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FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
1. NUMBER SYSTEM :
Natural Numbers : (N) = {1, 2, 3....}
p
2. FRACTION :
q
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3 5
(a) Proper Fraction = : Nr < Dr (b) Improper Fraction : Nr Dr
5 3
2
3
(c) Mixed Fraction : 2 (d) Compound Fraction : 3
5 5
6
1 2
(e) Complex Fraction : 2 (
f
) Continued Fraction : 2
3 2
2
.....
This is usually written in the more compact
1 1
form 2 ........
2 2
3. RATIONAL NUMBERS (Q) :
All the numbers that can be represented in the form p/q, where p and q are integers and q 0, are called
rational numbers. Integers, Fractions, Terminating decimal numbers, Non-terminating but repeating decimal
p
numbers are all rational numbers. Q = :p, q I and q 0
q
Note :
(i
) Integers are rational numbers, but converse need not be true.
(ii) A rational number always exists between two distinct rational numbers, hence infinite rational numbers
exist between two rational numbers.
N ⊂W ⊂I ⊂Q ⊂R ⊂C
7. EVEN NUMBERS :
Numbers divisible by 2, last digit 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 & represented by 2n.
8. ODD NUMBERS :
Not divisible by 2, last digit 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 represented by (2n ± 1)
(a) even ± even = even
(b) even ± odd = odd
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(c) odd ± odd = even
(d) even × any number = even number
(e) odd × odd = odd
9. PRIME NUMBERS :
Let 'p' be a natural number, 'p' is said to be prime if it has exactly two distinct positive integral factors, namely
1 and itself. e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31 .....
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13. NUMBERS TO REMEMBER :
Numbe r 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
S qua re 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121 144 169 196 225 256 289 324 361 400
Cube 8 27 64 125 216 343 512 729 1000 1331 1728 2197 2744 3375 4096 4913 5832 6859 8000
S q. Ro o t 1 .4 1 1 .7 3 2 2 .2 4 2 .4 5 2 .6 5 2 .8 3 3 3 .1 6
Note :
(
i
) Square of a real number is always non negative (i.e. x2 0)
(ii) Square root of a positive number is always positive e.g. 4 =2
16. FACTORIZATION :
Formulae :
(a) (a ± b)2 = a2 ± 2ab + b2 = (a b)2 ± 4ab
(b) a2 – b2 = (a+b) (a–b);
1
• If a2 – b2 = 1 then a + b
a b
1 1
For example : sec tan or 3 2
sec tan 3 2
3 3 3
(c) (a+b) = a + b + 3ab(a+b)
(d) (a–b) = a3–b3 – 3ab (a–b)
3
x = p in the polynomial.
a c a b cd
(a) If , then : a b c d (componendo); (dividendo);
b d b d b d
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ab cd a b b d
(componendo and dividendo); (alternendo); (invertendo)
a b cd c d a c
1
a c e a n cn e n n
(b) If ......, then each ratio = n
b d f b d n fn
a c a 2 c2 a c a c
Example :
b d 2
b d 2 bd bd
21. INTERVALS :
Intervals are basically subsets of R. If there are two numbers a, b R such that a < b, we can define four
types of intervals as follows :
(a) Open interval : (a, b) = {x : a < x < b} i.e. end points are not included.
(b) Closed interval : [a, b] = {x : a x b} i.e. end points are also included.
This is possible only when both a and b are finite.
(c) Semi open or semi closed interval : (a, b] = {x : a < x b} ; [a, b) = {x : a x < b}
(d) The infinite intervals are defined as follows :
(
i
) (a, ) = {x : x > a} (ii) [a, ) = {x : x a}
(iii) (–, b) = {x : x < b} (iv) (, b] = {x : x b}
(v) (–, ) = R
Note :
(
i
) For some particular values of x, we use symbol { } e.g. If x = 1, 2 we can write it as x {1, 2}
(ii) If their is no values of x, then we say x (null set)
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22. BASIC CONCEPTS OF GEOMETRY :
(A) BASIC THEOREMS & RESULTS OF TRIANGLES :
(a) Two polygons are similar if (i) their corresponding angles are equal, (ii) the length of their corresponding
sides are proportional. (Both conditions are independent & necessary)
In case of a triangle, any one of the conditions is sufficient, other satisfies automatically.
(b) Thales Theorem (Basic Proportionality Theorem) : In a triangle, a line drawn parallel to one side,
to intersect the other sides in distinct points, divides the two sides in the same ratio.
Converse : If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio then the line must be parallel to
the third side.
(c) Similarity Theorem :
(
i) AAA similarity : If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal i.e. two triangles are equiangular,
then the triangles are similar.
(ii
) SSS similarity : If the corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional, then they are
similar.
(iii) SAS similarity : If in two triangles, one pair of corresponding sides are proportional and the
included angles are equal then the two triangles are similar.
