Chemical Bonding (Theory) PDF

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GNIDNOB LA CIMEHC

ecaferP

suoirav fo ycnednet gnimrof dnuopmoc eht slaever gnidnob lacimehc retpahc elitasrev tsom ehT
.retsulc a ro selucelom fo mrof ni rehtie ,stnemele

gnidnob fo epyt ,etaitnereffiD - ot elba eb dluohs uoy retpahc siht fo tnemhsilpmocca retfA
na teG .sdnuopmoc suoirav fo seitreporp nialpxE .selucelom ,neve ro smota owt neewteb
dnatsrednU .TOM dna TBV fo gnidaeh rednu ,gnidnob elihw sneppah yllaer tahw ,fo thgisni
.selucelom suoirav ni noitazidibyh fo etats tuo dniF .gnippalrevo dna slatibro suoirav fo noitatneiro
.TRPESV dna noitazidirbyh hguorht selucelom fo epahs eht enimreteD

erom ti ekam ot retpahc siht ni smelborp gnidda elihw edam neeb evah stroffe suounitnoC
.stpecnoc wen gninrael dna smelborp lla gniod retfa tnacifingis eb lliw ti tub ,evisneherpmoc

eht ni devlovni stpecnoc eht lla fo snoitanalpxe lacitcarp & lacitiroeht fo stsisnoc koob sihT
era ereht ,trap yroeht eht fo dne eht tA .noitartsulli fo reddal a yb dewollof elcitra hcaE .retpahc
.retpahc siht fo stpecnoc elpitlum fo noitacilppa eht evlovni hcihw selpmaxe devlos suoenallecsim

retteb epoleved ot redro ni selpmaxe devlos eseht lla hguorht og ot desivda era stnedutS
.ssalc eht ni level gnipsarg retteb evah ot dna retpahc eht fo gnidnatsrednu

: era gnidnoB lacimehC ni snoitseuQ fo rebmun latoT

63 ....................................... selpmaxE retpahC nI

32 ............................................ selpmaxE devloS

95 ................................... snoitseuq fo .on latoT

53 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
SDNUOPMOC TNATROPMI FO EALUMROF / SERUTCURTS

alumrof ssorC/tod nortcelE erutcurtS dnuopmoC


– ×
+
aN – – S )+aN( )S2 aN( edihpluS muidoS .1
aN
+
S× 2


– – ++
H aC H 2) H( aC ) 2HaC( edirdyH muiclaC .2
× ++ ×

H× O O × H H–O–O–H )2O 2H( edixoreP negordyH .3

H
H |
×
× P × H
H ×× H –P –H )3HP( enehpsohP .4

O ×
× C ×× O C )OC(edixo-onom nobraC .5

O ×
× C ×
× O O C O )2OC( edixo-id nobraC .6

N ×
×
×
C ×
H N C H )NCH( edinayC negordyH .7


×× – +
C ×
× N × +
K C N K )CNK( edinaycosI muissatoP .8


H × O × +aN H O– +aN )HOaN( edixordyH muidoS .9

O ×
× N
××
××
× × N ×× O N N )O 2N( edixo suortiN .01

×× ××
O ×
× N ×
× N ×
× O O N N O ) 2O 2N ro ON( edixo cirtiN .11

O
O
×× ××
O N N O )3O2N( edixo irt negortiniD .21
O ×× N ×× N ×
× O

O O
O O
×× ××
O N N O ) 4O2N( edixoartet negortiniD .31
O ×× N ×× N ×
× O

O O
O O
×× ××
O ×× N × O × N ×
× O O N O N O ) 5O2 N( edixo atneP negortiN .41

××
O ×
× N ×O H O N O H )2ONH( dica suortiN .51

O
O
×× O N O H ) 3ONH( dica cirtiN .61
O ×× N × O H

63 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
alumrof ssorC/tod nortcelE erutcurtS dnuopmoC

O
O

××
O O N O )–3ON( noI etartiN .71
O × N ×
×

+
H H
×
– –
× lC× H N × H lC H N H
× )lC4HN( edirolhC muinommA .81
H H

––
O O

O ×
××
C × O

O C O

) – – 3OC( noI etanobraC .91

××
O ×
× S ×
× O O S O )2OS( edixo-id ruhpluS .02

O O
××
O ×
× S ×× O O S O )3OS( edixo-irT ruhpluS .12

––

O O
××
O

O S O– ) – –3OS( noI etihpluS .22
O × S ×
××

––

O
×× O
O ×
S × O – –
×× O S O ) – –4OS( noI etahpluS .32
O
O

––
××
S
××
××

S
××

O ×
S × O –
O S O–
××
) – –3O2S( noI etahplus-oihT .42
O O

73 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
alumrof ssorC/tod nortcelE erutcurtS dnuopmoC

H
H
O O
×
H O × P ×O H H O P O H )4OP3H( dicA cirohpsohP .52
××

O O

H× H

H O × P ×O H H O P O H )3OP3H( dica suorohpsohP .62


××

O O

O –
× O
O ×
P × O – –
×× O P O )– – – 4OP( noI etahpsohP .72
O O

O
×× O
O ×× nM × O
×× O nM O +K )4OnMK( etangamreP muissatoP .82
O
O

erutcurtS dnuopmoC

S C S ) 2SC( edihplus-id nobraC .92

+
O N O )+2ON( noI muinortiN .03


O N O )– 2ON( noI etirtiN .13

+
H O H )+O3H( noI muinordyH .23

lC
)2lC2OS( edirolhc lyruhpluS .33
O S O
lC

83 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
erutcurtS dnuopmoC

O

O lC O +K ) 3OlCK( etarolhc muissatoP .43


O

O lC O +K ) 4OlCK( etarolhc-rep muissatoP .53


O

2–
O O

O rC O rC O 2)+K( )7O2rC2K( etamorhcid muissatoP .63


O O

3–
– –
N C C N
– +++ –
N C eF C N 3–] )NC(eF[ noI edinayc-yrreF .73
6
N C– –
C N

4–
– –
N C C N
– ++ –
N C eF C N 4–] )NC(eF[ noI edinayc-oreF .83
6
N C– –
C N

lC lC lC
lA lA )6lC2lA( edirolhc muinimulA .93
lC lC lC

O O

H O P O P O H )7O2P 4H( dica cirohpsohp oryP .04


O O
H H

O
)3OPH( dica etahpsohpopyH .14
O P O H

O O

H O S O O S O H )8O2S2H( dica ciruhplus-id-reP .24

O O

93 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
erutcurtS alumroF dnuopmoC

O
3OS 2H dica suoruhpluS .34
H O S O H

O
H O O S O H 5OS2 H dica ciruhplusreP .44

O dica ciruhplusonom oxoreP


)dica s’orac(

S
H O S O H 3O2 S2 H dica ciruhplusoihT .54
O

××
O lC O H 2OlCH dica suorolhC .64
××

O ××
lC O H 3OlCH dica cirolhC .74
O

O
O lC O H
4OlCH dica cirolhcreP .84
O

O O

O lC O lC O
7O2lC edirdyhna cirolhcreP .94
O O

O P O H
2OP3 H dica suorohpsohpopyH .05
H

O
O O
rC 5OrC etamorhcreP .15
O O

lC rC lC
2lC2OrC edirolhC lymorhC .25
O

04 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
erutcurtS alumroF dnuopmoC

O C C C O 2O3C edixobus nobraC .35

lC O
aC
2lCOaC redwoP gnihcaelB .45
lC

2–
C C
2+ aC ro aC 2CaC edibrac muiclaC .55
C C

O
O
3O enozO .65
O

P
P P
4P suorohpsohp fo etats dnuorG .75
P

S S S
S 8S ruhplus fo etats dnuorG .85
S S
S S

O N lC lCON )tnegaer nedliT( edirolhc lysortiN .95

3O2 S2aN etahplusoiht muidoS .06


– – +
O S O aN2

14 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
GNIDNOB LACIMEHC
NOITCUDORTNI .1
rednu smota tnednepedni sa stsixe tnemele rehto on , sesag treni rof tpecxe taht tcaf nwonk llew si tI )I(
.noitidnoc yranidro
mrof ot enibmoc smota od woH .smota fo retsulc era hcihw selucelom sa tsixe stnemele eht fo tsoM )II(
.retpahc siht ni dessucsid eb lliw stbuod hcuS ? sdnob mrof smota od yhw dna selucelom
.smota laudividni eht naht ,ygrene rewol a sah dna elbats erom si ti fi demrof eb ylno lliw elucelom A )III(

DNOB LACIMEHC .2
.elucelom elbats a sa rehtegot meht dloh ot smota erom ro owt neewteb stca taht ecrof A )I(
.meht gnoma –e fo noitubirtsider gnivlovni smota erom ro owt fo noinu si tI )II(
.ygrene ni esaerced yb deinapmocca ssecorp sihT )III(
.dnob eht fo htgnertS ∝ ygrene ni esaerceD )VI(
.smota naht elbats erom era selucelom eroferehT )V(

NOITANIBMOC LACIMEHC FO ESUAC .3


: ygrene muminim eriuqca ot ycnedneT .1
.mota rehtona fo nortcele eht stcartta mota eno fo suelcuN .rehto hcae ot sehcaorppa smota owt nehW )I(
.rehto hcae slleper smota eht htob fo nortcele dna ielcun owT )II(
.smrof dnob lacimehc a dna sesaerced )elucelom( metsys eht fo ygrene latot eht ,noitcartta si tluser ten fI )III(
.ytilibatS ∝ ygrene/1 ∝ noitcarttA oS )VI(
ssecorp cimrehtoxe na si noitamrof dnoB )V(
: noitarugifnoc sag elbon eriuqca ot ycnedneT .2
.noitarugifnoc sag elbon eriuqca ot senibmoc motA )I(
.noitamrof dnob ni etapicitrap snortcele d)1-n( dna pn ,sn .e.i nortcele tsomretuo ylnO )II(
muminim ecneh dna noitarugifnoc cinortcele elbats evah yeht sa ,etapicitrap ton od stnemele sag trenI )III(
) 6pn 2sn ro 2s1 noitarugifnoc elbatS( .ygrene

s elpm axE
dnoB lacimehC fo sesuaC no de sab

- elucelom a mrof ot enibmoc smota owt nehW 1.xE


debrosba si ygrenE )B( desaeler si ygrenE )A(
debrosba ro desaeler rehtie yam ygrenE )D( debrosba ron desaeler rehtien si ygrenE )C(
.desaeler si ygrene ytilibats niatta oT )A( .loS

ELUR TETCO SIWEL .4


.tsomretuo tetco sti etelpmoc ot ycnednet a sah mota yrevE )I(
.telpud sti etelpmoc ot ycnednet eht sah H )II(
.nortcele erahs ro nortcele niag ro esool smota noitarugifnoc sag treni eriuqca oT )III(
tetco siweL sa nwonk si llehs tsom retuo rieht ni snortcele thgie eveihca ot smota fo ycnednet ehT )VI(
.elur

lC × eB × lC H × O × H

elur tetco s yebo t'nse oD elur tetco sye bO


24 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
: eluR tetcO fo noitpecxE
)selucelom tneiciffed nortcele( ro - : selucelom tetco etelpmocnI )a(
.mota lartnec fo tibro tsom retuo ni etelpmoc ton si tetco hcihw ni dnuopmoC
.cte puorg ht31/A III fo edirdyh , 3lCB ,3lClA , 3FB ,spuorg AIII fo sedilaH - selpmaxE

 3 lCB nI lC ×B × lC
 

×
 s nortcele 6 ylno sah noroB
lC
) –e 6 ( 3)3HC(aG ,)– e4(2 lCnZ ,)– e4( 2 lCeB - selpmaxe rehtO

lC )selucelom tneiciffe nortcele( ro tetco fo noisnapxE )b(


×
×
lC
lC ×
P . s t i b r o t s o m r e t u o n i –e 8 n a h t e r o m s a h m o t a l a r t n e c h c i h w n i d n u o p m o C
×
lC ,21 ,01 niatnoc I dna S ,P mota lartnec eht , 7FI ,6FS , 5lCP nI - elpmaxE
×

lC .ylevitcepser snortcele 41 dna


lC P fo alumrof tod nortcelE
5
- : noitarugifnoc sag treni oduesP-I )c(
tibro tsomretuo ni snortcele 81 sniatnoc hcihw ,slatem noitisnart fo snoitaC )I(
.cte 4+bP ,4+nS , 2+dC ,2+nZ ,+gA ,+uC ,3+aG : selpmaxE
1p4 2s4 ,01 d36 p3 2s3 , 6p2 2s2 , 2s1 - aG fo noitarugifnoc cinortcelE

01
d3 6p3 2s3
, 6p2 2s2 ,2s1 - 3+aG fo noitarugifnoc cinortcelE

e81
- : selucelom nortcele ddO )d(
××
O × N× snortcele fo )cte –e11 , –e7( on ddo ro nortcele deriapnu na evah mota lartneC
×
.llehs tsom retuo rieht ni

e8 –
e7 .cte 2OlC 2ON ,ON : selpmaxE

s elpm axE
eluR tetcO no de sab

- elur tetco swollof hcihW 2.xE


lCuC )D( 2 l C a C ) C ( l C g A ) B( 2lCeF )A(

.mota lartnec fo llehs tsomretuo ni e 8 naht erom si ereht sdnuopmoc rehto ni esuaceB )C( .loS

- ni deyebo ton si elur tetco ehT 3.xE


4FiS )D( 5 l C P ) C ( 3l C B ) B ( 2OC )A(
.noisnapxe tetco seogrednu P ,tneicifid nortcele si B sA )C( & )B( .loS

- : sdnob fo noitacifissalC

SDNOB LACIMEHC

DNO B K AEW DNO B GNORTS


)ralu celoM ret nI( )cim ota retnI(
)el om/JK 04 - 2 ygrenE( )elom/JK 002 ygrenE(

)F( )E( )D( )C( )B( )A(


s'laaw rednaV n egor dyH cilateM etanidro-oC tnela voC cinoI
dnob dnob dn ob dnob dnob d nob
)J K 01 - 2( )J K 04 - 01(
34 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
DNOB CINOI RO TNELAVORTCELE .5

ro eno fo refsnart etelpmoc eht fo tluser a sa smota erom ro owt neewteb demrof dnob lacimehc ehT )I(
.dnob tnelavortcele ro cinoI dellac si rehtona ot mota eno morf snortcele erom
)AIII ot AI puorg( nortcele sesol mota ev+ ortcelE )II(
)AIIV ot AV puorg( nortcele sniag mota ev– ortcelE )III(
.dnob tnelavortcele ro dnob cinoi dellac si noina dna noitac neewteb noitcartta fo ecrof citatsortcelE )VI(
.dnob cinoi fo erutan ∝ ecnereffid ytivitagenortcelE
.dnuopmoc cinoi mumixam mrof stnemele puorg AIIV dna AI elpmaxE

lC + +
aN → lC + aN
8 , 8 ,2 8 ,2 7 , 8 ,2 1 , 8 ,2
)noitarugifnoc rA( )noitarugifnoc eN( –
e1
.dnob fo retcarahc cinoi eb lliw erom elbat cidoirep ni stnemele owt neewteb ecnatsid eht eroM )V(
.ycnelavortcele dellac si deniag ro esol nortcele fo rebmun latoT )IV(
– elpmaxE

O gM )a(
2 = gM fo ycn elavortc ele 6 ,2 2 , 8 ,2
2 = O fo ycn elavortc ele

e2

lC aC
2 = aC f o ycn elavortc ele 7, 8,2 2,8, 8,2 )b(
1 = lC f o ycn elavortc ele –
e e nO
lC
7, 8,2 –
e e nO

OaC → O + aC )c(
O aC
2 = aC fo ycn elavortc ele 6 ,2 2 ,8 ,8 ,2
2 = O fo ycn elavortc ele

e2

.lanoitcerid-non si dnob cinoi os noitcerid lla ni lauqe si noitcartta fo ecrof ehT )IIV(
laciripme si lCaN .ge .alumrof laciripme ylno sah tI .alumrof ralucelom evah ton od dnuopmoc cinoI )IIIV(
.edirolhc muidos fo alumrof

: sdnoB cinoI gnimroF rof snoitidnoC


– srotcaf eerht eseht nopu sdneped dnob cinoI fo noitamroF
: ygrene noitasinoI )a(
suoesag detalosi na fo tibro tsomretuo eht morf nortcele na evomer ot deriuqer ygrene fo tnuomA
)debrosba ygrene( .noitac ro noi ev+ eht mrof ot mota
. n o i t a c m r o f o t y c n e d n e t r e t a e r G → ygrene noitasinoI resseL
3+ 2+
 lA > gM > + aN g.e
ycnednet noitamrof noitaC  +
 iL > + aN > + K > +bR > +sC

