Chapter 6 ACA, 1996

Chapter 6: 6.1

Arbitration &
Conciliation Act, 1996
Learning Objective as Per ICAI of this chapter
At the end of this Chapter, you will be able to have an overview of following related concepts in relation to
arbitration and conciliation:
 Meaning of the process of arbitration, different types of arbitration, and its difference with litigation;
 Arbitration agreement with basic characteristics and features and conditions for its enforcement.
 Arbitral tribunal and its constitution
 Basic requirements for an appointment of an arbitrator/arbitral tribunal, its removal and a replacement
 Meaning of Conciliation, basic characteristics of the process of Conciliation and role of Conciliators
 Know of the commencement process of Conciliation proceedings.

Preamble & introduction

Need for the establishment of a unified legal framework

According to the Preamble of the Act the General Assembly of the United Nations has recommended that all
countries shall give due consideration to the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration,
and he UNCITRAL Conciliation Rules in 1980; in view of the desirability of uniformity of the law of arbitral
procedures and the specific needs of international commercial arbitration practice.
The General Assembly of the United Nations has recommended the use of the said Rules in cases where a dispute
arises in the context of international commercial relations and the parties seek an amicable settlement of that
dispute by recourse to conciliation; Said Model Law and Rules make significant contribution to the establishment
of a unified legal framework for the fair and efficient settlement of disputes arising in international commercial
relations;
The law respecting arbitration and conciliation have been constituted taking into account the aforesaid Model
Law and Rules.

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Structure of Act
6.2

ARBITRATION – GENERAL PROVISIONS

Alternate methods of dispute resolution

Alternate methods of dispute resolution (ADR) are used to resolve disputes outside the ordinary court system. In
other words, these methods are an alternative to litigation. Two of the most common methods of ADR are
arbitration and mediation. Other methods include conciliation, negotiation, case evaluation, neutral fact finding,
ombudsperson, etc. All the methods differ from each other.

ADR methods enjoy significant advantages such as lower costs, greater flexibility of process, higher confidentiality,
greater likelihood of settlement, choice of forum, choice of solutions. However, these methods also suffer from
few disadvantages, for example, requirement of cooperative behaviour of both parties, power imbalance between
parties, lacks the possibility of interim measures, difficulty in enforcement of final outcome, to name a few.

Primary legislation dealing with alternate methods of dispute resolution

In India the primary legislations dealing with alternate methods of dispute resolution are:

Arbitration
One of the popular methods of alternate
dispute resolution is arbitration. It could
be understood as a method of dispute
resolution involving one or more neutral
third person selected by the disputing
parties and whose decision is binding.
Thus arbitration has few defining
features:

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(a) It is a method of adjudication of disputes;

(b) by a neutral third person(s) selected by the parties; and
(c) who renders a final and binding decision. 6.3

Relevant terms (Section 2)

1. “Arbitration” defined by the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 in section 2. According to which
“arbitration” means any arbitration whether or not administered by permanent arbitral institution.
2. “Arbitral tribunal” means a sole arbitrator or a panel of arbitrators;
3. “Arbitral award” includes an interim award;
4. “International commercial arbitration” means an arbitration relating to disputes arising out of legal
relationships, whether contractual or not, considered as commercial under the law in force in India and
where at least one of the parties is—
(a) an individual who is a national of, or habitually resident in, any country other than India; or
(b) a body corporate which is incorporated in any country other than India; or
(c) an association or a body of individuals whose central management and control is exercised in any
country other than India; or
(d) the Government of a foreign country;
5. “Party” means a party to an arbitration agreement.

Process of arbitration

Basic Features of Arbitration

(a) Arbitration agreement - no arbitration can happen without the consent of the parties. The consent is
contained within an arbitration agreement. This agreement clearly specifies the desire of the parties to
arbitrate their dispute. In other words, they clearly note that in the event of a dispute between them they
would not go to the court, instead they will proceed to arbitrate their dispute. This agreement takes the form
of a binding contract.
(b) Arbitrator - also known as the arbitral tribunal is similar to a judge of the court. The arbitrator decides the
disputes between the parties. Just like the judge an arbitrator is also required to be completely neutral,
impartial and not favour any party. Because the parties can choose the arbitrators, it inspires confidence in
the arbitrators, the process and the decisions taken by the arbitrators. If, however the arbitrators who are not
independent then they could be removed by the court.
(c) Seat of arbitration - means the legal system which would supervise the arbitration to ensure that mandatory
legal requirements are complied with. The courts of the seat would provide assistance through supportive
measures. For example, if India is the seat then Indian laws would apply and Indian courts would have the
authority to provide supportive assistance such as issuance of interim measures, etc. It would also be the
court which would hear challenges against the arbitral award.

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(d) Party autonomy and procedure - arbitration also gives the parties the choice of applicable law especially if
the arbitration is an international commercial arbitration. Additionally, there is enormous flexibility to choose
6.4 the type and kind of procedure that the parties want to adopt for the arbitration. These rules will deal with
many things including what kind of hearing should be there for instance only written statements or oral
arguments, etc.
(e) Finality of outcome - usually there is no appeal against an arbitral award. An arbitral award can only be set
aside on very few grounds such as invalid arbitration agreement, parties’ incapacity, independence and
impartiality of an arbitrator, unfair procedure, etc.
(f) Confidentiality – an important feature of arbitration is that whatever that happens in arbitration remains
private. It is only known to the parties and the arbitrators. All of them are prohibited with sharing with third
parties who are not involved in arbitration, any document or information that is received during the course
of arbitration. This is done to ensure that parties feel free to share all information during arbitration so that a
proper solution can be arrived at.
(g) Arbitral Awards – an award is a decision by the arbitrator on the dispute that was submitted to it for
adjudication.
(h) Enforcement of arbitral awards - it is much simpler to enforce an arbitral award in foreign nations than a
judgment rendered by a court. Such enforcement happens under an international treaty.

Distinction between Arbitration and Litigation

Heading Litigation Arbitration

Place of Hearing Takes place in court The place of arbitration is chosen by the parties.
A judge is assigned by the court. The arbitrator(s) is selected by the parties. Parties
Selection of The litigants have no say on who therefore are able to choose people with the
Judge will judge their disputes. appropriate expertise, educational qualifications,
trade experience, etc., as arbitrators.
The procedure followed by the The parties have adequate flexibility to choose the
Flexibility in court is fixed and determined by procedures that would apply to their arbitration. They
Proceedings the Rules of the court. In India it could either construct such procedures or adopt
would be governed by the Code of procedures of an arbitral institution.
Civil procedure and rules
applicable to the particular court.
The proceedings are generally Confidentiality is one of the most important
Confidentiality open to public. In other words characteristic of arbitration. In other words apart from
there is very little privacy and the parties (including their lawyers) no other person is
confidentiality. permitted to participate in the arbitral proceedings.
Appeals Court decisions are subject to Arbitral awards can be challenged on very limited
numerous appeals. grounds.
It is often difficult to enforce Enforcing an arbitral award in foreign nations is much
International judgments of court of one country easier and is governed by international treaties such
limits in a foreign country. as The Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign
Arbitral Awards, 1958.

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Authorities under Act

Under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1996 there are three different authorities who are given different 6.5
powers, functions, and duties to perform under the Act.