(iv) If two triangles are similar then
(1) They are equiangular
(2) The ratio of the corresponding (I) Sides (all), (II) Perimeters, (III) Medians,
(IV) Angle bisector segments, (V) Altitudes are same (converse also true)
(3) The ratio of the areas is equal to the ratio of the squares of corresponding
(I) Sides (all), (II) Perimeters, (III) Medians, (IV) Angle bisector segments,
(V) Altitudes (converse also true)
(d) Pythagoras theorem :
(
i) In a right triangle the square of hypotenuse is equal to the sum of square of the other two sides.
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Converse : In a triangle if square of one side is equal to sum of the squares of the other two sides.
then the angle opposite to the first side is a right angle.
A
(ii
) In obtuse AC2 = AB2 + BC2 + 2BC . BD
D B C
(f) The line joining the mid points of two sides of a triangle is parallel & half of the third side. (It's converse is
alsotrue)
D C
(g) (
i
) The diagonals of a trapezium divided each other
G F
E
AE BE
proportionally. (converse is also true) i.e.
EC ED A B
(ii
) Any line parallel to the parallel sides of a trapezium divides the non parallel sides
DG CF
proportionally i.e.
GA FB
(iii) If three or more parallel lines are intersected by two transversals, then intercepts made by them on
transversals are proportional.
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(h) In any triangle the sum of squares of any two sides is equal to twice the square A
of half of the third side together with twice the square of the median which
2
1
bisects the third side. i.e. AB2 + AC2 = 2 BC + 2 (AD)2 = 2(AD2 + BD2)
2 B D C
(i) In any triangle the three times the sum of squares of the sides of a triangle is equal to four times the sum
of the square of the medians of the triangle.
(j) The altitudes, medians and angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent among themselves.
(B) BASIC THEOREMS & RESULTS OF CIRCLES :
(a) Concentric circles : Circles having same centre.
(b) Congruent circles : Iff their radii are equal.
(c) Congruent arcs : Iff they have same degree measure at the centre.
Theorem 1 :
(
i) If two arcs of a circle (or of congruent circles) are congruent, the corresponding chords are equal.
Converse : If two chords of a circle are equal then their corresponding arcs are congruent.
(ii
) Equal chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) subtend equal angles at the centre.
Converse : If the angle subtended by two chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) at the centre
are equal, the chords are equal.
Theorem 2 :
(
i) The perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects the chord.
Converse : The line joining the mid point of a chord to the centre of a circle is perpendicular to
the chord.
(ii
) Perpendicular bisectors of two chords of a circle intersect at its centre.
Theorem 3 :
(
i) There is one and only one circle passing through three non collinear points.
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(ii
) If two circles intersects in two points, then the line joining the centres is perpendicular bisector of
common chords.
Theorem 4 :
(
i) Equal chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) are equidistant from the centre.
Converse : Chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) which are equidistant from the centre are
equal.
(ii
) If two equal chords are drawn from a point on the circle, then the centre of circle will lie on angle
bisector of these two chords.
(iii) Of any two chords of a circle larger will be near to centre.
Theorem 5 :
(
i) The degree measure of an arc or angle subtended by an arc at the centre O
2
is double the angle subtended by it at any point of alternate segment.
(ii
) Angle in the same segment of a circle are equal.
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Theorem 1 :
The sum of either pair of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180°
OR
The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
Converse : If the sum of any pair of opposite angle of a quadrilateral is 180°, then the quadrilateral is
cyclic.
D C
Theorem 2 :
If a side of a cyclic quadrilateral is produced, then the exterior angle is equal
to the interior opposite angle. i.e. CBE = ADC A B E
D C
Theorem 3 :
P
The quadrilateral PQRS formed by angle bisectors of a Q S
cyclicquadrilateral is also cyclic. R
Theorem 4 : A B
If two sides of a cyclic quadrilateral are parallel then the remaining two sides are D C
equal and the diagonals are also equal. i.e. AB| | CD AC BD & AD BC
OR A B
A cyclic trapezium is isosceles and its diagonals are equal.
Converse : If two non-parallel sides of a trapezium are equal, then it is cyclic.
OR
An isosceles trapezium is always cyclic.
Theorem 5 :
The bisectors of the angles formed by producing the opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral (provided that
they are not parallel), intersect at right angle.
(C) TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE :
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Theorem 1 :
A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.
Converse : A line drawn through the end point of a radius and perpendicular to it is a tangent to the circle.
Theorem 2 :
If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an external point, then :
(
i) they are equal.
(ii
) they subtend equal angles at the centre,
(iii) they are equally inclined to the segment, joining the centre to that point.
Theorem 3 :
A D A
If two chords of a circle intersect inside or outside the circle when B
produced, the rectangle formed by the two segments of one chord is O
P
equal in area to the rectangle formed by the two segments of the other P D
chord. PA × PB = PC × PD C B C
Theorem 4 : B
point of the two circles is called the point of contact and three common
tangents can be drawn to the two circles. Two of them are direct
common tangents and one transverse common tangent. Direct co
mmon ta
ngent
(c) When |r – s| < OO' < r + s i.e. the distance between the centres is less than
s
r
the sum of the radii and greater than their absolute difference. O O'
In this case, the two circles intersect in two points and there are two direct
common tangents only.