44 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
ytiniffa nortcelE )b(
noi ev– mrof ot suoesag detalosi na ot dedda si nortcele na nehw desaeler ygrene fo tnuomA
.desaeler ygrene )noina(
n o i n a m r o f o t y c n e d n e t r e t a e r G → ytiniffa nortcele rehgiH
–I > – rB > –F > –lC .g.e
3– N > 2–O > –F

ecittal latsyrc fo elom eno nehw desaeler ygrene fo tnuomA )desaeler ygrenE( - ygrene ecittaL )c(
. d n u o p m o c c i n o i f o h t g n e r t s r o y t i l i b a t s e h t e b l l i w r e t a e r G → ygrene ecittal rehgiH demrof si
: ygrene ecittal gnitceffa srotcaF
)egrahc cinoI( –z +z ∝ U → egrahc fo edutingaM )i(
e g r a h c f o e d u t i n g a M ∝ ygrene ecittaL
3 l C l A 2l C g M lCaN
+l A 2+gM +aN

sesaercni ygrene ecittaL –


.sesaerced noitac fo eziS –
1
∝ ygrene ecittaL – : noitaC fo eziS )ii(

r + +r
lCsC lCbR lCK lCaN lCiL

gnisaercni noitac fo eziS –


tnatsnoc si noina fo eziS –
sesaerced ygrene ecittaL –

: ygrene fo gnirewol llarevO )d(


.noitamrof dnob gnirud desaeler eb tsum ygrenE
– spets gniwollof eht ni devlovni era segnahc ygrenE
–e + +A = EI + A

AE + – B = –e + B dna
eht fo noitamrof fo esae erom si ereht AE fo eulav rehgih dna EI fo eulav rewol rof taht sedulcnoc sihT
.noitamrof dnob tnelavortcele fo secnahc erom yltneuqesnoc dna ylevitcepser noina & noitac

: sdnuopmoc fo alumrof fo noitatneserpeR


evitagen dna tfel eht ta si noi evitisop taht yaw a hcus ni edis yb edis snoi eht fo slobmys eht etirW )a(
– B+A sa thgir eht ta si noi

y B xA sa lobmys hcae fo pot eht ta erugif ni seicnelavortcele rieht etirW )b(

y x
.xByA alumrof e.i , sa elur ssorc ssirc ylppa woN )c(
B A
1 2
2 lCaC = edirolhc muiclaC : selpmaxE
lC aC

: sdnuopmoc cinoi fo seitreporP


– etats lacisyhP )a(
.noitcartta fo ecrof citatsortcele gnorts ot eud elttirb dna enillatsyrc ,drah era sdnuopmoc cinoI

54 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
→ ssenelttirB

+ – + – + + – + – +
– + – + – – + – + –
+ – + – +
+ – + – +
– + – + –
– + – + –

noisl upeR noitcarttA

)reht o hcae lleper y eht oS .reraen sem oc snoi de gr ahc emaS(

– msihpromosI )b(
ralimis.e.i snortcele fo .on ralimis evah yeht fi suohpromosi eb ot dias era sdnuopmoc owT )I(
.noina dna noitac rieht fo noitarugifnoc
.erutcurts latsyrc ralimis evah yehT )II(
– elpmaxE
2 –O 2+gM –F +aN

2– ,2 + 1– ,1 + ycnelaV
8 ,2 8 ,2 8 ,2 ,8 ,2 noitarugifnoc cinortcele
2– S 1+K 2 1–lC2 2+aC ylralimis
 8 ,8 ,2 8 ,8 ,2 ,8 ,8 ,2
8 ,8 ,2 
8 ,8 ,2   8 ,8 ,2

– tniop gnitlem dna tniop gnilioB )c(


fo ecrof scitatsortcele gnorts ot eud tniop gnitlem dna tniop gniliob hgih evah sdnuopmoc cinoI
.snoi degrahc yletisoppo gnoma noitcartta
– ytivitcudnoC )d(
.yticirtcele fo rotcudnoc daB - snoi eerf oN - etats dilos nI .ytilibom cinoi no sdneped tI
.yticirtele fo rotcudnoc dooG - snoi eerf ot euD noitulos suoeuqa ro etats desuf nI
noitulos suoeuqA < etats desuF > etats diloS : redro ytivitcudnoc
– ytilibuloS )e(
)stnevlos raloP( retaw ni elbulos ylhgiH
retaw ni lCaN : elpmaxE
retaw fo ’O‘ degrahc ylev –htiw setaicossa teg snoi +aN ehT )I(
.retaw fo ’H‘ degrahc ylev+ htiw setaicossa snoi –lC dnA )II(

O 2H
O 2H


O

+ O +
H H H H
+

2
+

2 + – O 2 + – O 2

– +
+ lC + aN

O 2H –

O 2H –
OH+
O2H + 2
OH+
OH +


O 2H
O 2H

2
2


+
+


lC morf nortcele niag O2H fo mota H +
aN ot nortcele sti evig O2H fo mota negyxO

64 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
hcihw sesaerced osla noitcartta fo ecrof scitatsortcele dna sesaerced –lC dna +aN no egrahc suhT )III(
.noi eerf ot sdael
retaw fI.ygrene noitavlos dellac si etulos dna tnevlos neewteb noitcaretni ot eud desaeler ygrene ehT )VI(
.ygrene noitardyh dellac si ti tnevlos sa desu si
ygrene ecittaL > ygrene noitardyH – retaw ni elbulos eb ot dnuopmoc cinoi na roF )V(

1
ytili buloS ∝ ygrene ecittaL
.ytilibuloS ∝ ygrene noitardyH
1 1
}noina dna noitac fo suidar era – r & +r{ –
+ + ∝ )H( ygrene noitardyH
r r
1
ni elbigilgen si – eulav eht esuaceb suidar noitac eht no sdneped ylniam ygrene noitardyH ) I V (
r
1
ot nosirapmoc . +
r
si ecittal ni sesaerced fi ,sesaerced ygrene noitardyh & ygrene ecittal eht htob puorg eht nwoD )IIV(
.asrev eciv dna puorg eht nwod sesaercni ytilibulos ,ygrene noitardyh naht retaerg

s elpm axE
dnoB cinoI no de sab

- ygrene ecittal fo eulav mumixam sah hcihw gniwollof fo tuO 4.xE


IaN )D( rBaN )C( lCaN )B( FaN )A(
.noina fo ezis llams ot euD )A( .loS

- fo desopmoc si dnuopmoc tnelavortcele fo ecittal latsyrc ehT 5.xE


seluceloM )B( smotA )A(
snoi dna selucelom htoB )D( snoi degrahc yletisoppO )C(
.snoi fo edam era sdnuopmoc tnelavotcele taht tcaf eht si tI )C( .loS

- yb smota lartuen morf demrof era snoI 6.xE


snortcele fo niaG )B( nortcele fo ssoL )A(
snortcele fo niag dna ssoL )D( snortcele fo gnirahS )C(
.ylevitcepser snortcele fo gnirahs dna gnisol yb demrof era noina dna noitaC )D( .loS

: ytilibulos gnitceffa rotcaF


– tnatsnoc cirtceleiD )I(
cirtceleiD dellac si sdnuopmoc cinoi fo egrahc eht esilartuen ot tnevlos fo yticapac e h T
”ε“ yb detneserper si tI .tnatsnoc
)08 = ε( tnatsnoc cirtceleid mumixam sah retaW )a(
) 1 2 = ε enotecA( , )53 = ε HO 3HC(
)1.4 = rehtE( , )72 = ε HO5H2 C(
)3.2 = ε enezneB(
6 H6 C > 3HCO 3HC > 3HCOC3HC > HO 2HC 3HC > HO3 HC > O2 H
.tnatsnoc cirtceleid hgih gnivah ,stnevlos eht ni elbulos erom era sdnuopmoc cinoI )b(
ot eud tnevlos doog a ton era eseht tub tnatsnoc cirteleid hgih evah 2O 2H dna 4OS2H )c(
erutan gnisidixo

74 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
: noi fo eziS )II(
cinoina fo sesaercni eht htiw sesaerced ygrene ecittal eht ,tnatsnoc noitac fo ezis gnipeeK )a(
.suidar
IiL < rBiL < lCiL < FiL si retaw ni XiL fo ytilibulos fo redro ecneH

1
∝ ytilibulos sA
ygrene ecittal
elbulos erom si iL erofereht EL > EH tub elur s’najaF ot gnidrocca erom si erutan tnelavoc IiL ni )b(
.retaw ni
cinoitac fo esaercni eht htiw sesaerced ygrene noitardyh eht ,tnatsnoc noina fo ezis gnipeeK )c(
– eb lliw 4OSM fo ytilibulos fo redro ecneh .suidar
)elur s’najaF fo noitpecxE( 4OSaB > 4OSrS > 4 OSaC > 4OSgM > 4OSeB
.mottob ot pot morf sesaerced ytilibulos ,egral yrev si noina dna noitac fo ezis fI )d(
)sesaercni erutan tnelavoc dna sesaerced erutan cinoi sa( doirep a ni sesaerced ytilibuloS )e(
3lClA > 2lCgM > lCaN

: noina fo noitasiraloP ) I I I (
.noitarugifnoc sag treni oduesp ni mumixam si yticapac noitasiraloP

1
∝ ytilibulos
no itasiralop
IgA > rBgA > lCgA > FgA

.sesaercni noitasiraloP –
.sesaercni retcarahc tnelavoC –
.sesaerced ytilibuloS –
– noitcaer cinoI )VI(
.noitcaer ralucelom-swohs sdnuopmoc tnelavoc dna noitcaer cinoi swohs sdnuopmoc cinoI )a(
.snoi eerf fo esuaceb noitcaer ralucelom naht retsaf era snoitcaer cinoI )b(
.ecno ta demrof si lCgA fo tpp etihw ,noitulos 3ONgA ni dedda si lCaN nehW .g.e
↓ lCgA + – +a N → – + – ON+g A
3O N ← ON aN + 3

.tpp etihw

NOITASIRALOP .6

)dnob cinoi ni erutan tnelavoC( )eluR s’najaF(


nortcele eht tcartta noitac a fo egrahc evitisop eht ylesolc noina na sehcaorppa noitac a nehW )I(
.meht neewteb noitcartta fo ecrof citatsortcele eht ot eud ,flesti sdrawot noina eht fo duolc
.noina fo suelcun egrahc ylevitisop eht leper osla noitac emit emas eht tA )II(
si sihT .noitac eht sdrawot detagnole ro deglub si noina fo duolc ,tceffe denibmoc siht ot euD )III(
.desiraloP dellac si noina dna noitac eht yb noina eht fo noitasiraloP ro noitamrofed ,noitrotsid dellac
: rewoP noitasiraloP
.noitac fo rewop noitasiraloP dellac si noina ybraen a esiralop ot noitac fo ytiliba ehT

– –
A +
C A C
+

84 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
: ytilibaziraloP
.noitac eht yb desiralop teg ot noina fo ytiliba )I(
seriuqca dnob cinoi os snoi eht neewteb nortcele fo gnirahs emos sesuac noina fo noitasiraloP )II(
.retcarahc tnelavoc niatrec
retcarahc tnelavoC ∝ noitasiraloP )III(
sa nwonk era dna najaF yb detseggus ,srotcaf fo .on a nopu sdneped noitasiralop fo edutingaM )VI(
.elur s’najaF

)noitasiraloP gnitceffA srotcaF( : elur s’najaF


.sesaerced noitac fo ezis eht sa sesaercni noina eht fo noitasiraloP - : noitac fo eziS )a(
1
noitac fo ezis ∝ noitasiraloP
– puorg a nI
2l C e B
sesaercni noitac fo eziS - 2l C g M
sesaerced retcarahc tnelavoC - 2lCaC
sesaercni retcarahc cinoI - 2l C r S

2l C a B

retcarahc tnelavoc mumixam sti swohs ,+2eB fo rewop gnisiralop tsetaerG •


– doirep a nI
4+iS , 3+lA , 2+gM ,+aN

sesaerced noitac fo eziS -


sesaercni retarahc tnelavoC -
retcarahc tnelavoc eht ,noitac nevig a rof sesaercni noina eht fo ezis eht fI - : noina fo eziS )b(
. n o i n a f o e z i s ∝ noitasiraloP erutaN/sesaercni

2FaC
sesaercni noina fo eziS - 2lCaC
sesaercni retcarahc tnelavoC - 2r B a C
sesaerced retcarahc cinoI - 2laC
- : noina dna noitac no egrahC )c(

n o i n a n o i t a c n o e g r a h c ∝ noitasiraloP
)retcarahc tnelavoc( noitasiraloP ∝ noitac no egrahC )I(
4 l C i S 3l C l A 2l C g M lCaN .ge
+ + + +i S + + +l A ++gM +aN

sesaercni noitac no egrahC -


sesaercni retcarahc tnelavoC -
)sesaerced .P.M( sesaerced retcarahc cinoI -
1
∝ erutan tnelavoc ∝ n o i t a s i r a l o p ∝ noina no egrahC
.P.M
- : noitac fo noitarugifnoc cinortcelE )d(
snoitac fo ezis eht fI .hgih si noitarugifnoc sag treni oduesp gnivah noitac fo yticapac noitasiraloP
.noitarugifnoc sag treni gnivah noitac fo taht naht emas si
94 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
)tnelavoC( 81 ,8 ,2 +uC →– )C°244 .P.M( lCuC

)cinoI( 8 ,2 +aN →– )C°008 .P.M( lCaN

rewop gnisiralop tub ezis dna egrahc emas evah )treni & oduesP( noitac eht htob +aN dna +uC
– esuaceb +aN naht erom si +uC fo
)oduesp( d6p 2sn fo .ffez < )treni( 6 p2sn fo ffez
0 1
+uC < +aN

)tnelavoC( )cinoI(
.lCaN naht retcarahc tnelavoc erom sah lCuC oS

s elpm axE
eluR s'najaF no de sab

- morf demrof si retcarahc cinoi mumixam htiw dnuopmoC 7.xE


F dna aN )D( Ι dna sC )C( F dna sC )B( lC dna aN )A(
.retcarahc cinoI .xam evah lliw noina rellams dna noitac regral ,elur s’najaf gnisU )B( .loS

- retcarahc tnelavoc fo seulav tsehgih eht sah eno hcihw gniwollof eht fo tuO 8.xE
lCuC )D( 2lCdC )C( 2lCaC )B( 2lCnZ )A(
2+
.lla eht gnoma ezis tsellams sah nZ esuaceB )A( .loS

– .tP.M tsehgih gnivah dnuopmoC 9.xE


2 l C r S ) D ( 2l C a C ) C ( 2lCgM )B( 2lCeB )A(
sesaercni retcarahc cinoi ecneh sesaerced rewop gnizisiralop sesaercni noitac fo ezis eht sA )D( .loS

DNOB TNELAVOC .7

evitagen ortcele fo smota owt neewteb snortcele fo gnirahs lautum eht yb demrof si dnob tnelavoc A )I(
.)telpud sti setelpmoc hcihw H tpecxE( .tetco rieht etelpmoc ot stnemele

N N N N O O O O H H H H
elucelom 2N elucelom 2O elucelom 2H
smota owt neewteb desilacol era dna ,snips etisoppo evah dluohs snortcele fo riap derahs ehT )II(
.denrecnoc
– syaw eerht ni srucco yam snortcele fo gniriahS )III(

dnoB riap nortcelE derahs snortcele fo .oN


smota owt neewteb

) ( dnob elgniS 1 2
) ( dnob elbuoD 2 4
) ( dnob elpirT 3 6

)dnob telpirt ton( sdnob elgnis eerhT H N H – selpmaxE


H
elgnis owT( H O H )dnob elgnis owt toN( dnob elbuoD O O )dnob eerht ton( .dnob elpirT N N
).sdnob

05 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
: dnob tnelavoc dna erutcurts siweL
ecnadrocca ni nettirw era ,selucelom tnelavoc fo serutcurts siweL sa nwonk osla ,serutcurts tod nortcelE )I(
.elur tetco htiw
eht tpecxe llehs ecnelav eht ni gnirahs yb snortcele thgie fo latot a evah lliw alumrof a ni smota llA )II(
noteleks fo ertnec eht ni decalp smota rehto htiw sdnob fo rebmun tsegral eht smrof hcihw mota-H
.tetco eht etelpmoc ot ti sdnuorrus smota rehtO .erutcurts
.serutcurts siwel dellac era stod yb detneserper era snortcele ecnelav hcihw ni erutcurtS )III(
.eurtcurts repuoc sa nwonk era sehsad ro )–( enil yb detneserper erutcurtS )VI(
od tub ,sdnob fo sdnik dna rebmun eht ,nortcele ycnelav fo rebmun eht ylno wohs ealumrof tod siweL )V(
.snoi cimotaylop dna selucelom sepahs lanoisnemid eerht eht tciped ton
: dnob tnelavoc fo tpecnoc latibrO

snips etisoppo htiw snortcele 2 tsom eht ta etadomocca nac latibro enO )I(
sti etelpmoc ot ,mota rehtona morf nortcele eno stpecca latibro nortcele deriapnu ro latibro dellif flaH )II(
.slatibro
noitelpmoC .dnob tnelavoc fo noitidnoc laitnesse na si nortcele eht riap ot ro latibro etelpmoc ot ycnedneT )III(
.dnob tnelavoc fo noitidnoc laitnesse eht ton si tetco fo
gniriahs rof tnemele eht fo mota na yb detubirtnoc snortcele fo rebmun eht sa denifed si tI : ycnelavoC )VI(
.noitarugifnoc sag elbon eveihca ot smota rehto htiw
.etats detcixe ni demrof era sdnob tnelavoc neht slatibro ytpme sah tibro tsomretuo eht fI )V(
: sdnob tnelavoc ni ycnelav elbairaV
.llehs tsomretuo ni slatibro ytpme evah hcihw stnemele esoht yb nwohs era seicnelav elbairaV )I(
deriapnu fo rebmun mumixam eht mrof ot emas eht fo llehsbus eht ni deticxe steg snortcele riap enoL )II(
.etats deticxe ni nwohs si ycnelavoc mumixaM .snortcele
.ygrene noitomorp dellac si snortcele fo noitaticxe rof deriuqer ygrene ehT )III(
.tibro emas eht ni snortcele fo noitaticxE – elur noitomorP )VI(
– elpmaxE
etats dnuorG → surohpsohP )a(

