ECE200 Circuits & Systems

Study Guide

C.A. Berry
 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Course Calendar
Class Day Date Topic Reading Assignments
Due
1-1 M 12/01 Mutual inductance 6.4
1-2 T 12/02 Mutual inductance 6.5 Pre- Lab 11
1-L W 12/03 Lab 11. Instrumentation Amplifier
1-3 R 12/04 The Ideal transformer 9.11 HW 1
2-1 M 12/08 Natural response of 1st order circuits 7.1 - 2 Quiz 2
2-2 T 12/09 Step response of 1st order circuits 7.3 - 4 Pre-Lab 12
2-L W 12/10 Lab 12. Self & Mutual Inductance
2-3 R 12/11 Natural & Step response of 2nd order circuits 8.1-4 HW 2
3-1 M 12/15 Natural & Step response of 2nd order circuits 8.1-4 Quiz 3
3-2 T 12/16 Circuit elements and analysis in the s domain 13.1 - 2 Pre-Lab 13
3-L W 12/17 Lab 13. Step Response Design
3-3 R 12/18 Circuit analysis in the s domain 13.2 HW 3
Winter Break
4-1 M 1/05 Applications in s domain 13.3 & 12.6 Quiz 4
4-2 T 1/06 Applications in s domain 13.3 & 12.6 Pre-Lab 14
4-L W 1/07 Lab 14. Gyrator HW 4
4-3 R 1/08 Exam 1 (up through 4-2)
5-1 M 1/12 Initial/final value theorem, Transfer function & 13.4 & 12.8-9 Quiz 5
the steady-state sinusoidal response 13.7
5-2 T 1/13 Introduction to filters 14.1-3 Pre-Lab 16
5-L W 1/14 Lab 16. Phase-Shift Oscillator
5-3 R 1/15 Low-pass Filters passive & active 14.2 & 15.1 HW 5
6-1 M 1/19 High-pass Filters passive & active 14.3 &15.1 Quiz 6
6-2 T 1/20 First order filters & Bode diagrams E.1-2 Pre-Lab 15
6-L W 1/21 Lab 15.Steps & Steady State
6-3 R 1/22 Second order filters & Bode diagrams 14.4-5 HW 6
7-1 M 1/26 Bandpass filters & Bode diagrams 14.4 Quiz 7
7-2 T 1/27 Bandreject filters & Bode diagrams 14.5
7-L W 1/28 Lab 17. Lab Practical Test
7-3 R 1/29 Filter scaling 15.2 HW 7
8-1 M 2/02 Op Amp Bandpass & Bandreject filters 15.3 Quiz 8
8-2 T 2/03 Higher order op amp filters 15.4 Pre-Lab 18
8-L W 2/04 Lab 18. Bode Diagram Design
8-3 R 2/05 Exam 2 (up through 7-3) HW 8-due 2/6
9-1 M 2/09 Butterworth filters 15.4 Quiz 9
9-2 T 2/10 Narrowband bandpass filters 15.5 Pre-Lab 19
9-L W 2/11 Lab 19. Low-Pass Filter Design
9-3 R 2/12 Narrowband bandreject filters 15.5 HW 9
10-1 M 2/16 Terminal equations and Two-port parameters 18.1-2 Quiz 10
10-2 T 2/17 Terminal equations and Two-port parameters 18.1-2 Pre-Lab 20
10-L W 2/18 Lab 20. Poles on Planes
10-3 R 2/19 Analysis of terminated two-port circuits 18.3 HW 10
Finals Week FINAL EXAM (up through 10-3)

C.A. Berry
 ROSE-HULMAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

ECE 200 Circuits & Systems Winter 08-09

Course Information 

Instructor: 

Carlotta Berry 
D‐211 Moench Hall 
812‐877‐8657 
carlotta.berry@rose‐hulman.edu 
http://www.rose‐hulman.edu/~berry123 
 
Description: 
Electrical and computer engineering (ECE) deals with the application of electrical and electronic 
technology to the daily needs of people.  Almost every aspect of their lives and occupations are 
controlled by ECE.  To understand the details of ECE it is necessary to study circuit analysis.  The 
reason for this is that it is the one thing that ties all branches of ECE together; as such, it lays 
the foundation for analysis, design, and operation of electrical devices and systems.  
This class helps provide a foundation for you to build on. You will continue, in subsequent ECE 
courses, to update the knowledge you gain here. Since this course is the prerequisite for just 
about everything you will be doing in ECE, it is vital that you gain a confident grasp of circuit and 
systems fundamentals.  
The Calendar gives details of what we’ll be covering.  You should follow it closely. 
 
Text :   J.W. Nilsson & S.A. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 8th edition, Prentice Hall, 2008. 
 
Office Hours:   M – R, 7th hour, 1:35 – 2:25 pm or by appointment 

What is expected of You: 

First and foremost, professional work is the norm in this course.  All of your written work and 
your conduct in class are to be at the level of one who is studying a profession—the profession 
of engineering.  This means a number of things: 
1. Your work is neatly done in a professional manner, using formats specified. 
2. Your work is honestly done.  You are encouraged to discuss course material with 
classmates to help each other understand and assimilate the concepts.  Nevertheless, I 
distinguish between helping someone understand concepts and providing them with 
specific answers.  I expect you’ll work individually on homework without reference to 
others’ work. 
3. Your work is done on time. 

Attendance: 

Regardless of whether formal attendance is taken, attendance at each class is expected.  As a 
rule of thumb you should consider yourself seriously behind if you miss more than four classes 
in a four credit‐hour course.  According to our Academic Rules and Procedures, “A student 
whose total absences in a course, excused or unexcused, exceed two per credit is liable to fail 

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ECE 200 Circuits & Systems Winter 08-09

the course.” Eight absences in this course are grounds for failure.  Missing an attendance check 
due to lateness may be counted as an absence. 
 
If you miss a lab with an excused absence you need to make it up within 1 week without 
penalty. If you miss a lab without an excused absence, you need to make it up within 1 week 
and you will receive a grade of zero. If you come to lab more than 15 minutes late you need to 
complete the lab on your own. 

Grading: 

Grades will be assigned at the end of the quarter based on the grade weights and grading scale 
shown below: 

Midterm Test I  20%   90 – 100  A 

Midterm Test II  20%   85 – 89  B+ 
Final Exam   30%   80 ‐ 84  B 
Homework and Quizzes 10%   75 ‐ 79  C+ 
Labs and Memos  15%   70 ‐ 74  C 
Lab Practical Test  5%    65 ‐ 79  D+ 
      60 ‐ 64  D 
      Below 60 F 
Independent of point totals: 
• Satisfactory completion of each of the ten lab projects is required in order to receive a 
passing grade in the course,  
• You must earn a passing overall weighted midterm and final exam average in order to 
receive a passing grade in the course, and 

Homework: 

The homework is intended to help you to understand the concepts presented in the course, 
and to provide you with practice in problem solving. 
• Problem sets are due each Thursday in class before the bell rings at the beginning of class.   
Assignments and solutions will be distributed using ANGEL.   
• Homework turned in after the bell rings is late and will incur a 20% penalty. 
• Homework turned in after 8 am on the day following the due date will not be accepted.   
• Arrange to turn in your homework early if you will be away for job interviews, athletic 
events, etc. 
• The required format is described in the Sophomore Engineering Curriculum Guidelines and 
Standards for Writing Assignments. It is your responsibility to make your methods and 
results clear to the grader. 
 

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ECE 200 Circuits & Systems Winter 08-09

Homework will be graded using a restricted scale of 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4: 
 
  4  Problem worked completely correctly. 
  3  Problem worked with minor errors. 
  2  Problem worked with substantial errors. 
  1  Problem attempted, but with no understanding. 
  0  Problem not attempted or unacceptable. 

Preparation for the laboratory sessions: 

Pre‐lab exercises are due each Tuesday in class before the bell rings at the beginning of lab.   
Each student should do the pre‐lab in their notebook and make a photocopy to turn‐in.  The 
solutions to the pre‐lab may be presented at the start of the lab period.  Any team that has not 
completed the pre‐lab, must do it at the beginning of lab for zero credit.  This team must still 
finish the laboratory project within the allotted time. 

Laboratory notebooks: 

Laboratory notebooks will be collected at the conclusion of each laboratory period.  The 
laboratory notebook will be graded and both members of the team share the notebook grade.  
Each team member must alternate submission of the lab notebook as well as circuit building on 
a weekly basis.  A memorandum will be submitted for one laboratory projects and this will be 
an individual grade.   

Exams: 

On both tests you will be allowed to use one 8½ x 11 page of notes (both sides) that you have 
made but may not use anyone else's notes.  You should prepare for tests as though they were 
closed‐book so that you can finish on‐time; reference material should only be a back‐up.  In the 
final exam, you are permitted to use two 8½ x 11 pages of notes (both sides). 
Missed exams will not be made up.  The final exam grade will be used to replace a missing test 
grade in the case of excused absences.  Excused absence from an examination normally 
requires advance approval or formal documentation of an emergency.  An examination that is 
missed for an unexcused reason will be given a grade of zero.  Students are not excused from 
scheduled exams for intramural athletics or fraternity events.   

Academic accommodation: 

Those students with documented special needs may request extra time on timed tests. 
Students need to contact me at least 2 business day prior to each exam to make the necessary 
arrangements.  

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ECE200 Circuits & Systems

• Mutual Inductance
• Ideal Transformers
• 1st order circuits
• 2nd order circuits
• s domain analysis
 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2007/08

Lecture 1-1: Mutual Inductance

Reading: 6.4

Objectives: To define inductance, self-inductance and mutual inductance

To apply the dot convention to write the mesh equations of a mutual inductance
circuit

Inductance is a circuit parameter used to describe an inductor. Inductance is symbolized by the

letter L and is measured in henrys (H). It is represented graphically as a coiled wire. It is a
conductor linking a magnetic field.

+ v -

self - inductance is a parameter that relates a voltage to a time-varying current in the same
circuit.

When two circuits are linked by a magnetic field, mutual inductance is the parameter that relates
to the voltage induced in a second circuit by the time-varying current in the first circuit.

The self-inductances of the two coils are labeled L1 and L2 and the mutual inductance is labeled
M.

The dot convention states that when the reference direction for a current enters the dotted
terminal of a coil, the reference polarity of the voltage that it induces in the other coil is positive
at its dotted terminal.

C.A. Berry Lec1-1.doc Page 1 of 4

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2007/08

i1 enters the dotted terminal of coil 1 so v2 is

positive at the dotted terminal of coil 2.

v2 = +Mdi1/dt

i1 enters the dotted terminal of coil 1 so v2 is

positive at the dotted terminal of coil 2.

v2 = -Mdi1/dt

i2 leaves the dotted terminal of coil 2 so v1 is

negative at the dotted terminal of coil 1.

v1 = -Mdi2/dt

i2 leaves the dotted terminal of coil 2 so v1 is

negative at the dotted terminal of coil 1.

v1 = Mdi2/dt

There are also two dot conventions for coupled coils in series
Series – i enters the dotted terminal of coil
adding 1 and coil 2
vab = (L1+L2+2M)di/dt
Ltot = L1+L2+2M
Series - i enters the dotted terminal of coil
opposing 1 and leaves the dotted terminal of
coil 2
vab = (L1+L2 - 2M)di/dt
Ltot = L1+L2 - 2M

C.A. Berry Lec1-1.doc Page 2 of 4

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2007/08

Example 6.4.1:
Calculate the total inductance for the following circuit.

Example 6.4.2:
Determine the inductance of the three series-connected inductors in the following figure.