(a) Judicial authority – the term judicial authority is not defined in Act. The Supreme Court in SBP v. Patel
Engineering3 observed “A judicial authority as such is not defined in the Act. It would certainly include the court
as defined in Section 2(e) of the Act and would also, in our opinion, include other courts and may even include a
special tribunal like the Consumer Forum.” Therefore, it is a concept wider than courts as ordinarily understood
and would include special tribunals and quasi-judicial authorities. The functions performed would include
reference to arbitration. Every court would be a judicial authority, but every judicial authority would not be a
court.
(b) Court [Section 2(1)(e)] – There are two understandings of Court – Pre amendment and post 2015 amendment.
Prior to the amendment, the term was held to be District Court and High Court exercising original jurisdiction and
not other courts. This was confirmed in Fountain Head Developers v Maria Arcangela Sequeria.

Post Amendment the understanding is now dependent on the type of arbitration – for international commercial
arbitration the court would only be the High Court, and for all other arbitration it would be the District Court and
High Court exercising original jurisdiction.

The Court performs many important functions. It is the primary judicial organ in respect of a particular arbitration
in other words, it performs the Supervisory function as regards that arbitration. This supervisory function would
include granting of interim measures, challenge to an arbitral tribunal, review of an award, and enforcement of
awards, etc.
(c) Supreme or High Court or any person or institution designated by such court (Section 11) – Supreme Court
and High court are entrusted with a specific task that of appointment of arbitrators upon request of a party. The
Supreme Court would be the authority for appointing an arbitrator in case of international commercial arbitration,
while High Court would be the authority for appointing an arbitrator in case of domestic arbitrator. The Act also
authorizes any person or institution so designated by the Supreme and High Court to appoint the arbitrators.

Arbitration Agreement
Since arbitration is a private method of resolving dispute as opposed to litigation in a court system. At the heart
of an arbitration lies an arbitration agreement.
Definition
Arbitration is a private method of dispute resolution. Under the Indian law every individual has the right to
approach the court for resolution of his/her dispute that may involve infringement of right(s) vested upon that

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individual. This protection is so stringent that it cannot be contracted away. The Indian Contract Act, 1872 however
notes an exception in favour of arbitration.
6.6 Arbitration cannot happen without the parties consenting to submit their dispute to arbitration. Consent of the
parties therefore is the most fundamental requirement for an arbitration to happen. The document which notes
this consent is referred to as the arbitration agreement. In other words, an arbitration agreement records the
consent of the parties that in the event of a dispute between them that matter instead of being taken to court,
will be submitted for resolution to arbitration.
Arbitration agreement therefore is necessary to start arbitration. In India arbitration agreement is governed by
the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 in particular sections 2(1)(b) and 7.

Section 2(1)(b) - In this Part, unless the context otherwise requires “arbitration agreement” means an agreement
referred to in section 7.
Section 7 Arbitration Agreement -
(1) In this Part, “arbitration agreement” means an agreement by the parties to submit to arbitration all or certain
disputes which have arisen or which may arise between them in respect of a defined legal relationship,
whether contractual or not.
(2) An arbitration agreement may be in the form of an arbitration clause in a contract or in the form of a separate
agreement.
(3) An arbitration agreement shall be in writing.
(4) An arbitration agreement is in writing if it is contained in –
b) a document signed by the parties;
c) An exchange of letters, telex, telegrams or other means of telecommunication including communication
through electronic means which provide a record of the agreement; or
(5) The reference in a contract to a document containing an arbitration clause constitutes an arbitration
agreement if the contract is in writing and the reference is such as to make that arbitration clause part of the
contract.

The purpose of an arbitration agreement is to submit disputes to arbitration and the law defines an arbitration
agreement on the basis of whether existing or future disputes would be submitted to arbitration. Thus the two
basic types of arbitration agreement are:
(a) Arbitration clause - a clause contained within a principal contract. The parties undertake to submit
disputes in relation to or in connection with the principal contract that may arise in future to arbitration.
(b) Submission agreement - an agreement to refer disputes that already exist to arbitration. Such an
agreement is entered into after the disputes have arisen.
Example: In 2014, Company A, an automobile manufacturer entered into a joint venture agreement (JVA) with
Company B the largest manufacturer of tyres for supply of all terrain tyres for its latest car. Both the companies
are registered under the Companies Act 2013.
Scenario I - The JVA carries the following clause “Clause 56.1. All disputes shall be arbitrated in Mumbai.” This
would be an arbitration clause. It is contained in the principal contract (JVA) and no disputes have arisen till yet.
It concerns future disputes that may arise.
Scenario II - The JVA does not have any clause relating to arbitration. Disputes arose between the parties
concerning quality of tires in 2016. To resolve this dispute, parties entered into an agreement that noted “That all
disputes including quality of tires supplied by Company B to Company A shall be submitted to arbitration. The
parties hereby agree to abide by the decision of the arbitrator.” Such an agreement that is made after the disputes
have arisen would be called a submission agreement.

General Principles
1. Arbitration agreement is an agreement enforceable under the law. In other words it is a contract, and has to
fulfill all requirements of a valid contract.
2. Consent (consensus ad idem): parties have to clearly consent to arbitration. Words utilized by the parties
should clearly indicate that all parties want to proceed to arbitration. Thus if words used are uncertain or
ambiguous, then there can be no consensus ad idem, and in turn there can be no arbitration agreement.
Section 29 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 clearly notes that ‘agreements, meanings of which is not certain
or capable of being made certain are void’

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3. Ouster of jurisdiction: It is vital to understand that once the parties have agreed to arbitrate their matter
neither of the parties can unilaterally proceed to court to litigate that matter. Any party attempting to do that
would be referred to arbitration, if the other party so requests. 6.7
4. Doctrine of separability: the doctrine provides that an arbitration agreement even though contained in a
contract is a separate agreement from the contract itself. In other words, an arbitration agreement is an
agreement independent of the main contract. It is done to ensure that the agreement to arbitrate would not
be rendered invalid merely because the principal contract was invalid. This is a legal fiction.
5. Competency to rule on its jurisdiction: The arbitral tribunal has the capacity to rule on its own jurisdiction
even if involves a question of validity of the main contract. This allows the arbitral tribunal to determine the
validity of the main contract without contradicting its own jurisdiction.