)3lCP( 3 ycnelavoC
p3 s3
etats deticxE → surohpsohP

) 5l C P ( 5 – y c n e l a v o C
d3 p3 s3
.etats dnuorG → ruhpluS )b(

) 2F S ( 2 – y c n e l a v o C
d3 p3 s3
etats deticxE → ruhpluS

) 4F S ( 4 – y c n e l a v o C etats deticxe ts1


d3 p3 s3

) 6F S ( 6 – y c n e l a v o C etats deticxe ts2


d3 p3 s3
.6 & 4 ,2 si S fo ycnelavoc elbairav oS

15 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
snortcele fo riap enol eerht sah enidoI )c(

)etats dnuorG(
d5 p5 s5
7 = snortcele deriapnu rebmun mumixaM – setats deticxe eerht swohs ti oS
7 ,5 ,3 ,1 era seicnelaV elbairaV

: ycnelaV elbairaV fo snoitacilppA


– selucelom fo ecnetsixe nialpxe oT )I(
stsixe – 3lCN
tsixe htob 5lCP dna 3lCP elihW ).negortiN ni slatibro-d fo ecnesba ot eud( stsixe t’nseod – 5lCN
.surohpsohp ni tneserp era slatibro d3 esuaceb
stsixe 6FS dna 4FS elihW slatibro-d fo ecnesba ot eud stsixe t’nseod 6FO dna 4 FO tub ,stsixe –– 2FO
.llehs ecnelav sti ni tneserp ,latibro-d fo ecneserp ot eud
– sdnuopmoc fo sisylordyH )II(
srucco noitcaer oN → O2H + 4lCC
srucco noitcaeR → O2 H + 4lCiS
sah 4lCiS elihW .retaw morf snortcele fo riap enol eht tpecca ot slatibro-d ytpme on era ereht mota-C nI
.slatibro-d3 ytpme

2OiS →– 4)HO(iS →
   O 2H4 + 4lCiS
lCH 4 –

elbatsnU

s elpm axE
dnoB tnelavoC no de sab

- neewteb elbissop si dnob tnelavoc A 01.xE


smota ralimissiD )B( mota ralimiS )A(
selucelom ralimiS )D( smota ralimissid dna ralimiS )C(
.ytivitagenortcele ot detaler si tI )C( .loS

- tnelavoc tsom si gniwollof eht fo hcihW 11.xE


3 Ιl A ) D ( 3r B l A ) C ( 3l C l A ) B ( 3FlA )A(
.sesaercni retcarahc tnelavoc sesaercni noina fo ezis eht sA )D( .loS

- redro eht swollof retcarahc dnob tnelavoc eht ,4lCC dna 3 lCB ,2lCeB ,lCiL gnomA 21.xE
4 lCC< 3lCB < 2lCeB > lCiL )B( 4 lCC > 3lCB > 2lCeB < lCiL )A(
4lCC > 3lCB > 2lCeB > lCiL )D( 4lCC < 3lCB < 2lCeB < lCiL )C(
.noitac no egrahc ot gnidrocca sesaercni retcarahc tnelavoc ehT )C( loS

)gnippalrevO( – gnidnob lacimehc fo tpecnoc lacinahcem evaW


.desoporp neeb evah scinahcem mutnauq no desab seiroeht owt dnob tnelavoc fo erutan eht nialpxe oT
)TOM( yroeht latibro raluceloM )2( )TBV( yroeht dnob ecnelaV )1(

YROEHT DNOB ECNELAV .8


.demrof si dnob tnelavoc a woh nialpxe ot nodnoL & reltieH yb detneserp saw tI )I(
.retalS & gniluaP yb dednetxe saw tI

25 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
– era yroeht fo stniop niam ehT )II(
owt eht fo slatibro llehs ecnelav dellif flah neewteb srucco gnippalrevo dnob tnelavoc a mrof oT )a(
.smota
.ytilibats teg ot snips etisoppo htiw snortcele fo riap a seriuqca dnob gnitluseR )b(
gnippalrevo mumixam si ereht hcihw ni noitcerid eht morf rehto hcae ot resolc emoc slatibrO )c(
.retcarahc lanoitcerid sah dnob tnelavoc oS )d(
.dnob lacimehc fo htgnerts ∝ gnippalrevo fo tnetxE )e(
.srotcaf owt no sdneped gnippalrevo fo tnetxE )f(
gnippalrevo erom → slatibro lanoitcerid era f dna d ,p – slatibro fo erutaN )i(
g n i p p a l r e v o s s e l – l a n o i t c e r i d n o n → slatibro-s
.erom gnippalrevo o tnetxe - gnippalrevo laixa-oC – gnippalrevo fo erutaN )ii(
s s e l g n i p p a l r e v o f o t n e t x e - gnippalrevo laretalloC
s - s > p - s > p - p – gnippalrevo laixa - oC fo htgnerts fo redrO

s-s s-p p-p


.sesaerced htgnerts dnob ,sesaercni n fo eulav eht sA )g(
3 - 3 > 3 - 2 > 2 - 2 > 2 - 1 > 1 - 1
s2 - s2 > p2 - s2 > p2 - p2 emas si n fI )h(
p3 - s3 > p2 - s2 > p2 - s1
eb nac yeht ti ,noitamrof dnob otni retne nac llehs ycnelav ni deriap ydaerla si hcihw nortcelE )i(
.llehs ygrene emas eht fo ygrene rehgih ylthgils fo slartibro tnacav ot detfihs dna tsrif deriapnu
surohpsohp fo ycnelav atnep ,nobrac fo ycnelavartet ,norob fo ycnelavirt eht nialpxe nac tniop sihT )j(
.cte
.gnippalrevo fo tnuoca no demrof era sdnob fo sepyt owT )k(
dnob )π( iP )B( dnob ) σ( amgiS )A(

: dnob ) σ( amgiS )A(

dne ot dne( sixa rieht gnola slatibro dellif flah fo gnippalrevo eht yb smota owt neewteb demrof dnoB )I(
.dnob amgis dellac si )palrevo
.lanoitcerid si dnob σ )II(
.ecnanoser ni trap ekat ton od dnob σ )III(
.dnob σ elgnis a tuoba elbissop si noitator eerF )VI(
.dnob gnorts si ti ecneh dna sduolc nortcele neewteb elbissop si gnippalrevo mumixaM )V(
.smota owt neewteb dnob σ ylno eb nac erehT )IV(
gnippalrevo fo sepyt ruof yb demrof era dnob amgiS
.sixa raelcunretni eht gnola palrevo slatibro-S dellif flah owT - )2H( gnippalrevo s - s )a(

+
s1 s1 dnob σ
s1 s1
)elucel om 2H fo noitamroF(

35 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
dellif flah htiw palrevo mota eno fo latibro-s llif flah nehW – )FH fo noitamroF( gnippalrevo p - s )b(
.mota rehto fo latibro-p

F–H eniroulF fo p2 n egordyH fo s1

– slatibro dirbyh owt neewteb dnoB )c(


.cte ps - 3ps ,2ps - 3ps , 2ps - 2ps , 3ps - 3ps
σ
.dnob σ mrof slatibro fo gnippalrevo
ps ps ps ps

2 H2C fo noitamrof

latibro dirbyh ps-ps

fo slatibro-p dellif flah neewteb gnippalrevo laixaoc eht sevlovni tI – )laixaoC( – gnippalrevo p - p )d(
.smota tnereffid owt
2 r B ,2 F , 2 C fo noitamroF .ge
l

p p
– – + + + –

dnob )π( iP )B(


.sdnob π sa nwonk era gnippalrevo )laretal( esiwedis yb demrof dnob ehT )I(
sdnob σ naht evitcaer erom ecneh dna rekaew era demrof sdnob os ,laitrap ylno si gnippalrevo laretaL )II(
sdnob π rof rehto hcae ot esolc hcum emoc ot evah slatibro sa erom si suelcun neewteb noislupeR(
)noitamrof
– e l u c e l o m 2O f o n o i t a m r o F – e l p m a x E

π
P
y P
y

σ P
z + P
z
π

elucel om 2O
π

.gnidnob rof latibro hcae ni –e deriapnu evah mota negyxo fo zp dna yp ylnO
1 p2 1 p2 2 p2 2s2 2s1 – si negyxo fo noitarugifnoc nortcelE
z y x
.elbissop ton si dnob π a tuoba noitator eerF )III(
)elom/lac K 51 ro JK 5.36 si ecnereffid ygrene dnoB( dnob σ naht rekaew si dnob π )VI(
.elucelom a fo epahs eht enimreted ton od os ,lanoitcerid-non era sdnob π )V(
.ecnanoser ni trap sekat dnob π )IV(
.slatibro dirbyhnu ro erup yb demrof dnob π )IIV(
45 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
NOITASIDIRBYH .9
-: dnuopmoc eB fo elpmaxe na redisnoC
- neht noitasidirbyh tuohtiw demrof si ti fI
p–p p–s
lC eB lC
.htgnerts dnob p-s> htgnerts dnob p-p dna sretemarap tnereffid evah dluohs sdnob lC–eB eht htob
.emas era sdnob lC-eB eht htob fo ecnatsid dna htgnerts dnob yllacitcarP
.srucco latibro-p dna s fo noitasidirbyh fi emocrevo yam melborp sihT

: noitasidirbyH
.elucelom a ni sdnob tnelavoc fo erutan tnelaviuqe nialpxe ot ,gniluap yb decudortni si tI )I(
noitubirtsider dna ,slatibro cimota ygrene lauqe etamixorppa dna sepahs tnereffid fo gnixiM : noitinifeD )II(
dirbyh dellac era slatibro wen esehT .ygrene emas & epahs emas fo ,slatibro wen mrof ot ygrene fo
.noitasidirbyh dellac si nonemonehp eht dna .slatibro
2l C e B ni noitasidirbyh p-s gniredisnoc retfa woN
p – ps ps – ps
lC eB lC
.lauqe eb lliw sdnob eht htob fo htgnerts dnob

: noitasidirbyH fo citsiretcarahC

noitasidirbyh ni eroferehT .snortcele ton dna slatibro fo gnixim a si noitasidirbyH )I(


.trap ekat yam slatibro ytpme dna dellif flah ,dellif lluf
cimota fo rebmun ot tnelaviuqe eb syawla si demrof slatibro dirbyh eht fo rebmuN )II(
f o erutc urtS
.noitasidirbyh fo ssecorp eht ni trap nekat evah hcihw latibro
latibro dirbyh

egral morf demrof eb lliw dnoB .rellams si rehto dna regral si eno ,sebol owt gnivah latibro dirbyh hcaE )III(
.ebol
sdnob σ fo rebmun = noi ro elucelom a fo mota lartnec no slatibro dirbyh fo rebmun ehT )VI(
.nortcele fo riap enol +
.amgis eb lliw smota owt neewteb dnob ts1 ehT )i(
.dnob ip eb lliw smota owt emas neewteb dnob rehto ehT )ii(
. m o t a e l g n i s a n o t n e s e r p e b y a m s d n o b i p o w t m u m i x a M )iii(
.nortcele fo riap enol sa dellac noitamrof dnob ni trap ekat ton od hcihw mota na fo riap nortcele ehT )vi(
,elpmaxe rof snoitidnoc latnemirepxe no gnidneped etats noitasidirbyh ynam tneserper nac tnemele enO )V(
. s d n u o p m o c s t i n i n o i t a s i d i r b y h 3p s d n a 2 p s , p s g n i w o h s C
.cte 3ps ,2ps ,ps sa detaitnereffid era slatibro dirbyH )IV(
pb - pb > pb - pI > pI - pI : si pb & pI neewteb noisluper fo redro ehT )IIV(
mrof slatibro dirbyh eroferehT .slatibro cimota naht erom si latibro dirbyh ni seitreporp lanoitcerid ehT) IIIV(
.redro gniwollof ni eb lliw slatibro dirbyh tnereffid fo ytreporp lanoitcerid ehT .dnob amgis regnorts
3d 3ps < 2 d2ps < d3 ps < 3ps < 2ps < ps

55 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
gnippalrevo & noitasidirbyh neewteb ecnereffiD

noitasidirbyH gnippalrevO

mota emas eht fo slatibro gnoma srucco tI • smota owt fo slatibro neewteb srucco tI •
setapicitrap nac latibro fo epyt ynA • ni trap sekat slatibro dellif flah ylnO
gnippalrevo

.gnippalrevo erofeb tsuj ,ssecorP • dnob noitamrof dnob gnirud srucco tI
noitasidirbyh retfa demrof

deticxe ni ro dnuorg ni ecalp sekat yam tI
etats
• setapicitrap yam seigrene tnereffid fo latibrO
.setats deticxe ni

, 3lCP ,3HP , 3lCN ,3HN –etats dnuorgnI
demrof era slatibro desidirbyH • demrof era slatibro raluceloM •
– etats noitasidirbyh fo noitanimreteD
: )I( dohteM

: mota lartnec eht dnuorra e fo riap gniwollof eht tnuoC
nortcele fo riap enol lla tnuoC )b( )sdnob σ ro( sriap nortcele dednob σ erup lla tnuoC )a(
egrahc evitagen tnuoC )d( dnob etanidro oC tnuoC )c(
: )II( dohteM

: desu eb yam alumrof gniwollof noitasidirbyh tciderp oT

1
fo rebmun latot + mota lartnec eht ni –e ecnelav fo rebmun latoT[ = latibro dirbyh fo .oN
2
]noina no egrahc + noitac no egrahc – smota tnelavonom

1 +
.noitasidirbyh 3ps 4 = ]1 – 4 + 5[ 4HN
.ge
2

1
.noitasidirbyh d 3ps 5 = ] 4 + 6 [ 4FS
2

1
.noitasidirbyh 3ps 4 = ] 2 + 6 [ –2
4OS
2
)noina no egrahc ylno dda os tnelavid si ’O‘(

1
.noitasidirbyh 2ps 3 = ]1 + 5[ –
3ON
2
– era sriap –e fo epyt hcus fI
noitasidirbyh ps – owt
noitasidirbyh 2ps – eerht
noitasidirbyh 3ps – ruof
noitasidirbyh d3ps – evif
noitasidirbyh 2 d3ps – xis

noitasidirbyh 3 d3ps – neves

65 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
: noitasidirbyH fo sepyT
: noitasidirbyh ps
hcihw slatibro dirbyh wen owt evig ot dexim era mota na fo latibro–P eno & –s eno noitasidirbyh siht nI )I(
.slatibro dirbyh ps sa nwonk ygrene & epahs ni tnelaviuqe era
.°081 elgna dnob ta & enil thgiarts ni egnarra era slatibro dirbyh ps owt esehT )II(
%05 retcarahc-s )III(
p2 s2
)etats dnuorg( eB

p2 s2
)etats deticxe( eB

p2 s2

, 2FeB ni F morf snortcele owt stpecca mota eB


ps ps
noitasidirbyh ps n oitasidirbyh ps
: ) O = C = O( eluceloM 2OC
.slatibro p desidirbyhnu owt & slatibro dirbyh ps owt sah C ,elucelom 2OC nI

dn ob π

dn ob π
2 OC fo erutci p l atibro raluceloM

.elgna dnob °081 gnivah & epahs ni raenil a si elucelom 2OC ,suhT •
. d n o b π fo ecneserp eht ot eud decuder si dnob O–C neewteb htgnel dnob ehT •
]H BC AC H[ HC HC

slatibro p desidirbyhnu owt & slatibro dirbyh ps owt sniatnoc mota C hcae ,selucelom HC HC nI
p2 s2
)etats dnuorg(C