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(d) When OO' = r – s, r > s i.e. the distance between the centres is equal to the difference
r
ofthe radii. O O'
s
In this case the two circles touch internally. The common point of the two circles is
called their point of contact and there is only one common tangent to the two circles.
(e) When OO' < r – s, r > s i.e. the distance between the centres is less than the difference r
O s
O'
oftheradii.
In this case one circle lies inside the other and they do not touch. In such a case there is no common
tangent.
Theorem 1 :
OQ r
(ii
) Q divides OO' internally in the ratio r : s i.e.
O 'Q s
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23. BASIC CONCEPT OF MENSURATION
PLANE
(A) TRIANGLE : A A
(a) Sum of three angle is 180°
c b
(b) Perimeter = Sum of three sides = a + b + c = 2s h h
Semi perimeter s = (a + b + c)/2
(c) Area = 1/2 (Base × Height) B a C B a C
1
= (Any side × Altitude over it) = s(s a)(s b)(s c)
2
Note : Area of triangles formed between two same parallel lines and on
the same base is same h
1
Area = bh
2 b
(d) Right Angle Triangle : One angle 90° (Right angle)
& Hypotenuse2 = Perpendicular2 + Base2 (Pythagoras theorem) H
1 P
Area = PB
2
(e) Isosceles Triangle : Two sides equal hence two angle are equal. B
Special case : Isosceles Right Triangle : Two sides equal and Base = Perpendicular.
a a a
b
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b b
3
(f) Equilateral Triangle : All three sides and angles (60°) are equal; h = a;
2 a a
h
1 1 3 3 2 h2
Area = base × height = (a) × a= a =
2 2
2 4 3 a
(B) QUADRILATERAL : C
D
(a) Sum of all angles is 360° h2
1 1 h1
Area = (AC)(h1 + h2) i.e. sum of areas of ACD + ABC = d1 d 2 sin
2 2 A B
(b) Parallelogram :
A a D
(
i) Opposite sides are parallel and equal. d2
(ii) Opposite angles are equal. (B = D and A = C) b h b
O d1
(iii) Diagonals bisects each other. AO = OC & BO = OD
(iv) Perimeter = 2(a + b) ; B a C
1 1
(v) Area = (ah) + (ah) = ah i.e. sum of areas of ACD + ABC
2 2 Dp C
1
p1 p 2
also, Area =
sin p2
(c) Special cases of parallelogram :
A B
(i
) Rhombus : All sides are equal and opposite angles are equal.
AB = BC = CD = DA = a
A a D
A = C & B = D
Diagonals are not equal (d1 d2) but bisects each other at 90° d1
a a
AC BD but AC BD d2
O
1 B
Area = (d1 × d2) i.e. sum of areas of ACD + ABC a C
2
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(ii
) Square : All sides are equal and all angle are equal (90°) A a D
d
Diagonals are equal and perpendicular bisectors of each other a a
2 O d
d
Area = a2 =
2 B a C
AC BD & AO = OC, BO = OD
(iii) Rectangle : Opposite sides are equal and parallel, all angles are
equal (90°) and diagonal are equal and bisects each other but not at A a D
90°. d1 d2
b b
Area = a × b; Perimeter = 2(a + b) O
B a C
(iv) Trapezium : Any two opposite sides are parallel but not equal.
Diagonals cuts in same proportion. AD || BC ; AD BC ; d1 d2
b
A D
1 d1
Area = (a + b) h i.e. sum of area of ABC + ACD d2
2 h O
AO OD B C
( BOC ~ DOA) E a
OC OB
(C) POLYGON :
E
A plane figure enclosed by line segments (sides of polygon).
F D
(a) n sides polygon have n sides : Triangle and quadrilaterals are polygon
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of three and four sides respectively. The polygons having 5 to 10 sides C
are called, PENTAGON, HEXAGON, HEPTAGON, OCTAGON, A
B
NANOGON and DECAGON respectively.
(b) Regular polygon : Polygon which has all equal sides and equal angles and can be inscribed in a circle
whose center coincides with the center of polygon. Therefore the center is equidistant from all its
vertices.
(
i
) A regular polygon can also circumscribe a circle.
(ii
) A ‘n’ sided regular polygon can be divided into ‘n’ Isosceles
Congruent Triangles with a common vertex i.e. centre of
polygon.
h
1 a
(iii) Area = n × × a × h
2
(iv) Perimeter = na
n 2
Each interior angle of polygon =
n
(v) × 180°
(vi) Angle subtended at the centre of inscribed/circumscribed circle by one side = 360°/n
o
360
(vii) Each exterior angle =
n
(viii) Sum of all interior angle = (n – 2) × 180°
(ix) Sum of all exterior angles = 360°
(x) Convex polygon : If any two consecutive vertices are joined then remaining all other vertices will
lie on same side.