Requirements of a valid arbitration agreement

Requirements of an arbitration agreement can be gathered from two sources:
statutory provisions, and
decide case law.
1. Writing - unlike the possibility of an oral contract, arbitration agreement are required to be mandatorily in
writing. There is however no requirement for the same to be in writing in one document. There is also no particular
form or template for an arbitration agreement.
Example: C owns a shop in Chandni Chowk dealing in readymade clothes. D is a supplier of clothes to C. They have
been doing business for many years. No separate written contract exists between them. However, for each
consignment D issues an individual invoice to C on the basis of which payment is made. Each invoice contains the
following note “All disputes pertaining to this transaction if any will be subject to the Arbitration Rules &
Regulations of Bharat Merchant Chamber". This is an arbitration agreement in writing.
Example: Vikram wants to start a Sweet and Confectionary Shop and contacts Ahuja Confectioners & Bakers for
supply of cakes. The entire communication between the parties took place over email. One of the emails received
by Vikram from Ahuja Bakers had, among other terms of service, the following condition “any disputes regarding
quality or delivery shall be submitted to arbitration conducted under the aegis of Indian Confectionary
Manufacturers Association. Please place your order if the above terms and conditions are agreeable to you.”
Vikram placed an order. The contract stood affirmed by reason of their conduct. This would be an arbitration
agreement in writing contained in correspondence between the parties.
2. Clarity of consent: the intention to go to arbitration must be clear in other words there must be consensus ad
idem. Utilization of vague words cannot be considered to be adequate. The intention has to be gathered from the
wordings of the agreement. The words used should disclose a determination and obligation on the part of parties
to go to arbitration and not merely contemplate the possibility of going for arbitration. If it is only a possibility,
then it is not an arbitration agreement.
Example: The parties had a contract with a clause "(16) that if during the continuance of the partnership or at any
time afterwards any dispute touching the partnership arises between the partners, the same shall be mutually
decided by the partners or shall be referred for arbitration if the parties so determine." This would not be an
arbitration agreement, because of the need for parties to further agree whether or not to go for arbitration. The
underlined portion clearly highlights the need for further agreement between the parties.
3. Defined Legal relationship - this term has been borrowed from the UNCITRAL Model Law. The statute does not
define this term. The important idea here is that any dispute that arises from a legal relationship can be submitted
to arbitration unless it is expressly or impliedly barred by a Statute. Thus disputes concerning illegal activities
cannot be submitted to arbitration.
4. Final and binding award: Parties to the arbitration agreement must agree that the determination of their
substantive rights by a neutral third person acting as the arbitral tribunal would be final and binding upon them.
Example: ‘Any other questions, claim right, matter, thing, whatsoever, in any way arising out of or relating to the
contract designs, drawings, specifications estimates, instructions, or orders, or those conditions or failure to
execute the same whether arising during the progress of' the work, or after the completion, termination or
abandonment thereof, the dispute shall, in the first place, be referred to the Chief Engineer who has jurisdiction
over the work specified in the contract. The Chief Engineer shall within a period of ninety days from the date of
being requested by the Contractor to do so, given written notice of his decision to the contractor. Chief Engineer's
decision final.’ Is this a valid arbitration agreement?
Answer: Since in the given case Chief Engineer is not a neutral party and has a Control over the work specified in
the contract, so this is not a valid arbitration agreement.

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5. Specific words: the mere use of words like ‘arbitration’ or ‘arbitrator’ in a clause will not make it an arbitration
agreement. Usage of such words is not a necessary requirement.
6.8 6. Dispute: there must be a present or a future dispute/difference in connection with some contemplated affairs
that is proposed to be submitted to arbitration.
7. Arbitrability: the disputes submitted/ proposed to be submitted to arbitration must be arbitrable. In other
words, that law must permit arbitration in that matter. There are certain disputes that the law retains exclusively
for the court, and the same cannot be submitted for arbitration. The rationale is that given the nature of disputes,
the courts are the only appropriate forum for adjudicating the matter.
For example criminal offences, matrimonial disputes, guardianship matters, testamentary matters, mortgage suit
for sale of a mortgaged property, etc. cannot be arbitrated.
8. Signature: is only required when the arbitration agreement is contained in a contract i.e. in one set of
documents. However, no signature is required if the arbitration agreement is contained in correspondence or
exchange of pleadings.

Arbitration agreement through reference

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 envisages a possibility of an arbitration agreement coming into being
through incorporation. In other words, parties to an agreement could agree to arbitrate by referring to another
contract containing an arbitration agreement. The requirement is that the reference must leave no doubt in the
mind of the reader that the parties indeed wanted to incorporate the arbitration agreement into the agreement
between them.
Example: In Groupe Chimique Tunisien SA v. Southern Petrochemicals Industries Corpn Ltd 2006 (2) ArbLR 435 (SC),
the respondent had placed an order of purchase of various quantities of phosphoric acid from the petitioner. The
purchase order noted that the terms and conditions were to be as per the Fertilizer Association of India (FAI)
Terms and Conditions for Sale and Purchase of Phosphoric Acid. Clause 15 of the terms provided for settlement
of disputes by arbitration. Is this a valid reference for an arbitration agreement to come into existence?
Answer: Yes. It was held by the Supreme Court of India that for a reference to constitute an arbitration agreement
the contract should be writing and reference should be such as to make that arbitration clause a part of the
contract. Both the conditions were held to be fulfilled in the present instance.
Termination of an arbitration agreement
Just the way parties can enter into an arbitration agreement, they can also terminate an arbitration agreement.
Thus an arbitration agreement could be put to an end by:
1. Mutual consent: like any contract, the parties involved can jointly agree to put an end to a particular arbitration
agreement.
2. Termination of principal contract: an arbitration agreement always operates in relation to a principal contract.
If the principal contract is terminated through discharge or novation, the arbitration agreement terminates with
the contract. However, if the principal contract is breached, then the arbitration agreement survives because of
the operation of the doctrine of separability.
Example: Raj Air-Conditioning services (RACS) and Voltas Limited entered into a service agreement whereby RACS
would provide annual maintenance services for all voltas commercial air conditioners in the NCR region. The
contract provided that in the event of a dispute between the parties, the matter would be submitted to
arbitration.
Scenario 1: At the end of the third year, the Service Agreement was not renewed. The contract terminates, and
along with it the arbitration agreement.
Scenario 2: At the end of the second year, the two parties enter into a new contract, which replaces the existing
service agreement between the parties. The new contract does not have an arbitration agreement. The arbitration
agreement contained in the superseded service agreement does not survive.
Scenario 3: Voltas raises a dispute with RACS as regards quality of services provided and terminates the
agreement. Here, owing to separability doctrine, the arbitration agreement survives to allow parties to arbitrate
their dispute.
3. Death of parties: under the Indian law, an arbitration agreement is not discharged by the death of any party. It
shall be enforceable by or against the legal representatives of the deceased.

As per section 2 of the Act, “legal representative” means a person who in law represents the estate of a deceased
person, and includes any person who intermeddles with the estate of the deceased, and, where a party acts in a
representative character, the person on whom the estate devolves on the death of the party so acting;

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4. Operation of Law: an arbitration agreement can be extinguished by the operation of law by virtue of which any
right of action is extinguished.
6.9

Arbitral Tribunal

An arbitrator(s) or arbitral tribunal performs the

function of a judge, in other words an arbitrator
adjudicates/judges the dispute between the
parties. The terms arbitrator(s) or arbitral
tribunal are interchangeable and refers to the
same person or group of persons. Thus there
could be one (sole) arbitrator or more than one
arbitrator. Both would be referred to as arbitral
tribunal.
A unique feature of arbitration unlike court
based adjudication is that the parties get to
select their arbitrators or delegate to an
institution (like ICC, FICCI, ICADR, etc.) the power
to appoint on their behalf. This is considered to
be a key advantage as the parties can choose the
person who will adjudicate their dispute as
compared a court based system where they have
no control over the judge. The point that an
arbitrator adjudicates the matter, is important to
understand. In other words, an arbitrator does
not simply express an opinion based on materials
given to the arbitrator. In fact, that would be expert evaluation. Rather the arbitrator works like a judge, before
whom the parties present their dispute, submit evidences, produce witnesses and then the arbitrator applies the
law to the problem and decides in a judicial manner. Therefore, even through a private adjudicator, the function
is performed to standards applicable to public functionaries like judges. There are other important advantages to
the ability of parties to choose their arbitrators. Parties have more confidence both in the arbitrators and their
decisions. This is very important because unlike a court which has the ability to force parties to comply with its
orders, success of arbitration depends on the cooperation of parties. Therefore, the parties must trust the
arbitrators to remain neutral and fair to all the parties involved in the arbitration. The quality of arbitrators would
ultimately determine not only the overall quality of the arbitration process but also the outcome in the form of
the arbitral awards.
In India, appointment and termination (removal) of arbitral tribunal is regulated by the Arbitration and
Conciliation Act 1996. The law prescribes various provisions for different possibilities that might arise in appointing
or removal of arbitrators. The different authorities which have the power for appointment and removal are the
District Court (Court), High Court and Supreme Court of India.