Example 6.4.3:
Write a set of mesh-current equations for the following circuit.

C.A. Berry Lec1-1.doc Page 3 of 4

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2007/08

Example 6.4.4:
Write a set of mesh-current equations for the following circuit.

C.A. Berry Lec1-1.doc Page 4 of 4

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Lecture 1-2: A Closer Look At Mutual Inductance

Reading: 6.5

Objectives: To define self-inductance and the coefficient of coupling

To relate the coefficient of coupling to mutual inductance
To calculate energy for a mutual inductance circuit

Faraday’s law states that v = dλ/dt, where λ is the flux in weber-turns.

The flux linkage is λ = Nφ, where φ is the magnetic field in Webers (Wb) and the number of
turns linked by the field (N).
The magnitude of the flux, φ is related to the magnitude of the coil current by φ = PNi
P is the permeanance and is a quantity that describes the magnetic properties of the space in the
inductors measured in Webers/Ampere (Wb/A).
For circuits with two magnetically coupled coils M12 = M21 = M
L1 = N12P1
L2 = N22P2
N L1
In a linear system, 1 = because P1 = P2
N2 L2
The coefficient of coupling, k, can be used to relate self-inductance and mutual inductance.

M = k L1L 2

The coefficient of coupling must lie between 0 and 1 (0 ≤ k ≤ 1)

k=0 No common flux, NOT coupled
k=1 Perfectly coupled
k < 0.5 Loosely coupled
k > 0.5 Tightly coupled

The total energy stored in coupled coils is defined by w(t) = .5L1i12 + .5L2i22 ± Mi1i2
+ Mi1i2 - both currents enter or leave the dotted terminal
- Mi1i2 - one current enters and one current leaves the dotted terminal

C.A. Berry Lec1-2.doc Page 1 of 4

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Example 6.5.1:
For the following circuit, determine the energy stored in the coupled inductors at = 1.5 seconds.

C.A. Berry Lec1-2.doc Page 2 of 4

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Example 6.5.2:
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent across terminals a and b for the following circuit.

C.A. Berry Lec1-2.doc Page 3 of 4

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Example 6.5.3:
Determine currents I1, I2, and I3 in the following circuit. Assume thatω = 1000 rad/s and find
the energy stored in the coupled coils at t = 2 ms.

C.A. Berry Lec1-2.doc Page 4 of 4

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Lecture 1-3: The Ideal Transformer

Reading: 9.11

Objectives: To define the ideal transformer and terminal characteristics

To define the dot convention for the analysis of circuits with ideal transformers
To apply reflection to calculate voltage and currents in an ideal transformer circuit

An ideal transformer consists of two magnetically coupled coils having N1 and N2 turns that
exhibits the following three properties:
i. the coefficient of coupling is unity (k = 1)
ii. the self inductance of each coils is infinite (L1 = L2 = ∞)
iii. coil losses due to resistance are negligible

There are two characteristics for the terminal behavior of an ideal transformer.
V1 V
1. = 2
N1 N2
2. |I1N1| = |I2N2|
The primary winding coil and its circuit are called the primary side of the transformer
The secondary winding coil and its circuit are called the secondary side of the transformer

The turns ratio for a transformer is n =N2/N1 where the primary winding has N1 turns and the
secondary winding has N2 turns.

n=1 Isolation transformer

n >1 Step up transformer
(voltage is increased from the primary to secondary side)
0 < n <1 Step down transformer
(voltage is decreased from the primary to secondary side)

The convention for determining the polarity for the currents and voltages on the transformer use
the following rules.
i. if the coil voltages V1 and V2 are both positive or negative at the dot-marked
terminals, use a plus sign in the voltage relationship otherwise use a negative
ii. if the coil currents I1 and I2 are both directed into or out of the dot-marked
terminal, use a minus sign in the current relationship otherwise use a positive.

The graphical symbol for an ideal transformer is given in the following table for the voltage and
current conventions
C.A. Berry Lec1-3.doc Page 1 of 4
 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Circuit Voltages Currents

V2 N 2 I2 N 1
= =n =− 1 =−
V1 N1 I1 N2 n

V2 N I 2 N1 1
= − 2 = −n = =
V1 N1 I1 N 2 n

V2 N I2 N 1
= − 2 = −n =− 1 =−
V1 N1 I1 N2 n

V2 N 2 I 2 N1 1
= =n = =
V1 N1 I1 N 2 n

Reflected Impedance
Ideal transformers can also be used to raise or lower the impedance level of a load.

The input impedance from the primary side is

Zin = V1/I1 = (1/n2) (V2/I2) = (1/n2) (ZL)
It is possible to simplify the analysis of an ideal transformer by reflecting the secondary
impedance to the primary side and vice versa.

To reflect the secondary side to the primary side:

1. the primary side remains the same
2. the secondary impedance is reflected to the primary side as ZL′ = ZL/n2
3. the secondary voltage becomes V2′ = V2/n
4. the secondary current becomes I2′ = nI2

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

To reflect the primary side to the secondary side:

1. the secondary side remains the same
2. the primary impedance is reflected to the secondary side as ZS′ = n2ZS
3. the primary voltages become Vs′= nVs and V1′ = nV1
4. the primary current becomes I1′ = (1/n)I1

Example 9.11.1:
Determine I1 and I2 for the following circuit by reflecting the secondary to the primary side.

C.A. Berry Lec1-3.doc Page 3 of 4

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Example 9.11.2:
Determine the steady state expressions i1, i2, v1, and v2 for the following circuit given that
vs(t) = 25cos1000t V .

C.A. Berry Lec1-3.doc Page 4 of 4

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Lecture 2-1: The Natural response of RL and RC Circuits

Reading: 7.1-2

Objectives: To analyze the natural response of 1st order systems

To analyze the step response of 1st order systems
To demonstrate the general solution for step and natural responses

The purpose of this week’s lecture will be to analyze RL (resistor-inductor) and RC (resistor-
capacitor) circuits.

The first method of analysis is the natural response which occurs when an inductor or capacitor
is connected to a DC source and is suddenly disconnected and the stored energy is released to a
resistive network.

The second method of analysis is the step response which occurs when a DC source is suddenly
connected to an inductor or capacitor and it begins to store energy.

The third method of analysis describes the general method that can be used to find the step and
natural responses of RL or RC circuits.

Since RL and RC circuits can also be described by first-order differential equations they are also
known as first-order circuits.

Source-free RL Circuit Source-free RC Circuit

7.1 The natural response of an RL circuit

Example 7.1.1:
Use KVL to find the expression for the current through the inductor in the following circuit
assuming it is initially charged to Io at t = 0, (i.e. iL(0) = I0).

C.A. Berry Lec2-1.doc Page 1 of 5

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

The time constant for an RL circuits is τ = L/R. This is significant because when the time since
the DC source was removed exceeds 5 time constants, the current through the inductor is less
than 1% of its initial value. The time when the current through the inductor is changing or
discharging before 5 time constants is referred to as the transient response. The response that
exists a long time after DC switching is the steady-state response.

The following figure demonstrates the affect the value of the time constant has on the response.

It should be noted that current through an inductor cannot change abruptly [i(0-) = i(0+) = Io]
although the voltage can change abruptly. The voltage will change abruptly dependent upon
whether the inductor is storing or discharging energy. The current is an exponential decaying
curve after the DC source has been removed. Recall that under DC conditions an inductor acts
like a short circuit.

Using Ohm’s Law, the voltage across the resistor is given by vR(t) = IoR for t≥ 0+ because the
voltage across the inductor relates to the first derivative thus vR(0-) = 0 , vR(0+) = IoR.

vR
IoR
-t/ τ
(I o R)e

t
Current through the inductor Voltage across the resistor

The power dissipated in the resistor is given by p = Io2Re-2(R/L)t (W), t ≥ 0

The energy delivered to the resistor is given by .5LIo2(1 – e-2(R/L)t) (J), t ≥ 0
The initial energy stored in the inductor is given by w = 0.5LIo2 (J)

To find the natural response of an RL circuit,

i. Find the initial current Io through the inductor
ii. Find the time constant of the circuit, τ = L/Req
iii Use the expression, i(t) = Io e-(R/L)t , to find i(t) using Io and τ.
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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Example 7.1.2:
For the following circuit determine, iL(t), vL(t) and iR(t) for t ≥ 0.

Example 7.1.3
For the following circuit, determine the iL(t) for t ≥ 0.

C.A. Berry Lec2-1.doc Page 3 of 5

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

7.2 The natural response of an RC circuit

Example 7.2.1:
Use KCL to find the expression for the voltage across the capacitor in the following circuit
assuming it is initially charged to Vo at t = 0, (i.e. vL(0) = V0).

It should be noted that voltage across a capacitor cannot change abruptly [v(0-) = v(0+) = Vo]
although the current can change abruptly. The current will change abruptly dependent upon
whether the capacitor is storing or discharging energy. The voltage is an exponential decaying
curve after the DC source has been removed. Recall that under DC conditions a capacitor acts
like an open circuit.

Using Ohm’s Law, the current through the resistor is given by iR(t) = Vo/R for t≥ 0+ because the
current through the capacitor relates to the first derivative thus iR (0-) = 0 , iR (0+) = Vo/R.

iR
Vo/R
(Vo/R)e-t/τ

t
Voltage across the capacitor Current through the resistor

The power dissipated in the resistor is given by p = Vo2/Re-2[1/(RC)]t (W), t ≥ 0

The energy delivered to the resistor is given by .5CVo2(1 – e-2[1/(RC)]t) (J), t ≥ 0
The initial energy stored in the inductor is given by w = 0.5CVo2 (J)

To find the natural response of an RC circuit,

i. Find the initial voltage Vo across the capacitor
ii. Find the time constant of the circuit, τ = ReqC
iii Use the expression, v(t) = Vo e-[1/(RC]t , to find v(t) using Vo and τ

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Example 7.2.2:
For the following circuit, determine vC(t), iC(t), vR(t), iR(t) for t ≥ .

Example 7.2.3:
For the following circuit determine the voltage across the capacitor for t ≥ 0.

C.A. Berry Lec2-1.doc Page 5 of 5

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Lecture 2-2: The step response and general solution of 1st order circuits
Reading: 7.3 - 4

7.3 The step response of RL and RC circuits

As previously mentioned the step response of an RL or RC circuit is the voltage or current that
results when a DC source is suddenly added.

The general solution for the natural and step response of RL and RC circuits is given by the
following, x( t ) = x( ∞ ) + [ x( 0 ) − x( ∞ )] e −
t
τ

Example 7.3.1:
For the following circuit assume v(0) = Vo and use KVL to derive the step response v(t) for the
following circuit.

Example 7.3.2:
For the following circuit assume i(0) = Io and use KCL to derive the step response i(t) for the
following circuit.