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(D) CIRCLE :
Area A = r2 ; Circumference (perimeter) = 2r
r
(a) Sector of a circle : Bounded by arc of circle (subtending angle ‘’ at center) O
and two radii. Circle is divided into minor (containing ‘’) and major sectors
(
i
) Arc length of sector : 2 r
360
Major
2 1 O
Area : A = r = r
360
(ii
) r r
2
A C
(iii) Perimeter of sector AOC = 2r + Minor
(b) Segment of a circle : Bounded by arc of the circle and the chord (determining the
segment).
(
i
) Circle is divided into two segments minor segment and major segment.
(ii) When chord is diameter, sector coincides with segment.
Major
(iii) Area (segment ACB) = Area of sector OACB - Area of AOB O
A B
1
= × r2 – ×
360 2 2r sin ×
2
r cos
2 C
2 1 2
Area = r – r sin
360
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SOLIDS
b
Cuboid Cone Cylinder Sphere
(A) CUBOID :
Rectangular shaped solid also known as rectangular parallelopiped (e.g. match box, brick)
(a) Have six rectangular faces with opposite faces parallel and congruent.
(b) Have twelve edges (Edge - The line segment where two adjacent faces meets).
(c) Three adjacent faces meet at a point called vertex and cuboid have eight vertices H
E D h
A
(d) Surface area : A = 2[ × b + b × h + h × ] square unit. G
F b
B C
(e) Volume : V = l × b × h cubic unit.
(B) CUBE :
Special case of cuboid having all sides equal.
Area = 62 ; Volume = 3 Unit cube : Side = 1
Volume is 1 cubic unit (From this cubic unit is derived)
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(C) CYLINDER :
Having a lateral (curved) surface and two congruent circular cross section. O
(e.g. Jar, Circular Pillars, Drums, Pipes etc.)
(a) Axis : Line joining the centers of two circular cross section.
Generator
(b) Right circular cylinder : When axis is perpendicular to circular cross section.
Axis
h
(c) Generators : Lines parallel to axis and lying on the lateral surface.
(d) Base : With cylinder in vertical position, the lower circular end is base.
(e) Height (h) : Distance between two circular faces. r
Base
(f) Radius (r) : Radius of base or top circle.
(g) Total surface area : Base area + curved surface area
= 2r2 + 2rh = 2r(h + r)(including two circular ends).
Without circular ends (Hollow cylinder) = 2rh
(h) Volume : V = r2h
(D) CONE :
V
Have a curved surface with a vertex (V) and circular base radius : r and center O)
t
igh
(a) Axis : Line joining vertex and center of base circle (VO)
he
h
nt
(b) Height of cone (h) : Length of VO
sla
(c) Slant height (Q) : Distance of vertex from any point of base circle r
O
= r2 h2
(d) Right circular cone : When axis is perpendicular to base.
(e) The cross section of a cone parallel to base is a circle and perpendicular to base is an isosceles triangle.
(f) Volume : (1/3)r2h (volume of a cone is 1/3rd of volume of a cylinder with same height and base
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radius).
(g) Curved surface Area : r
(h) Total surface Area : r + r2 = r ( + r)
(i) A right circular cone can be generated by rotating a right angled triangle about its right angle forming
side.
(E) SPHERE :
All point on its surface are equidistant from its center, the distance is called r
radius (r) and any line passing through center with end points on surface is called
diameter.
(a) Volume : (4/3) r3
(b) Surface area : 4r2
(F) HEMISPHERE :
r
A sphere is divided into two hemi spheres by a plane passing through center.
(a) Volume : (2/3)r3
(b) Curved surface area : = 2r2
(c) Total surface area : = 2r2 + r2 = 3r2
24. INDICES AND SURDS
Important Results :
1. a × a × a ×.... × a (m times) = am 2. am × an = am+n 3. am an = am–n
m
1 x xm
4. (am)n = amn 5. a m 6. y
am ym
7. (xy)m = xm.ym 8. n
x x 1 / n ; n 2, n N 9. a0 = 1
10. ax = ay x = y or a = 1 or a = 0 if x > 0 & y > 0 11. a = b a = b or x = 0
x x
b 2
12. ap/q = (ap)1/q = (a1/q)p 13. (xa)b x a but = xab e.g. (23)2 = 26 = 64 & 2 3 = 29 = 512
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LOGARITHM
1. DEFINITION :
Every positive real number N can be expressed in exponential form as ax = N where 'a' is also a positive
real number different than unity and is called the base and 'x' is called an exponent.
We can write the relation ax = N in logarithmic form as logaN = x. Hence ax = N logaN = x.
Hence logarithm of a number to some base is the exponent by which the base must be raised in order to
get that number.
Limitations of logarithm: logaN is defined only when
(
i
) N > 0 (ii) a > 0 (iii) a 1
Note :
(
i
) For a given value of N, logaN will give us a unique value.
(ii
) Logarithm of zero does not exist.