)etats deticxe(C

snortcele ruof stpecca mota C

n oitasidirbyh ps 2 H2C nI ,C & H morf

75 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
.C – C neewteb dnob amgis evig ot spalrevo C hcae fo latibro dirbyh ps •
dnob amgis gnimrof ,H fo latibro s htiw spalrevo mota C hcae fo latibro dirbyh ps eno gniniamer ehT •
.H – C neewteb
.sdnob )π(ip owt mrof ot yllaretal palrevo )xp dna yp( mota C hcae fo slatibro p desidirbyhnu owt ehT •
H–BC ≡ ACX–H ni eroferehT •
g n i p p a l r e v o p s – p s d e m r o f s i BC – A C n e e w t e b d n o b a m g i s
g n i p p a l r e v o s – p s d e m r o f s i H – AC n e e w t e b d n o b a m g i s
gnippalrevo s – ps demrof si H – BC neewteb dnob amgis
gnippalrevo xp – xp ,yp – yp : demrof si B C – AC neewteb dnob ip
3 era sdnob amgis latot , 2H2C ni tub sdnob amgis owt smrof mota C hcaE •
owt era 2H2 C ni sdnob π latoT .sdnob π owt smrof mota C hcaE •
: era enelyteca ni sdnob fo rebmun latoT •
sdnob 5 = dnob π 2 + σ3

noitasidirbyh ps no selpmaxE

epahS elgna dnoB noitasidirbyH .e.p.I dnob σ elpmaxE

raeniL °081 ps - 2 2
HeB

raeniL °081 ps - 2 2
FeB

raeniL °081 ps - 2 2
lCeB

raeniL °081 ps - 2 2
rBeB

raeniL °081 ps - 2 2
IeB

raeniL °081 ps - 2 2
OC

raeniL °081 ps 1 1 OC
+
raeniL °081 ps - 2 2 ON

raeniL °081 ps - 2 2
H2C

raeniL °081 ps - 2 NCH

raeniL °081 ps - 2 2
lCnZ

raeniL °081 ps - 2 2
lCgH

raeniL °081 ps - 2 2
lCdC

raeniL °081 ps - 2 O2N

raeniL °081 ps - 2 –
N
3

85 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
: noitasidirbyH 2p s
lla hcihw slatibro dirbyh 2ps wen eerht evig ot dexim era slatibro p owt & eno noitasidirbyh siht nI )I(
.seigrene tnelaviuqe & epahs emas eht ni era
.epahs ranalp lanogirt gnivig & °021 fo elgna ta era slatibro dirbyh 2ps eerht esehT )II(
p2 s2
)etats dnuorg( B

)etats deticxe( B

snortcele 3 stpecca mota B


3FB ni ∴ mota F 3 morF
slatibro dirbyh ps 2
%3.33 retcarahc - s )III(
: etihparG
2p s
si etihparg fo mota nobrac hcae no noitasidirbyh ehT •
slatibro dirbyh 2 ps
o t p a l r e v o y e h t & ° 0 2 1 t a m o t a n o b r a c h c a e n o t n e s e r p e r a l a t i b r o d i r b y h 2p s e e r h T
.snogaxeh fo sreyal gnimrof smota C tnecajda fo

enalp eht ot ralucidneprep si hcihw ,tneserp osla si latibro p .desidirbyhnu eno ,mota nobrac hcae nO
.slatibro dirbyh 2ps fo

.Å 53.3 si etihparg ni reyal owt neewteb ecnatsid ehT •
Å 53.3

Å 53.3

Å 24.1
)I ,rB ,lC ,F = X( 2XnS
p5 s5
)etats dnuorg( nS

)etats deticxe( nS

noitasidirbyh retfa nS

2
ps
. m o t a 2 h t i w –e 2 s e r a h s
N 2p s s i n o i t a s i d i r b y h e r o f e r e h t n o r t c e l e P L e n o & s d n o b σ o w t g n i v a h X n S
2 •
H ) . e P L e n o f o e c n e s e r p o t e u d ( ° 0 2 1 n a h t s s e l e b l l i w 2X n S s i e l g n a d n o b e h T •
. t n e b s i e l u c e l o m 2X n S f o e p a h s e h T •
H 95 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC

M
m
H
N
3a
o
u
p
b
e
d
ycrftli
noitasidirbyh 2ps no selpmaxE
epahS elgna dnoB noitasidirbyH .e.p.I dnob σ elpmaxE

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 3
HB
ranalp lanogirT °021 2
ps - 3 3
FB

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 3
lCB

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 3
HC

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 ,3 2
HC =2HC

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 etihparG

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 3
ONH

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 –
3
ON

)V( ralugnA °021 < 2


ps - 2 2
ONH

)V( ralugnA °021 < 2


ps - 2 2
OS

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 3
OS

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 –
3
OCH

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 2–
3
OC

)V( ralugnA °021 < 2


ps 1 2 2
lCnS

)V( ralugnA °021 < 2


ps 1 2 2
rBnS

ranalp lanogirT °021 < 2


ps 1 2 2
InS

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 3
lClA

ranalp lanogirT °021 2


ps - 3 3
lCaG

)V( ralugnA °021 < 2


ps 1 2 2
lCbP

: noitasidirbyH 3p s
evig ot dexim era ,noi ro elucelom a fo mota na fo slatibro p eerht & latibro s eno noitasidirbyh siht nI )I(
. s l a t i b r o d i r b y h 3p s s a d e l l a c s l a t i b r o d i r b y h w e n r u o f
’82°901 eb lliw slatibro dirbyh ruof eseht neewteb elgna ehT )II(
p2 s2
)etats dnuorg( C

)etats deticxe( C

erahs mota C

noitasidirbyh 3ps htiw snortcele ruof


smota negordyh 4
06 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
.nordehartet eb dluow slatibro dirbyh eseht morf deniatbo epahs ehT )III(
.noitidnoc siht tneserper selpmaxe gniwollof eerhT

: nortcele riap enol orez htiw sdnob amgis ruoF )a(


.noitidnoc siht tneserper selpmaxe gniwollof ehT
,2–4FeB ,– 4FlA ,– 4FB ,+ 4HN , 4lC ,4 rBC ,4lCC , 4FC , 4HC
.epahs nordehartet & ’82°901 si elgna dnob ,sdnuopmoc evoba nI

: nortcele fo riap enol eno & sdnob amgis eerhT )b(


.snoi & sdnuopmoc gniwollof yb nwohs si noitidnoc sihT )I(
N
– OlC +O H, HC : 3lCP,3lCN,3FP,3FN,3HiB,3HbS,3HsA,3HP,3HN
3 3 3
H H
ssel eb lliw elgna dnob & epahs ladimaryp ,noitasidirbyh 3ps )II(
negotrin no nortcele riap enol eht fo ecneserp eht ot eud naht
decuder si elgna dnob erofereht erom nortcele riap dnob sleper
H
.°701 ot ’82°901 morf
latibr o ladimaryp raluceloM .pb – pb > p.b – PI neewteb noisluper ehT
3H N fo

: snortcele riap enol riap enol owt & sdnob amgis owT )c(
.snoi dna sdnuopmoc gniwollof yb nwohs si noitidnoc sihT )I(
O
.cte 2IO ,2FO , 2rBO , 2lCO ,eT 2H ,eS 2H ,S 2H ,O 2H
H ,noitasidirbyh 3ps gniwohs mota lartnec eht ,selpmaxe evoba lla nI )II(
ro ’82°901 neht ssel rehtie eb lliw elgna dnob dna epahs ralugna
.’82°901 naht erom
H

O2H fo latibro ralugna raluceloM

yeht snortcele riap enol owt fo ecneserp ot eud tub , 3ps si mota O no noitasidirbyh eht O 2H nI
ni eb lliw noisluper esehT .nortcele riap dnob tnecajda rieht lleper neht dna rehto hcae lleper
.redro gniwollof
.p.b – .p.b > .p.b – .p.I > .p.I – .p.I
nortcele riap enol = .p.l
nortcele riap dnob = .p.b

noitasidirbyH 3ps no selpmaxE


epahS noitasidirbyH .e.p.I dnob σ elpmaxE

nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 HC
4

nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 4
lCC
nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 4
rBC
nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 +
4
lCP
nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 +
4
HN
nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 –
4
FB
nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 –
4
FlA
nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 2–
4
FeB
nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 2–
FgM
4

16 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
epahS noitasidirbyH .e.p.I dnob σ elpmaxE
nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 4
)OC(iN
ladimaryP 3
ps - 3 3
FN
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 3
lCN
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 ) HC(N
3 3
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 3
FP
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 3
lCP
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 3
lCsA
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 3
lCbS
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 3
lCiB
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 3
HN
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 3
H C –
:
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 +
O 3H
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 –2
3
OS
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 3
OlC
ladimaryP 3
ps 1 3 3
OeX
)V( ralugnA 3
ps 2 2 O2 H
)V( ralugnA 3
ps 2 2 S2H
)V( ralugnA 3
ps 2 2 –
2
HN
)V( ralugnA 3
ps 2 2 2
FO
)V( ralugnA 3
ps 2 2 O 2 lC
)V( ralugnA 3
ps 2 2 2
lCS
nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 dnomaiD
nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 2
OiS
nordeharteT 3
ps - 4 CiS

: noitasidirbyH d 3p s
hcihw slatibro dirbyh wen evif evig ot dexim era latibro d eno dna slatibro s eno noitasidirbyh siht nI )I(
.slatibro dirbyh d3ps sa dellac ygrene dna epahs ni tnelaviuqe era
ralucidneprep era slatibro dirbyh owt dna elgna °021 ta era slatibro dirbyh eerht ,slatibro evif eseht fo tuO )II(
lanogirt si semoceb elucelom fo epahs eht ,ranalp lanogirt si taht slatibro dirbyh eerht fo enalp eht ot
.ladiamrypib
n o i t a s i d i r b y h d 3 p s g n i w o h s 5F P , e l p m a x e r o F

d3 p3 s3
)etats dnuorg( P

d3 p3 s3
)etats deticxe( *P
d3 p3 s3
F fo e evif htiw erahs mota P

3
noitasidirbyh ps

26 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
.slatibro p dna s htiw desidirbyh si latibro 2zd noitasidirbyh siht nI )III(
f o e l u c e l o m a e v i g d n a s m o t a F e v i f h t i w d n o b a m g i s e v i f m r o f s l a t i b r o d i r b y h d 3p s e v i f y a w s i h t n I
.ladimarypib lanogirt si elucelom siht fo epahs ,5FP
lairotauqe 3 neewteb noisluper ot eud dnob lC–P eerht lairotauqe naht regnol era sdnob lC–P owt laixA
– e fo .p.b laixa 2 dna –e fo pb

snoitidnoc ruof era ereht noitasidirbyh evoba nI


lC
: nortcele riap enol orez dna sdnob amgis eviF )a(
.snoitidnoc siht tneserper selpmaxe gniwollof ehT
lC P
lC .cte 5FbS , 5lCbS ,5lCsA ,5FsA ,5 lP ,5 rBP ,5 lCP ,5FP
.ladimarypib lanogirt si selucelom evoba lla fo epahs ehT
lC

: nortcele fo riap enol eno dna sdnob amgis ruoF )b(


.noitidnoc siht tneserper selpmaxe gniwollof ehT
lC .cte 4 lCeT ,4 lCeS ,4 lCS ,– 4FbS ,– 4FP , 4FoP , 4F eT , 4FeS ,4FS
5l CP fo e rut curtS .nordehartet ralugerri eb lliw selpmaxe evoba lla fo epahs ehT
4FS selpmaxE

d3 p3 s3
etats dnuorg S
F
F d3 p3 s3
•• S etats deticxe S

F d3 p3 s3
F
4F S fo e rutcurtS F fo –e ruof htiw erahs mota S
3
slati bro dir by h d ps-evif

F : snortcele fo riap enol owt & sdnob amgis eerhT )c(


••

.noitidnoc siht tneserper selpmaxe gniwollof ehT


F lC .cte 3ICI , 3lCrB ,3FI , 3FrB ,3FIC
.epahs ’T‘ si sdnuopmoc evoba lla fo epahs ehT
••

F
: snortcele fo riap enol eerht & sdnob amgis owT )d(
3F I C f o e r u tc urtS
.noitidnoc siht tneserper selpmaxe gniwollof ehT
– rB , – I , – FeX , – FrB ,– FI ,– FlC ,– rBI , – lCI
3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
raenil eb lliw selpmaxe evoba fo yrtemoeg ehT

: noitasidirbyH 2d3p s
dirbyh wen xis evig ot dexim era slatibro-d owt & slatibro-p eerht ,slatibro-s eno ,noitasidirbyh siht nI )I(
.slatibro dirbyh 2d3ps sa nwonk slatibro
.lardehatco lacirtemmys eb lliw slatibro dirbyh xis evoba morf deniatbo elucelom fo epahs ehT )II(
.°09 eb lliw slatibro dirbyh lla neewteb elgna ehT )III(
, 4lCI ,4FOeX ,4FeX , 5lCI ,– 6FP ,2– 6FlA ,6FS : elpmaxE

36 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
. 2 zd dna 2
y–2xd era noitasidirbyh eht ni setapicitrap latibro ’d‘ owT )VI(
: 6FS
d3 p3 s3
)etats dnuorg( S

d3 p3 s3
)etats deticxe( S

d3 p3 s3
)noitasidirbyh retfa( S

2 3
noitasidirbyh d ps

: noitasidirbyH 3d 3p s
nwonk slatibro dirbyh wen neves evig ot dexim era slatibro-d eerht & slatibro-s eno ,noitasidirbyh siht nI )I(
.slatibro dirbyh 3d 3ps sa
.slatibro zyd & zxd yxd era desu slatibro-d noitasidirbyh siht nI )II(
.epahs ladimarypib lanogatnep ni detarugifnoc era slatibro 3d 3ps neves esehT )III(
.°09 fo selgna dnob owt & °27 fo era selgna dnob eviF )VI(
3 3
. 6FeX & 7FI– noitasidirbyh d ps gniwohs selpmaxe gniwollof ehT )V(
F
F

F F
I

F F
F
7F I fo erutcurtS

: selucelom tnelavoc fo epahS

.lewoP & kciwgdiS yb nevig saw tI •


nortcele fo sriap latot no sdneped dnuopmoc tnelavoc fo epahs eht tpecnoc siht ot gnidroccA •
– woleb sa nevig si hcihW .mota lartnec eht no tneserp )dednob non ro dednob(

noitasidirbyH epahS e fo riap latoT



.oN.S

ps raeniL owT .1
2
ps )ralugnairT( lanogirt renalpoC eerhT .2
ps
3
lardeharteT ruoF .3
d ps
3
ladimarypib lanogirT eviF .4
2
d 3p s )ladimarypib erauqS( lardehatcO xiS .5
3
d 3p s ladimarypib lanogatneP neveS .6

46 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
s elpm axE
noitazidirbyH no de sab

- s i 2H C = H C – C ≡ C – H f o d n o b e l g n i s C – C n o i s m o t a n o b r a c f o n o i t a z i d i r b y h e h T 3 1 . x E
ps- 3ps )D( 2p s - p s ) C ( p s - 2p s ) B ( 3 ps-3ps )A(

.mota nobrac owt rehto htiw dnob elbuod sah eno dnoces dna dnob elpirt sah nobrac tsrif eht sA )C( .loS

- era/si nobrac fo noitasidirbyh eht ,noissif cityloreteh seogrednu 6H2C ni dnob C – C 41.xE
2ps ,ps )D( 3 ps ,2ps )C( 3ps )B( 2p s ) A (

noitazidirbyh 3ps dna 2ps sah hcihw ¯ 3HC dna +3HC fo noitamrof eb lliw ereht noissif cityloreteh gniruD )C( .loS
.ylevitcepser

- ) c ( r i a p e n o l ) b ( d n o b π ,)a( dnob σ n i a t n o c e n o t c a f o m r o f c i l o n e e h T 5 1 . x E
c1 ,b2 ,a9 )D( c1 ,b1 ,a01 )C( c2 ,b2 ,a8 )B( c2 ,b1 ,a9 )A(
.woleb nwohs sa erutcurts sti morf raelc si sihT )A( .loS
H – H
| |
H — C= C — C — H
| |
H H

- era elucelom 3FrB fo yrtemoeg dna noitazidirbyh ehT 61.xE


lanogarteT dna 2d 3ps )B( ladimarypib lanogirt detrotsid dna d 3ps )A(
enoN )D( t n e b d n a d 3p s ) C (
noitazidirbyh elihw latibro d eno dna p eerht ,s eno si erehT )A( .loS

: yroeht RPESV ro yroeht mohyN dna eipsselG


)yroeht noisluper riap nortcele llehs ecnelaV(
fo epahs neht smota lacitnedi htiw gnola snortcele fo sriap dednob ylno ssessop mota larnec eht fI )I(
.lwoP & kciwgdiS ot gnidrocca dna lacirtemmys si dnuopmoc eht
ralugnairt – °021 – 3FB .ge
lardehartet – ’ 8 2 ° 9 0 1 – 4H C
raenil – °081 – 2OC
epahs neht ,nortcele fo riap enol sa llew sa snortcele fo riap dednob ssessop mota lartnec eht fI )II(
noisluper ot eud debrutsid lliw elgna dnob lanigiro eht .ei lacirtemmysnu eb lliw elucelom eht fo
.snortcele fo riap enol neewteb
lauqenu ot eud lacirtemmysnu semoceb elucelom ,smota edis fo epyt tnereffid gnivah no ylralimis
– si noisluper fo redrO .–e neewteb noisluper fo ecrof
1
nortcele fo riap enol fo .oN ∝ elgna dnoB .p.b – .p.b > .p.b – p.l > p.l – ,p.l