C.A. Berry Lec2-2.doc Page 1 of 4

 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

7.4 A general solution for step and natural responses

Since all of these circuits are described by a first order differential equation, it is possible to
define a general solution as
x(t) = xf + [x(to) – xf]e-(t-to)/τ ,
where xf is the final value of the variable and x(to) is the initial value of the variable

The complete response of a circuit can be decomposed into the natural and the step. The
natural response is due to the stored energy and the step is due to the independent source.

x(t) = xnatural(t) + xstep(t)

xnatural = x(to) e-(t-to)/τ and xstep = xf – xf e-(t-to)/τ

The natural response eventually dies out and the steady-state component remains. Therefore, the
response can also be characterized by the temporary part and the permanent part. The temporary
part is the transient response. The permanent part is the steady state response. The transient
response is the circuit’s temporary response that will die out with time. The steady-state
response is the behavior of the circuit after a long time after an external excitation is applied.

x(t) = xtransient(t) + xsteadystate(t)

xtransient = [x(to) – xf]e-(t-to)/τ and xsteadystate = xf

To compute the step and natural response of circuits use the following steps
i. identify the variable of interest (i.e. capacitive voltage or inductive current)
ii. determine the initial voltage or current for the capacitor or inductor
iii. calculate the final value of the variable as t → ∞
iv. calculate the time constant for the circuit
v. use the general formula to find the variable of interest

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Example 7.4.1:
Determine i(t) for the following circuit.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Example 7.4.2:
Determine v(t) and i(t) for the following circuit.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Lecture 2-3: The natural response of 2nd order circuits

Reading: 8.1, 8.2, 8.4

Objectives: To define the types of responses: overdamped, underdamped, critically damped

` To define the terms: damping factor, resonant frequency, undamped frequency
To define the characteristic equation for parallel and series RLC circuits
To calculate the natural response of parallel and series RLC circuits

8.1 The Natural Response of a parallel RLC circuit

Example 8.1.1:
Use KCL to derive the 2nd order differential equation for the natural response of the above
parallel RLC circuit.

Since this is a second-order differential equation, circuits with resistors, inductors and capacitors
are referred to as second-order circuits.

Using Laplace analysis and assuming that the solution is of the form Aest, the differential
equation simplifies to the characteristic equation, s2 + 2αs + ωo2 = 0

Where the damping factor, α = 1/(2RC) (rad/s) and the resonant frequency, ωo = 1/ LC (rad/s)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

The roots of the characteristic equation are the complex frequencies, s1 and s2 (rad/s).

The complex frequencies can be found by using the quadratic formula

2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
s1 , s2 = − ± ⎜ ⎟ − = −α + α 2 − ω o
2

2 RC ⎝ 2 RC ⎠ LC

These roots can be real or complex and there can also be one or two distinct roots of the
characteristic equation. The nature of the roots of the characteristic equation determines the type
of natural response for the RLC circuit. The damping ratio, ζ = α/ωo, can also be used to
determine the type of natural response for the RLC circuit.

8.4 The natural responses of a series RLC circuit

Example 8.4.1:
Use KVL to derive the 2nd order differential equation for the natural response of the above series
RLC circuit.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

The following table provides a summary of the results for the analysis of the natural response for
parallel and series RLC circuits.
Circuit Parallel Series
Second order D.E. d 2 v 1 dv v 2
d i R di i
2
+ + =0 2
+ + =0
dt RC dt LC dt L dt LC
Characteristic 1 1 R 1
equation s2 + s+ =0 s2 + s + =0
RC LC L LC
s + 2αs + ωo
2 2

Roots, complex 2 2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 R ⎛ R ⎞ 1
frequencies s1,s2 = − ± ⎜ ⎟ − s1,s2 = − ± ⎜ ⎟ −
2 RC ⎝ 2 RC ⎠ LC 2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
− α ± α 2 − ωo
2

Damping factor 1 R
α= α=
2 RC 2L
Resonant radian 1
frequency ωo =
LC
(undamped
frequency)
Initial conditions Using KCL: using KVL:
iR(0) + iL(0) + iC(0) vR(0) + vL(0) + vC(0)
dv(0) V di( 0 )
C + Io + o = 0 Io R + L +Vo = 0
dt R dt
dv(0) V I di (0) − I o R V o
=− o − o = −
dt RC C dt L L

8.2 Types of responses

Overdamped Slow response and long

α > ωo settling time
ζ>1

2 real, distinct roots

Critically Damped Fast response and short
α = ωo settling time
ζ=1

2 equal real roots

Underdamped Fastest response and long
α < ωo settling time
ζ<1

2 complex roots that are

complex conjugates
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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Type of Response Parallel Series

Overdamped v(t) = A1e + A2 e s t
s1 t 2
i(t) = A1es1t + A2es2t
α > ωo v(0+) = A1 + A2 i(0) = A1 + A2
2 distinct real roots di(0)
= s1A1 + s2A2
dv(0 + ) dt
= s1A1 + s2A2
dt
Critically Damped v(t) = D1 te − αt + D 2 e − αt i(t) = D1te-αt + D2e-αt
α = ωo v(0+) = D2 i(0) = D2
2 equal real roots dv(0 + ) di(0)
= D1 - αD2 = D1 - αD2
dt dt
Underdamped v(t) = B1e-αtcosωdt + B2e-αtsinωdt i(t) = B1e-αtcosωdt + B2e-αtsinωdt
α < ωo damped radian frequency damped radian frequency
2 complex conjugate roots ωd = ωo − α 2
2
ωd = ωo − α 2
2

v(0+) = B1 i(0) = B1
dv(0 + ) di(0)
= -αB1 + ωdB2 = -αB1 + ωdB2
dt dt

There is also an undamped response which occurs when α→0. There is a persistent oscillation
that approaches the undamped frequency, ωo. The response for this type of systems would be
sinusoidal.

Team Concept Question 8.2.1:

In a source-free parallel RLC circuit, if the resistor is replaced with a wire then the voltage
across the capacitor is

a) underdamped
b) overdamped
c) critically damped
d) undamped

Team Concept Question 8.2.2:

In a source-free parallel RLC circuit, if the resistor is removed from the circuit then the voltage
across the capacitor is

a) underdamped
b) overdamped
c) critically damped
d) undamped

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Team Concept Question 8.4.1:

In a source-free series RLC circuit, if the resistor is replaced with a wire then the voltage across
the capacitor is

a) underdamped
b) overdamped
c) critically damped
d) undamped

Team Concept Question 8.4.2:

In a source-free series RLC circuit, if the resistor is removed from the circuit then the voltage
across the capacitor is

a) underdamped
b) overdamped
c) critically damped
d) none of the above

In-class activity 8.2.2:

For the following circuit, find v(t) for t > 0.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

In-class activity 8.2.3:

Find v(t) for t > 0 in the following circuit.

In-class activity 8.4.1:

The circuit in the following figure has reached steady state at t = 0-. If the make-before-break
switch move to position b at t = 0, calculate i(t) for t > 0.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Lecture 3-1: The step response of 2nd order circuits

Reading: 8.3 - 4

Objectives: To define the types of responses: overdamped, underdamped, critically damped

To calculate the step response of parallel and series RLC circuits

8.3 The Step response of a parallel RLC circuit

Example 8.3.1:
To find the step response of the above parallel RLC circuit, use KCL to derive the 2nd order
differential equation.

8.4 The Step response of a series RLC circuit

Example 8.4.1:
To find the step response of the above series RLC circuit, use KVL to derive the 2nd order
differential equation. Observe that it is a similar derivation to the parallel RLC circuit.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Circuit Parallel Series

Second order D.E. d 2i 1 di i I d 2 v R dv v V
2
+ + = s 2
+ + = s
dt RC dt LC LC dt L dt LC LC
Characteristic 1 1 R 1
equation s2 + s+ =0 s2 + s + =0
RC LC L LC
s2 + 2αs + ωo2
Roots, Complex 2 2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 R ⎛ R ⎞ 1
frequencies s1,s2 = − ± ⎜ ⎟ − s1,s2 = − ± ⎜ ⎟ −
2 RC ⎝ 2 RC ⎠ LC 2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
− α ± α 2 − ωo
2

Damping factor 1 R
α= α=
2 RC 2L
Resonant radian 1
frequency ωo =
LC
(undamped
frequency)
Initial conditions using parallel voltages: using series current:
vL(0+) = vC(0+) iC(0+) = iL(0+)
di vC ( 0 + ) dv iL ( 0 + )
= =
dt t =0
+ L dt t =0
+ C

8.3 - 4 Types of responses

Recall that the type of response of a 2nd order circuit is related to the roots of the characteristic
equation or ζ. A comparison of the 3 types of responses is shown here.

Step Response Natural Response

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Type of Response Parallel Series

Overdamped i(t) = Is + A1' e s t + A2' e s t
1 2
v(t) = Vs + A1′es1t + A2′es2t
α > ωo i(0) = Is + A1′ + A2′ v(0) = Vs + A1′ + A2′
ζ>1 dv
di
= s1A1′ + s2A2′ = s1A1′ + s2A2′
dt t =0 dt t =0
+

2 real, distinct roots +

Critically Damped i(t) = Is + D1′te-αt + D2′e-αt v(t) = Vs + D1′te-αt + D2′e-αt

α = ωo i(0) = Is + D2′ v(0) = Vs + D2′
ζ=1 di dv
=D1′ - α D2′ = D1′ - α D2′
dt t =0
+ dt t =0
+

2 equal real roots

Underdamped i(t) = Is + B1′e-αtcosωdt + v(t) =Vs + B1′e-αtcosωdt +
α < ωo B2′e-αtsinωdt B2′e-αtsinωdt
ζ<1 damped frequency ωd = damped frequency ωd =
ω o2 − α 2 ω o2 − α 2
2 complex roots that
are complex i(0) = Is + B1′ v(0) = Vs + B1′
conjugates di dv
=-αB1′ + ωdB2′ = -αB1′ + ωdB2′
dt t =0
+ dt t =0
+

Team Concept Question 8.3.1:

In a parallel RLC circuit with a DC source, if L equals C, determine the range of resistor values
that will achieve an overdamped response.

a) 0 < R < .5 Ω
b) R > .5L Ω
c) R > .5/L Ω
d) none of the above

Team Concept Question 8.4.1:

In a series RLC circuit with a DC source, if L equals C then determine the value of R such that
the voltage across the capacitor is critically damped.

a) R = .5Ω
b) R = 2Ω
c) R = .5/L
d) none of the above

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

In-class activity 8.3.1:

Find the output voltage vo(t) for the following circuit.

In-class activity 8.4.1:

For the following circuit, find the voltages v(t) and vR(t).

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

In-class activity 8.4.2:

For the following circuit, find the voltage v(t).

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Lecture 3-2: Circuit elements and analysis in the s domain

Reading: 13.1 – 13.2

Objectives: To define circuit elements in the s domain

To redraw 1st and 2nd order circuits in the s domain using initial conditions
To calculate the natural response of circuits in the s-domain

13.1 – 13.2 Circuit Elements and Analysis in the s Domain

The benefit of Laplace transforms is that it transforms differential equations to algebraic
equations that may be easier to solve.

The following table summarizes the relationship between resistors, inductors, capacitors at the
frequency domain.

Note that V = L{v}, I = L{i} and impedance relationships can be related to the phasor
relationships where s = jω for sinusoidal steady state where the transient has died off or α=0.

Time Voltage Laplace Complex Frequency Domain

Domain Current Transform (s-domain)
Relationships
Resistor v = iR V = IR
i = v/R I = V/R
Z=R

Inductor di V = sLI - LIo

v=L
dt V IO
I= +
1 t sL s
L ∫0
i= vdx + I o
Z = sL

Capacitor dv I = sCV - CVo

i=C
dt I VO
V= +
1 τ sC s
v = ∫ idτ + Vo
C 0 1
Z=
sC

Note that the two frequency domain circuits for the inductor and capacitor initial conditions
represent the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits with respect to the terminals for those
circuits.

Ohm’s law in the frequency domain is stated as V = IZ.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Element Impedance (Ω) Admittance (S)

R R 1/R
L sL 1/(sL)
C 1/(sC) sC

All of the circuit analysis techniques in the frequency domain are applicable to circuits in the s-
domain including KVL, KCL, nodal analysis, mesh analysis, source transformations, and
Thevenin-Norton equivalents.