(iii) Logarithm of negative reals are not defined in the system of real numbers.
p 4 q4
Illustration 2 : If log5p = a and log2q = a, then prove that = 1002a–1
100
Solution : log5p = a p = 5a
log2q = a q = 2a
Do yourself - 1 :
(i) Express the following in logarithmic form :
(a) 81 = 34 (b) 0.001 = 10–3 (c) 2 = 1281/7
(ii) Express the following in exponential form :
2. FUNDAMENTAL IDENTITIES :
Using the basic definition of logarithm we have 3 important deductions :
(a) loga1 = 0 i.e. logarithm of unity to any base is zero.
(b) logNN = 1 i.e. logarithm of a number to the same base is 1.
1
(c) log 1 N 1 = logN i.e. logarithm of a number to the base as its reciprocal is –1.
N
N
Note : N = a
loga N
e.g. 2 log2 7 7
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Do yourself - 2 :
(i) Find the value of the following :
log2 5
43 1
1 (sec x tan x)
2 2
(a) log (b) log1.4 3 (c) 2
cot 22
2
30
m
(2) loga log a m log a n
n
(3) logamx = x logam
16 25 81
Illustration 3 : Prove that 7 log 5 log 3 log log 2
15 24 80
16 25 81
7 log 5 log 3 log
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Solution :
15 24 80
16
7
25 81
5 3
16 7 25 5 8 1 3
log log log 80 log
15 24 15 24 80
2 4 7 5 2 5 3 4 3 2 28 510 3 12
log 3 4 log 7
3 5 2 3 2 5 3 5
7
215 3 5 212 5 3
(a b) 1
Illustration 4 : If a2 + b2 = 23ab, then prove that log (log a log b).
5 2
2 2 2
Solution : a + b = (a + b) –2ab = 23ab
(a + b) = 25ab a+b = 5 ab
2
....(i)
Using(i)
(a b) 5 ab 1 1
L.H.S. = log log log ab (log a log b)= R.H.S.
5 5 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D)
p q 2p q p 2q 2p 2q
logax = p a = x a = x .
p 1/p
Solution :
similarly b = x b = x
q 2 2/q
1 2 1
. 1 1
Now, log x ab log x x1 / p x 2 / q log x x p q 2
2p q
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Do yourself - 3 :
1 1
(i) Show that log 9 2 log 6 log 81 log1 2 3 log 3
2 4
b c c a a b
x y z
(ii) If logex – logey = a , logey – logez = b & logez – logex = c, then find the value of
y z x
Note :
log a log b 1
(i) logba. logab = . = 1; hence log b a .
log b log a log a b
1
(iii) Base power formula : log a k m log a m
k
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(iv) The base of the logarithm can be any positive number other than 1, but in normal practice, only two
bases are popular, these are 10 and e(=2.718 approx). Logarithms of numbers to the base 10 are
named as 'common logarithm' and the logarithms of numbers to the base e are called Natural or Napierian
logarithm. We will consider logx as logex or nx.
(v) Conversion of base e to base 10 & viceversa :
log10 a log e a
log e a 2 .303 log10 a; log10 a log10 e log e a 0 .4 34 log e a
log10 e log e 10
Illustration 6 : If a, b, c are distinct positive real numbers different from 1 such that
(logba . logca – logaa) + (logab . logcb – logbb) + (logac . logbc – logcc ) = 0, then abc is equal to -
(A) 0 (B)e (C) 1 (D) none of these
Solution : (logba logca – 1) + (logab. logcb – 1) + (logac logbc – 1) = 0
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Do yourself - 4 :
log 3 1 35 log 3 5
(i) Evaluate :
log15 3 log 405 3
1 1
(v) If x , then x can be -
log 3 log 4
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(1,0)
O (1,0) x O x
(
i
) If base of logarithm is greater than 1 then logarithm of greater number is greater. i.e. log28 = 3,
log24 = 2 etc. and if base of logarithm is between 0 and 1 then logarithm of greater number is smaller.
i.e. log1/28 = –3, log1/24 = –2 etc.
x < y if a > 1
loga x < logay
x > y if 0 < a < 1
(ii
) It must be noted that whenever the number and the base are on the same side of unity then logarithm
of that number to that base is positive, however if the number and the base are located on different
side of unity then logarithm of that number to that base is negative.
1 1
e.g. log10 10
3
; log 49 4 ; log 1 3 ; log 2 1 5; log (0.001) = –3
32
2 8
7
3
10
1 1
(iii) x 2 if x is positive real number and x 2 if x is negative real number
x x
(iv) n 2, n N
n
a a1 / n nth root of 'a' ('a' is a non negative number)
Some important values : log102 = 0.3010 ; log103 = 0.4771 ;n2 = 0.693, n10 = 2.303
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6. CHARACTERISTIC AND MANTISSA :
For any given number N, logarithm can be expressed as logaN = Integer + Fraction
The integer part is called characteristic and the fractional part is called mantissa. When the value of log n
is given, then to find digits of 'n' we use only the mantissa part. The characteristic is used only in determining
the number of digits in the integral part (if n 1) or the number of zeros after decimal & before first non-
zero digit in the number (if 0 < n < 1).