Who can be an arbitrator?

Any person capable of contracting, in theory can be an arbitrator. In our daily lives when we have a dispute with
our family members or a neighbour, we take the dispute to an elder of the house or the society who decides the
matter. The elder essentially acts as an arbitrator, and arbitrates the matter. Of course, arbitration as understood
under law is a little more sophisticated than this setup, but it provides a basic idea of arbitration.
Since arbitration is a private arrangement, whereby when dispute arise it would be submitted to a private party
instead of courts, the arbitrator can be anyone who is capable of contracting with the parties. Under the contract,
a person agrees to act as arbitrator and adjudicate any disputes between the parties that is submitted to him by
the parties.

Appointment of Arbitral Tribunal

An important principle of arbitration is the principle of party autonomy. Party autonomy means the ‘freedom to
choose’ whether it is the procedure, the venue, the seat or the arbitrators. The parties have the right to choose

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the persons who would act as arbitrators in their dispute. However, this right to choose is not absolute but instead
is subject to certain limits that are provided under the applicable law.
6.10 There are two aspects to appointment, namely number of arbitrators, and the actual procedure of appointment.

Number of Arbitrators
The parties tend to have high level of freedom when deciding on the number of persons that can be chosen as
arbitrators. There are many things that should be kept in mind at the time of appointment of arbitrators, for
instance the fees of the arbitrators, complexity of the matter, time required for meetings, duration of sessions
when oral arguments would be made, etc. A specific problem that arises when there is more than one arbitrator
is the difficulty faced when coordinating the timings among the arbitrators. It becomes even more problematic as
the number of arbitrators’ increase. At the same time there are advantages to having more than one arbitrator.
More arbitrators result in greater discussions which can improve the quality of awards. It also brings greater
expertise as arbitrators may be from different specialty and background.

Example: Party A and Party B entered into a contract for construction of apartments. The contract contained an
arbitration agreement, whereby all disputes between the parties would be submitted for arbitration by an arbitral
tribunal having three arbitrators. In such a situation, the arbitrators could all be from different discipline and
having varying expertise. For example the arbitrators could be a lawyer, architect, interior designer, civil engineer,
academic, government servant, etc. The parties therefore can choose almost anyone as arbitrator.
It is important to remember that even though a private process, arbitration and its outcome (arbitral award)
require State support at different juncture but most importantly for enforcement. However, the State will only
extend its support for legal outcomes. Therefore, it is important that the arbitrators are familiar with legal
requirement especially under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1996 so as to ensure that the entire process and
the outcome complies with all mandatory legal requirements.
The 1996 Act clearly provides that there can be any number of arbitrators so long as it is not even in number. In
other words, parties can decide on any number of arbitrators so long as there are odd number of arbitrators.
Ordinarily parties select one, but however if more than one is selected, it is usually three. The reason is obvious
so that there can be a decision by majority. If there is even number of arbitrators, then there is a possibility that
there might be a tie.
Example: If there are two arbitrators then it is possible that the two arbitrators may not agree, in which case there
would be no decision.

Section 10, Number of arbitrators. – (1) The parties are free to determine the number of arbitrators, provided
that such number shall not be an even number.
(2) Failing the determination referred to in sub-section (1), the arbitral tribunal shall consist of a sole arbitrator.

However, in a rather interesting decision in Narayan Prasad Lohia v. Nikunj Kumar Lohia18 the Supreme Court
held that even number of arbitrators is an acceptable possibility. Among the many reasons put forward, the court
observed that it was possible that the two arbitrators may not disagree, in which case there would be consensus
and no disagreement. Also it was not correct to permit parties to proceed with the arbitration and raise objection
only when the decision goes against them. Thus after this decision, it seems that parties can choose ‘even’ number
of arbitrators. However, in practice this rarely happens. Procedure for appointment
Appointment procedure is also subject to party autonomy. In other words, parties are given the freedom to make
any procedure for appointing the arbitrators i.e. the parties can decide upon any procedure for choosing the
arbitrators. It can be as simple as a toss of coin, or as complicated as they want.

The most common procedures are:

(a) The parties will jointly appoint.
(b) Each party will appoint one and the two arbitrators would appoint the rest.
(c) Appointment would be made by an unrelated person or institution, e.g. President of ICAI, President FICCI, etc.
There may however be times when:
Scenario I - parties may not have decided upon an appointment procedure; or
Scenario II - parties may have decided upon a procedure and such a procedure requires further action, but a party
/ arbitrator / institution fails to act as required under the procedure.

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To deal with both the scenarios the law, namely Section 11 of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1996,19
provides alternate procedures.
6.11

When an appointment is made jointly by both parties, both parties have to agree upon who the arbitrator would
be. Usually one party writes to other party forwarding a list of names of potential arbitrators. If the other party
approves one name from the list, then that individual would be the arbitrator. If not then the other party would
propose new names to the first party. This would go on till both parties agree upon one name.
Example: When a joint appointment was required, Party 1 sent the following names to Party 2 - Sunil, Peter,
Meenakshi, Iqbal, and Anil. None of them was acceptable to Party 2, which sent the following names to Party 1 –
Akram, Shameek, Sebastian, Aarti, Debasish. From this list, Party 1 was agreeable for Shameek and informed Party
2. In this case Shameek would be the arbitrator and would be considered to be jointly appointed.

while Party 2 selected Iqbal as their arbitrator. The two arbitrators then jointly discussed the following names
Shameek, Peter and Meenakshi out of which they selected Meenakshi as the third (presiding) arbitrator. Similarly,
where 5 arbitrators are to be appointed, every party will appoint two arbitrators and the four arbitrators will
together appoint the presiding arbitrator.
Scenario II
There is also the possibility that although the parties had selected a procedure to appoint an arbitrator, a party,
person or institution may not do what is required of them under the procedure.
For example if according to the agreed procedure the appointment of the arbitrator(s) was to be made by the
ICADR (The International Centre for Alternative Dispute Resolution) president, but such an appointment was not
made, such a situation would fall under scenario II.
In such situations the parties would have to approach the authorities designated under the Arbitration and
Conciliation Act 1996 for appointment of arbitrators. The designated authority is either the Supreme Court of
India (for international commercial arbitration) or the High Court (for domestic arbitration). The law prescribes a
detailed procedure for appointment of arbitrators, but what is important is that even when the court steps in it
firstly requires parties to take action, and if that does not happen, only in the last instance it does step in to appoint
arbitrators. A constitutional bench of the Supreme Court of India in SBP & Co. v. Patel Engineering Ltd.,20 had
observed that once the appointment had been made by the appointing authority, it could not be challenged
before the arbitral tribunal or any other court.