Example 13.2.1:
For the following network,
a) find the impedance and admittance across terminals a and b as a rational function of s
b) compute the numerical values of the zeros and poles of the impedance
c) plot the zeros and poles of the impedance on a s-plane

Example 13.2.2:
For the following network, find the input impedance across terminals a and b as a rational
function of s.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Example 13.2.3:
For the following network, redraw the circuit in the s-domain.

Example 13.2.4:
For the following network, redraw the circuit in the s-domain.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

EXAMPLE 13.2.5 (natural response):

For the following circuit, redraw the circuit in the s-domain at t = 0+. If the circuit has reached
steady state at t = 0- and the switch opens at t = 0, determine i(t).

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Lecture 3-3: Circuit analysis in the s domain

Reading: 13.2

Objectives: To analyze the natural response of circuits in the s-domain

To analyze the step response of circuits in the s-domain

13.2 Circuit Analysis in the s-domain

In-class activity 13.2.1(step response):
For the following network find i(t) for t > 0.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

In-class activity 13.2.2 (step response):

Having been in position a for a long time, the switch in the following circuit moves to position b
at t = 0. Find v(t) for > 0.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

In-class activity 13.2.3 (natural response):

Find v(t) for t > 0 in the following circuit.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

In-class activity 13.2.4 (natural response):

The circuit in the following figure has reached steady state at t = 0-. If the make-before-break
switch moves to position b at t = 0, calculate i(t) for t > 0.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Lecture 4-1: Applications in the s domain

Reading: 13.3

Objective: To calculate the steady-state and transient response of circuits in the s-domain
To analyze circuits in the s-domain using Thevenin’s theorem
To analyze circuits in the s-domain using superposition
To analyze mutual inductance circuits in the s-domain

In-class activity 13.3.1 (Steady State and Transient Response):

For the following circuit determine the steady state and transient response for vo(t) using
Laplace transforms if the vs(t) = 2 cos t V

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

In-class activity 13.3.2 (Steady State and Transient Response):

Assuming zero initial conditions, determine vo(t) in the following circuit.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Lecture 4-2: Applications in the s domain

Reading: 13.3

Objective: To calculate the steady-state and transient response of circuits in the s-domain
To analyze circuits in the s-domain using Thevenin’s theorem
To analyze circuits in the s-domain using superposition
To analyze mutual inductance circuits in the s-domain

In-class activity 13.3.3 (Thevenin and Norton equivalent):

Find the s-domain Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit with respect to terminals a and b for
the following circuit.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

In-class activity 13.3.4 (Mutual Inductance):

Use mesh analysis to find vo(t) for t>0 for the following circuit.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

In-class activity 13.3.5 (superposition):

Use superposition to find the current through the inductor for all time t > 0 in the following
circuit.

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ECE200 Circuits & Systems

• Transfer Functions
• Passive Filters
• Active Filters
• Bode diagrams
 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Lecture 5-1: The Initial and Final Value Theorem, Transfer functions,
Steady-State response
Reading: 13.4, 13.7

Objectives: To be able to define and clearly explain the transfer function of a circuit
To calculate the transfer function of a circuit
To apply the initial value and final value theorem to find voltage and current
values in an electric circuit an electric circuit
To use the transfer function instead of phasor analysis to determine the steady-
state response of a circuit.

13.4 The Initial Value Theorem and Transfer function

The initial and final value theorems can be used to find the initial and final values of a voltage
or current in the time-domain by using the s-domain equivalent of the current or voltage.
The initial value theorem states that lim f ( t ) = lim sF ( s )
t →0 + s →∞

The final value theorem states that lim f ( t ) = lim sF ( s )

t →∞ s →0

The transfer function is defined as the s-domain ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
(response) to the Laplace transform of the input (source). To find the transfer function of a
circuit, all of the initial conditions must be zero.

output Y(s)
The transfer function is H(s) = =
input X(s)

input output
X(s) H(s) Y(s)

H(s) is always a rational function of s. If there are any complex poles, they always appear in
conjugate pairs. The poles of H(s) must lie in the left half of the s plane if the response is to be
bounded. The zeros may lie in either the right half or the left half of the s plane. the poles are
represented with “X’s” and the zeros are represented with “O’s”.

s-plane imaginary axis, jω

σ± jω
STABLE UNSTABLE
X
O real axis, σ
X

MARGINALLY STABLE

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

In-class activity 13.4.1 (Initial, Final Value Theorem):

For the following circuit, (a) Find V(s), (b) Use the initial value theorem to find v(0), (c) Use the
final value theorem to find v(∞). [hint: v(t) = 12 - 4.3e-13.4t + 0.3e-187t V ]

In-class activity 13.4.2 (Transfer functions):

For each of the following transfer functions, find K (gain), α (damping factor/coefficient), ωo
(undamped frequency), ωd (damped frequency), ζ (damping ratio), poles, zeros, type of response.
Is it stable?

5
H(s) =
s( s + 2 s + 1 )
2

3 s + 12
H(s) =
s + 5s + 6
2

8 s 2 + 24 s
H(s) =
2 s 2 + 10 s + 18

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

In-class activity 13.4.3 (Transfer function):

Assume the following circuit has zero initial conditions, determine the transfer function
H(s) = I1(s)/V(s).

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

13.7 Transfer function and Steady-State Sinusoidal Response

For a steady state sinusoidal response, x(t) = Acos (ωt + φ)

Using trigonometric properties, x(t) = A cos ωt cos φ - A sin ωt sin φ

A φ Aω φ A φ ω φ
The Laplace transform of the input, x(t) is X(s) =
ω ω ω

φ ω φ
The output is Y(s) = H(s) X(s) =
ω

Using partial fraction expansion, Y(s) = terms from poles of H(s) +

ω ω

Only the X(s) terms contribute to the steady-state response.

The terms due to the transfer function H(s) are transient and approach 0 as t approaches ∞.
The terms from the poles of H(s) are in the open left-half of the s-plane (they have to be for
stability)!!
The poles of the sinusoidal input, x(t) are on the imaginary axis of the s-plane.

φ ω φ φ= θω φ
ω
= ω | ω|
ω

The steady-state solution for y(t) or the steady-state sinusoidal response is

Yss(s) = (H(jω))(A∠φ) = A|H(jω)|ej(φ + θ(ω))

yss(t) = A|H(jω)|cos[ωt + φ + θ(ω)]

The amplitude of the solution is equal to the amplitude of the source, A, times the magnitude of
the transfer function, |H(jω)|.

The phase angle of the response is equal to the phase angle of the source, φ, plus the phase angle
of the transfer function, θ(ω) at the frequency of the source, ω.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

In-class activity 13.4.4 (Steady-state sinusoidal response):

For the following circuit vs(t) = 2 cos t V,
a) Use the transfer function to compute the steady-state expression for vo(t).
b) Use Laplace transforms to find the complete solution vo(t) = voss(t) + votran(t)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

Lecture 5-2: Introduction to Filters

Reading: 13.4, 14.1-3

Objectives: To introduce the 4 major types of passive filters

To illustrate the frequency response, magnitude and phase angle plots
To define the terms passband, stopband, cutoff and half-power frequency

The frequency response of a circuit is the analysis of the result of varying the source frequency
on voltages and currents in the circuit.

Frequency-selective circuits are circuits that pass only certain signals in a desired-range of
frequencies to the output of the system. (i.e. radios, telephone systems, car stereos, televisions)

Frequency-selective circuits are also called filters. Filters weaken or attenuate any input signals
outside of particular frequency band.

The action of a filter on an input signal results in an output signal.

input signal FILTER output signal

The signals passed from the input to the output fall within a band of frequencies called the
passband. Frequencies not in the circuit’s passband are in the stopband.

The cutoff frequency separates the passband from the stopband

The frequency response plot shows how a transfer function (amplitude and phase) changes as
the source frequency changes.

The graph of |H(jω)| versus frequency ω is the magnitude plot

The graph of θ(jω) versus frequency ω is the phase angle plot

All of the filters in this lecture will be passive filters that depend only on the passive elements:
resistors, capacitors, and inductors. All passive filters have a gain between 0 and 1.

A low pass filter passes low frequencies and stops high frequencies (i.e. woofer)

A high pass filter passes high frequencies and stops low frequencies (i.e. tweeter)

A band pass filter passes frequencies within a frequency band and blocks or attenuates
frequencies outside the band (i.e. radio)

A band reject filter passes frequencies outside a frequency band and blocks or attenuates
frequencies within the band. (i.e. unwanted noise)
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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Spring 2008/09

The cutoff frequency is typically defined by engineers as the frequency for which the transfer
function magnitude is decreased by 30% or the factor 1/ 2 or -3 dB. (i.e. |H(jωc)|= 0.707 Hmax)

At the cutoff frequency, the average power delivered by the circuit is one half of the maximum
average power. Thus ωc is also called the half-power frequency. [P(jωc) = 0.5Pmax]

Type of Low - pass High - pass Bandpass Bandreject

Filter
H(0) 1 0 0 1
H(∞) 0 1 0 1
H(ωc) or 1 0
1/ 2 1/ 2
H(ωo)
Frequency
response

Ideal
magnitude
plot

Example
Circuit

H(s) ωc 1 RC s
=
s (R L )s s 2 + (1 L C )
=
+ (R L )s + (1 L C ) s 2 + (R L )s + (1 L C )
Transfer
function s + ω c s + 1 RC s + 1 RC s + ω c s2
|H(jω)|
1 RC ω ( R L )ω 1 (LC ) − ω 2

ω 2 + (1 RC )
2
ω 2 + (1 RC )
2 (1 (LC ) − ω ) + ((R L )ω )
2 2 2
(1 (LC ) − ω ) + ((R L )ω )
2 2 2

Resonant ωo2= 1/(LC) ωo2= 1/(LC)

frequency ωo2= ωc1ωc2 ωo2= ωc1ωc2

bandwidth β = R/L = 2α β = R/L = 2α

β = ωc2 - ωc1 β = ωc2 - ωc1
Cut off 1 1 1 1 β β ଶ β β ଶ
frequencies ωc = = ωc = = ωc1 = െ ൅ ටቀ ቁ ൅ ω௢ ଶ ωc1 = െ ൅ ටቀ ቁ ൅ ω௢ ଶ
RC τ RC τ ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ
β β ଶ β β ଶ
ωc2 = ൅ ටቀ ቁ ൅ ω௢ ଶ ωc2 = ൅ ටቀ ቁ ൅ ω௢ ଶ
ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ
Quality Q = ωo/β Q = ωo/β
factor ௅ ௅
Q=ට Q=ට
஼ோ మ ஼ோ మ

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In-class activity 14.1.1 (Passive Filters):

For the following circuit, use qualitative analysis, to determine the type of filter. What is the
cutoff frequency? What is the gain?

In-class activity 14.1.2 (Passive Filters):

For the following circuit, use qualitative analysis, to determine the type of filter. What is the
cutoff frequency? What is the gain?

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In-class activity 14.1.3 (Passive Filters):

For the following circuit, use qualitative analysis, to determine the type of filter. What is the
resonant frequency? What is the bandwidth? What is the gain?

In-class activity 14.1.4 (Passive Filters):

For the following circuit, use qualitative analysis, to determine the type of filter.
What is the gain?
What is the resonant frequency?
What is the bandwidth?
What are the cut off frequencies?