Note :
(
i
) The mantissa part of logarithm of a number is always positive (0 m 1)
(ii
) If the characteristic of log10N be n, then the number of digits in N is (n + 1)
(iii) If the characteristic of log10N be (–n), then there exist (n – 1) zeros after decimal in N.
7. ANTILOGARITHM :
The positive real number 'n' is called the antilogarithm of a number 'm' if log n = m
Thus, log n = m n = antilog m
Do yourself - 5 :
(i) Evaluate : log(0.06)6
(ii) Find number of digits in 1820
200
1
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(iii) Determine number of cyphers (zeros) between decimal & first significant digit in
6
5
(iv) Find antilog of to the base 64.
6
Properties of Modulus :
a | a|
(c) |ab| = |a||b| (d) =
b | b|
(e) |a + b| |a|+|b| (f
) |a|–|b||a – b|
(g) ||a|–|b|| = |a – b| iff ab > 0 or b = 0
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Illustration 9 : If |x – 1| + |x + 1| = 2, then find x.
Solution : Case-I : If x –1
–(x – 1) – (x + 1) = 2
–x + 1 – x – 1 = 2
–2x = 2 x = –1 ........(i)
Case-II : If – 1 < x < 1
–(x – 1) + (x + 1) = 2
–x+1+x+1=2
2=2 –1 < x < 1 ........(ii)
Case-III : If x 1
x–1+x+1=2
x=1 ........(iii)
Thus from (i), (ii) and (iii) – 1 x 1
Illustration 10 : Solve : x |x + 3| + 2 |x + 2| = 0
–x(x + 3) – 2 (x + 2) = 0
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x2 + 5x + 4 = 0 x = –1, –4
(x) (x + 3) – 2x –4 = 0
x2 + x – 4 = 0
1 17 1 17
x ,
2 2
1 17 1 17
x= x (reject)
2 2
Case-III : x > –2
x (x + 3) + 2x + 4 = 0
x2 + 5x + 4 = 0
x = –1, – 4.
x = –1 x = –4 (reject)
1 17
Hence x = –4, , –1.
2
Do yourself - 6 :
(i) Solve : |x + 3| = 2(5 – x)
(ii) Solve : x|x| + 7x – 8 = 0
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Miscellaneous Illustrations :
Illustration 11 : Show that log418 is an irrational number.
log 2 3 1 1
Solution : log418 = log4(32 × 2) = 2log43 + log42 = 2 log 2 3
log2 4 log2 4 2
p
log23 = . Since log23 > 0 both numbers p and q may be regarded as natural number
q
3 = 2p/q 2p = 3q
But this is not possible for any natural number p and q. The resulting contradiction completes the
proof.
Illustration 12 : If in a right angled triangle, a and b are the lengths of sides and c is the length of hypotenuse and
c – b 1, c + b 1, then show that
logc+ba + logc–ba = 2logc+ba . logc–ba.
Solution : We know that in a right angled triangle
c2 = a2 + b2
c2 – b2 = a2 ..........(i)
1 1 log a (c b) log a (c b)
LHS =
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2
log a (c b). log a (c b) = 2log(c+b)a . log(c – b) a = RHS
3
3B = 3– 1 =
3
1 1 1
& let C = log100x + log42 = log1 0 2 x log 2 2 2 =
1 1
log10 x
2 2 2
1
9C 9 2
3 1 3 .3
6 3
According to question .5 3.3
5 3
1
6.5– 1 = 3 3 6.5– 1 = 3– 1(10) 5– 2 = 3– 2
3
which is possible only when = 2 log10x = 2 x = 102 = 100 Ans.
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x4 2
Illustration 14: Solve : log(2x–1) =1
2x 1
x4 2
Solution : = 2x – 1 x4 + 2 = 4x2 – 1
2x 1
4 16 12 4 4 4 2
x4 – 4x2 + 3 = 0 x2 = = = 3, 1
2 2 2
x 3, 1 .........(i)
x4 2
Substituting x = 3 and –1 in log 2 x 1 2 x 1 we get 2x – 1 negative. And if x = 1 in 2x – 1
we get base = 1 reject x = ±1, 3
Hence x 3 Ans.
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ANSWERS FOR DO YOURSELF
1 : (i) (a) log381 = 4 (b) log10(0.001) = –3 (c) log128 2 = 1/7
1
2 : (i) (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) (ii) –1 (iii) 3
5
3 : (ii) 1
4 : (i) 3 (ii) 5/6 (iii) 0 (iv) 2 (v) (A) (vi) (C)
7
6 : (i) (ii) x = 1
3
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EXERCISE - 01 CHECK YOUR GRASP
SELECT THE CORRECT ALTERNATIVE (ONLY ONE CORRECT ANSWER)