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6.12

Requirements of an arbitral tribunal

An arbitrator has to meet the following requirements:
(a) The arbitrator could be of any nationality – the arbitrator could be of any nationality. There is no requirement
that the arbitrator should be of the nationality of one of the parties. This is relevant in international commercial
arbitration, when the parties are from different countries.
In such a situation an arbitrator who belongs to the nationality of one of the parties may be considered as biased.
At the same time merely because the arbitrator is of the nationality of one of the parties, it would not
automatically amount to presence of bias.
(b) Capable of contracting – The arbitrator should be capable of contracting. This is because arbitration is a private
arrangement and requires consent of all involved i.e. parties and arbitrators. There is a contractual relation
between the arbitrator and the parties, whereby the arbitrator renders a service of adjudication to parties for
remuneration. Therefore, all requirements of a contract as noted in the Indian Contract Act 1872 required to be
fulfilled.
(c) Lack of Bias - An arbitrator should remain neutral, unbiased and should not favour any party in arbitration. In
other words, an arbitral tribunal should not be biased instead should remain at all times remain independent and
impartial.

Bias could take many forms, pecuniary bias, personal bias, bias as to subject matter, policy bias, etc. The Supreme
Court of India in Ranjit Thakur v. Union of India,21 held that the test of bias is whether a reasonable person, in

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possession of relevant information, would have thought that bias was likely and the matter was likely to be
disposed in a particular way.
Independence – is presence of certain relationship between the arbitrator and a party such as previous 6.13
employment, creditor, etc.
Impartiality – is the state of mind of the arbitrator i.e. by his / her behaviour the arbitrator gives an impression
that they are favouring one party over the other. It can be understood as a preconceived notion to decide a case
or an issue in a particular manner.
Example: Anil, who is a Chartered Accountant with his own independent practice, is the arbitrator in an arbitration
between Tata Tea Inc., and Suzuki Ltd.
Situation I - Prior to starting his practice, Anil had worked for five years with Tata Tea Inc. In this situation the law
would deem Anil to be lacking independence.
Situation II – During the proceedings before the arbitral tribunal, Anil would allow Tata Tea to take many liberties,
for instance taking as much time for making oral arguments, cross examining the witnesses, for submitting
documents, etc. Also the proceedings were adjourned (postponed) whenever so requested by Tata Tea. When
Suzuki Motors wanted to take extra time they were not allowed. In few instances when they were permitted, they
are asked to pay heavy cost to Tata Tea for delaying the proceedings. This would be a case where the arbitral
tribunal clearly favours and is partial towards Tata Tea, and therefore lacks impartiality.
This requirement of previous employment does not operate in equal measure when the party involved is the
Government. In such instances there is no automatic doubt where the arbitrator is a government employee and
one of the party to the arbitration is the State.

At the end, it must be understood that even though there might be previous connection between the arbitrator
and one of the parties, or the persons previous behaviour might have raised doubts as to their impartiality, it does
not prevent parties from appointing that person as the arbitrator. In other words, parties have full autonomy to
waive any of the objectionable grounds and make the appointment. However, once appointed the party that
made/agreed to the appointment cannot raise a challenge on that very same ground, but they can raise a
challenge on a new ground.
Example: Party A knew that Vikas had been an employee of Party B, yet goes ahead and appoints or agrees to the
appointment of Vikas as arbitrator. Party A cannot later challenge Vikas on the ground that he had been an
employee of Party B. It can however challenge him on other grounds, which had not been disclosed by Vikas.
This is so because the parties have all right to choose their arbitrator and the right to waive concerns. The law
requires that all objectionable issues be brought to the notice of parties so that they can make an informed choice.
Once such a choice has been made, the law respects and enforces that.
Some instances which would give rise to doubts as to presence of bias:
 arbitrator is an employee, consultant, advisor or has any other past or present business relationship with a
party,
 the arbitrator currently represents the lawyer or law firm acting as counsel for one of the parties
 the arbitrator has given legal advice or provided an expert opinion on the dispute to a party or an affiliate of
one of the parties
 a close family member of the arbitrator has a significant financial interest in one of the parties or an affiliate
of one of the parties
 the arbitrator is a legal representative of an entity that is a party in the arbitration
 the arbitrator has a significant financial interest in one of the parties or the outcome of the case
 the arbitrator has previous involvement in the case

Duties and liabilities of arbitrator

An arbitrator once appointed is subject to certain duties. These duties emerge from combined reading of statute
law and case laws.
a. Conduct the arbitral proceedings without delay – it is necessary that the arbitrator conducts the proceeding
as expeditiously as possible. One of the advantages of arbitration is that there is a dedicated arbitrator to
decide the matter. Longer proceedings would mean more cost to parties and delay in resolution. This does
not mean that arbitrator should conduct the proceedings arbitrarily just to finish faster. He has to ensure that
all legal requirements are met, and unnecessary delay is avoided.

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b. Remain at all times impartial i.e. treat both parties equally – as noted above this is a crucial requirement.
Impartiality maintains the sanctity and integrity of the process and the outcome. A biased outcome is no
6.14 outcome, and would not be acceptable under law (Section 18).
c. Keep all matters concerning arbitration confidential – a highlight of arbitration is that whatever happens in
arbitration remains in arbitration. Confidentiality allows the parties to fully explore all aspects of the dispute
so as to arrive at a more acceptable solution. This requirement of confidentiality extends to all including the
arbitral tribunal, who is under a duty to not divulge any information that comes to their knowledge during the
process the arbitration.
d. Deliberation – Arbitral tribunal should properly discuss all issues before issuing a decision or award. The award
should be a reasoned award (Section 31). In other words, the arbitrators should discuss the matter with each
other thoroughly and through a majority render the award. (Section 29)
e. Avoid unilateral communication with one party – This is necessary to ensure that no allegation of bias can
be made against the arbitrator.
f. Ensure all documents and communication received from one party is communicated to the other party –
the arbitral tribunal should ensure that all parties have copies of all communication and documents received
from any party. This will ensure that all parties have the maximum opportunity to present its case.
g. Ensure that the award and all other decisions comply with legal requirements – unless the award complies
with all the legal requirements the award would not be enforced. This would render the entire process futile.
h. Ensure that he/she himself at all times comply with legal requirements associated with arbitrator – This is
of utmost importance, since non-compliance would mean that continuance of a person as arbitrator is liable
to be challenged. One such requirement is that of duty to disclose grounds which may lead to an apprehension
of bias.