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Lecture 5-3: Active Filters

Reading: 15.1 - 3

Objectives: To analyze active filter circuits to determine the frequency response, gain, cut off
frequencies, resonant frequency and bandwidth
To calculate the transfer function of passive and active filters
To design a passive or active filter given certain specifications

15.1 Active Filter Circuits

All the filters described so far have been passive, they only include resistors, inductors, and
capacitors. The advantage of active filters over passive is that creating a filter with an
operational amplifier may be less expensive because they do not require inductors and they can
also have a maximum magnitude that can exceed one. Additionally, the addition of a resistive
load will not alter the passband magnitude or the cutoff frequency of an active filter.

Low Pass Filter High Pass Filter

ωc s
H(s) = -K H(s) = -K
s + ωc s + ωc
K = R2/R1 K = R2/R1
ωc = 1/(R2C) ωc = 1/(R1C)
integrating amplifier in the time domain differentiating amplifier in the time domain

Bode plots or frequency response plots are used to graphically describe the behavior of passive
and active filters. The Bode plot is used to graph the magnitude of the transfer function in
decibels (dB) versus the log of the frequency. The cutoff frequency is the frequency at which the
maximum magnitude of the transfer function has decreased by 1/ 2 or 3dB. The dB magnitude
is defined as 20 log |H(jω)|.

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In-class activity 15.1.1

For the following circuit,
a) derive the transfer function
b) what is the step response?
c) what type of filter is it?
d) what is the cut off frequency?
e) what is the DC gain?
f) what is the AC gain at 2 kHz?

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In-class activity 15.1.2 (active highpass filter):

Design a filter with the following Bode magnitude response. Use 0.5 μF capacitors in your
design.
|H(jω)| (dB)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
ω (rad/s)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

In-class activity 15.1.3

For the following circuit,
a) derive the transfer function
b) what is the step response?
c) what type of filter is it?
d) what is the cut off frequency?
e) what is the AC gain at 2 kHz?
f) Redesign the circuit to have a gain of 10 and the same cut off frequency
g) Redesign the original circuit to have a cut of frequency of 5 kHz and the same gain.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Lecture 6-1: More Passive and Active Filters

Reading: 14.1 – 5, 15.1 - 3

Objectives: To analyze passive and active filter circuits to determine the frequency response,
gain, cut off frequencies, resonant frequency and bandwidth
To calculate the transfer function of passive and active filters
To design a passive or active filter given certain specifications

In-Class Activity Signal to Noise Ratio Example:

In a power plant, a 1 mV communication signal has a resonant frequency of 12.5 kHz. However,
the signal is corrupted by 1.5 mV power line noise 60 Hz and 0.25 mV machine vibration noise
at 50 kHz.
a) what is the signal to noise ratio for the low and high frequency noise?
b) design a bandpass filter to “clean up” the noisy signal
c) after passing the signal through the filter, what is the signal to noise ratio for the low and
high frequency noise?

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

In-Class Activity 6.1.1:

160
Given the following transfer function, H(jω) =
200 + 2 jω
a) What type of filter is it?
b) What is the cutoff frequency?
c) What is the DC gain?
d) What is the magnitude of H(jω) at ω =10? 100? 1000 rad/s?
e) What is the phase of H(jω) at ω =10? 100? 1000 rad/s?
f) Using 0.01 µF capacitors, design a filter to satisfy this transfer function.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

In-Class Activity 6.1.3:

For the following circuit,
a) Using qualitative analysis, what is the low frequency gain?
b) Using qualitative analysis, what is the high frequency gain?
c) What type of filter is it?
d) Find the transfer function Vo/Vs
e) What is the cutoff frequency?
f) What is the magnitude and phase of H(jω) at ω =20 rad/s?
ans: ωc = 251.57 rad/s

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

In-Class Activity 6.1.4:

For the following circuit,
a) determine the transfer function,
b) what type of filter is it?
c) what is the center frequency?
d) what is the bandwidth?
e) what is the gain at resonance?.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Lecture 6-2: Bode Diagrams
Reading: Appendix E.1 - 2

Objectives: To create Bode diagrams for electric circuits and given transfer functions
To apply the steps to create Bode diagrams for first-order poles and zeros and
poles and zeros at the origin
To be able to compute the transfer function of a circuit given the Bode diagram

The bel used to define power gain and is defined as log10(pout/pin).

The decibel is also used to measure power gain and is defined as 10 log10(pout/pin).

Decibels can be used to define the voltage and current ratio as

2
p out ⎛v ⎞ v i
10 log 10 = 10 log 10 ⎜⎜ out ⎟⎟ = 20 log 10 out and 20 log 10 out
p in ⎝ v in ⎠ v in iin

Bode diagrams are graphical techniques that describe the frequency response of a circuit. There
are two separate plots: amplitude and phase angle and they vary with the frequency.

The plots are on semi log graph paper with the frequency on the horizontal log scale and the
amplitude and phase angle on the linear vertical scale.

There are several types of factors in a transfer function these include:

i. a gain K
ii. a zero (jω) at the origin
iii. a pole (jω)-1 at the origin
iv. a simple zero 1 + jω/z1
v. a simple pole 1/(1+jω/p1)
vi. a quadratic pole 1/[1 + j2ζ2ω/ωn + (jω/ωn)2]
vii. a quadratic zero [1 + j2ζ1ω/ωk + (jω/ωk)2]

This lecture will address creating a Bode diagram with the first 5 types of factors. To create the
Bode diagram, plot each of these factors separately and then combine them graphically.

Standard Form
K ( s + z1 ) K ( jω + z 1 )
Given the following transfer function H ( s ) = and H ( jω ) =
s( s + p1 ) jω ( j ω + p 1 )

The first step in creating a Bode diagram is to write H(jω) in standard form. In order to write
H(jω) in standard form, divide out the poles and zeros.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Kz 1 ⎛⎜ 1 + jω ⎞⎟
STANDARD FORM: H(jω) = ⎝ z1 ⎠
,
⎛
p1 ( jω )⎜ 1 + j ω ⎞
⎝ p1 ⎟⎠

K o 1 + jω
z1
the amplitude is |H(jω)| = , where Ko = Kz1/p1
ω 1 + jω p1
The amplitude of H(jω) in decibels is AdB = 20log10| H(jω)|

K o 1 + jω
z1
AdB =20log10 = 20log10Ko + 20log10|1+ jω/z1| - 20log10ω - 20log10|1+ jω/p1|
ω 1 + jω p
1

the phase is θ(ω) = ψ1 - 90° - β1, where ψ1 = tan-1(ω/z1), β1 = tan-1(ω/p1)

To create the Bode diagram, plot each term of the amplitude separately and then graphically
combine the plots.

i. Constant Ko
The plot of the constant, Ko, is a horizontal straight line at the value 20log10Ko

H(ω) HdB φ
Ko 20 log10 |Ko| 0°
-Ko 20 log10 |Ko| ±180°

ii. Zero at the origin

Another possible term in the numerator is a zero at the origin.
The term 20log10|jω| is a zero at the origin. The plot of this term is a straight line with a slope of
20 dB/decade that crosses the 0dB axis at ω = 1 rad/s. The plot of the phase is a horizontal line
at 90°.
H(ω) HdB φ
jω 20 log10 ω 90°
N
(jω) 20N log10 ω 90N°

for example, amplitude plot of a single and double zero at the origin
Single Zero Double Zero
A,dB

ω, rad/s 20 log10 ω 40 log10 ω

100

80

0.01 -40 dB -80 60

0.1 -20 dB -40 40

20
1.0 0 dB 0 0

10.0 20 dB 40 -20

100.0 40 dB 80
-40

-60
0.1 1 10 100
ω (rad/s)
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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

iii. Pole at the origin

The term 20log10|jω| is a pole at the origin. The plot of this term is a straight line with a slope of
-20 dB/decade that crosses the 0dB axis at ω = 1 rad/s. The plot of the phase is a horizontal line
at -90°.

H(ω) HdB φ
-1
(jω) -20 log10 ω -90°
(jω)-N -20N log10 ω -90N°

for example, amplitude plot of a single and double pole at the origin
Single Zero Double Zero

ω, rad/s -20 log10 ω -40 log10 ω A,dB

60

0.01 40 dB 80 dB 40

20

0.1 20 dB 40 dB 0

1.0 0 dB 0 dB
-20
-40

10.0 -20 dB -40 dB -60

-80
100.0 -40 dB -80 dB -100
0.1 1 10 100
ω (rad/s)

iv. First Order Zero

The amplitude term 20log10|1+ jω/z1| is a first-order zero. The plot of this term is a horizontal
line approximation from ω = 0 to z1 at 0°. At the corner frequency (ω = z1), the plot increases
with a slope of 20dB/decade. The phase term, tan-1(ω/z1), is a horizontal line approximation
from ω = 0 to 0.1z1 at 0°. At 0.1z1, the line increases with a slope of 45°/decade from 0.1z1 to
10z1. At 10z1, the line is a horizontal approximation at 90°.

H(ω) HdB φ
1+jω/z1 2 ⎛ω ⎞
⎛ω ⎞ tan-1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
20 log10 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ z1 ⎠ ⎝ z1 ⎠
(1+jω/z1)N 2 ⎛ω ⎞
⎛ω ⎞ N⋅tan-1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
20N log10 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ z1 ⎠ ⎝ z1 ⎠

for example, amplitude and phase plot of a single and double first order zero (1 + jω/10)

ω, rad/s 20 log10 |1 + jω/10| 20 log10 |1 + jω/10| 20 log10 |1 + jω/10| 20 log10 |1 + jω/10|

approximate, dB approximate, dB
0.1 0.0004 0 0.0009 0
1.0 0.0432 0 0.0864 0
10.0 3 dB 0 6 dB 0
100.0 20 dB 20 40 dB 40
1000.0 40 dB 40 80 dB 80

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

ω, rad/s tan-1(ω/10), ° tan-1(ω/10),° 2⋅tan-1(ω/10), ° 2⋅tan-1(ω/10),°

approximate approximate
0.1 0.573 0 1.146 0
1.0 5.711 0 11.421 0
10.0 45 45 90 90
100.0 84.289 90 168.579 180
1000.0 89.427 90 178.854 180

single 1st order zero single 1st order zero (approx.) single 1st order zero single 1st order zero (approx.)
double 1st order zero double 1st order zero (approx.) double 1st order zero double 1st order zero (approx.)

A,dB ο
80 φ, 180

60
135
40
90
20

45
0

-20 0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.1 1 10 100 1000
ω (rad/s) ω (rad/s)

v. First Order Pole

The amplitude term 20log10|1+ jω/p1| is a first-order pole. The plot of this amplitude term is a
horizontal line approximation from ω = 0 to p1 at 0 dB. At the corner frequency (ω = p1), the
plot decreases with a slope of -20dB/decade. The phase term, -tan-1(ω/z1), is a horizontal line
approximation from ω = 0 to 0.1z1 at 0°. At 0.1z1, the line decreases with a slope of -45°/decade
from 0.1z1 to 10z1. At 10z1, the line is a horizontal approximation at -90°.

H(ω) HdB φ
(1+jω/p1)-1 2 ⎛ω ⎞
⎛ω ⎞ -tan-1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
-20 log10 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ p1 ⎠
(1+jω/p1)-N 2 ⎛ω ⎞
⎛ω ⎞ -N⋅tan-1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
-20N log10 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ p1 ⎠

for example, amplitude and phase plot of a single and double first order pole (1 + jω/10)-1

ω, rad/s -20 log10 |1 + jω/10| -20 log10 |1 + jω/10| -20 log10 |1 + jω/10| -20 log10 |1 + jω/10|
approximate, dB approximate, dB
0.1 -0.0004 0 -0.0009 0
1.0 -0.0432 0 -0.0864 0
10.0 -3 dB 0 -6 dB 0
100.0 -20 dB -20 -40 dB -40
1000.0 -40 dB -40 -80 dB -80

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

ω, rad/s -tan-1(ω/10), ° -tan-1(ω/10),° -2⋅tan-1(ω/10), ° -2⋅tan-1(ω/10),°

approximate approximate
0.1 -0.573 0 -1.146 0
1.0 -5.711 0 -11.421 0
10.0 -45 -45 -90 -90
100.0 -84.289 -90 -168.579 -180
1000.0 -89.427 -90 -178.854 -180

single 1st order pole single 1st order pole (approx.)