1 1 1
1. + + has the value equal to -
log bc
abc log ca
abc log ab
abc
(A) 1/2 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 4
log21 / 4 a (a 2 1 )3
2 3 log27 2a
2. The ratio simplifies to -
4 log49 a
7 a 1
(A) a2 – a – 1 (B) a2 + a – 1 (C) a2 – a + 1 (D) a2 + a + 1
x2
3. The value of the expression, log4 – 2 log4(4x4) when x = – 2 is -
4
(A) – 6 (B) – 5 (C) – 4 (D) meaningless
1 1 1
4. is equal to-
1 log b a log b c 1 log c a log c b 1 log a b log a c
1
(A) abc (B) (C) 0 (D) 1
abc
5. Which one of the following denotes the greatest positive proper fraction ?
log2 6 log3 5 1
1 1 log3 2 log 2
(A) (B) (C) 3 (D) 8 3
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4 3
s
6. If p , then n equals -
(1 k)n
s log(s / p) log s log p(1 k )
(A) log (B) (C) (D)
p(1 k ) log(1 k ) log p(1 k ) log(s / p)
1
9. The equation, log2(2x2) + (log2x). xlog x (log2 x 1)+ log24 (x4) + 2 3 log1 / 2 (log2 x)= 1 has -
2
(A) exactly one real solution (B) two real solutions
(C) 3 real solutions (D) no solution
10. Given system of simultaneous equations 2x. 5y = 1 and 5x+1 . 2y = 2. Then -
(A) x = log105 and y = log102 (B) x = log102 and y = log105
1 1
(C) x = log10 and y = log102 (D) x = log105 and y = log10
5 2
12. Given that logpx = and logqx = then value of logp/q x equals -
(A) (B) (C) (D)
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12
13. logAB ,where B and A 1 2 5 1 0 is -
3 5 8
1
16. The solution set of the system of equations, log12x log2 y = log2x and log2x.(log3(x + y)) = 3 log3x is-
log x 2
(A) x = 6 ; y = 2 (B) x = 4 ; y = 3 (C) x = 2 ; y = 6 (D) x = 3 ; y = 4
3 2
3 log10 x log10 x
17. If x1 and x2 are the solution of the equation x 3
= 100 3 10 then -
18. If ax = b, by = c, cz = a and x = log b a 2 ; y log c b 3 & z log a c k , where a, b, c > 0 & a, b, c 1, then k is
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equal to -
1 1
(A) (B) (C) log 64 2 (D) log 32 2
5 6
19. If logkx. log5k = logx5, k 1, k > 0, then x is is equal to -
1
(A) k (B) (C) 5 (D) none of these
5
2
3 / 4 (log3 x) log3 x 5 / 4
20. If x = 3 , then x has -
(A) one positive integral value (B) one irrational value
(C) two positive rational values (D) none of these
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. B D A D C B D B D C
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. A A C B B A,C A,C,D B,C B,C A,B,C
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EXERCISE - 02 BRAIN TEASERS
SELECT THE CORRECT ALTERNATIVES (ONE OR MORE THAN ONE CORRECT ANSWERS)
1. Which of the following when simplified reduces to an integer ?
8
log 8 2
x
2. The equation = 3 has -
log8 x 2
(A) no integral solution (B) one natural solution (C) two real solution (D) one irrational solution
3. Which of the following when simplified, vanishes ?
1 2 3
(A) + –
log 3 2 log 9 4 log 27 8
2 9
(B) log2 + log4
3 4
(C) – log8 log4 log2 16
(D) log10 cot 1° + log10cot 2° + log10 cot 3° + ......... + log10 cot 89°
4. Which of the following when simplified, reduces to unity ?
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2 log 2 log 3
(A) log105 . log1020 + log10
2
2 (B)
log 48 log 4
1 64
(C) – log5 log3 5
9 (D) log 3 27
6
2
1 2 log 3 2
5. The number N = + log26 2 when simplified reduces to -
(1 log3 2 )2
(A) a prime number (B) an irrational number
(C) a real which is less than log3 (D) a real which is greater than log76
6. Which of the following are correct ?
(A) log319 . log1/73.log41/7>2
(B) log5 (1/23) lies between – 2 & – 1
2 log3 7
1
(C) if m = 4 log4 7 and n = then n = m4
9
(D) log 5 sin
5 .log
5 simplifies to an irrational number
sin
5
x
x
7. If p, q N satisfy the equation x x
= then p & q are -
(A) relatively prime (B) twin prime
(C) coprime (D) if logqp is defined then logpq is not & vice versa
P P P P
8. The expression, logp logp ....... P where p 2, p N, when simplified is -
n radical sign
(A) independent of p, but dependent on n (B) independent of n, but dependent on p
(C) dependent on both p & n (D) negative
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9. Which of the following numbers are positive ?
2 / 3
1 2
(A) log log 2 (B) log2 (C) log10log109 (D) log10sin25°
3 2 3
10. If logpq + logqr + logrp vanishes where p, q and r are positive reals different than unity then the value of
(A) an odd prime (B) an even prime (C) an odd composite (D) an irrational number
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Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A,D B,C A,B,C,D A,B,C C,D A,B,C A,C,D A,D A,B A
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EXERCISE - 03 MISCELLANEOUS TYPE QUESTIONS
log3a x
1. The solution set of the equation x log a x = a is_____________, (where a > 0 & a 1) .
1
2. The value of b satisfying log b= 3
is _____________.
