
monolithically with beams so the all columns of our project are fixed both ends
 – 82 –

The critical buckling load formula is taking from this table and concerned only both ends fixed part.
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝐾𝐿2
In the case of fixed ends column the equation will be 𝑃𝑐𝑟 = (0.5𝐿)2
The critical buckling stress 𝜎𝑐𝑟 is the average stress over the cross-sectional area A of a column at the
critical load 𝑃𝑐𝑟 .
The critical buckling checking is preventing the failure of columns in this section the failure can divide
into the two main groups of failure, so the checking for controlling failure is a very important
Crushing Failure of Column: When reinforced concrete columns are axially loaded, the reinforcement
steel and concrete experiences stresses. When the loads are high compared to cross-sectional area of the
column, the steel and concrete reach the yield stress and column fails without undergoing any lateral
deformation. The concrete column is crushed and collapse of the column is due to the material failure. To
overcome this, the concrete column should have sufficient cross-sectional area, so that the stress is under
the specified limit. This type of failure is generally seen in case of pedestals whose height to least lateral
dimension is less than three and does not experience bending due to axial loads.

Fig. 4.9 crashing failure of column

Buckling Failure of Column: Long columns are very slender,

i.e. its effective length to least lateral dimension is more than 12,
under such condition, the load carrying capacity of reinforced
concrete columns reduces drastically for given cross-sectional
area and percentage of reinforcement steel. When such type of
concrete columns is subjected to even small loads, they tend to
become unstable and buckle to any side. So, the reinforcement
steel and concrete in such cases reach their yield stress even for
small loads and fail due to lateral elastic buckling. This type of
failure is unacceptable in practical concrete constructions.

Fig. 4.9 buckling failure of column

 – 83 –

We will consider specifically the buckling of columns, which are long, slender structural members loaded
axially in compression. If compressed member is relatively slender, it may fail by bending or deflecting
laterally, and we concerning this phenomena. The actual stress and actual load will be less than critical
stress and critical load respectively.
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ≤ 𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ≤ 𝜎𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
2
𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐾𝐿2
bd3 30 ∗ 603
IXX = = = 540000cm4
12 12
db3 60 ∗ 303
IYY = = = 135000cm4
12 12
IYY = Imin = 135000cm4
𝐸 = 5000√𝐹𝑐𝑘 , where 𝐹𝑐𝑘 is the grade of concrete and our 𝐹𝑐𝑘 of concrete is 75kg/cm2
𝐸 = 5000√𝐹𝑐𝑘 = 5000√75 = 43300𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 , where E is modulus elasticity of concrete

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑋𝑋 𝜋 2 ∗ 43300 ∗ 540000

𝑃𝑐𝑟 = = = 1442319 𝑘𝑔
𝐾𝐿2 (1 ∗ 400)2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑌𝑌 𝜋 2 ∗ 43300 ∗ 135000
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = = = 1442319 𝑘𝑔
𝐾𝐿2 (0.5 ∗ 400)2
So Pactual ≤ Pcritical , 141518kg ≤ 1442319kg this column is safe for buckling and it’s ok.
σactual ≤ σcritical
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 141518 78.6𝑘𝑔
𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = = =
𝐴 30 ∗ 60 𝑐𝑚2

𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 1442319
σcritical = = = 800𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2
𝐴 30 ∗ 60

σactual ≤ σcritical , 78.6𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 ≤ 800𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 Ok.

Ground Floor First Floor Second Floor Third Floor

60 cm 60 cm 60 cm 50 cm
20 cm

20 cm
25 cm
30 cm

Fourth Floor Fifth Floor Sixth Floor Seventh Floor

40 cm 40 cm 40 cm 40 cm
20 cm

20 cm

20 cm

20 cm

Fig. 4.9 detail plan section of main column