Termination, Removal and substitution of arbitral tribunal

There is a possibility that the arbitrator that has been chosen by the parties or appointment made by the court
may for different reasons become unsuitable. In such instances an arbitrator has to be removed and replaced by
another arbitrator. There are clear processes for doing so. Removal of arbitrator may come about in four instances
a. When the arbitrator leaves voluntarily
It is possible that the arbitrator for reasons which he may or may not disclose to the parties, decides to no longer
act as the arbitrator. It is important to remember that being a private consent based arrangement an individual
cannot be forced against their will to act or continue acting as an arbitrator.
b. When all parties involved in the arbitration agree that the arbitrator should be removed
At times all the parties involved may decide to no longer continue with a particular arbitrator. This could be for
many reasons including that the parties realise that the arbitrator does not have the particular expertise they had
desired. For example a person was appointed as arbitrator for his expertise as a civil engineer. However, the
parties during the arbitration found out that his experience was inadequate in construction projects involving
large dams. The parties could through a unanimous decision, decide to have another person as arbitrator.
c. Operation of law
 Arbitrator unable to continue - assume for an instance where the arbitrator falls ill and is unable to, for a very
long period of time, conduct any proceedings. Similarly there could be other issues, the arbitrator became
busy with other matters, his own business or simply lost interest in the matter. These are factual inability.
There may also be a possibility that law no longer permits the person to remain as an arbitrator. If any of the
above happens, it would lead to long delays in arbitration which in turn would increase the expenses related
to arbitration. Therefore, in such situations, the law steps in and automatically terminates the arbitrators. If
confusion remains as to whether arbitrator has indeed been terminated, then any party could proceed to the
court which finally decides on the question of termination (Section 14).
 When the arbitration process ends. The mandate of the arbitrator ends when the arbitration process ends.
The process can end in multiple ways, for instance when final award has been made (Section 32), failure to
make the award within 12 months (Section 29A) or when the parties decide to no longer continue with
arbitration (Section 25).
d. When the court decides that the arbitrator should be removed.
In addition to all of the above, there may be a possibility, where none of the above is present for example the
arbitrator is working without delay, parties are satisfied with their performance, etc., but still a party feels that
the arbitrator should not continue, then it could,
for reasons of bias approach, the court to remove the arbitrator (Sections 12 and 13).

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Before whom is the challenge to be raised?

It must be clearly understood that the first challenge must be raised before the arbitral tribunal itself. Only after 6.15
that could the challenge be raised in front of the District Court (for domestic arbitration) and High Court (for
international commercial arbitration). This is a very similar setup when compared to judiciary, where challenge
against the judge is in the first instance heard by the judge himself and later by a higher court.

Once an arbitrator has been terminated, then what?

In such instances the law provides that a new arbitrator could be appointed keeping in mind the original method
of appointment. If, however that fails, then the parties are free to approach the Supreme Court of India (in
international commercial arbitration) or High Court (for domestic arbitration) for appointment.
Example: Rahul was member of a three-person arbitral tribunal to adjudicate a dispute between Dell Inc.,
Microsoft and Intel Corporation. Rahul was appointed by Microsoft. He had on an earlier occasion been associated
as a software consultant with Microsoft. When the arbitration proceedings were ongoing on two occasions Rahul
privately met with Microsoft lawyers and failed to inform either the other arbitrators or parties about the meeting
or the contents of the meeting. It was also observed that Rahul adopted an unduly harsh attitude towards
representatives of Dell and Intel, all the while remaining extremely friendly with Microsoft representatives and
lawyers.
Here in this case, Rahul can be challenged on grounds of bias. His previous association and actions during the
proceedings clearly point to his tendency to favour Microsoft above other parties.
Assume that Rahul was removed. A new arbitrator had to be appointed. In such a situation the original method,
i.e. Microsoft making the appointment, would apply again. If, however Microsoft fails to make an appointment,
the other parties can approach the court to fill the vacancy.

ARBITRAL AWARD
An award is a conclusive determination as to the questions, issues or disputes that are put forward before the
arbitral tribunal. The arbitral tribunal is constituted to hear the complete dispute between the parties, give
reasonable opportunity to all parties to present their case and then based on the evidence submitted and
applicable law deliver a final decision on the matter.

Definition
An arbitral award is similar to a judgment given by a court of law. In other words, an arbitral award is given by the
arbitral tribunal as a decision on various issues in a matter which the parties had placed before the arbitral
tribunal. The Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1996, does not clearly define the idea of an arbitral award.22
However the concept of an award could also be understood as a final determination of a particular issue or claim
that had been submitted for arbitration. It represents a resolution of dispute between the parties.

General Principles
(a) Who can challenge – only a party to the arbitration agreement can challenge an arbitral award. A person who
is not a party to the arbitration cannot raise a challenge against an arbitral award.
(b) Authority – an award can only be challenged before a court, which would include a district court and a High
Court exercising original jurisdiction (for awards from domestic arbitration) and High Court (for awards from
international commercial arbitration).

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(c) Timeline – timeline refers to by when a challenge against arbitral award can be raised. The law notes an initial
time period of three months from when the award is received by party, with a maximum extension of thirty
6.16 more days by the court. In Consolidated Engineering Enterprises v Principal Secretary (Irrigation Department)
2008 (7) SCC 169.
Example: The award was rendered on 1st January 2017. Therefore, the award can be challenged by 31st March.
This date could be extended by another 30 days on application to the court i.e. till 30th April 2017. There can be
no further extensions.
(d) Automatic stay –According to the Act, there is no automatic stay on the enforcement. A party has to
specifically request for a stay, and the court at the time of granting stay can impose conditions. (Section
36(2)&(3))

Types of arbitral award

Under the law there four types of award, namely:

Final Award – an award that is made in accordance with the requirements of the law (including signature, reason
and delivery), and finally adjudicates on the issues submitted to arbitration, would be a final award.
Interim Award – there can be two types of interim awards, one which remains in force till the final award is
rendered, and another is final as regards the matters it deals with. The latter is referred to as interim, because
when it was rendered there were still other pending issues.
Settlement Award – during the arbitration process, the parties may choose to settle the matter instead of having
it adjudicated by the arbitrator. In such a situation the arbitrator could assist the parties in arriving at the
settlement. If a settlement is arrived at, and the arbitrator has no objection with it, then terms of the settlement
could be made part of an award. This is referred to as a settlement award. (Section 30)
Additional Award – when a final award has been rendered, but it is later found out that certain claims that had
been submitted to the arbitral tribunal were not resolved/adjudicated, the parties can request the arbitral tribunal
to make an additional award covering the issues that had been left out. Such as request must be made within 30
days from the date of receipt of the final award.
[Section 33(4)]
Example: Nagpur Metro Rail Corporation (NMRC) entered into a long term concession agreement with Nagpur
Airport Metro Express Private Limited (NAMEPL) a subsidiary of Reliance Infrastructure to develop and operate
the airport express metro project which included brining in rolling stock. NAMEPL was to run the metro services
for 30 years. This agreement was entered into in 2008 and was terminated in 2012. The main disagreements were
– (a) failure to fix civil structure defects, b) misrepresentation as to viability of the project including expected
passenger, c) failure to transfer outstanding amounts, and d) failure to acquire land hampering development of
further lines. All these according to NAMEPL led to delays in turn contributing to cost escalations. The matter was
submitted to a three-member arbitral tribunal for adjudication.
Scenario I – The arbitral tribunal gives an award dealing with all the four disagreements. It is one comprehensive
award with reasons for all conclusions. This would be a final award as it conclusively deals with all the questions
submitted to arbitration. There is nothing further left to be adjudicated.
Scenario II – The arbitral tribunal renders an award (Award no.1) which deals only with disagreements (a), (b) and
(c). The arbitrators inform the parties that they will render another award dealing with disagreement (d). Award
no.1 is an interim award.
Scenario III – The arbitral tribunal gave an award and informed the parties that this was the final award. However,
when the parties examined it they realised that the award only dealt with disagreement (a), (c) and (d). They bring
it to the notice of the arbitral tribunal which gives another award dealing with disagreement (b). This latter award
is an additional award.
Scenario IV – While the arbitral proceedings were going on the lawyers of both parties met for long discussions.
They later informed the arbitral tribunal that the parties had settled the matter on all disagreements. They
submitted the settlement agreement to the arbitral tribunal with the request that it be incorporated into an