φ, ο
single 1st order pole single 1st order pole (approx.) double 1st order pole double 1st order pole (approx.)
double 1st order pole double 1st order pole (approx.)

0
A,dB
20

0
-45

-20 -90
-40
-135
-60

-80 -180
0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.1 1 10 100 1000
ω (rad/s) ω (rad/s)

Example E.1.1:
500( jω + 0.1 )
Construct the Bode amplitude and phase plot for the transfer function, H ( jω ) =
jω ( jω + 5 )

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Lecture 6-3: Bode Diagrams
Reading: Appendix E.1 - 2

Objectives: To create Bode diagrams for electric circuits and given transfer functions
To apply the steps to create Bode diagrams for first-order poles and zeros and
poles and zeros at the origin
To be able to compute the transfer function of a circuit given the Bode diagram

ExampleE.1. 2:
For the following circuit,
a) Compute the transfer function, H(s)
b) Construct the Bode amplitude plot for H(s)
c) Construct the Bode phase plot for H(s)
d) Suppose that vi(t) = 5cos(500t + 15°) V, use the Bode plot you constructed to predict the
amplitude of vo(t) in the steady state.
e) Suppose that vi(t) = 5cos(500t + 15°) V, use the Bode plot you constructed to predict the
phase of vo(t) in the steady state.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Example E.1.3:
For the following transfer function,
200 jω
H ( jω ) =
( jω + 2 )( jω + 10 )
a) Construct the Bode amplitude plot for H(s)
b) Construct the Bode phase plot for H(s)
c) Suppose that vi(t) = 5cos(5t) V, use the Bode amplitude plot you constructed to
predict the amplitude of vo(t) in the steady state.
d) Suppose that vi(t) = 5cos(5t + 15°) V, use the Bode phase plot you constructed to
predict the phase of vo(t) in the steady state.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Lecture 7-1: Bode Diagrams
Reading: Appendix E.1 - 2

Objectives: To create Bode diagrams for electric circuits and given transfer functions
To apply the steps to create Bode diagrams for first-order poles and zeros and
poles and zeros at the origin
To be able to compute the transfer function of a circuit given the Bode diagram

Example E.1.4:
For the following Bode amplitude plot, compute the transfer function, H(s) in the form

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Example E.1.5:
For the following Bode amplitude plot, compute the transfer function, H(s) in the form

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Lecture 7-2: Bode Diagrams
Reading: Appendix E.1 - 2

Objectives: To create Bode diagrams for electric circuits and given transfer functions
To apply the steps to create Bode diagrams for first-order poles and zeros and
poles and zeros at the origin
To be able to compute the transfer function of a circuit given the Bode diagram

Example E.1.6:
For the following Bode amplitude plot, compute the transfer function, H(s) in the form
…
…
A,dB
20

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
ω (rad/s)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Example E.1.7:
For the following Bode amplitude plot, compute the transfer function, H(s) in the form
…
…

AdB 100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
w (rad/s)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Lecture 7-3: Scaling

Reading: 15.2

Objectives: To analyze passive and active filter circuits to determine the frequency response,
gain, cut off frequencies, resonant frequency and bandwidth
To calculate the transfer function of passive and active filters
To design a passive or active filter given certain specifications
To use scaling to design both passive and active filters

15.2 Scaling
It is more convenient and simplifies the mathematics to design passive and active filter circuits
with element values such as 1Ω, 1F, and 1H. Scaling can be used to transform the circuit and
values for R, L, and C to more realistic values.
There are two types of scaling: magnitude and frequency

• In magnitude scaling, the scale factor, km, multiplies all of the impedances at a given
frequency, the transfer function before and after scaling is the same.
• In frequency scaling, the scale factor, kf, multiplies each impedance such that it is the same
as it was at the original frequency.

Where km = R′/R and kf = ω′/ω

elements magnitude, km scale factor frequency, kf scale factor

R R′ = kmR R′ = R
L L′ = kmL L′ = L/kf
C C′ = C/km C′ = C/kf

To simultaneously scale magnitude and frequency use the following. Note that the primed terms
are the scaled values and the unprimed terms are the original values.

R′ = _kmR

L′ = _kmL/kf

C′ = _C/(kmkf)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

In-class activity 15.2.1 (Scaling, active lowpass filters):

Design a lowpass active filter with a dc gain of 4 and a corner frequency of 500 Hz. Use a 0.2
μF capacitor in your design.

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In-class activity 15.2.2 (Scaling, active highpass filters):

Design a highpass active filter with a high-frequency gain of 5 and a corner frequency of 2 kHz.
Use a 0.1 μF capacitor in your design.

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In-class activity 15.2.3:

The following series RLC circuit has a center frequency of 1 rad/s, a bandwidth of 1 rad/s and a
quality factor of 1. Use scaling to compute new values of R and L that yield a circuit with the
same quality factor but with a center frequency of 10 kHz. Use a 0.01 μF capacitor in your
design.

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ECE200 Circuits & Systems

• Higher order op amp filters

• Narrowband filters
• Two-port circuits
 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Lecture 8-1: Op Amp Bandpass and Bandreject Filters

Reading: 15.3

Objectives: To analyze op amp broadband bandpass and bandreject filters

To design op amp broadband bandpass and bandreject filters

15.3 Op Amp broadband bandpass and bandreject filters

The bandpass filter passes source voltages between the two cutoff frequencies (the passband) to
the output and attenuates source voltages before they reach the output at frequencies outside the
two cutoff frequencies (the stopband).

The center frequency or resonant frequency ,ωo, is the frequency for which a circuit’s transfer
function is purely real. This was referred to as the natural response when analyzing second-order
circuits. The center frequency is the geometric center of the passband ωo = ωc 1ωc 2
For bandpass filters, the magnitude of the transfer function is maximum at the resonant
frequency Hmax = |H(jωo)|

The bandwidth, β is the width of the passband for a band pass filter. (β = ωc2 - ωc1)
The quality factor, Q is the ratio of the center frequency to the bandwidth. This gives a measure
of the width of the passband, independent of its location on the frequency axis. (Q = ωo/β)

It is possible to create a broadband bandpass filter (ωc2 ≥ 2ωc1) by cascading a low-pass filter,
high-pass filter, and inverting amplifier. The quality factor, Q, of a filter describes the width of
the passband. For broadband band pass filter, Q < 0.5.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Low pass filter with High pass filter with Inverting amplifier
unity gain and ωc2 unity gain and ωc1 with a gain of K
vi vo
H(s) = ωc2 /(s + ωc2) HHPF(s) = s/(s + ωc1) HINV(s) = -Rf/Ri = -K

H(s) = [HLPF(s))( HHPF(s))( HINV(s)]

ωc 2 s
H(s) = − K
s + (ωc 1 + ωc 2 )s + ωc 1ωc 2
2

Alternate (Simplified) form of a Bandpass Filter

A passive high-pass filter cascaded with an active high pass filter

K = R2/R1
ωc1 = 1/(R1C1) (cutoff of HPF)
ωc2 = 1/(R2C2) (cutoff of LPF)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

In-class activity 15.3.1 (active bandpass filters):

Design a bandpass filter for a graphic equalizer to provide an amplification of 2 within the band
of frequencies between 100 and 10,000 Hz.

In-class activity 15.3.2 (active bandpass filters):

Design a bandpass filter to pass frequencies between 250 Hz and 3 kHz and with K = 10.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Bandreject Filters
• The bandreject filter passes source voltages outside a band between two cutoff frequencies
(the passband) and attenuates source voltages before they reach the output at frequencies
between the two cutoff frequencies (the stopband).
• The bandpass and bandreject filters perform complementary function in the frequency
domain.
• Ideal bandpass and bandreject filters have two cutoff frequencies, ωc1 and ωc2.
• At this frequency, the magnitude of the transfer function equals (1/ 2 ) Hmax
It is possible to create a broadband bandreject filter (ωc2 ≥ 2ωc1) by putting a low-pass and high-
pass filter in parallel and putting them in series with an inverting amplifier.

Low pass filter with

unity gain and ωc1
Inverting amplifier
vi with a gain of K vo
High pass filter with
unity gain and ωc2 K = Rf/Ri

s 2 + 2ωc 1 s + ωc 1ωc 2
H(s) = K
(s + ωc1 )(s + ωc 2 )

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Alternate (Simplified) form of a Bandreject Filter

(RH >>>Ri)
s 2 + 2ωc 1 s + ωc 1ωc 2
H(s) = K
(s + ωc1 )(s + ωc 2 )
In-class activity 15.2.1 (Scaling, active bandreject filters):
Design a circuit based on the parallel bandreject op amp filter. The bode magnitude response of
this filter is shown in the following figure. Use 0.01 μF capacitors in your design.
|H(jω)| (dB)
10

0
10 100 1000 10000

-5

-10

-15
ω (rad/s)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

In-class activity 15.2.2 (Scaling, active bandreject filters):

Design a bandreject filter for ωo = 20 krad/s, K = 5, and Q =0. 1. Use 100 pF capacitors in
your design. (Hint: Use β = ωc1 +ωc2, Q = ωo/β, ωo2 = ωc1ωc2)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Lecture 8-2: Higher order op amp filters
Reading: 15.4

Objectives: To define, design and perform calculations with higher order op amp filters
To determine the order of higher order filters using a template

15.4 Higher Order Op Amp Filters

A prototype low-pass operational amplifier filter has R = 1Ω, C = 1F and a cutoff frequency of 1
rad/s. In order to create a sharper transition from the pass band to the stop band, it is necessary
to cascade filters. As more filters are cascaded, the slope of the transition increases by 20
dB/decade. The following figure shows that as each additional stage increases the order of the
transfer function for the filter. The higher order cascaded prototype low pass filter has the
following transfer function.

H(s) =
(− 1)n , ω = n 2 − 1
cn
( s + 1 )n

Each stage has a cutoff frequency of 1 rad/s and as more stages are added to a filter, the overall
filter cutoff frequency changes. The resultant filter can be frequency scaled in order to adjust it
to the desired cutoff frequency.

kf =ωc/ωcn

Since the gain of the higher-order filter is one, an inverting amplifier can be cascaded with the
filter to adjust the gain or adjust the gain of each filter or one of the stage filters. An alternate
method to achieve the gain is to change the input resistance, Ri on one of the stages to meet the
gain specification.

The higher order cascaded prototype high pass filter has the following transfer function.
H(s) =
(− s )n , ω =
cn
( s + 1 )n √

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
In-Class Activity 15.4.1:
Design a fourth-order low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 500 Hz and a passband gain of
10. Use 0.01 μF capacitors. Sketch the Bode magnitude plot for this filter.

wc=3.14 krad/s
at 17dB 8 dB
Bode Diagram at 7222 rad/s
30

20

10

Magnitude (dB)
-10

-20

-30 m=-80dB/dec

-40

-50

-60

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

In-Class Activity 15.4.2:

Using the template at the end of this lecture, design a low pass filter with a cut off frequency of
10 krad/s and a gain of no more than -60 dB at 100 krad/s. Use 0.01 μF capacitors in your
design.