8
3
3. Solution set of the equation, log10
2
x + log10x2 = log10
2
2– 1 is _____________ .
log (0 .1 )
4. The expression (0 .0 5 ) 20
is a perfect square of the natural number _____________.
(where 0. 1 denotes 0.111111 ......... )
Column-I are labelled as A, B, C and D while the statements in Column-II are labelled as p, q, r and s. Any given
statement in Column-I can have correct matching with ONE OR MORE statement(s) in Column-II.
1. Match the column for values of x which satisfy the equation in Column-I
Column-I Column-II
log1 0 (x 3) 1
(A) = (p) 5
2
log10 (x 21) 2
of logarithm is 10
1
(D) 91+logx – 31+logx – 210 = 0 ; where base of log is 3 (s)
32
Becuase
Statement-II : logxa = b, if a > 0, then x = a1/b
(A) A (B) B (C) C (D) D
3. Statement-I : The equation log 1 (5 x 2 ) = log (3 x2 ) (15 x ) has real solutions.
2 | x|
Becuase
Statement-II : log1/ba = –logba (where a,b > 0 and b 1) and if number and base both are greater than
unity then the number is positive.
(A) A (B) B (C) C (D) D
Comprehension # 1
In comparison of two numbers, logarithm of smaller number is smaller, if base of the logarithm is
greater than one. Logarithm of smaller number is larger, if base of logarithm is in between zero and
one. For example log24 is smaller than log2 8 and log 1 4 is larger than log 1 8 .
2 2
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(C) log38 > log26 > log36 > log46 (D) log38 > log46 > log36 > log26
2. log 1 40 is-
20
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log5 9
3
log 6 3 2 FG 1 IJ
b125g
81
. G e 7j H 2 K log
log1 / 5
(a)
409 H
log25 7
JK
log25 6
(b) 5 2
7 3
4
log1 / 2
1
10 2 2 1
(c) 4
5 log4 2 e 3 6 j 6 log e
8 3 2 j
11. Solve for x : (a) 5logx + 5xlog5 =3 (a > 0) ; where base of log is a (b) logx2.log2x2 = log4x2
12. Solve for x : (a) logx+1(x2+x–6)2 = 4 (b) x + log10(1 + 2x) = x.log105 + log106
13. Given a 2 b 2 c 2 & a > 0 ; b >0 ; c >0 , c – b 1, c +b 1,
Prove that : logc b a logc b a 2. logc b a. logc b a
14. (a) Given : log10 34.56 = 1.5386, find log10 3.456 ; log100.3456 & log100.003456.
(b) Find the number of positive integers which have the characteristic 3, when the base of the logarithm is 7.
15. If log102 = 0.3010 & log103 = 0.4771. Find the value of log10 (2.25).
16. If log102 = 0.3010, log103 = 0.4771. Find the number of integers in :
(a) 5200 (b) 615 & (c) the number of zeros after the decimal in 3–100
17. Find the antilogarithm of 0.75, if the base of the logarithm is 2401.
a 0 ; a 1
25
1. N 0 ; N 1 2. (a) –1, (b) logbN 4. 2 5. 8 6. 7. x = 10
2
b 0 ; b 1 / a
1 1 1 1
8. 9. (a4, a, a7) or 4 , , 7 10. (a) 1,(b)6,(c) 9
6 a a a
11. (a) x = 2 log5 a (b) x 2 2
or 2 2
12. (a) x = 1(b) x = 1
14. (a) 0.5386, 1.5386, 3.5386 (b) 2058 15. 0.3522 16. (a) 140, (b) 12, (c) 47 17. 343
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1. Find a rational number which is 50 times its own logarithm to the base 10.
5. If logba.logca + logab.logcb + logac.logbc = 3 (where a, b, c are different positive real numbers 1), then
find the value of abc.
6. Prove that log710 is greater than log1113.
ab 1
8. Solve for x : log5120 + (x – 3) – 2. log5(1–5x–3) = – log5(0.2 – 5x–4).
1
log 3 log 3 27 .
x
9. Solve for x : log 4 1
2x
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10. Find the real solutions to the system of equations
log10(2000xy) – log10x . log10y = 4
log10(2yz) – log10y . log10z = 1
and log10(zx) – log10z . log10x = 0
4 4 2 2
11. Find x satisfying the equation log2 1 log2 1 2 log 1 .
x x 4 x 1
13. Solve the following equation for x & y : log100 x y 1 , log10y – log10|x|= log1004.
2
14. Find all real numbers x which satisfy the equation, 2 log2 log2 x log 1 / 2 log2 2 2 x 1 .
15. Solve for x : log 3 / 4 log 8 (x2 7 ) log1 / 2 log1 / 4 (x2 7)1 2 .
7 3 2 4
12. 0, , 13. {–10, 20}, {10/3, 20/3} 14. x = 8 15. x = 3 or –3
4 2
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1. B 2. C 3. 4
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