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arbitral award. The arbitral tribunal after scrutinizing the agreement gave an award in which they included all the
terms of the agreement. This would be a settlement award.
6.17
Requirements of an arbitral award
The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 prescribes certain requirements for an arbitral award. They can be
categorized as necessary which means that the failure to adhere to these requirements would affect the validity
of the award, and others which means failure to adhere to other requirements would have no effect on the validity
of the award.
The necessary requirements are:
(a) Must be a decision by the majority – all decisions, including an award, must be made through majority. An
award must also be complete concerning all issues that are submitted to the arbitral tribunal for adjudication.
(b) Must be made in writing, signed and dated – Section 31(1)(a) requires an award to be in writing and having
the signature of majority of the members of the arbitral tribunal. It is not an award unless these two conditions
are fulfilled. It is quite possible that a particular arbitrator may not agree with the contents of the award.
Therefore, the law only requires majority of the arbitrators to sign. The law however requires the award to note
why the signature of an arbitrator was missing. Of equal importance is the date of the award which helps
determining various timelines, for instance within how much time can an award be challenged before the court,
etc.
(c) Must be reasoned – a mandatory requirement for an award is that it should be reasoned. Failure to state
reasons would make the award invalid. The arbitral tribunal is required to reach a decision; it also has to show
why it reached a particular decision. Presence of reason would show that the arbitrator had applied their minds
to the matter, taken into consideration all materials put before them and only then arrived at a decision. In other
words, the decision would not be an arbitrary decision. The only exception is when the parties have agreed that
no reasons need be given for the award.
(d) Must not be vague – the arbitral award should be both certain and clearly note which party has to do what. In
other words, it must be clear about decision on each issue, what liabilities each party has and finally what relief
has been awarded to parties. In other words, it should not seem like a recommendation, must not be tentative,
and must not leave a party with an option to either perform what is required or not. Vagueness should be avoided
at all cost. Thus there should not be any doubt as to the content of the award.
Example: The award notes - “The Arbitral Tribunal finds that Sunil was required to deliver the goods to Anil at the
rates which had been fixed in 2015 and not 2016. Owing to refusal to provide goods at the agreed rates, Anil was
forced to find a different supplier. Anil, as a consequence suffered losses to the tune of 2 crores. Sunil’s actions
were clearly in violation of the agreement between them.” It added the following lines:
Scenario I – Sunil should compensate Anil.
Scenario II - Sunil should pay Anil 2 crores, in two instalments.
Scenario III – Sunil should pay Anil 2 crores, within 2 weeks from the date of the award along with 10% interest.
Failure to do so will attract additional 2% per day interest on the outstanding amount till the amount is finally
paid. Payment should be done either through RTGS or through a demand draft.
In this instance only Scenario III is clear enough. Even Scenario II though seemingly clear, does not clearly specify
by when it should be paid. Every award should clearly specify all these details.
(e) Should be capable of being performed – the award should be capable of being performed. The award must
be realistic in what it suggests, and should not ask parties to do something that is not possible or illegal. An
unenforceable award would be set aside.
(f) Must not be illegal (against public policy) - Under the law a particular award that is in violation of the public
policy would be set aside. Public policy represents some of the most cherished and important principles and
policies of the State. An award would be in violation of public policy if it is contrary to substantive provisions of
law,
Other requirements:
Delivery – an award is ready to be delivered as soon as it is signed. An award that is signed should be delivered to
the parties.

Challenging an Award
An arbitral award can be challenged on specific grounds only. These grounds are clearly noted in law. It is
important to remember that a review is different from an appeal. In an appeal both questions relating to law and

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fact can be raised. However, review can happen only on specific grounds and is not the same as an appeal. The
grounds are noted under three different provisions of law:
6.18 A. under Section 13 – challenge of bias against the arbitral tribunal
The parties can challenge an arbitral tribunal on the ground that the arbitral tribunal is favoring or is biased in
favour of one of the parties. Such a challenge should be first raised before the arbitral tribunal under Section 13.
If the challenge is not accepted by the arbitral tribunal then the award rendered by that arbitral tribunal can be
challenged.
B. under Section 16 – overstepping of jurisdiction by the arbitral tribunal
If during the arbitral tribunal one of the parties challenges the arbitral tribunal stating that the arbitral tribunal
does not jurisdiction. The arbitral tribunal will decide on this challenge. If however the arbitral tribunal does not
agree with the parties, the arbitral tribunal will render the award. That award can later be challenged by the
parties for review.
C. under Section 34 – specific grounds for reviewing an award
There are seven grounds which can be divided into two categories – those that have to be specifically raised by a
party and those which the court can look at its own motion.

The first set of grounds includes:

a. Party is under some incapacity – such an incapacity can be both contractual and personal incapacity, example
that one of the party was a minor.
b. Invalid arbitration agreement – if the arbitration agreement is invalid then there can be no arbitration. This is
because arbitration agreement forms the basis for any arbitration as it contain the consent of the parties that in
the event there is dispute between them, the parties would not go to the court instead would submit it to
arbitration.
c. Party is not given proper notice about appointment of arbitrator or arbitral proceedings – notice is crucial
because it informs the parties as to the nature of the proceedings, and what is expected of each party. For example
if the party is required to answer all allegations against it, then it should know that by the next date of hearing it
is required to submit its response. Failure to provide adequate notice will have an adverse impact on the parties’
ability to present its case.
d. The award deals with disputes not submitted to arbitration – it is possible that the parties do not submit all
questions that is in dispute between them to arbitration. The arbitral tribunal derives its authority from the
agreement between the parties. So if the parties have not agreed, an arbitral tribunal does not have any authority
to adjudicate a particular dispute between the parties.
e. Arbitral tribunal or procedure was not in accordance with necessary requirements under the law – the law
prescribes certain basic minimum requirements that all dispute resolution procedures must adhere to. One of the
simplest example would be to treat both parties equally. An award that does adhere to such minimum
requirement would be set aside.

Second set of grounds which the court can look at its own motion, includes:
(a) the subject matter of the dispute is not capable of settlement by arbitration (arbitrability).
(b) the award is in contravention of the public policy of India.

Consequence of challenge
There are four major outcomes when an award is challenged before the court.
(a) Set aside – the court reviewing the award could set aside an award on grounds noted above. Once an award
has been set aside that award has no legal consequence. It is no longer an award and has no legal sanctity. It
is nothing more than a document and has no legal value.
(b) Confirm – the reviewing court also confirm the complete award. Confirming an award means that the court
is of the opinion that there is nothing legally wrong with the award i.e. it fulfils ll the requirements noted in
law.
(c) Modify – the court the power to modify the award so that it may not be set aside.
(d) Remit back to the arbitral tribunal - the court may instead of setting aside the award, send the matter back
to the arbitral tribunal to rectify some defect, which if not corrected would lead to setting aside of the award.