.°5.2 yb xorppa desaerced si elgna dnob ,nortcele fo riap enol eno gnisaercni yB )III(
3 ps →– O2H 3HN 4HC .g.e
noitasidirbyh °501 °701 °901
dnob neht nortcele fo riap enol fo rebmun emas evah mota lartnec fi selucelom tnereffid eht nI )VI(
.B & A fo seitivitagenortcele no dneped lliw elgna

56 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
e l g n a dnob eht sesaercni mota lartnec fo NE emas era smota edis fi selucelom fo epyt xBA nI
sesaercni

•• S ••O

••
••
>
°29 ° 501
H H H H
pb-p b noisluper ssel noisluper erom

'S' fo ytivita genort celE > 'O' fo yti vitagenortcelE


3HsA > 3HP > 3HN – fo elgna dnoB
neht sesaercni smota edis fo NE eht dna emas era smota lartnec fi ,selucelom epyt xBA nI
.sesaerced elgna dnob

•O ••O
••

••
°011
° 301
H H lC lC

e nirolhc naht retaerg si eniroulF f o ytivitagenortcelE

)esaerced mota edis fo NE( 3lP < 3 rBP < 3 lCP < 3FP
O2rB < O 2lC < 2FO
2 rBS < 2 lCS < 2FS
.sesaercni elgna dnob mota fo ezis gnisaercni nO ,mota edis fo ezis no sdneped elgna dnoB
O 2H > O2lC

••O• • ••O• •

°011 ° 501
lC lC H H

s elpm axE
yroehT RPESV no de sab

– rehto naht noitasidirbyh tnereffid sah mota lartnec hcihw gniwollof nI 71.xE
2OS )D( O2H )C( 2FO )B( O 2lC )A(
.noitasidirbyh 3ps evah eerht rehto noitasidirbyh 2ps sah ti esuaceB )D( .loS

- retarahc s %52 dna retcarahc p %57 sah eno hcihw nobracordyh gniwollof nI 81.xE
2HC: )D( 4HC )C( 2H 2C )B( 4H 2C )A(
.noitasidirbyh 3 ps sah ti esuaceb 4HC )C( .loS

- tcerrocni ni tnemetats gniwollof eht fo hcihW 91.xE


sriap gnidnob naht ecaps erom ypucco sriap gnidnob-noN )A(
dirbyh d3ps sa debircsed era elucelom ladimarypib lanogirt a ni slatibro gnidnob ehT )B(
epahs raenil sah 2lCnS )C(
cinortceleosi era – 4lClA dna + 4lCP )D(
.tcerroc era seciohc rehto nortcele fo riapenol fo ecneserp ot eud elucelom epahs tneb a si 2lCnS )C( .loS

66 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
- o t r a l i m i s y r e v s i 3H N f o e p a h S 0 2 . x E
+
3HC )D( 3HB )C( ¯3HC )B( 4HC )A(
.hcae ¯e fo riap enol eno htiw noitazidirbyh fo etats emas eht evah htoB )B( .loS

-epahs ladimaryp sah gniwollof eht fo hcihW 12.xE


6FeX )D( 2FeX )C( 4FeX )B( 3OeX )A(

.nortcele fo riap enol fo ecneserp ot euD )A( .loS

uoy dluow elgna tahW .negyxo ta noitazidirbyh emas evah retaw dna rehtE 2 2 . x E
- meht rof tcepxe
ot eud ,rehte ni tuB .noisluper riap dnob dna riap enol ot eud ’82º901 naht ssel si elgna dnob O2H nI .loS
’82º901 neht retaerg semoceb elgna dnob spuorg lykla owt neewteb noisluper lautum gnorts

: dnuopmoC tnelavoC fo citsiretcarahC


.diuqiL & diloS ,saG - setats eerht eht lla ni dnuof era sdnuopmoc tnelavoC -: etats lacisyhP )I(
etats suoesag nI – selucelom etarapeS
etats dilos & diuqil nI – selucelom etaicossA
).selucelom eht gnoma gnidnob negordyh dna ecrof s’laaw rednav gnorts ot euD(
- segnahc etats lacisyhp sesaercni thgiew elucelom eht sA
2tA ,2l 2rB 2 lC dna 2F .ge
dilos diuqil sag

.selucelom eht neewteb sesaercni ecrof s’laaw rednaV .puorg a ni mottob ot poT
smrof ,sdnob tnelavoc yb rehtegot deknil era smota hcihw ni sdilos esohT - : dilos tnelavoC )II(
.erutcurts tnaig lanoisnemid eerht etinifini
.cte 2OiS ,CiS ,NIA ,etihparG ,dnomaiD .g.e
eht neht dna sdnob tnelavoc yb demrof era selucelom )etarapes( etercsiD - : dilos raluceloM
)ecrof laawrednaV( .noitcartta fo ecrof ralucelomretni ot eud detaicossa selucelom
.cte )2OC diloS( eci yrd ,2I diloS .ge
ralop wef tuB .yticirtcele fo rotcudnoc dab era sdnuopmoc tnelavoc yltsoM - : ytivitcudnoC )III(
.cte 3HN .qil ,O 2H .g.e.yticirtcele tcudnoc nac noitasinoi fles ot eud sdnuopmoc tnelavoc
–HO + +O 3H O2H + O 2H
– +
2HN + 4H N 3HN2
.yticirtcele tcudnoc nac hcihw demrof era snoi eerF
.retaw ni lCH ,etihparG - : snoitpecxE
smrof sdnuopmoc ralop noN .stnevlos ralop non ni elbulos era dnuopmoc ralop noN - : ytilibuloS )VI(
.selucelom tnevlos ralop non htiw dnob laaw rednaV
.msiremosi swohs ti os ,lanoitcerid dna digir si dnob tnelavoC - : msiremosI )V(
.sdnuopmoc cinagrO .ge
ldo fo gnikaerb sevlovni ti esuaceB .wols era sdnuopmoc tnelavoc neewteb noitcaeR - : noitcaeR )IV(
.sdnob wen fo noitamrof dna sdnob

76 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
TNEMOM ELOPID .01

)dnoB tnelavoC ni erutaN cinoI(


.tnemom elopid fo smret ni derusaem si elucuelom ro dnob tnelavoc ralop yna fo ytiraloP )I(
. )µ( tnemom elopid fo tpecnoc eht decudortni gniluaP ,ytiralop fo tnetxe fo tnemerusaem roF )II(
elopid dellac si selop owt neewteb )d( ecnatsid eht dna )q( egrahc evitagen ro evitisop fo tcudorp ehT
.tnemom
)ecnatsid × egrahc fo edutingam( d × q = µ - ereH
.noitcerid sa llew sa edutingam htob sah ti .e.i ytitnauq rotcev a si tnemom elopiD )III(
tnemele ev- ortcele ot ev+ ortcele morf gnitniop worra na yb detneserper si tnemom elopid fo noitceriD )VI(
.snortcele fo riap enol ot mota lartnec morf dna
Θ ⊕

nortcele fo riap e nol mota lartn ec ro

eybeD si tnemom elopid fo tinU )V(


.mc use 81–01 × 1 = eybeD 1
ertem bmoluoc 92–01 × 6.1 =
NE∆ ∝ µ .e.i NE fo ecnereffid nopu sdneped µ elucelom cimotaid eht nI )IV(
I–H > rB–H > lC–H > F–H : µ fo redro
O–O ,rB–rB ,lC–lC ,F–F ,H–H rof 0 = µ
.sdnob tnelavoc eht lla fo stnemom elopid fo mus rotcev eht no sdneped µ selucelom cimotaylop roF )IIV(
.yrtemoeg raluger rieht ot eud 0 = µ .cte , 6FS dna 5l C P roF ) I I I V (
.erutcurts ranalp ot eud 0 = µ evah lynehpid ,enelahthpan ,enezneB ) X I (
si ti dna( dnuopmoc lacirtemmys ro dnuopmoc ralop-non si dnuopmoc naht ,orez si mus rotcev eht fI )X(
. ) o r e z e b d l u o h s d n o b y r e v e f o µ laudividni taht laitnesse ton
.cte 4HiS ,5lCP ,2 SC2 OC ,4HC , 4lCiS ,4lCC , 3XB )A( : elpmaxE
era sdnuopmoc hguoht neve ralop era .cte lC–P ,O–C ,H–C ,lC–C ,F–B dnob eht selpmaxe eseht nI
.ralop-non

•• •• ••
FN 3 HP 3 HN )B(
3

F H H 3 µ

H P µ Hµ N
••

F N µ
••

µ
••

4 4
4 2

F H H 1µ
H P f o NE D74.1= µ
D42.0= µ

D74.1 = 4µ + 3µ + 2µ + 1µ = µ latoT

.sdnob H–O owt fo µ tnatluser si hcihw D 58.1 si O2H fo tnemom elopiD )IX(
−δ
O

+δ +
δ
H H
.ruhplus naht rehgih si negyxo fo ytivitagenortcele esuaceb S2 H fo µ O 2H fo µ
.tnemom elopid retaerg evah elucelom fo erutcurts ralugnA )IIX(
86 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
: tnemom elopid fo noitacilppA
- elucelom fo yrtemoeg dna ytiralop enimreted oT )I(
lacirtemmys dna ralop non si dnuopmoc 0 = µ fI
.cte 2FeB .4 HC ,4 lCC ,3FB , 2OC .ge
.lacirtemmysnu dna ralop eb lliw dnuopmoc 0 ≠ µ fI
.cte 3 lCHC ,lC3HC ,O 2lC ,3HN ,2OS ,O 2H

-: retcarahc cinoi % etaluclac oT )II(


µ fo eulav la tnemirepxE
001 × = retcarahc cinoI %
µ fo eulav l acitiroehT

-:mrof snart ro mrof sic hsiugnitsid oT )III(


.sremosi snart naht rehgih yllamron si sremosi sic fo tnemom elopiD )a(
– .ge

H—C—lC H—C—lC

lC—C —H H—C—lC

0 =µ 0≠µ
mrof-snarT mrof-sic
) 0 ≠ µ ( r alo P noN ) 0 ≠ µ ( ralo P
-\ tnemom elopid retaerg evah lliw remosi-snart naht tceffe evitcudni etisoppo evah spuorg owt fI )b(
.ge
lC H lC H

C C
C C

3HC H H 3HC

1
∝ µ .sdnuopmoc citamora ni stneutitsbus fo noitisop etacol oT )VI(
elgna dnoB
eb lliw sdnuopmoc gnir enezneb fo µ noitisop lacirtemmys eht ni teserp era stneutitsbus emas fI )a(
orez
lC
lC lC
lC

lC lC
0≠µ 0=µ
°06 elg nA °021 elg nA °081 elg nA
enezneb orol hcid-o enez neb orolhcid-m e nezneb orolhcid-p

esaercni µ fo eulav esaerced stneutitbus neewteb elgna sA )b(


-stnemom elpid fo sredro tnatropmi emoS
S 2H > O2H 3FN > 3HN > O 2H > FH
3 HN < 3FN < 3FB I 3HC > rB 3HC > F3HC > lC 3HC
3I C P < 3 H P 3 HN > 2OS > O 2H > FH
+
2O2H < O2H 2 ON
> 2ON > –2ON

96 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
s elpm axE
tnemoM elopiD no de sab

- ralop tsom si sdnob gniwollof eht fo hcihW 32.xE


lC – S )D( F – C )C( H – P )B( H – O )A(
. e c n e r e f f i d y t i v i t a g e n o r t c e l e m u m i x a m o t e u D )C( .loS

- si lCH neht ,D 20.1 = µ fi ).u.s.e 01–01 × 8.4 = egrahC( Å 572.1 si lCH fo htgnel dnoB 42.xE
cinoi %04 )D( tnelavoc %05 )C( tnelavoc %38 )B( cinoi %001 )A(
r e t c a r a h c c i n o i % )B( .loS
20.1 µ devresbo
tnelavoc %38 = cinoi %71 = 001 × = 001 × µ l acitiroeht =
8.4 x 572.1

- si elopid eht fo htgnel ehT .D84.1 si elucelom ainomma eht fo tnemom elopid ehT 52.xE
enoN )D( m 803 )C( m 20 1 × 5 ) B ( m 11–01 × 80.3 )A(
mc 03–0 1 × 3 3 . 3 × 8 4 . 1 = M )A( .loS
.mc 03 –01 × 39.4 =
C 91–01 × 6.1 = q
03− µ
01 × 39.4
mn 8030.0 = m 11– 01 × 80.3 = = =l
91− q
01 × 6.1
e l o p i d s t i e s a c e h t n i e s u a c e b e l g n a i r t l a r e t a l i u q e n a f o e p a h s e h t e v a h t o n n a c e l u c e l o m 3H N e h T
eht htiw dimaryp ralugnairt a fo mrof eht ni detcurtsnoc yllautca si tI .orez lauqe dluow tnemom
.esab sti fo srenroc eht ta smota negordyh eht dna xetrev sti ta mota negortin

DNOB ETANIDROOC .11

.dnob etanidrooc dellac si mota eno morf emoc riap –e derahs eht hcihw ni dnob tnelavoc a si tI )I(
-era dnob etanidro-oc fo noitamrof eht rof snoitidnoc yrasseceN )II(
.nortcele fo riap enol eno tsaelta evah dluohs dna etelpmoc eb dluohs mota ronod fo tetcO )a(
.nortcele fo riap eno tsael ta fo ycneiciffed a evah dluohs mota rotpeccA )b(
××
× ••
Y → X ro Y →X .ge
••
••

×
×× ••
.ronod dellac si gniriahs rof riap nortcele edivorp hcihw motA )III(
ro rotpecca-ronod dellac si ti yhw si tahT .rotpecca dellac si riap nortcele stpecca hcihw mota rehtO )VI(
dnob evitad

F H

3 HN →3HN → F B + ••N H

F H
.dnuopmoc tneiciffed nortcele si 3FB
:elpmaxE
H

H → H
+
H N + N H +
4ΗΝ
3

H
)dica detsnorB - yrwoL(
)rotpecca –e(

07 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
H H
H +
O + •• + +
→ H O O3H Ο3Η

••
••
H H
••
O •• ••
•• O O O

••

••

••
••O ••O •• 3O

••
••
•• •• ••
O N O2N

••

••
N
••
- s w o l l o f s a e r a , t n e s e r p e r a s d n o b e t a n i d r o - o c d n a t n e l a v o c , c i n o I h c i h w n i sdnuopmoC
cte ,3ONK , 4OP 3aN ,CNK ,]6)NC(eF[4K , 4OSuC ,lC 4HN

s elpm axE
dnoB tnelavoC etanidrooC no de sab

- si dnob etanidro-oc dna tnelavoc htob sniatnoc hcihw dnuopmoc ehT 62.xE
enoN )D( NCH )C( NC 5H2C )B( CN 5H 2C )A(
C dna N neewteb osla dnob noitanidrooc si ereht tub dnob tnelavoc evah sdnuopmoc lla hguohT )A( .loS
CN 5H2C ni

- e r a 5 O 2N n i t n e s e r p d n o b f o e p y t e h T 7 2 . x E
etanidrooc dna tnelavoC ) D ( t n e l a v o c d n a c i n o I ) C ( cinoi ylnO )B( tnelavoc ylnO )A(
ti tuoba sraelc 5O2N fo erutcurts ehT )D( .loS
O → N — O — N ← O
|| ||
O O

- era dica ciruhplusoryp ni dnob etanidro-oc dna tnelavoc fo .oN 82.xE


6 ,4 )D( 4 ,4 )C( 6 ,6 )B( 4 ,6 )A(
swollof sa si 7O2 S2 H fo erutcurtS )A( .loS

O O
↑ ↑
HO— S —O— S —O—H
↓ ↓
O O

- T B V o t g n i d r o c c a e u r t t o n s i h c i h W 92.xE
snips etisoppo fo snortcele deriapnu htiw slatibro fo gnippalrevo eht yb demrof si dnob tnelavoc A )A(
nips emas fo snortcele deriapnu htiw slatibro fo gnippal revo eht yb demrof si dnob tnelavoc A )B(
dnob eht si regnorts eht gnippalrevo fo tnetxe eht retaerg ehT )C(
latibro eht fo ytisned nortcele mumixam fo noitcerid eht ni ylno ecalp sekat gnippalrevO )D(
.TBV rof eurt era stcaf rehtO .dnob a mrof ot enibmoc reven nips emas fo snortcelE )B( .loS

- lanoitcerid syawla era sdnob tnelavoc yhW 03.xE


lanoitcerid era hcihw slatibro fo gnippalrevo ot eud demrof era sdnob tnelavoc eht sA .loS

- sah edinayc lyllA 13.xE


sriapenol 1 dna sdnob ip 3 ,sdnob amgis 9 )B( sdnob iP 4 dna sdnob amgis 9 )A(
snortcele gnidnob-non 4 na sdnob ip 3 ,sdnob amgis 8 )D( sdnob ip 5 dna sdnob amgis 8 )C(

17 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
e d i n a y c l y l l a f o e r u t c u r t s m o r f r a e l c s i s i h T )B( .loS

