UNIT-2

I. Introduction

• MRC Impairments:
1) ACI/CCI → system generated interference
2) Shadowing → large-scale path loss from LOS
obstructions
3) Multipath Fading → rapid small-scale signal variations
4) Doppler Spread → due to motion of mobile unit
• All can lead to significant distortion or attenuation of Rx
signal
• Degrade Bit Error Rate (BER) of digitally modulated signal

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

2
EC,MIT,Meerut
• Three techniques are used to improve Rx
signal quality and lower BER:

1) Equalization(BW > BWc )

2) Diversity
3) Channel Coding

Can be Used independently or together

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

3
EC,MIT,Meerut
• •Equalization compensates for ISI created by
multipath with time dispersive channels (W>BC)
• Linear equalization, nonlinear equalization

• •Diversity also compensates for fading channel

impairments, and is usually implemented by using two
or more receiving antennas
• Spatial diversity, antenna polarization diversity,
frequency diversity, time diversity

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

4
EC,MIT,Meerut
•The former counters the effects of time dispersion
(ISI), while the latter reduces the depth and duration
of the fades experienced by a receiver in a flat fading
(narrowband) channel

• Channel Coding improves mobile communication link

performance by adding redundant data bits in the
transmitted message

•Channel coding is used by the Rx to detect or correct

some (or all) of the errors introduced by the channel
(Post detection technique)

Block code and convolutional code

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD
EC,MIT,Meerut
5
 Equalization Techniques

• The term equalization can be used to describe any signal

processing operation that minimizes ISI [2]

• Two operation modes for an adaptive equalizer: training

and tracking

•Three factors affect the time spanning over which an

equalizer converges: equalizer algorithm, equalizer
structure and time rate of change of the multipath radio
channel

•TDMA wireless systems are particularly well suited for

equalizers

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

6
EC,MIT,Meerut
Equalizer is usually implemented at baseband or at IF in a
receiver (see Fig. 1)

y( t ) = x( t ) ∗ f ∗( t ) + n ( t )
b

f*(t): complex conjugate of f(t)

nb(t): baseband noise at the input of the equalizer

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

7
EC,MIT,Meerut
VRINCE VIMAl, HOD
8
EC,MIT,Meerut
If heq(t) is impulse response of the equalizer

dˆ ( t ) = y ( t ) ∗ heq ( t )
= x ( t ) ∗ f ∗ ( t ) ∗ heq ( t ) + mb ( t ) ∗ heq ( t )

= δ (t)
In frequency domain above can be written as:-
∴ F ( − f ) ∗ H eq ( f ) = 1
∗

•If the channel is frequency selective, the equalizer enhances the

frequency components with small amplitudes and attenuates the
strong frequencies in the received frequency response

•For a time-varying channel, an adaptive equalizer is needed to

track the channel variations

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

9
EC,MIT,Meerut
• These techniques improve mobile radio link
performance
 Effectiveness of each varies widely in practical
wireless systems
 Cost & complexity are also important issues

• Complexity in mobile vs. in base station

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

10
EC,MIT,Meerut
 III. Diversity Techniques
• Diversity : Primary goal is to reduce depth &
duration of small-scale fades
– Spatial or antenna diversity → most common
• Use multiple Rx antennas in mobile or base station
• Why would this be helpful?

• Even small antenna separation (∝ λ ) changes phase

of signal → constructive /destructive nature is
changed
– Other diversity types → polarization, frequency,
& time
VRINCE VIMAl, HOD
11
EC,MIT,Meerut
• Exploits random behavior of MRC
– Goal is to make use of several independent
(uncorrelated) received signal paths
– Why is this necessary?

• Select path with best SNR or combine

multiple paths → improve overall SNR
performance

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

12
EC,MIT,Meerut
• Microscopic diversity → combat small-scale
fading

– Most widely used

– Use multiple antennas separated in space

• At a mobile, signals are independent if separation > λ / 2

• But it is not practical to have a mobile with multiple
antennas separated by λ / 2 (7.5 cm apart at 2 GHz)
• Can have multiple receiving antennas at base stations, but
must be separated on the order of ten wavelengths (1 to 5
meters).
VRINCE VIMAl, HOD
13
EC,MIT,Meerut
– Since reflections occur near receiver, independent
signals spread out a lot before they reach the base
station.
– a typical antenna configuration for 120 degree
sectoring.
– For each sector, a transmit antenna is in the center,
with two diversity receiving antennas on each side.
– If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another
independent path may have a strong signal.
– By having more than one path one select from, both
the instantaneous and average SNRs at the receiver
may be improved

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

14
EC,MIT,Meerut
• Spatial or Antenna Diversity → 4 basic types
 M independent branches
 Variable gain & phase at each branch → G∠ θ
 Each branch has same average SNR:

Eb
SNR = Γ =
N0
 Instantaneous SNR = γ i, the pdf of γi
−γ i
1
p (γ i ) = e Γ
γ i ≥ 0 (6.155)
Γ
 is MSNR & the probability that any branch have I SNR less
γ γ −γ i −γ
1
Pr [ γ i ≤ γ ] = ∫ p(γ i ) d γ i = ∫ e Γ
dγ i = 1 − e Γ

0 0
Γ
15
 The probability that all M independent diversity branches Rx
signal which are simultaneously less than some specific SNR
threshold γ
Pr [ γ 1 ,...γ M ≤ γ ] = (1 − e −γ / Γ ) M = PM (γ )
Pr [ γ i > γ ] = 1 − PM (γ ) = 1 − (1 − e −γ / Γ ) M