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Enforcement
Where the time for making an application to set aside an award has expired, or when such application was made 6.19
but it was rejected then the award can be enforced. Enforcement of an arbitral award shall happen under the
Code of Civil Procedure 1908 in the same manner as if it were a decree of the court. The award can be put for
enforcement right after it has been rendered without waiting for challenge proceedings to conclude.

CONCILIATION
Arbitration is one of the many ADR methods utilised to resolve dispute outside of the court system. However,
Arbitration remains adversarial in nature. It mimics the court system, and therefore like a court adjudicates a
matter. This however means that the parties remain as adversaries, with one party having won and the other
losing the contest. This win-loss creates a feeling of bitterness, and often tends to destroy relations. In order to
avoid these consequences of arbitration, other methods of ADR are adopted.
Definition
There is no single definition of Conciliation. It is an alternative method of dispute resolution. It can be understood
as a process of getting the parties to come to an agreement about a common problem / dispute through
confidential discussion and dialogue. In its operation it is very similar to mediation and like mediation it is
voluntary, flexible and completely at parties initiative.
Characteristics
(a) Voluntary – the process of conciliation is voluntary which implies that all parties have to agree to have their
disputes conciliated. Unless all the parties involved in the dispute agree, the matter cannot be conciliated.
No party can be forced to conciliate matter or attend conciliation proceedings. If a party is forced, then the
outcome of such conciliation would not be binding on that party. Thus party autonomy and consent are an
important aspect of conciliation. This was also held by the Supreme Court of India in the case of Afcons
Infrastructure Ltd. v. Cherian Varkey Construction Co. (P) Ltd., JT 2010 (7) SC 616
(b) Non Adversarial – unlike arbitration or court based adjudication the parties don’t compete against each
other to prove themselves as correct and others as wrong. Parties don’t behave as adversaries, who can only
win by defeating the other party. Instead of focusing on winlose, the attempt is to find a solution to the
problem that best suits all the parties involved, in such a manner that no party is made worse off.
(c) Assisted procedure – the conciliation proceedings can be crafted in a manner which most suits the parties’
convenience. At all times to assist the parties in arriving at a solution the conciliator(s) are present. They,
along with the parties, craft a procedure for sharing of information among the parties so as to reach an
amicable settlement.
(d) Finality of settlement – the outcome i.e. settlement as an end result of the conciliation process is final and
binding between the parties.
(e) Confidentiality – all aspects of the conciliation process are confidential. In other words, the conciliator(s) and
the parties cannot disclose to persons not party to conciliation, any matter relating to the conciliation
proceedings. Thus confidentiality primarily operates to cover the process and its participants. It prevents leak
of information. However, within the process information received by the conciliator from one party must be
disclosed to the other party, unless the party giving the information has specifically requested that it be kept
confidential. Even the agreement arrived at by the parties is covered under the broad spectrum of
confidentiality. This is important because it assures the parties that any information they share would remain
private and would not be used against them in an adversarial process.

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Conciliation in India
6.20 In India conciliation is governed by the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 and by Section 89 of the Code of
Civil Procedure 1908. Any dispute arising out of a legal relationship, whether contractual or not, can be conciliated.
Thus only those disputes which are not prohibited by law from being conciliated can be submitted to conciliation.
The law provides for number of conciliators, and provides for a process using which conciliation would be
conducted.
a. Number of Conciliator – the number of conciliators depends upon the parties, but with a maximum of three
conciliators. In other words, number of conciliators can range from one to three. (Section 63)
b. Appointment of Conciliators – conciliator appointments are subject to party consent, in other words, the
conciliators are appointed by the parties. The law also permits parties to request an institution or some other
person to recommend a conciliator. This allows parties to approach institutions that provide professional
conciliation services, such as the ICADR. While appointment it must be ensured that independent and impartial
conciliators are selected. (Section 64)
c. Procedure of Conciliation – once the conciliators have been appointed both parties are required to submit their
statements in writing, supply documents and other evidence to the conciliator. The conciliator then provides a
copy of the statements, documents and other evidence of one party to the other party. The conciliator is then
required to encourage and assist parties to engage in discussions based on the information to arrive at a
settlement. (Section 65)
d. Bar on judicial or arbitral proceedings - when the conciliation proceedings are ongoing parties cannot start
arbitration proceedings or approach a court regarding the same dispute which is part of conciliation proceedings.
The exception to this rule is that when it concerns preserving its right, the party can approach a court or initiate
arbitration. (Section 77)
Example: Prakash and Rumi are business partners. Their partnership firm (Fruits & Flowers) are dealers in fresh
fruits and exotic flowers. Their clientele include various high end hotels, marriage venues and other institutions in
and around Delhi. They have standing orders from many for daily supply of flowers, both exotic and otherwise.
One of their regular clients is Orion Decorators in Gurgaon, which specialises in flower decorations. Over the years
it has built a name for itself in the business of flower decorations at marriage venues. Fruits & Flowers and Orion
Decorators have had business dealings for many years.
In 2016 Fruits & Flowers was sold by Prakash and Rumi to Sanjay. One of the first things that Sanjay did after taking
over was to drastically increase price for exotic flowers. One of the clients that was most hit was Orion Decorators,
because they had already taken several orders based on previous pricings of Fruits & Flowers. The increased
pricing meant that Orion Decorators would incur substantial loss. Being the peak of marriage season, Orion
Decorators requested Fruits & Flowers to honour their long standing business relation and provide flowers at
earlier prices. Sanjay refused outright but agreed to have the matter conciliated. The conciliation proceedings
started next day. Sanjay however refused to provide flowers unless the higher rate was paid.
In this scenario what could Orion Decorators have done to ensure they continued to receive exotic flowers
required by them to fulfil their orders?
Under Section 77 of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1996, even though approach to court is prohibited during
the conciliation proceedings, as an exception a party could approach the court to protect its rights. Orion
Decorators could approach the court for interim measures, whereby till the conclusion of conciliation proceedings
it could request the court to direct Sanjay to continue providing flowers at the lower rate. The court would have
the power to grant the requested measure of protection on such conditions as it deems appropriate.

Conciliation versus Mediation

Even though mediation and conciliation have fundamentally the same philosophy and similar processes there are
subtle differences between the two, namely:

© CA Darshan D. Khare
 Chapter 6 ACA, 1996

6.21

The Supreme Court of India in Salem Advocate Bar Association v. UOI AIR 2005 SC 3353 held that conciliation is a
bigger concept than mediation, and the conciliator plays a much greater and more involved role than a mediator.

Settlement Agreement

© CA Darshan D. Khare
 Chapter 6 ACA, 1996

Confidentiality – The conciliation proceedings and its outcome are subject to stringent confidentiality
requirements.
6.22 a. Both the conciliator and the parties are required to keep all matter relating to the proceedings and the
settlement agreement confidential. The only exception is when disclosure becomes necessary for purposes
of implementation and enforcement of the settlement agreement.
b. The Conciliator cannot act as an arbitrator or representative of any of the party in arbitral or judicial
proceedings in respect of the dispute that was subject of conciliation proceedings.
c. None of the views expressed, suggestions made, admissions by parties, or proposals made could be relied
upon or introduced as evidence in arbitral or judicial proceedings, irrespective of whether or not those
proceedings relate to dispute that was the subject of arbitral or judicial proceedings.
Breach of confidentiality would vitiate the arbitral or judicial proceedings they are attempted to be utilised in.

© CA Darshan D. Khare