Lecture 9 - Example 15.4.6 - Low pass filter

0

-50

Magnitude (dB)
-100

-150

-200
180

90

Phase (deg)
0

-90

-180

-270
2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

In-Class Activity 15.4.3:

Using the template at the end of this lecture, design a high pass filter with a cut off frequency of
3 krad/s and a gain of no more than -15 dB at 1 krad/s. Use 0.1 μF capacitors in your design.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Lecture 9-1: Butterworth filters

Reading: 15.4

Objectives: To introduce Butterworth filters (low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, bandreject)

To define, design and perform calculations with Butterworth filters
To determine the order of Butterworth order filters using a template or formula

An alternate method for designing higher order filters involves the use of Butterworth filters.
The advantage of Butterworth filters is that there is a sharper transition between the passband
and stopband. A unity-gain Butterworth low-pass filter has a transfer function whose
magnitude is given by,

1
|H(jω)|dB = 20log10 = -10log10(1 + (ω/ωc)2n)
1 + (ω ωc )
2n

Table 15.1 lists the Butterworth polynomials up to n = 8 which are used to design Butterworth
filters scaled to ωc = 1 rad/s.

Note that most of the Butterworth filters are a product of first and second-order filters. The first
order transfer function can be produced using a low-pass op amp filter. The following circuit
provides the second-order transfer function for the low-pass Butterworth filter cascade.

Prototype filter
General formulas, ωc = 1 rad/s ωc = 1 rad/s, R = 1Ω
b1 = 2/(RC1) b1 = 2/C1
R2C1C2 = 1 C1C2 = 1
1 1 (R 2 C1C2 ) 1 1 (C1C 2 )
H(s) = = 2
s + (2 RC1 )s + 1 (R 2 C1C2 )
H(s) = 2 = 2
s + b1 s + 1 s + b1 s + 1
2
s + (2 C1 )s + 1 (C1C 2 )

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

A second-order Butterworth high-pass filter circuit is shown in the following figure.

Prototype filter
General formulas, ωc = 1 rad/s ωc = 1 rad/s, C = 1F
b1 = 2/(R2C) b1 = 2/R2
R1R2 C2 = 1 R1R2 = 1
s2 s2 s2 s2
s + b1 s + 1 s + (2 R2 C )s + 1 (R1 R2 C 2 )
H(s) = 2 = 2 H(s) = =
s 2 + b1 s + 1 s 2 + (2 R2 )s + 1 (R1 R2 )

1
|H(jω)|dB = 20log10 = -10log10(1 + (ωc /ω)2n)
1 + (ω c ω )
2n

Figure 15.24 illustrates another method used to describe a higher-order filter based upon the four
variables: Ap, As, ωp, ωs.
1
As = |H(jωs)|dB = 20log10 = -10log10(1 + ωs2n)
1 + ωs
2n

If we assume that ωp is the cut off frequency then the order of the Butterworth filter is
− 0.05 As − 0.05 As
n= n=
log 10 (ω s ω c ) log 10 (ω c ω s )
(Low Pass Filter) (High Pass Filter)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Advantages of the Butterworth filter versus the cascaded filter

i. As the order of the Butterworth increases the cutoff frequency remains the same
ii. A lower-order Butterworth filter achieves the same design specification as a higher order
cascaded filter
iii. It takes less operational amplifiers to implement a Butterworth filter with the same order
as the cascaded filter

Example 15.4.1 (Butterworth order low-pass):

Determine the order of a low-pass Butterworth filter that has a cutoff frequency of 1 kHz and a
gain of no more than -50 dB at 6 kHz. What is the actual gain in dB at 6 kHz?

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Example 15.4.2 (Butterworth low-pass filter):

a) Using 1 kΩ resistors and ideal op amps, design a circuit that will implement the low pass
Butterworth filter specified in Example 15.4.1. The gain in the passband is one.
b) Draw the circuit diagram of the filter and label all component values.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Example 15.4.3(Butterworth order high-pass):

Determine the order of a high-pass Butterworth filter that has a cutoff frequency of 7 kHz and a
gain of at least -30 dB at 2 kHz. What is the actual gain, in decibels, at 2 kHz?

Example 15.4.4 (Butterworth high-pass filter):

a) Using 10 nF capacitors and ideal op amps, design a circuit that will implement the filter
specified in Example 15.4.3. The gain in the passband is one.
b) Draw the circuit diagram of the filter and label all component values.

Lecture 9 - Example 15.4.6 - Butterworth

0

-20
Magnitude (dB)

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120
0
-45
Phase (deg)

-90
-135
-180
-225
-270
2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Example 15.4.5(broadband Butterworth bandpass filter):

a) Design a broadband Butterworth bandpass filter with a lower cutoff frequency of 500 Hz and
an upper cutoff frequency of 4.5 kHz. The passband gain of the filter is 20 dB. The gain
should be down at least 20 dB at 200 Hz and 11.25 kHz. Use 15 nF capacitors in the high-
pass circuit and 10 kΩ resistors in the low-pass circuit.

b) Draw the circuit diagram of the filter and label all component values.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Example 15.4.6 (broadband Butterworth bandreject filter):

a) Design a broadband Butterworth bandreject filter with a lower cutoff frequency of 1.0 kHz
and an upper cutoff frequency of 10.0 kHz. The passband gain of the filter is 40 dB. The
gain should be down at least 40 dB at 5.0 kHz and 6.0 kHz. Use 10 μF capacitors in the
high-pass circuit and 1 kΩ resistors in the low-pass circuit.

b) Draw the circuit diagram of the filter and label all component values.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Lecture 9-2: Narrowband bandpass and bandreject filters
Reading: 15.5

Objectives: To analyze narrowband bandpass and bandreject filters to determine the cutoff
frequencies, resonant frequency, gain, bandwidth and quality factor
To design narrowband filters to meet certain design specifications

15.5 Narrowband Bandpass and Bandreject Filters

Cascaded active filters with high quality factors (narrowband filters) require operational
amplifiers. Unlike the broadband filters, these filters do not have discrete poles but complex
poles. A narrowband or high Q filter must have Q = ωo/β > 0.5. The narrowband bandpass and
band reject prototypes are provided on the following table.

Bandpass Bandreject (twin-T notch filter)

H(s) = 2
Kβ s
H(s) = 2
(s
+ ωo 2 2
)
s + β s + ωo s + βs + ωo
2 2

− s (R1C ) s 2 + 1 (R 2 C 2 )
H(s) = H(s) =
s + 2 / (R3 C )s + 1 (Req R3 C 2 )
2
s 2 + ⎛⎜ 4( 1 − σ ) ⎞ s + 1 (R 2 C 2 )
⎝ RC ⎟⎠
β = 2/(R3C) β = 4(1 - σ)/(RC)
ωo2 = 1/(ReqR3C2) ωo2 = 1/(R2C2)
Req = R1 || R2 σ = 1 – β/(4ωo)
Kβ = -1/(R1C)
K = -R3/(2R1) = Vo/Vi (inverting amplifier)
prototype assuming C = 1 F, ωo = 1 rad/s
2
R1 = Q/|K|, R2 = Q/(2Q – |K|), R3 = 2Q R = 1 Ω, σ = 1-1/(4Q)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Example 15.5.1:
For the following circuit,
a) determine the transfer function, H(s)
b) what is the gain?
c) what is the bandwidth?
d) what is the resonant frequency?
e) what is the quality factor?

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Example 15.5.2:
For the following circuit,
a) determine the transfer function, H(s)
b) what is the gain?
c) what is the bandwidth?
d) what is the resonant frequency?
e) what is the quality factor?

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Lecture 9-3: Narrowband bandpass and bandreject filters
Reading: 15.5

Objectives: To analyze narrowband bandpass and bandreject filters to determine the cutoff
frequencies, resonant frequency, gain, bandwidth and quality factor
To design narrowband filters to meet certain design specifications

Example 15.5.1(Narrowband bandpass):

Design a bandpass filter which has a center frequency of 2 kHz, a quality factor of 8, and the
pass band gain with a magnitude of 2. Use 0.01 μF capacitors in your design. Compute the
transfer function of the circuit and sketch the Bode plot for the magnitude response.

10
0
Magnitude (dB)
-10

-20

-30

-40
270
Phase (deg)

225

180

135

90
3 4 5
10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Example 15.5.2(Narrowband bandpass):

Design an active bandpass filter with Q = 8, |K| = 5, and ωo = 1000 rad/s. Use 1 μF capacitor
and specify the value of the resistors.

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Example 15.5.3(Narrowband bandreject):
Design an active bandreject filter with a center frequency of 10 krad/s and a bandwidth of 1.250
krad/s. Use0 .01 μF capacitors in the design.
10

Magnitude (dB)
-10

-20

-30

-40

450

405

Phase (deg)
360

315

270
4
10
Frequency (rad/sec)

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 ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Example 15.5.4(Narrowband bandreject):

Design an active unity-gain bandreject filter with ωo = 1000 rad/s and Q = 4. Use 2 μF
capacitors and specify the value of the resistors andσ.

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Lecture 10-1: The Terminal Equations and Two-Port Parameters
Reading: 18.1-2

Objectives: To introduce two-port circuits

To define terminal equations and two-port parameters
To define the terms: symmetrical, reciprocal
To define the terms: immittance, transmission, and hybrid parameters

Terminal pairs on a circuit where signals are either fed in or extracted are referred to as the ports
of the system.

A two-port network is an electrical network with two separate ports for input and output.

Restrictions:
i. there can be no energy stored within the circuit
ii. there can be no independent sources within the circuit
iii. the current into the port must equal the current out of the port
iv. all external connections must be made to either the input port or the output port

Similar to the fundamental principle of analysis for Thevenin and Norton equivalence and
operational amplifiers only the terminal variables (I1, I2, V1, V2) are of interest not the currents
and voltages inside the circuit.

The terms that relate the voltages and currents of a two-port network are the parameters.

The open-circuit impedance parameters or z parameters have the units of ohms. These are
found by open-circuiting the input or output port.

V1 V1 V2 V2
z11 = z12 = z21 = z22 =
I1 I 2 =0
I2 I 1 =0
I1 I 2 =0
I2 I 1 =0

z11 = open-circuit input impedance

z12 = open-circuit transfer impedance from port 1 to port 2
z21 = open-circuit transfer impedance from port 2 to port 1
z22 = open-circuit output impedance

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
When z11 = z22 the two-port network is said to be symmetric. When the two-port network is
linear and has no dependent sources, the transfer impedances are equal (z12 = z21) and the two-
port network is said to be reciprocal. Any two-port network made entirely of resistors,
capacitors, and inductors must be reciprocal.

The impedance parameters can also be described using the following matrix relationship.
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ z11 z12 ⎤ ⎡ I 1 ⎤
⎢V ⎥ = ⎢ z ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 21 z22 ⎦ ⎣ I 2 ⎦
Example 18.1.1:
Find the z parameters for the following circuit.

Example 18.1.2:
Find the z parameters for the following circuit.

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Example 18.1.3
Find I1 and I2 in the following circuit.

Admittance parameters or y parameters have the units of Siemens. The values are determined by setting V1 = 0 or
V2 = 0 (input and output short-circuited). These parameters are also called the short-circuit admittance
parameters.