γ: d M
 The pdf of pM (γ ) = PM (γ ) = ( 1 − e −γ )
Γ M −1
e −γ Γ

dγ Γ

 Average SNR improvement offered by selection diversity

∞ ∞
γ = ∫ γ pM (γ )d γ = Γ ∫ Mx ( 1 − e − x )
M −1
e − x dx, x = γ Γ
0 0

γ M
1
=∑
Γ k =1 k
16
VRINCE VIMAl, HOD
17
EC,MIT,Meerut
• Space diversity methods:

1) Selection diversity
2) Feedback diversity
3) Maximal radio combining
4) Equal gain diversity

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

18
EC,MIT,Meerut
1) Selection Diversity → simple & cheap
 Rx selects branch with highest instantaneous SNR
• new selection made at a time that is the reciprocal of the
fading rate
• this will cause the system to stay with the current signal
until it is likely the signal has faded
 SNR improvement :
• γ is new avg. SNR
• Γ : avg. SNR in each branch

19
Internal time constant < reciprocal of SFR

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

20
EC,MIT,Meerut
• Example:
– Average SNR is 20 dB
– Acceptable SNR is 10 dB
– Assume four branch diversity
– Determine that the probability that one signal has
SNR less than 10 dB

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

21
EC,MIT,Meerut
VRINCE VIMAl, HOD
22
EC,MIT,Meerut
2) Scanning Diversity
– scan each antenna until a signal is found that is above
predetermined threshold
– if signal drops below threshold → rescan
– only one Rx is required (since only receiving one signal at a
time), so less costly → still need multiple antennas

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

23
EC,MIT,Meerut
3) Maximal Ratio Diversity
– signal amplitudes are weighted according to each
SNR
– summed in-phase
– most complex of all types
– a complicated mechanism, but modern DSP makes
this more practical → especially in the base
station Rx where battery power to perform
computations is not an issue
VRINCE VIMAl, HOD
24
EC,MIT,Meerut
• The resulting signal envelop applied to detector:
M
rM = ∑ Gi ri
i =1

• Total noise power:

M
NT = N ∑ Gi2
i =1

• SNR applied to detector:

rM2
γM =
2 NT
25
VRINCE VIMAl, HOD
26
EC,MIT,Meerut
4) Equal Gain Diversity
– combine multiple signals into one
– G = 1, but the phase is adjusted for each received
signal so that
• The signal from each branch are co-phased
• vectors add in-phase
– better performance than selection diversity

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

27
EC,MIT,Meerut
 IV. Time Diversity

• Time Diversity → transmit repeatedly the information at

different time spacings

– Time spacing > coherence time (coherence time is the

time over which a fading signal can be considered to have
similar characteristics)
– So signals can be considered independent
– Main disadvantage is that BW efficiency is significantly
worsened – signal is transmitted more than once
• BW must ↑ to obtain the same Rd (data rate)

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

28
EC,MIT,Meerut
• If data stream repeated twice then either
1) BW doubles for the same Rd or
2) Rd is reduced by ½ for the same BW

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

29
EC,MIT,Meerut
 # RAKE Receiver
 In CDMA SS chip rate >> FF BW of channel..

 CDMA spreading codes have low correlation betn bits

 Propagation delays in the MRC provide multiple copies of

Tx signals delayed in time

 Signal is only transmitted once

 Powerful form of time diversity available in spread

spectrum (DS) systems → CDMA

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

30
EC,MIT,Meerut
 attempts to collect the time-shifted versions of the
original signal by providing a separate correlation
receiver for each of the multipath signals.

 Each correlation receiver may be adjusted in time delay,

so that a microprocessor controller can cause different
correlation receivers to search in different time windows
for significant multipath.

 The range of time delays that a particular correlator can

search is called a search window.

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

31
EC,MIT,Meerut
 If time delay between multiple signals > chip period of
spreading sequence (Tc) → multipath signals can be
considered uncorrelated (independent)
o In a basic system, these delayed signals only appear as
noise, since they are delayed by more than a chip
duration. And ignored.
o Multiplying by the chip code results in noise because of
the time shift.
o But this can also be used to our advantage, by shifting the
chip sequence to receive that delayed signal separately
from the other signals.

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

32
EC,MIT,Meerut
** The RAKE Rx is a time diversity Rx that collects
time-shifted versions of the original Tx signal **

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

33
EC,MIT,Meerut
M branches or “fingers” = # of correlation Rx’s
Separately detect the M strongest signals
Weighted sum computed from M branches

• faded signal → low weight

• strong signal → high weight
• overcomes fading of a signal in a single branch

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

34
EC,MIT,Meerut
• In outdoor environments

– the delay between multipath components is

usually large, the low autocorrelation properties
of a CDMA spreading sequence can assure that
multipath components will appear nearly
uncorrelated with each other.

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

35
EC,MIT,Meerut
• In indoor environments

– RAKE receiver in IS-95 CDMA has been found to

perform poorly
• since the multipath delay spreads in indoor channels
(≈100 ns) are much smaller than an IS-95 chip duration
(≈ 800 ns).
• In such cases, a RAKE will not work since multipath is
unresolveable
• Rayleigh flat-fading typically occurs within a single chip
period.

VRINCE VIMAl, HOD

36
EC,MIT,Meerut