Ore Forming Minerals:

Metallic & Non-Metallic Minerals

Certain kinds of mineral can be treated for metal extraction more easily than others; these
are commonly referred to as ore minerals. Quite often, different minerals containing a
particular metal occur together in a deposit, and are referred to as ore forming
minerals. Ore minerals form as a result of special geologic processes and often occur in
isolated, small, localized rock masses. Such local concentrations are called mineral
deposits. Mineral deposits are what prospectors seek. The terms ore mineral and mineral
deposit were originally applied only to minerals and deposits from which metals are
recovered, but present usage includes a few nonmetallic minerals, such as barite and
fluorite, that are found in the same kinds of deposit as metallic minerals.
No deposit consists entirely of a single ore mineral. There is always an abundance of
worthless minerals, collectively called gangue. The more abundant an ore mineral, the
more valuable the mineral deposit. For every mineral deposit there is a set of conditions,
such as the level of concentration and the size of the deposit that must be reached if the
deposit is to be worked at a profit. A mineral deposit that is sufficiently rich to be worked
at a profit is called an ore deposit. The assemblage of ore minerals and gangue in a deposit
is called the ore.
Metals used in industrial and technological applications can be divided into two classes on
the basis of their abundance in the Earth's crust. The geochemically abundant metals, of
which there are five (aluminum, iron, magnesium, manganese, and titanium), constitute
more than 0.1 percent by weight of the Earth's crust, while the geochemically scarce
metals, which embrace all other metals (including such familiar ones as copper, lead, zinc,
gold, and silver), constitute less than 0.1 percent. In almost every rock, at least tiny
amounts of all metals can be detected by sensitive chemical analysis. However, there are
important differences in the way the abundant and scarce metals occur in common rocks.
Geochemically abundant metals tend to be present as essential constituents in minerals.
For example, basalt, a common igneous rock, consists largely of the minerals olivine and
pyroxene (both magnesium-iron silicates), feldspar (calcium-aluminum silicate), and
ilmenite (iron-titanium oxide). Careful chemical analysis of a basalt will reveal the
presence of most of the geochemically scarce metals too, but no amount of searching will
reveal minerals in which one or more of the scarce metals is an essential constituent.
Geochemically scarce metals rarely form minerals in common rocks. Instead, they are
carried in the structures of common rock-forming minerals (most of them silicates) through
the process of atomic substitution. This process involves the random replacement of an
atom in a mineral by a foreign atom of similar ionic radius and valence, without changing
the atomic packing of the host mineral. Atoms of copper, zinc, and nickel, for example,
can substitute for iron and magnesium atoms in olivine and pyroxene. However, since
substitution of foreign atoms produces strains in an atomic packing, there are limits to this
process, as determined by temperature, pressure, and various chemical parameters. Indeed,
the substitution limits for most scarce metals in common silicate minerals are low--in
many cases only a few hundred substituting atoms for every million host atoms--but even
these limits are rarely exceeded in common rocks.
One important consequence that derives from the way abundant and scarce metals occur in
common rocks is that ore minerals of abundant metals can be found in many common
rocks, while ore minerals of scarce metals can be found only where some special, restricted
geologic process has formed localized enrichments that exceed the limits of atomic
substitution.
Ore minerals
Two factors determine whether a given mineral is suitable to be an ore mineral. The first is
the ease with which a mineral can be separated from the gangue and concentrated for
smelting. Concentrating processes, which are based on the physical properties of the
mineral, include magnetic separation, gravity separation, and flotation. The second factor
is smelting--that is, releasing the metal from the other elements to which it is chemically
bonded in the mineral. Smelting processes are discussed below, but of primary importance
in this consideration of the suitability of an ore mineral is the amount of energy needed to
break the chemical bonds and release the metal. In general, less energy is needed to smelt
sulfide, oxide, or hydroxide minerals than is required to smelt a silicate mineral. For this
reason, few silicate minerals are ore minerals. Because the great bulk of the Earth's crust
(about 95 percent) is composed of silicate minerals, sulfide, oxide, and hydroxide ore
minerals are at best only minor constituents of the Earth's crust--and in many cases they
are very rare constituents.
The preferred ore minerals of both geochemically abundant and geochemically scarce
metals are native metals, sulfides, oxides, hydroxides, or carbonates. In a few cases,
silicate minerals have to be used as ore minerals because the metals either do not form
more desirable minerals or form desirable minerals that rarely occur in large deposits.

Metalic Minerals: are the source of metals including iron (steel), aluminum, copper, zinc, manganese,
lead, chrome, platinum and others. Demand for new metals derived from ore deposits is decreasing,
largely due to recycling.