H H H
| | |
:N≡≡C— C — C = C —H
|
H

DNOB NEGORDYH .21


: noitninifeD
dna elucelom eno fo mota negordyh dednob yltnelavoc neewteb ecrof evitcartta citatsortcele na si tI )I(
)N ,O ,F( mota evitagenotcele na
sdnuopmoc cinoi ni demrof ton si tI )II(
)ralop-non ni ton( ,sduopmoc tnelavoc ralop ni smrof dnob–H )III(
noitcartta elopid-elopid sa nwonk osla si tI )VI(
–δF — +δH ...... –δ F — +δ H .... –δ F — +δH

- : gnidnob-H rof noitidnoc niaM


N ,O ,F ekil tnemele ev–ortcele hgih htiw dednob yltnelavoc eb dluohs —H )I(
.llams eb dluohs tnemele ev–ortcele fo ezis cimotA )II(
–si ezis cimota fo redro gnisaerceD
F > O > N
–si ezis cimota fo redro gnisaerceD
N > O > F
)0.3( )5.3( )0.4(
1
Z fo ezis cimota ∝ )tnemele( Z fo ytivitagenortcelE ∝ dnob–H fo htgnertS )III(
fo seitivitagenortcele ,)noitasidirbyh ps( dnob elpirt )N ≡ C–( ot eud ,NCH ni srucco gnidnob negordyH )VI(
.sesaercni negortin dna nobrac
N ≡≡ C — H .......... N ≡≡ C — H ......... N ≡≡ C — H
gnidnoB negordyH fo sepyT

raluceloM artnI raluceloM retnI

raluceloM retnI oreteH raluceloM retnI omoH

dnob–H ralucelomretnI )A(


sa nwonk sdnuopmoc tnereffid ro emas eht ehtie fo selucelom erom ro owt neewreb noitamrof dnob–H
gnidnob–H ralucelom retnI
.sepyt owt era esehT
.sdnuopmoc emas fo selucelom neewteb dnob–H -: ralucelomretniomoH )i(
.ge
F H H H H

H H H H O O O

F F H H H H

27 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
.sdnuopmoc tnereffid fo selucelom neewteb dnob–H -: ralucelomretni ortneH )ii(
retaw ,lohocla .ge
⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ H — O ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ H — O ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ H — O ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ H — O

H R H R

lohocla lohocl a retaW loh ocla

.elucelom eht nihtiw ecalp sekat tI -: dnob–H alucelom artnI )B(


rehtona htiw dnob–H mrof ,puorg lanoitcnuf a fo stnemele evitagenortcele htiw dednob–H )i(
.elucelom emas eht no noitisop tseraen no tneserp tnemele evitagenortcele
.sdnuopmoc cinagro ni derucco yltsom si dnob–H fo epyt sihT )ii(
. ) n o i t a l e h C ( n o i t a m r o f g n i r n i t l u s e r tI )iii(
.ge
H
O O H O
H
C O C
O O O
H
H N
H
O F O O
etaozn eb lyxor dyhid 6-2 lonehporoulf–O edyhedlalycilaS lonehportin –O

: seitreporp lacisyhp no dnob–H fo tceffE


ytilibuloS )I(
gnidnob–H ralucelom retnI )A(
gnidnob–H ot eud )tnevlos raloP( retaw ni elbulos era )ralop-noN( sdnuopmoc cinagro weF )a(
⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ H — O ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ H — O ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅

H R
.retaw ni evlossid ,cte esotcurF ,esoculG–selpmaxe rehtO
elihw retaw ni elbulos si rehte lyhtemiD .)dnob–H on( elbulosni era .cte enakla ,rehte ,enoteK )b(
stpuretni gnidnob–H spuorg lyhte yklub ot eud ,elbulos yllaitrap si rehte lyhteid
HO 3HC < 3HCO 3HC –redro ytilibuloS )c(
enima yraitret > enima yradnoces > enima yramirP

O H :gnidnob–H ralucelom artnI )B(


H C
si–H os ,gnidnob–H yb etalehc mrof ti sa ytilibulos sesaerced tI )a(
O
.elucelom rehto rof eerf ton
.sevlossid ton nac os elucelom retaw htiw dnob–H mrof ton nac tI )b(

37 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
dnob–H ralucelom retnI )C(
⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ H — O H—C O ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅H — O

C C
H O ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ H — O O H
edyhedl azneb yx or dy h–p

levlossid nac ti os elucelom retaw htiw dnob–H mrof nac tI

:ytisocsiV )II(
sesaercni ytisocsiv os rehtegot selucelom setaicossa dnob – H

HO — 2HC
HO — 2HC
HO — HC < < HO 3HC
HO — 3HC
HO — 2HC

HC — O — 3HC
3 > HO — 3HC > O2H

rehte loh ocla retaw

tniop gnilliob dna tniop gnitleM ) I I I (


.sesaercni sdnuopmoc fo .P.B & .P.M dnob–H ralucelomretni ot euD )a(

3HC—O — 3HC > HO3 HC > O2H


lohocla cidyhonom > lohocla cirdyhid > lohocla cirdyhirT )b(
eroferehT .thgiew ralucelom elbarapmoc fo lohocla naht dnob–H regnorts mrof dica cilyxobraconoM
.lohocla naht rehgih si dica hcilyxobrac fo .P.B
-senima remosi .P.B & .P.M fo redro gnisaerceD )c(
enima–°3 > enima–°2 > enima–°1

R
|
)mota negortin htiw negordyh on( R — N — R > R — HN — R > 2HN — R
.sthgiew ralucelom gnisaerced no sesaerced sedirdyh AIIV ,AIV ,AV fo stniop gnilioB )d(
AIIV AIV AV
lCH > rBH > IH > FH .p.b FH O2H 3HN
S2H > 2HeS > 2HeT > O2H lCH S2H 3H P

3HP > 3 HsA > 3HbS > 3HN rBH 2HeS 3H s A


IH 2HeT 3HbS
gnidnob–H ot eud si FH dna O2 H ,3HN fo tniop gniliob ni esaercni neddus tuB )e(
lCH < S 2H < 3HP 3HN > FH > O2H
selucelom eseht gnoma noitcartta fo ecrof eht os ,noitamrof gnir ot esir sevig gnidnob–H ralucelomartnI
.wol era P.B dna .P.M oS .ecrof laaw rednav era
47 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
: thgiew raluceloM )VI(
gnidnob–H yb rucco noitamrof remid ot eud ,alumrof ralucelom sti fo elbuod si HOOC3 HC .tw raluceloM
O — H ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ O
R —C C —R
O ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ H — O
:etats lacisyhP )V(
.sag si S2H elihw diuqil si O2H
.retaw naht ssel si eci fo ytisned neht neve gnidnob–H evah htoB -:ecI dna retaW
retaw fo noitaicossa yb morf ,erutcurts latsyrc ekil egac nepo fo esuaceb erom si eci fo emuloV
.dnob–H fo pleh eht htiw selucelom
.rennam lardehartet ni demrof era elucelom retaw gnoma dnob negordyh ruof ot eud dilos semoceb O 2H
H H H H
3
1
O O O 2 O
4
H H H H
htgnerts esaB )IV(
.snoi – HOsevig ti .e.i sisylordyh ssel oS .retaw htiw dnob–H mrof N 3)3HC( ,HN 2) 3HC( ,2HN 3HC

.gnidnob–H on ot eud tnuoma egral ni noi –HO evig lliw )dnuopmoc muinomma( HO +N 4) 3HC( elihW
H H
– +
HO + H — N — 3 HC O — H ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ N — 3HC

H H H

+
3 HC
).d nuopmoc muinommA(
m ota–N htiw yltcerid dednob mota–H ON 3 HC N 3 HC
.srucco gnidno b negordyh on os
3 HC

gnidnob–H ralucelomartni fo tceffE


dica fo htgnertS )I(
ot ytilibats artxe sevig dica na fo esab etagujnoc eht ni gnidnob–H ralucelomartni fo noitamrof ehT )a(
dica ciozneb naht regnorts si dica cilycilaS .ge sesaercni htgnerts dica ecneh dna esab etagujnoc
.dica cilycilas > dica ciozneb yxordyhid – 6 ,2 dna

H
O O O O
H C H C
+
H+O O

es ab etagujnoC

2 /1– 2 /1–
O O
H C H
O O
+
H +

n oi eta oz neb yxordyhid 6 ,2

57 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
eerf ton si +H os smrof dnob–H ,HO5H2C nI .HO5H 2C naht cidica erom si HS2H2C )b(
eerf ton si +H ,F – H ni dnob–H ot eud ,IH naht dica rekaew si FH )c(

-:etardyh larolhc fo ytilibatS )II(


elbats si etardyh larolhc tub ,elbatsnu eb lliw ti tneserp era mota emas eht no puorg HO erom ro owt fI
.)gnidnob–H ot eud(

H ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ lC
O
etardyh larolhC H C C lC
O
H ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ lC
.)snart( dica ciramuf naht dica regnorts si )sic( dica cielaM )III(
O O

C H C H

+
O C HO C
H + H
HO C HO C
dica cielam fo esa b etagujnoc elbatS
C H C H
O O
HOOC H
C

C
H COOH

)gni dnob-H ralucelomartni-oN( dica ciram uF

s elpm axE
dnoB negordyH no de sab

- gnidnob-H ralucelomretni evah ton seod gniwollof eht fo eno hcihW 23.xE
3H C ) D ( FH )C( lonehportiN-o )B( O2 H )A(
woleb nwohs sa gnidnob H ralucelomretni sah lonehportiN .loS

)2( ecneH

-tniop gniliob rieht fo redro gnisercni ni egnarrA 33.xE


ΙH ,rBH ,lCH ,FH
– tcerroc si redro hcihW
FH > Ι H > rBH > lCH)B( FH < Ι H < rBH < lCH)A(
enoN )D( FH < ΙH > rBH < lCH)C(
FH < Ι H < rBH < lCH )A( .loS
FH ni gnidnob negordyh gnorts ot eud

67 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
SECROF S’LAAW REDNAV .31

2OC , 4HC , 2lC , 2O ,2H


sa hcus selucelom ralop non fo esac ni srucco secrof evitcartta fo epyt sihT )a(
.cte
hctud yb desoporp tsrif saw elucelom ralopnon eht gnoma secrof evitcartta kaew fo ecnetsixe ehT )b(
laaW rednaV .D.J tsitneics
thgiew ralucelom ∝ ecrof laaw rednaV )c(
thgiew cimotA ∝
tniop gnilioB ∝

- : ecrof s’laaW rednaV fo sepyT


lCH sa hcus elucelom ralop a dna +aN sa hcus noi na neewteb si ecrof sihT - noitcartta elopid noI )i(

+ – +
+
lCH aN

lCH dna FH sa hcus selucelom ralop owt neewteb ni niaga si tI - noitcartta elopiD elopiD )ii(

)g(lCH FH
sa elopid a sa noi na yb decudni si elucelom lartuen a esac siht nI - noitcartta elopid decudni noI ) i i i (
gif ni nwohs

+ + → +

+a N
2lC
noitcudni retfa noitcudni erofeB
yb elopid a sa decudni si elucelom lartuen a esac siht nI : noitcartta elopid decudnI - elopiD )vi(
.gif ni nwohs sa elopid rehtona

+ + →

2lC lCH .g.e

selucelom ralop non owt neewteb ecrof noisrepsid nodnoL ro noitcartta elopid decudni - elopid decudnI )v(
.cte eH ,2lC ni sa

+
+

2lC 2lC

swollof sa si sdnob suoirav fo htgnerts evitaler ehT :etoN


dnob laaw rednaV > dnob-H > dnob cillateM > dnob tnelavoC > dnob cinoI

77 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
REBMEMER OT STNIOP
cimotaid eht fo elom eno etaicossid ot egnahc yplahtne si elucelom cimotaid a fo ygrene dnoB )a(
.smota suoesag evitcepser eht mrof ot elucelom suoesag
.lenrek fo ezis rellams yb deruovaf si gnidnob cillatem gnortS )b(
erutan cillatem htiw detaler si yroeht dnaB )c(
.ecnetsixe tnednepedni evah ton od erutcurts ecnanoser ehT )d(
dna secrof evitcartta fo gninekaew ,taeh fo noitulove sevlovni sdnuopmoc cinoi fo noitardyh ehT )e(
snoi otni noitaicossid
llehs tsomretuo eht ni snortcele-p dna-s fo rebmun lautca eht ot lauqe si ycnelavoc mumixam ehT )f(
latsyrc eht ni noitcartta cinoiretni eht sesaerced retaw esuaceb retaw ni evlossid slatsyrc cinoi ynaM )g(
.noitavlos ot eud ecittal
.snietorp fo erutcurts yradnoces eht sezilibats dnob negordyH )h(
osi ot gnidrocca erutcurts ralimis dna slatibro ralucelom ralimis evah seiceps ralucelom cinortceleosI )i(
elpicnirp cirtcele
eht ni smota dednob eht etarapes dna dnob eht fo elom eno kaerb ot deriuqer ygrene fo tnuoma ehT )j(
ygrene noitaicossid dnob sa nwonk si etats suoesag
.θ elgna dnob sa nwonk si slatibro dednob eht neewteb elgna egareva ehT )k(
.smota dnob owt fo ielcun fo sertnec eht neewteb ecnatsid egareva eht sa denifed eb yam htgnel dnoB )l(
erom ni esillatsyrc nac ecnatsbus emas eht dna eno nehw desu mret a si )yportollA( msihpromyloP )m(
.smrof eno naht
negyxo fo slatibro πp dellif fo palrevo ot eud gnidnob πd - πp sa llew sa gnidnob π p - πp si ereht 2OS nI )n(
.ruhplus fo slatibro d3 tnacav eht htiw
rehtona eno htiw muirbiliuqe ni syawla era hcihw smrof owt ni stsixe 3OS 2H )o(

)dica suoruhplus lacirtemmyS(

)dica suoruhplus lacirtemmysnU(

. 3OS2H fo retcarahc gnicuder eht snialpxe dnob H – S gniniatnoc mrof lacirtemmysnu ehT
eht lla dna noitazidirbyh 3ps ni mota S htiw erutcurts ladimaryp a sah –23 OS .e.i 3OS 2H fo noina ehT )p(
)mp 431( htgnel dnob lauqe fo era sdnob O – S
2
etats noitazidirbyh ps ni mota ruhplus htiw elucelom ralugnairt ranalp a si 3OS ,esahp sag eht nI )q(

87 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
,mp 341 fo ecnatsid O – S trohs dna sdnob O – S eht lla fo ycnelaviuqe eht rof tnuocca ot redro nI
-πp lanoitidda htiw gnola gnidnob O – S πp-πp gnivlovni dirbyhcnanoser a sa deredisnoc eb yam 3OS
.gnidnob πp
.nwohs sa erutcurts reyal elbats erom eht ro sgnir derekcup ot seziremylop 3OS ,esahp dilos eht nI )r(

O O O O

S S S S
O O
O O O
O O
O O O
S

O O O O O O

erutcurtS reyaL erutcurtS gniR

:)TOM( yroeht latibrO raluceloM


dlo eht hcihw ,seitreporp eht nialpxe ot deilppa eb nac hcihw ,nekilluM & dnuH yb drawrof tup TOM
TBV rep sa ,elucelom 2O fO erutan ciingamaraP .ge nialpxe ot elbanu saw )yroeht dnob ecnelaV( TBV
.citengamaid eb dluohs ti ) : O : : O : (
:noitinifeD
slatibro wen mrof dna )gnippalrevo( noitamrof elucelom gnirud ytitnedi rieht esol latibro cimota ehT
.slatibro ralucelom sa demret

:slatibro ralucelom fo citsiretcarahC


ygrene emas fo latibro cimota fo gnippalrevo yb demrof latibro raluceloM )I(
gnippalrevo ni devlovni latibro cimota fo rebmun = demrof latibro ralucelem fo rebmuN )II(
.latibro ralucelom gnidnoB dellac era ygrene rewol evah latibro ralucelom eht fo flaH )III(
latibro ralucelom gnidnobitnA sa demret - ygrene rehgih fo era flaH )VI(
.selur eerht emas yb denrevog era latibro ralucelom suoirav ni noitarugifnoc cinortcelE )V(
elpicnirp noisulcxe s’iluaP )c( elur s’dnuH )b( elur s’uabfuA )a(

: latibro ralucelom gnidnobitnA & latibro ralucelom gnidnoB fo noisirapmoC

)OMBA( latibro raluceloM gnidnobitnA )OMB( latibro ralucelom gnidnoB

OA fo noitanibmoc raenil fo tluser si OMBA raenil eht of tluser eht siOM gnidnoB
detcartsbus era noitcnuf evaw rieht nehw evaw rieht nehw OA fo noitanibmoc
B
Ψ + AΨ = bΨ B
Ψ + A Ψ = b Ψ dedda era noitcnuf
fo ielcun owt neewteb edon a evah syawla tI .edon evah ton seod tI
.mota dednob
,ielcun owt neewteb ni esaerced ytisned egrahC owt neewteb esaercni ytisned egrahC
.smota owt neewteb noisluper ot sdael owt neewteb noitcartta gnitluser ielcun
smota
elbatsnu ecneh ,hgih si OMBA fo ygrenE elbats esneh ,ssel si OMB fo ygrenE