⎡ I 1 ⎤ ⎡ y11 y12 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤

⎢I ⎥ = ⎢ y y 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 21

I1 I1 I2 I2
y11 = y12 = y21 = y22 =
V1 V =0
2
V2 V1 =0
V1 V =0
2
V2 V1 =0

y11 = short-circuit input admittance

y12 = short-circuit transfer admittance from port 2 to port 1
y21 = short-circuit transfer admittance from port 1 to port 2
y22 = short-circuit output admittance

The impedance and admittance parameters are collectively referred to as the immittance
parameters.
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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

The convert between the immittance parameters, use the following

y to z parameters z to y parameters
y z
z11 = 22 y11 = 22
Δy Δz

− y12 − z12
z12 = y12 =
Δy Δz
− y21 − z21
z21 = y21 =
Δy Δz
y z
z22 = 11 y22 = 11
Δy Δz
Δy = y11y22 – y12y21 Δz = z11z22 – z12z21

Example 18.1.4:
Obtain the y parameters for the following circuit.

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Example 18.1.5:
Obtain the y parameters for the following circuit.

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Lecture 10-2: The Terminal Equations and Two-Port Parameters
Analysis of Terminated two-port circuits
Reading: 18.1-3

Objectives: To introduce two-port circuits

To define terminal equations and two-port parameters
To define the terms: symmetrical, reciprocal
To define the terms: immittance, transmission, and hybrid parameters

The a and b parameters are called the transmission parameters because they describe the voltage
and current at one end of the two-port network in terms of the voltage and current at the other
end.

V1 = a11V2 - a12I2 V2 = b11V1 - b12I1

I1 = a21V2 - a22I2 I2 = b21V1 - b22I1
V V
a11 = 1 open-circuit voltage ratio b11 = 2 open-circuit voltage gain
V2 I = 0 2
V1 I = 01

V1 V2
a12 = − negative short-circuit transfer impedance (Ω) b12 = − negative short-circuit transfer impedance (Ω)
I2 V2 = 0
I1 V1 = 0

I1 I2
a21 = open-circuit transfer admittance (S) b21 = open-circuit transfer admittance (S)
V2 I 2 =0
V1 I 1 =0

I1 I2
a22 = − negative short-circuit current ratio b22 = − negative short-circuit current gain
I2 V2 =0
I1 V1 =0

Example 18.3.1:
The following measurements pertain to a two-port circuit operating in the sinusoidal steady
state. With port 2 open, a voltage equal to 150 cos 4000t V is applied to port 1. The current into
port 1 is 25 cos(4000t - 45°) A, and the port 2 voltage is 100 cos (4000t + 15°) V. With port 2
short-circuited, a voltage equal to 30 cos 4000t V is applied to port 1. The current into port 1 is
1.5 cos(4000t + 30°) A, and the current into port 2 is 0.25 cos (4000t + 150°) A. Find the a
parameters that can describe the sinusoidal steady-state behavior of the circuit.

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

The h and g parameters relate cross variables, that is an input voltage and output current to an
output voltage and input current. The h and g parameters are called hybrid parameters. The g
parameters are also called inverse hybrid parameters.

V1 = h11I1 + h12V2 I1 = g11V1 + g12I2

I2 = h21I1 + h22V2 V2 = g21V1 + g22I2
V I
h11 = 1 short-circuit input impedance (Ω) g11 = 1 open-circuit input admittance (S)
I 1 V =0
2
V1 I =0 2

V1 I1
h12 = open-circuit reverse voltage gain g12 = short-circuit reverse current gain
V2 I 1 =0
I2 V1 =0

I2 V2
h21 = short-circuit forward current gain g21 = open-circuit forward voltage gain
I1 V2 =0
V1 I 2 =0

I2 V2
h22 = open-circuit output admittance (S) g22 = short-circuit output impedance (Ω)
V2 I 1 =0
I2 V1 =0

Example 18.3.2:
Determine the Thevenin equivalent at the output port of the following circuit.

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Table 18.1 in the textbook describes all of the relationships between the two-port parameters.
If a two-port circuit is reciprocal then the following relationships must exist.
i. z12 = z21
ii. y12 = y21
iii. a11a22 – a12a21 = Δa = 1
iv. b11b22 – b12b21 = Δb = 1
v. h12 = -h21
vi. g12 = -g21
A two-port circuit is reciprocal if the interchange of an ideal voltage source at one port with an
ideal ammeter at the other port produces the same ammeter reading. A two-port circuit is also
reciprocal if the interchange of an ideal current source at one port with an ideal voltmeter at the
other port produces the same voltmeter reading.

A reciprocal two-port circuit is symmetric if its ports can be interchanged without disturbing the
values of the terminal currents and voltages. Figure 18.6 in the textbook shows four examples of
symmetric two-port circuits. The following relationships exist among the port parameters.
i. z11 = z22
ii. y11 = y22
iii. a11 = a22
iv. b11 = b22
v. h11h22 – h12h21 = Δh = 1
vi. g11g22 – g12g21 = Δg = 1

18.3 Analysis of the Terminated Two-Port Circuit

In a typical application of a two-port network, the circuit is driven at port 1 and loaded at port 2.
The following figure shows an example of a terminated two-port model.

Terminated Two-Ports

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

The six characteristics of the terminated two-port circuit define its terminal behavior:

• the input impedance Zin = V1/I1 or the admittance Yin = I1/V1

• the output current I2
• the Thevenin voltage and impedance with respect to port 2
• the current gain I2/I1
• the voltage gain V2/V1
• the voltage gain V2/Vg

Table 18.2 in the textbook includes all of the terminated two-port equations. The z and y
parameters for a terminated two-port are given below. The following table illustrates the y and z
parameters for the terminated two-port model.

z parameters y parameters
input impedance/ Zin/Yin z z y12 y21 Z L
z 11 − 12 21 y11 −
admittance z 22 + Z L 1 + y22 Z L
output current I2 − z21Vg y21Vg
(z11 + Z g )(z22 + Z L ) − z12 z21 1 + y22 Z L + y11 Z g + ΔyZ g Z L
Thevenin voltage Vth z21 − y21
(z11 + Z g )Vg (y22 + ΔyZ g ) g
V

Thevenin Zth z12 z21 1 + y11 Z g

impedance z22 −
z11 + Z g y22 + ΔyZ g
current gain I2/I1 − z21 y21
z22 + Z L y11 + ΔyZ L
voltage gain V2/V1 z21 Z L − y21 Z L
z11 Z L + Δz 1 + y22 Z L
voltage gain V2/Vg z21 Z L y21 Z L
(z11 + Z g )(z22 + Z L ) − z12 z21 y12 y21 Z g Z L − (1 + y11 Z g )(1 + y22 Z L )
determinant of Δz = z11z22 – z12z21 Δy = y11y22 – y12y21
parameter matrix

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Example 18.3.3:
For the following circuit, which is the same as Example 18.3.2,
a. determine the value of a load resistor placed across the output port for maximum power
transfer
b. For the selected resistor, what is the value of the power delivered to the load?

Conversion from h to y ⎡1 − h12 ⎤

parameters ⎡ y11 y12 ⎤ ⎢ h11 h11 ⎥
⎢y =⎢ ⎥
⎣ 21 y22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ h21 Δh ⎥
Δh = h11h22 – h12h21
⎢⎣ h11 h11 ⎥⎦

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Lecture 10-3: Analysis of Terminated two-port circuits
Reading: 18.3

Objectives: To analyze terminated two-port circuits

Example 18.3.1:
The following two-port circuit is described in terms of the following y parameters.

y11 = 0.15 S y21 = -0.25 S y12 = -0.05 S y22 = 0.25 S

a) Find the phasor voltage, V2

b) Find the average power deliver to the 5kΩ load.
c) Find the average power delivered to the input port.

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Example 18.3.2:
The a parameters and source and load characteristics of a terminated two port network are:

a11 = 0.5m a12 = 10Ω a21 = 1μS a22 = -30m

Vg = 50∠0° mV Zg = 100 Ω ZL = 5kΩ

a) Calculate the average power delivered to the load resistor

b) Calculate the load resistance for maximum average power
c) Calculate the maximum average power delivered to the resistor in b)

Conversions from a to z parameters (Δa = a11a22 – a12a21)

⎡ a11 Δa ⎤
⎡ z11 z12 ⎤ ⎢ a21 a21 ⎥
⎢z =⎢ ⎥
⎣ 21 z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 a 22 ⎥
⎢⎣ a21 a21 ⎥⎦

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

18.3 Interconnected Two-Port Circuits

Synthesizing a large, complex system is usually made easier by first designing subsections of the
system. If the subsections are modeled by two-port circuits, synthesis involves the analysis of
interconnected two-port circuits.

Two-port circuits may be interconnected five basic configurations:

a) cascade (port 2 feeds into port 1 of the second network)
b) series-series (port1a is in series with port 1b, port 2a is in series with port 2b)
c) parallel-parallel (port1a is in parallel with port 1b, port 2a is in parallel with port 2b)
d) series-parallel (port 1a is in series with port 1b, port 2a is in parallel with port 2b)
e) parallel-series (port 1a is in parallel with port 1b, port 2a is in series with port 2b)

These five basic configurations are shown in the following figure.

Using the corresponding two-port matrix representations, complicated networks can be analyzed
by connecting elementary two ports.

a) cascaded connection: use a-parameters: a = [a1][a2]

b) series-series connection: use z-parameters: z = [z1] + [z2]
c) parallel-parallel connection: use y-parameters: [y] = [y1] + [y2]
d) series-parallel connection: use h-parameters: [h] = [h1] + [h2]
e) parallel-series connection: use g-parameters: [g] = [g1] + [g2]

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09
Example 18.3.1 (cascaded connection):
Two identical amplifiers are connected in cascade, as shown in the following Figure. Each
amplifier is described in terms of its h parameters. The h parameters are:

h11 = 1 kΩ h12 = 0.15m h21 = 100 h22 = 100μS

Find the voltage gain V2/Vg

Step 1. Convert the [h] parameters to the [a] parameters.

Δh h h 1
a11′ = − a12′ = − 11 a21′ = − 22 a22′ = −
h21 h21 h21 h21
Step 2. Convert the [a] parameters to the interconnected cascaded network,
[a]=[a′][a′′]
a11 = a11′a11′′ + a12′a21′′
a12 = a11′a12′′ + a12′a22′′
a21 = a21′a11′′ + a22′a21′′
a22 = a21′a12′′ + a22′a22′′
V ZL
Step 3. Find the voltage gain, 2 =
Vg ( a11 + a21 Z g )Z L + a12 + a22 Z g

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Example 18.3.2 (series-series connection):

In the following figure, let y12 = y21 = 0, y11 = 2 mS, and y22 = 10 mS. Find Vo/Vs.

ans: .09375

Step 1. Convert the [y] parameters to [z] parameters

y y y y
z11′ = 22 z12′ = − 12 z21′ = − 21 z22′ = 11
Δy Δy Δy Δy
Δy = y11y22 – y12y21

Step 2. The 100Ω resistor under the [y] two-port has

z11′′ = z12′′ = z21′′ = z22′′ = 100Ω

Step 3. Find the [z] parameters for the overall interconnected series network
[z] = [za] +[zb]
V z 21 Z L
Step 4. Find the voltage gain, o =
Vs (z 11 + Z g )( z 22 + Z L ) − z 12 z 21

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ECE 200 CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS Winter 2008/09

Example 18.3.3 (parallel-parallel connection):

Obtain the h parameters for the following network.

ans: 0.167Ω, 0.5, 0.5, 4.5S

Step 1. Obtain the y parameters for the top network [ya]

Step 2. Obtain the y parameters for the bottom network [yb]
Step 3. Find the y parameters for the overall interconnected parallel network
[y] = [ya] +[yb]
Step 4. Convert the y parameters to h parameters
h11 = 1/y11 h12 = -y12/y11 h21 = y21/y11 h22 = Δy/y11

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