Non-metallic Minerals: include stone, sand and gravel, limestone and cement rock, salt, clays,
phosphate rock (fertilizer), sulfur from salt domes or volcanoes, diamond from kimberlites, F, Cl, Br, I
from seawater or evaporates. Demand for non-metals is increasing.

Reserves and Resources: Reserves are the known amount of a mineral in the ground that is
exploitable with current technology and under current economic
conditions. Resource includes the reserves plus estimated undiscovered deposits.

Processes of Ore Formation

Current theories of the genesis of ore deposit can be divided into internal (endogene)
and external (exogene) or surface processes. It must be understood that more than one
mechanism may be responsible for the formation of an ore body. Example -
stockwork porphyry copper deposit at depth (epigenetic) with a syngenetic massive
sulfide deposit at the surface. The Table at the end of the document summarizes the
principal theories of ore genesis,
Depending upon whether an ore deposit formed at the time of and together with the
enclosing rock, or was introduced into it by subsequent processes, they are classed as:
Syngenetic - A deposit formed at the same time as the rocks in which it occurs. Ex.
Banded Iron Formation
Epigenetic - A deposit introduced into the host rocks at some time after they were
deposited. Ex. Mississippi Valley-type Deposits
Magmatic Deposits: Those deposits, not including pegmatites that have formed by
direct crystallization from a magma. Two types:
 Fractional crystallization - Any process whereby early formed crystals can not
re-equilibrate with the melt. Includes 1) gravitative settling; 2) flowage
differentiation; 3) filter pressing and 4) dilation. Number 1 is the most important
and results from the settling of early formed crystals to the bottom of the magma
chamber. Rocks formed in this manner are termed cumulates and are often
characterized by rhythmic layering. In ore deposits the alternating layers are
often magnetite and/or chromite between layers of silicate. Ex. Bushveld igneous
complex.
 Immiscible liquid - Typical example is oil and water. In ore deposits we deal
with silicate and sulfide magmas. As a magma cools, sulfides coalesce as
droplets and due to higher density settle out. Most common sulfides are iron
sulfides, but nickel, copper and platinum also occur. Ex. Sudbury, Canada. The
settling out of the heavier sulfides results in the peculiar net-textured ores often
found in many of these deposits.
Pegmatitic Deposits: Pegmatites are very coarse grained igneous rocks. Commonly
form dike-like masses a few meters to occasionally 1-2 km in length. Economic ore
deposits are associated with granitic pegmatites since felsic magmas carry more water.
Residual elements such as Li, Be Nb, Ta, Sn and U that are not readily accommodated
in crystallizing silicate phases end up in the volatile fraction. When this fraction is
injected into the country rock a pegmatite is formed. Temperatures of deposition vary
from 250-750°C. Pegmatites are divided into simple and complex. Simple pegmatites
consist of plagioclase, quartz and mica and are not zoned. Complex have a more
varied mineralogy and are strongly zoned. Crystals in pegmatites can be large,
exceeding several meters. Three hypotheses to explain their formation:
a. fractional crystallization
b. deposition along open channels from fluids of changing composition
c. crystallization of a simple pegmatite and partial to complete hydrothermal
replacement

Hydrothermal Deposits: Hot aqueous solutions are responsible for the formation of
many ore deposits. Fluid inclusion research indicates most ore forming fluids range in
temperature from 50°C to 650°C. Analysis of the fluid in inclusions has shown that
water is the most important phase and salinities are often much greater than those of
seawater. The chemistry of ore fluids and the mechanism of deposition of ore minerals
remains a subject of hot debate. Arguments boil down to a) source and nature of the
solutions b) means of transport of the metals and c) mechanism of deposition.
Metamorphic/Metasomatic Deposits: Pyrometasomatic deposits (skarns) developed
at the contact of plutons and host rock. Generally, host rock is a carbonate and new
minerals formed are the calc-silicates diopside, andradite and wollastonite.
Temperatures involved are thought to be 300-500°C, but pressure is probably quite
low. Three stage process:
1. Recrystallization
2. Introduction of Si, Al, Fe, Mg
3. Hydration and introduction of elements associated with volatile fraction

Other metamorphic processes are relatively unimportant, but hydration/dehydration

during regional metamorphism may concentrate metals at the metamorphic front.
Sodic metasomatism of K-spar is thought to have been important in the concentration
of gold at Kalgoorlie. Conversion of feldspar from K-spar (1.33A) to Na plag (.97A)
resulted in the expulsion of gold (1.37A) which could no longer be accommodated in
the feldspar lattice. Skip over Mechanical-chemical sedimentary processes since they
are covered in the other course.