97 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
:slatibro ralucelom fo noitatoN

ralucelom rof ylralimiS .sepahs rieht no gnidneped f dna d ,p ,s srettel yb nwonk era slatibro cimota sA
.latibro

. c t e δ ,π ,σ - l a t i b r o r a l u c e l o m g n i d n o b r o F

. c t e ∗δ ,∗π ,∗σ - l a t i b r o r a l u c e l o m g n i d n o b i t n a r o F

.duolc nortcele fo sepahs tnereffid rof desu era

: latibro ralucelom fo margaiD leveL ygrenE

-si slatibro ralucelom suoirav fo seigrene fo redro gnisaercni - elur s’uabfuA fo sisab eht nO

z p2 ∗σ < yp2 ∗π ≡ x p2 ∗π < yp2 π ≡ x p2 π < zp2 σ < s2 ∗σ < s2 σ < s1 ∗σ < s1 σ

2 eN ,2F , 2O ,ekil selucelom cimotaid raelcunomoh rof margaid level ygrenE

-elucelom 2O roF

zp2'σ

1
2 = )4 – 8( 2= redro d noB
’π ’π
2 = ]4 – 8[ 2/ 1 = 2O redro d noB y p2 x p2
5.2 = ]4 – 8[ 2/1 = +2O p2 p2
5.1 = ]5 – 8[ 2/1 = –2O deriapnu owt gni vaH
p2'π p2'π
y x cit engamarap os snortc ele
5.1 = ]5 – 8[ 2/1 = – 22O
3 = 2+2O zp2σ

ygrene gnisaercnI
– redro ytilibatS
–2
O
+
> –2O >2O > 2O> 2O
2+
s2'σ
2
– htgnel d noB
2+
O
2 > 2+O >2O > 2–O> – 22O
s2 s2

s2 σ

s1'σ

s1 s1

s1 σ

– selucelom 2N dna 2C , 2B rof margaid level ygrenE


z p2 ∗σ < y p2 ∗π ≡ x p2 ∗π < zp2 σ < yp2 π ≡ xp2π < s2 ∗σ < s2 σ < s1 ∗σ < s1 σ
e l u c e l o m 2N r o F

08 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
z p2'σ

’π ’ π
yp2 xp2
p2 p2
zp2'σ

elucelom 2N ni ygrene gnisaercnI


yp2π xp2' π

s2' σ

s2 s2

s2 σ

s1' σ

s1 s1

s1 σ

:2N dna 2C , 2B ni latibro ralucelom fo roivaheb lanoitpecxe fo esuaC


esolc ylriaf eil slatibro cimota p2 dna s2 fo ygrenE •
. e g r a l e t i u q s i m e h t n e e w t e b n o i t c a r e t n i e h t , s l a t i b r o zp 2 d n a s 2 n e e w t e b e c n e r e f f i d y g r e n e l l a m s o t e u D •
ta elbats erom semoceb s2 ∗σ dna s2 σ suht dna s2 ∗σ dna s2 σ yb ygrene fo ssol ni stluser sihT
.)ygrene rehgiH( desilbatsnu steg hcihw xp2 ∗σ dna xp2 σ fo tsoc eht

-: seitreporp detaler rieht dna selucelom fo noitarugifnoc cinortcelE
-dewollof eb ot selur owt gniwollof selucelom cimotaid fo noitarugifnoc cinortcele gnitirw rof
margaid level ygrene etaiporppa eht ni llif neht dna smota owt ni tneserp snortcele fo rebmun eht tnuoC
.elur uabfuA ot gnidrocca

latibro ralucelom hcae nehw ylno ecalp ekat lliw yp2 ∗π dna xp2 ∗π ro yp2 π dna xp2 π ni gniriap ehT
.nortcele eno sah ygrene elcitnedni fo

.detciderp eb yam noi/selucelom tuoba retemarap gniwollof margaid latibro ralucelom eht gnitirw retfA •
-: redro dnoB )i(
bN .ei latibro ralucelom gnidnob ni nortcele fo .oN[ ½ = redro dnoB
]aN–bN[½ = ]aN .ei latibro ralucelom gnidnobitna ni nortcele fo .oN –
]aN–bN[ ½ = .O.B

1
∝ htgnel dnoB )ielcun owt neewteb ecnatsid( -: htgnel dnoB )ii(
redro dnoB
stsixe eluceloM aN > bN fI

 aN < bN
stsixe ton od eluceloM 
 aN = bN

18 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
elucelom fo redro dnoB ∝ ytilibats - selucelom fo ytilibatS )iii(
redro dnoB ∝ ygrene noitaicosssid dnoB - ygrene noitaicossiD )vi(
- ytreporp citengaM )v(
citengamaid – deriap era OM ni nortcele nehW )a(
citengamarap – deriapnu era OM ni nortcele nehW )b(

-: selucelom ni gnidnoB
-elucelom negordyH )I(
)’s1( hcae nortcele eno htiw smota H owt gnivaH


s2 σ

's1 's1
)latibro cimotA( H )latibro cimotA(
2
s1 σ
latibro raluceloM
0) s 1 ∗ σ( 2)s1 σ( = 2H fo noitarugifnoc .O.M
]aN – bN[ ½ = redro dnoB
dnob elgnis .e.i 1 = ]0 – 2[ ½ =
.citengamaid os nortcele deriap gnivaH
) d n o b e l g n i s g n i v a h ( e l b a t s e t i u q → ytilibatS
– noi + H )II(
2
0)si ∗ σ( 1 )si σ( = + 2H fo noitarugifnoC

s1 σ .latibro ralucelom gnidnob ni nortcele enO

s1 s1 citengamarap oS
½ = ]0 –1[ ½ = redro dnoB
+
H s1 σ
2 elbats sseL

- noina – H )III(
2
1 )s1 ∗σ ( 2 )s1 σ( - noitarugifnoc .O.M

s1 σ
∗ citengamaraP
½ = ]1 – 2[ ½ = redro dnoB
s1 s1 – H e s u a c e b ]+ 2H[ naht ssel si ytilibatS
2

H s1 σ nortcele OMBA ba niatnoC
2
: )2 eH( elucelom muileH )VI(
2) s 1 ∗σ( 2)s1 σ( noitarugifnoc .O.M •
citengamaiD •

s1 σ )orez( 0 = ]2 – 2[ ½ = redro dnoB •
s1 s1
egaknil on setacidni orez redro dnoB •
tsixe ton seod elucelom 2 eH ecneH .smota eH neewteb
s1 σ 2 eH e l u c e l o m e l b a t s n u y l h g i H ) 2e H ( y t i l i b a t S •

28 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
s elpm axE
.T.O.M no de sab

- s i n o i n a ¯ 2N f o r e d r o d n o b e h T 4 3 . x E
3 )D( 5.2 )C( 2 )B( 1 )A(
redro dnob ecneH s’OM gnidnob itna eht ni era ¯e5 dna s’OM gnidnob ni era 01 ,¯2N ni ¯e 51 fo tuO )C( .loS
1
5.2 = )5 - 01( =
2

– htgnerts dnob mumixam sah gniwollof eht fo hcihW 53.xE


)D( –2 O ¯2O )C( + O )B(
2 2 2O )A(
+
lliw htgnerts dnob sti ecneh seiceps eht lla gnoma mumixam si hcihw 5.2 si 2O fo redro dnoB )B( .loS
.mumixam eht eb osla

e h t e r a p m o c ? s m o t a o t n i n o i t a i c o s s i d f o y g r e n e r e h g i h a s a h 2C d n a 2 B s e l u c e l o m e h t f o h c i h W 6 3 . x E
.selucelom eseht fo seitreporp citengam
s e l u c e l o m 2C d n a 2 B f o n o i t a m r o f e h t g n i w o h s s m a r g a i d l e v e l y g r e n e w a r d e W .loS
s’OA s’OM s’OA
B 2 B B
s’OA s’OM s’OA
C 2C C

.selucelom 2C dna 2 B fo noitamrof eht gniwohs smargaid level ygrenE


2 B e h t n i s n ortcele gnidnobitna fo rebmun eht dna gnidnob fo rebmun eht neewteb ecnereffid ehT
yticilpitlum dnob a ot sdnopserroc sihT .ruof ,elucelom 2C eht ni dna ,owt eb ot nees eb nac elucelom
neewteb dnob eht fo yticilpitlum rehgih a gnivah elucelom 2C eht ,yltneuqesnoC .ylevitcepser ,2 dna 1 fo
seulav dehsilbatse yllatnemirepxe eht ot sdnopserroc noisohcnoc sihT .elbats erom eb tsum smota eht
)lom/JK 506(2C dna )lom/JK 672( 2B selucelom eht fo smota otni noitaicossid fo ygrene eht fo
ehT .slatibro yp2π xpπ owt ni ,elur s’dnuH ot gnidrocca ,degnarra era snortcele owt ,elucelom 2B eht nI
,elucelom 2C eht nI .elucelom siht ot seitreporp citengamarap strapmi snortcele deriapnu owt fo ecneserp
citangamaid si elucelom siht ,yltneuqesnoc ,deriap era snortcele eht lla

SRETEMARAP DNOB .41

ygrenE dnoB )III( elgnA dnoB )II( )ecnatsid dnoB( ehtgneL dnoB )I(
,thgnel dnob sa nwonk si smota owt fo suelcun eht neewteb ecnatsid egareva ehT -: thgneL dnoB )I(
B  A .ge .Å ni detneserper si ti yllamron
smota tneutitsnoc fo seitlivitagenortcele no ylniam sdneped tI •
-neht orez si ecnereffid ytivitagenortcelE I - esaC

Br + Ar = h t g n e l d n o B

Br + Ar = B– Ad rO

38 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
A f o s u i d a r t n e l a v o c s i A erehw
A fo suidar tnelavoc si B r
A fo ytivitagenortcele si A X
B fo ytivitagenortcele si B X

Br2 ro Ar2 = htgnel dnoB neht Br = Ar fI


-neht orez ot lauqe ton si ecnereffid evitagenortcelE II esaC
)B X – AX( 90.0 – B r + Ar = htgnel dnoB si alumrof nosnevetS & rekamohs yb nevig si htgnel dnoB
seitivitagenortcele ni ecnereffiD

-: htgneL dnoB gnitceffa srotcaF


1
)NE∆∝ .E.B elihW ( ∝ hgnel dnoB -: ytivitagenortcele ∆ )a(
NE∆
I–H < rB–H < lC–H < F–H
1
∝ htgnel dnoB -: sdnob fo rebmun ro redro dnob )b(
redro dnob ro dnob fo rebmuN
d n o b f o r e b m u N ∝ ygrene dnoB
C≡C ,C = C ,C–C .g.e
g nis aercni
   ← Å 02.1 Å 43.1 Å 45.1 htgnel dnoB
g nis aercni
→  .laC.K002–081 041 08 ygrene dnoB
O C O C 0—C
Å31.1 Å 021 Å 34.1

N C N C N C

Å 51.1 Å 82.1 Å 74.1

)detceffa htgnel dnob ecnanoser ot eud( -: ecanoseR )c(


enezneB .1.ge
neewteb si htgnel dnob tub Å45.1 htgnel dnob C—C
Å 93.1 = si dnob elbuod & elgnis Å 43.1 htgnel dnob C—C

-swollof a 2OC ni srucco ecnanoseR Å 51.1 si 2OC ni O—C fo htgnel dnoB.2 .ge

O — C +O→← +O C — –O →← O C O
)dnob elpirt & elbuod neewteB( Å 51.1 = htgnel dnoB
1
retcarahc s ∝ htgnel dnoB - : noitasidirbyH )d(

3
Å 45.1 3
ps ps enahtE
ses aer cni retca rahc -S

Å 15.1 2
ps 3
ps

3
Å 74.1 ps ps
2 2
Å 64.1 ps ps
2
Å 24.1 ps ps
Å 73.1 ps ps

48 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
detneserper si tI .elgna dnob sa nwonk si dnob tnecajda owt yna neewteb elgna ehT -: elgnA dnoB )II(
)’‘( dnoces dna )‘( nim ,)°( eerged ni
-elgna dnob eht gnitceffa srotcaF
) r e d r o d n o B ( s d n o b f o r e b m u N ∝ elgna dnoB : d n o b f o r e b m u N ) a (
°081 °021 °901

C C C C C C

-: noitasidirbyH )b(
1 esaC
.tnereffid era riap enol dna mota lartnec ,emas era smota dednob ,emas si noitasidirbyh nehW
1
∝ elgna dnob nehT
riap enol fo .oN
•• ••
O 2H 4HC -: elpmaxE
•• 3H N
3 ps 3 ps 3 ps noitasidirbyH
501 > 701 > 901 elgna dnoB
.p.1 owt .p.1 eno .p.1 oN
II-esaC
.tnereffid si mota lartnec tub emas si riap enol emas era smota dednob ,emas si noitasidirbyh nehW
m o t a l a r t n e c f o y t i v i t a g n o r t c e l e ∝ elgna dnob nehT
•• •• ••
-:elpmaxE
3H sA 3H P 3HN
°19 °39 °701 elgna dnoB

gnisaerced ytivitagenortelE –
esaerced lliw elgna dnoB –
III-esaC
.tnereffid era smota dednob ,emas si mota lartneC ,emas era riap enol ,emas si noitasidirbyh nehW
ytivitagenortcelE °501 – 301 2FO 3 ps
si mota dednob fo °111 – 901 O2lC 3 ps
gnisaerced °811 – 611 O 2rB 3 ps
1
mota edis fo ezis ∝ ∝ elgna dnob ereH
mota dednob fo ytivit agnortcele
- s a d e n i f i d e b y a m y g r e n e d n o B -: )EB( ygrenE dnoB )III(
noitamrof dnob sa nwonk si demrof si dnob yna nehw desaeler ygrenE -:ygrene noitamrof dnoB )a(
.ygrene dnob ro ygrene
noitaicossid dnob sa nwonk si dnob yna etaicossid ot deriuqer ygrenE -: ygrene noitaicossid dnoB )b(
.ygrene
noitaicossid erofereht ygrene noitaicossid eht naht tlucffid erom si ygrene desaeler fo noitaluclaC
.ygrene noitamrof dnob ro ygrene dnob sa demussa si dna detaluclac si dnob fo ygrene
: elucelom cimotaid nI I-esaC
ygrene noitaicossid dnob = ygrene dnoB
2 F > 2H > 2O > 2N -: ge
-: elucelom cimotaylop roF II-esaC
) D ( y g r e n e n o i t a i c o s s i d d n o B ι ygrene dnoB
H
|
elom/laC .K 5.99 si dnob HC rep = ygrene dnoB H C  H -;ge
|
H
58 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
-woleb nevig era 4HC sdnob HC laudividni fo )D( ygrene noitaicossid dnob fo seulav lacitiroehT
elom/laC K 201 = )H3HC( D
elom/laC K 501 = )H2HC( D
elom/laC K 801 = )HHC( D
elom/laC K 38 = )HC( D
893
.elom/laC K 5.99 = = enahtem ni dnob HC rep E ygrene dnob ecneH
4
.noitasidribyh fo etats eht ot detaler si )D( ygrene noitaicossid dnoB
- : ygrene dnob eht gnitceffa srotcaF

ytiralop dnoB )d( ezis cimotA )c( redro dnoB )b( ytivitagenortcelE ∆ )a(
nortcele riap enoL )g( noitasidirbyH )f( ecnanoseR )e(
NE∆∝ ygrene dnoB -: ytivitagenortcelE ∆ )a(
IH > rBH > lCH > FH .ge

r e d r o d n o B ∝ ygrene dnoB - : r e d r o d n o B ) b (
C ≡ C < C = C < CC .ge
.laC .K 0.991 ,.laC .K 3.341 ,laC .K 97
1
∝ ygrene dnoB - : e z i s c i m o t A ) c (
ezis cimotA
N≡N < N ≡C < C ≡C . g e
-si ygrene dnob fo redro ,puorg negolah fo esac nI -: noitpecxE
I  I > F  F > rB  rB > lC  lC
,mota F owt fo neewteb noisluper ,smota F fo ezis llams dna bytisned nortcele rehgih fo esuaceB
.ygrene dnob eht snekaew
eG – eG > iS – iS > C – C O – O > S – S .xe rehtO
y t i r a l o p ∝ ygrene dnoB - : y t i r a l o P d n o B ) d (
IH > rBH > lC H > FH .ge

e c n a n o s e r o t e u d s e s a e r c n i y g r e n e d n o B -: ecnanoseR )e(
.C = C fo snortcele π ot eud sesaercni CC fo ygrene dnob enezneb nI .ge

. s l a t i b r o d i r b y h n i r e t c a r a h c - s ∝ ygrene dnoB - : n o i t a s i d i r b y H ) f (
3ps 3 ps > 2 ps2ps > ps ps .ge
%52 %3.33 %05 -retcarahc .s
1
∝ ygrene dnoB -: snortcele fo riap enoL )g(
snortcele fo riap enol