Volcanic Exhalative Deposits: Some ore deposits often show spatial relationships to
volcanic rocks. They are conformable with the host and frequently banded suggesting
sedimentary processes. Principal constituent is pyrite with lesser chalcopyrite,
aphalerite, galena, barite and Ag-Au. These were thought until the late 60’s to be
epigenetic, but it is now realized they are syngenetic. They show a progression of
types with three distinct end members:
 1. Cyprus type - Associated with mafic volcanics and ophiolite sequences. Found
in spreading centers and back arc basins. Consist predominantly of pyrite with
lesser chalcopyrite. Typified by the Cyprus pyrite-cu ores.
2. Besshi type - Associated with basaltic to dacitic volcanism. Thought to form
during the initial stages of island arc formation. Many Besshi type deposits occur
in Precambrian rocks and these may have been generated in entirely different
tectonic settings. Pyrite dominant, but chalcopyrite and sphalerite very common.
Typified by many of the volcanogenic deposits of Canada.
3. Kuroko type - Associated with dacitic to rhyolitic volcanics. Form during the
waning stages of island arc volcanism. Pyrite occurs, but is not dominant Usually
galena or sphalerite are predominate with lesser chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite.
Also significant silver in this type. Typified by the Kuroko deposits.
Although it is agreed ores are associated with volcanism the source of the ore bearing
solutions continues to be debated. Many feel ore fluids are of magmatic origin, but
others feel they are merely convecting seawater.

THEORIES OF ORE DEPOSIT GENESIS

Origin Due to Internal Processes

Magmatic Separation of ore minerals by fractional Pt—Cr deposits

Segregation crystallization during magmatic Bushveld, S.A.
differentiation. Titanium deposit
Tahawas, N.Y.

Liquid immiscibility. Settling out from Cu-Ni ores of

magmas of sulfide, sulfide-oxide or oxide Sudbury, Canada
melts which accumulate beneath the and the nickel
silicates or are injected into country rocks extrusives of
or extruded on the surface. Kambalda, West
Australia.

Pegmatitic Crystallization as disseminated grains or Li-bearing

Deposition segregations in pegmatites. pegmatites of Kings
Mtn. N.C.
Hydrothermal Deposition from hot aqueous solutions of Porphyry Cu-Mo
various sources. deposits of the
W. Cordillera.

Lateral Secretion Diffusion of ore and gangue forming Gold deposits of

materials Yellowknife, B.C.
from the country rocks into faults and other and the Mother
structures. Lode, CA.

Metamorphic Pyrometasomatic (skarn) deposits formed W deposits at

Processes by replacement of wall rocks adjacent to an Bishop, CA. Fe
intrusive. deposits
Iron Mtn UT.

Initial or further concentration of ore Homestake Au

elements by metamorphic processes. Mine, Lead, South
Dakota.

Origin Due to Surface Processes

Mechanical Concentration of heavy minerals into placer Placer Au deposits

Accumulation of Alaska and
California.

Sedimentary Precipitation of certain elements in Banded Iron Fm.

Precipitation sedimentary environments. of the Canadian
Shield.

Residual Leaching of soluble elements leaving Nickel laterites

Processes concentrations of insoluble elements. of New Caledonia
and Arkansas
bauxite.

Secondary or Leaching of certain elements from the upper The upper portion
Supergene part of a mineral deposit and their of many porphyry
Enrichment reprecipitation at depth to produce higher copper
concentrations. deposits.

Volcanic Exhalations of sulfide-rich magmas at the Mt. Isa, Aust.,

Exhalative surface, usually under marine conditions. Sullivan and Kidd
Process Creek,Canada,
Kuroko,Japan.

Ore Deposits Related to Magmatic Activity

Certain accessory or uncommon constituents of magmas become enriched into
bodies of sufficient size and richness to constitute valuable mineral deposits eg.
Chromite and platinum. Magmatic ore deposits are characterized by their close
relationship with intermediate or deep seated intrusive igneous rocks. They
themselves are igneous rocks whose composition happens to be of particular value
to man. They constitute either the whole igneous mass or a part of it, or may form
offset bodies. They are magmatic products that crystallize from magmas.

They are also called Magmatic Segregations, Magmatic Injections, or Igneous

Syngenetic Deposits.

Mode of Formation:

Magmatic Deposits result from:

1. Simple crystallization

2. Concentration by differentiation of intrusive igneous masses.

There are several modes of formation of magmatic deposits. They originate during
different periods of magma crystallization – in some the ore minerals crystallize
early, in others late, and in still others they remained as immiscible liquids until after
crystallization of the host rock.

Classification of Magmatic Deposits:

I. Early Magmatic Deposits: Those which resulted from straight magmatic processes
(orthotectic and orthomagmatic).
These deposits have formed by:

a. Simple crystallization without concentration

 b. Segregation of early formed crystals

c. Injection of material concentrated elsewhere by differentiation.