×× ×× ×× ×× ×× ××
×
× F ×F××× > O O > N N > C C
×× ×× ××

yllautca si ti tub )suidar cimota llams( hgih eb dluohs ygrene dnob rieht os llams smota O dna F fo eziS
dna FF ni rehto hcae slleper hcihw ,smota O dna F no tneserp snortcele fo riap enol ot eud ssel
.sdnob fo epyt OO

ECNANOSER .51

d n a g n i l u a p y b d e p o l e v e d r e t a l d n a , ) 0 2 9 1 ( g r e b n e s i e h y b d e c u d o r t n i s a w e c n a n o s e r f o t p e c n o c e h T )I(
,selucelom niatrec fo seitreporp eht nialpxe ot ,dlogni

68 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
denialpxe ylirotcafsitas eb tonnac sdnuopmoc niatrec fo seitreporp devresbo eht taht dnuof neeb sah tI )II(
fo hcae ,serutcurts ynam evah ot desoppus neht si elucelom ehT .erutcurts siwel elgnis a gnitirw yb
eht fo seitreporp eht lla nialpxe nac enon tub elucelom eht fo seitreporp eht fo tsom nialpxe nac hcihw
enanoser dellac si dna serutcurts gnitubirtnoc eseht lla fo neewteb ni si erutcurts lautca ehT .selucelom
sihT .smrof lacinonac ro serutcurts gnitanoser dellac era serutcurts laudividni tnereffid eht dna dirbyh
.ecnanoser dellac si inemonehp

dnob elgnis eno evah dluohs ti erutcurts ecnanoser sti ot gnidrocca ,enozo ni ecnanoser ssucsid su teL ) I I I (
sti yb devorp eb nac hcihw emas era sdnob eht htob taht wohs stnemirepxe tub )Å84.1 = OO (
.woleb nwohs sa dirbyh ecnanoser
O O O
O O O O O O
dirbyh ecnanoseR
: alumrof gniwollof esu noi ro elucelom cimotaylop eht ni redro dnob etaluclac oT
elucelom a ni sdnob fo rebmun latoT = redro dnoB
serutcurtS gnitanos eR
.ge
4 ¯O
33.1 = = redro dnoB OC C O
3 ¯O

¯O
5 ¯O P O
5 2 . 1 = = redro dnoB O P
4
¯O

O
7 ¯O P O
5 7 . 1 = = redro dnoB O l C
4
¯O

DNOB CILLATEM .61

cillatem yb rehtegot dleh era hcihw smota latem era sdilos cillatem fo selcitrap tneutitsnoc ehT )a(
.dnob
nortcele sa nwonk yroeht elpmis a desoporp ztneroL dnob cillatem fo erutan eht nialpxe ot redro nI )b(
.ledom aes nortcele ro ledom sag
eht( trap gniniamer eht dna snortcele ecnelav ,strap owt fo tsisnoc ot desoppus si mota latem A )c(
.lenrek dellac )sllehs renni eht dna suelcun
deipucco si lenrek eht neewteb ecaps eht elihw setis ecittal eht ypucco smota latem fo slenrek ehT )d(
.snortcele ecnelav yb
suelcun eht yb dleh ton era smota latem fo snortcele ecnelav eht ygrene noitasinoi llams ot euD )e(
eht rednu emoc dna lenrek eno fo ecneulfni fo dleif eht evael snortcele eht ,eroferehT .ylmrif
.elibom era tub desilacol ton era snortcele eht suhT .lenrek rehtona fo ecneulfni
lenrek eht dloh hcihw snortcele elibom eht dna slenrek eht neewteb noitcartta suoenatlumis ehT )f(
.dnob cillatem sa nwonk si rehtegot
: ledom aes nortcele yb noitanalpxe rieht dna slatem fo seitreporP 1.11
: erutsul cillateM .1
snortcele elibom desilacoled fo ecneserp ot eud si tI )a(
ygrene setaidar dna thgil tnedicni fo notohp ygrene ot eud etarbiv snortcele dnob ylesool esehT )b(
yletaidemmi

78 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
: ytivitcudnoc lacirtcelE .2
.snortcele elibom ot eud si tI )a(
.noitcerid lla ni ylauqe wolf snortcele esehT )b(
snortcele fo wolf detcerid a eb lliw ereht ,latem a ssorca ecnereffid laitnetop a gniylppa elihW )c(
.edortcele evitisop eht sdrawot
,erofereht dna rehtona ot tniop eno morf tnerruc cirtcele eht seirrac snortcele fo wolf detcerid ehT )d(
.srotcudnoc doog eb ot nwonk era slatem eht

: ytivitcudnoc lamrehT .3
.ledom sag nortcele fo sisab eht no denialpxe eb osla nac tI )a(
.snosilloc hguorht setagaporp dna sesaercni nortcele fo ygrene citenik latem a gnitaeh elihW )b(

: ytilitcud dna ytilibaellaM .4


.dnob cillatem fo erutan lanoitcerid non ot eud si ytreporp sihT )a(
.deilppa si ecrof gnimrofed a nehw rehto hcae revo pils nac slenrek eht yllacisaB )b(

: htgnerts elisnet hgiH .5


.snortcele ecnelav elibom eht dna slenrek degrahc ylevitisop ot eud si tI

88 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
SELPMEXE DEVLOS
5lCP fo epahs eht ward ,yroeht RPESV gnisU 5.Q .N3) 3HC( naht esab rekaew a si N3) 3HiS( 1.Q
. 5F r B d n a N3)3HiS( ni negortin no snortcele fo riap enoL .loS
n i e l i h w g n i d n o b k c a b πd - π p n i p u d e s u e r a
elbissop ton si gnidnob πd-πp a hcus N3)3HC(
.nobrac ni slatibro-d tnacav fo ecnesba ot eud
n a h t c i s a b e r o m s i N3 ) 3 H C ( e r o f e r e h t
.loS . N3) 3HiS(

t a h t n a h t e r o m s i 3H N f o t n e m o m e l o p i d e h T 2.Q
3FN fo
hcae fo noitazidirbyh fo epyt eht etacidnI 6.Q
e h t n i s t c a 3H N f o t n e m o m e l o p i d e h T .loS
sdnuopmoc gniwollof eht ni mota nobrac
o t e u d t n e m o m s u h t d n a N → H snoitcerid
2H C = H C 3 H C ) B ( NC3HC )A(
yllarutan lliw nortcele fo riap derahsnu
2 H C = H C – C ≡ C H ) D ( 3 H C – C ≡ C–C3H )C( e l u c e l o m 3H N e h t f o t n e m o m e h t e s a e r c n i
2 ps ,2ps , 3ps )B( ps dna 3ps )A( .loS t n e m o m e l o p i d e h t , 3F N f o e s a c e h t n i e l i h w
2ps , 2ps ,ps ,ps )D( 3ps ,ps ,ps , 3ps )C(
s u h t d n a F → N noitcerid eht ni stca
yllaitrap lliw riap nortcele derahsnu
seiceps/sdnuopmoc gniwollof eht gnomA 7.Q ag nisuac ,tnemom elopid eht ewzilartuen
, 2O ni htgnel dnob O–O redro eht etirw
3H N f o e v i t a l e r 3 F N f o t n e m o m r e w o l
] 2O[K ,]4 FsA[2O
2O .loS
¯] 4FsA[ +2 O ro ]4FsA[ 2O latoT 2 latoT 2
•• ••
− +
K ro ] 2O[K I N I I N I
2O
I I
gnisaercni htiw sesaerced htgnel dnob ehT F F H H
redro dnob F H
− +
2 O 2O 2O seicepS
moor ta diuqil a si edyhedlazneb yxordyH-o 3.Q
5.1 5.2 0.2 redro dnoB
a si eyhelazneb yxordyh-p elihw erutarepmet
− +
2 O < 2O < 2O htgnel dnoB dilos gnitlem hgih

g n i w o l l o f e v a h Y d n a X s t n e m e l e o wT 8.Q ralucelomartni wohs edyhedlazneb yxordyH-o .loS


-noitarugifnoc cinortcele rekaew era hcihw ,noitalehc ro gnidnob-H
2s4 ; 6p3 ,2 s3 ; 6p2 , 2s2 ,2 s1 X yxordyh-p ni gnidnob-H ralucelomretni naht
5 p3 ,2 s3 ; 6 p2 ,2 s2 ,2s1 Y .edyhedlazneb
yb demrof dnuopmoc detcepxe ehT
-sa desserpxe eb lliw Y dna X fo noitanibmoc H –O
OHC –O H –O
5YX )D( 5 Y2X )C( 2Y 5X )B( 2Y X ) A ( O=C
| |
eht ni snortcele 2(2 si X tnemele fo ycnelaV )A(.loS
si Y tnemele fo taht elihw )llehs tsomretuo
H CHO H
llehs tsomretuo eht ni deriuqer nortcele 1(1
eht fo alumrof eht oS )tetco etelpmoc ot -3,1 ni dnob nobrac-nobrac lartnec ehT 4.Q
-2YX si Y dna X neewteb dnuopmoc
enatub-n fo naht retrohs si eneidatub
1 2
Y X sah 2HC=HC–HC = 2HC ,.e.i ,eneid-3-1 atuB .loS
- s s i e r o m h t g n e l d n o b ) C – C ( 2 p s –2 p s
dnob si ressel noitasidirbyh ni retcarahc
Y X
2 .htgnel

98 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
n a f o y t i l i b u l o s d n u o p m o c c i n o i n a s i l C a N )A(.loS ni snortcele eerht sah A tnemele fo mota nA 9.Q
fo eulav eht no sdneped dnuopmoc cinoi sti ni snortcele xis sah B dna llehs retuo sti
eht rehgiH .tnevlos eht fo tnatsnoc ciurtceleid dnuopmoc eht fo alumrof ehT .llehs tsomretuo
-eb lliw eseht neewteb demrof
erom tnevlos eht fo tnatsnoc cirtceleid fo eulav
.dnuopmoc cinol eht fo ytiltibulos eht si B2A )D( 2B 3A )C( 3B 2A )B( 6 B6A )A(
m o t a e h t n i n o r t c e l e e c n e l a v e h t e s a c s i h t n I )B(.loS
5H 2CO 5H 2C 3HCOC 3HC HO 5H 2C O2H tnevloS
yllareneg si ycnelav sti ecneh dna eerht si A
cirtceleiD ecnelav fo rebmun eht B mota eht nI .3
1.4 12 72 08 tnatsnoc yllausu si ycnelav sti ecneH .xis si nortcele
demrof elucelom eht fo alumrof eht ecneH .2
? retcarahc tnelavoc mumixam sah hcihW 41.Q fo elpmaxe nA .3 B2A eb dluoc B dna A morf
eht dna O dna lA era stnemele hcus owt
4lCiS )B( lCaN )A(
.3O2lA si edixo muinimulA fo alumrof
2lCgM )D( 3l C l A )C(
h t i w s e s a e r c n i e l u c e l o m e h t n i n o i t a s i r a l o P )B(.loS dna 1.2 era lC dna H fo ytivitagenortcele ehT 01.Q
fo ezis ni sesaerced dna egrahc fo esaercni )s( tnemetats tcerroc ehT .ylevitcepser 0.3
.emas si noina eht nehw noitac eht era/si lCH fo erutan eht tuoba
cinoi %38 )B( cinoi %71 si lCH )A(
mc 03–01 × 6.2 si rBH fo tnemom elopid ehT 51.Q cinoi %001 )D( cinoi %05 )C(
ehT .Å 14.1 si gnicaps cimotaretni eht dna 2) X – X( 5.3 +) X– X(61 = retcarahc cinoi % )A(.loS
B A B A
-si rBH ni retcarahc cinoi fo egatnecrep 2) 1 . 2 – 0 . 3 ( 5 . 3 + ) 1 . 2 – 0 . 3 ( 6 1 =

5.11 )B( 5.01 )A( 38.2 + 4.41 =


5.31 )D( 5.21 )C( %71 ≈ 532.71 =
= r e t c a r a h c c i n o i % )B(.loS era H dna lC .N.F.O fo ytivitagenortcele ehT 11.Q
e h T .y l e v i t c e p s e r 1 . 2 d n a 0 . 3 , 0 . 4 , 5 . 3
tnemom elopid devresbO
laciteroehT 001 × tnemom elopid l aciteroehT : eb lliw dnob tsegnorts
lC – O )B( O – F )A(
retcarahc cinioi %001 a fo tnemom elopid H – O )D( H – N )C(
) m01–01×14.1(×)C91–01×6.1( = d×e = ni ecnereffid ∝ htgnerts dnoB )D(.loS
mc 92–01 × 652.2 = smota fo ytivitagenortcele

si enelytisem ni sdnob π ot σ fo oitar ehT 21.Q


eht sah snobracordyh gniwollof eht fo hcihW 61.Q
6 )D( 5 )C( 7 )B( 3 )A(
tnemom elopid tsewol

≡ C3 HC )B( H HC )A( H
3H C
3
C=C |
3 HC H
H–C–H
HC ≡ C–HC = 2HC )C( C ≡ C 2HC3HC )C( H H
e v a h l l i w e r u t c u r t s r a e n i l h t i w l a c i r t e m m y S )B(.loS | |
C )B(.loS
tnemom elopid orez C
H | | H
H H
htiw larutcurtsosi si 2OC 71.Q
2lCnS )B( 2lCgH )A( 12 = sdnob-σ fo rebmun latoT
2O N )D( 2H 2C )C( 3 = sdnob-π fo rebmun latoT
,O=C=O raenil si 2OC fo erutcurts ehT )C,A(.loS
ytilibulos mumixam sah lCaN tnevlos hcihw nI 31.Q
) l C – g H – l C ( 2l C g H f o s e r u t c u r t s e h t y l r a l i m i s
HO 5H 2C )B( O2H )A(
dna 2lCnS .raenil era )H–C≡CH( 2H 2C dna
.serutcurts ralugna evah 2ON 5H 2CO5 H2C )D( 3HCOC3HC )C(

09 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC
: devlovni ton si dnob evitad erehW 12.Q gnisaercni fo ecneuqes tcerroc eht yfitnedI 81.Q
rehte fonoitanotorP )A( eht fo serutcurts eht ni sdnob-π fo rebmun
retaw ni lCH fo noitulossid )B( : selucelom gniwollof
dica ciozneb fo noitasiremiD )C( 5O2 S2H )III( 3OS2 H )II( 6O 2S 2H )I(
I ,III ,II )B( III ,II ,I )A(
4 lC2eB fo noitamroF )D(
s e v l o v n i d i c a c i o z n e b f o n o i t a s a r e m i D )C(.loS II ,III ,I )D( III ,I ,II )C(
.gnidnob-H ralucelomretni
O O
O H O || ||
H6C–C sdnob-π4 HO–S– S–OH 6O2 S2 H )B(.loS
5 C– 5H 6C || ||
O H O O O

epahs ehT .05 si nS fo rebmun cimota ehT 22.Q O


: s i e l u c e l o m 2l C n S s u o e s a g f o ||
sdnob-π1 S–OH 3OS2 H
•• |
•• HO
nS
)B( lC–nS–lC )A(
lC lC O O
|| ||
sdnob-π3 HO–S– S–OH 5O2 S2 H
•• lC ||
•• O
nS nS
••

)D( )C(
lC lC lC • • :gniwollof eht sniatnoc enoteca fo mrof lonE 91.Q
fo riap enol owt dna dnob- π I ,dnob–σ9 )A(
p5 s5 snortcele
]rK[ ,]05 = Z[nS ) D ( . l o S
fo riap enol owt dna dnob-π 2 ,dnob–σ8 )B(
snortcele
: noitasidirbyh – 2ps fo riap enol eno dna dnob-π I ,dnob–σ01 )C(
snortcele
eb ton lliw dnob negordyh esac hcihw nI 32.Q fo riap enol eno dna dnob-π 2 ,dnob–σ 9 )D(
devresbo snortcele
− s i e n o t e c a f o m r o f l o n E )A(.loS
O 2H ) B ( 2O3H
)A(

+O +
]pl2 dna dnob π 1 dna σ 9[ 3HC–C=2HC
3H )D( 2 O5 H )C( |
HO
••

••

O 2H n i g n i d n o b H seiceps 2 O 3H )D(.loS
revlis fo ytilibulos fo redro gnisaerced ehT 02.Q
Θ si edilah
H H
FgA > lCgA > rBgA > lgA )A(
H O H O )B( H O H O )A(
lgA > rBgA > lCgA > FgA )B(
H
lgA > rBgA > FgA > lCgA )C(
lCgA > lgA > FgA > rBgA )D(
)gnidnob-H on(+O 3H )gnidnob-H( 2+ O5H
¯ I Q [ r e t c a r a h c t n e l a v o c m u m i x a m s a h l g A )B(.loS
+ + muminim sah FgA elihw ,]noina egral a si
H H H
H O )D( O H O )C( erom sah ti ,eroferehT ,retcarahc tnelavoc
H H H
ytilibulos

19 GNIDNOB LACIMEHC 9514342-4470 :hP ,).jaR( atoK ,AIPI ,1.oN daoR ,rewoT PC :eciffO etaroproC

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