A. Dissemination
Deep seated crystallization will yield a granular rock in which the early formed

crystals are disseminated. If such crystals are valuable and abundant, the whole

rock or a part thereof becomes the orebody. The individual crystals may be

phenocrysts eg.

B. Segregation
Concentration of early formed crystals in-situ. These are early concentrates of

valuable constituents of the magma that have taken place as a result of

gravitative crystallization differentiation, eg. Chromite. These orebodies are

generally lenticular and small in size, commonly disconnected pod shaped lenses,

stringers or eg.

II. Late Magmatic Deposits: Those which consist of minerals crystallizing from a
magma towards the close of magmatic period. The ore minerals are later than
the rock silicates and cut across them, embay them, and yield reaction rims
around earlier minerals. They are always associated with mafic igneous rocks.
The late magmatic deposits have resulted from:

a. Variations of crystallization differentiation.

b. Gravitative accumulation of heavy residual liquids.

c. Liquid separation of sulfide droplets.

A. Residual Liquid Segregation

 In certain mafic magmas, the residual liquid becomes enriched in iron, titanium

and volatiles. This liquid settles to the bottom of the magma chamber, or

crystallizes in the interstices of early formed crystals. Examples: Titaniferous

magnetite layers of the Bushveld Igneous Complex, S. Africa.

B. Residual Liquid Injection

The iron-rich residual liquid accumulated in the above manner may be subjected

to movement because of:

a. Gentle tilting (causing lateral movement).

b. Pressure and be squirted out to places of lesser pressure.

In both cases it may be injected into adjacent rocks and even in the earlier

consolidated parent silicate mass. Examples: Titanomagnetite Deposits,

Adirondack Region, New York; Allard Lake Deposits; Magnetite Deposits of Kiruna,

Sweden.

C. Immiscible Liquid Segregation

Sulfide-rich magmas are immiscible in silicate rich magmas. This gives rise to

separation even before crystallization. The accumulated sulfide may not

necessarily be pure – in fact it quite often is an enrichment of sulfides in the

lower parts of the magma. Deposits formed in this manner are pyrrhotite-

chalcopyrite-pentlandite nickel-copper ores confined to rocks of the gabbro

family. Examples: Ni-Cu Deposits of Insizwa, S. Africa; Nickeliferous Sulfide

 Deposits of Bushveld, S. Africa & Norway; Nickel Sulfide Deposits of Sudbury,

Ontario.

D. Immiscible Liquid Injection

Examples: Vlackfontein Mine of S. Africa; Nickel Deposits of Norway.

Association of Rocks and Mineral Products:

Definite associations exist between specific magmatic ores and certain kinds of rocks:
1. Platinum occurs only with mafic to ultramafic rocks such as varieties of norite, peridotite or their
alteration products.

2. Chromite (with rare exceptions) is formed only in peridotites, anorthosites and similar mafic rocks.

3. Titaniferous magnetite and ilmenite are found with gabbros and anorthosites.

4. Magnetite deposits occur with syenites.

5. Ni-Cu deposits are associated with norite.

6. Corundum occurs with nepheline syenite.

7. Diamond occurs only in kimberlite, a variety of peridotite.

8. Pegmatite minerals, such as beryl, cassiterite, lepidolite, scheelite, and niobium-bearing minerals
occur chiefly with granitic rocks.

It is thus seen that deep-seated mafic rocks are the associates of most of the magmatic mineral
deposits. This indicates a genetic relationship with the early magmatic history of associated rocks.

Characteristics of different rock types:

Peridotite: A coarse grained mafic igneous rock composed of olivine with small
amounts of pyroxene and amphibole.

Anorthosite: A plutonic rock composed mainly of Ca-rich plagioclase feldspars.

Gabbro: A black, coarse grained intrusive igneous rock, composed of calcic
plagioclases and pyroxenes. The intrusive equivalent of basalt.
Syenite: A group of plutonic rocks containing alkali feldspars, a small amount of
plagioclase, one or more mafic minerals, and quartz only as an accessory, if at
all. The intrusive equivalent of trachyte.
Kimberlite: A peridotite that contains garnet and olivine and is found in volcanic
pipes.
Pegmatite: An igneous rock with extremely large grains (> 1 cm in dia). It may be of
any composition, but is most frequently granitic.

Hydrothermal and Skarn Deposits

Hydrothermal Deposits

Hydrothermal mineral deposits are those in which hot, mineral laden water
(hydrothermal solution) serves as a concentrating, transporting, and depositing
agent. They are the most numerous of all classes of deposit. The solutions are
thought to arise in most cases from the action of deeply circulating water heated by
magma. Other sources of heating that may be involved include energy released by
radioactive decay or by faulting of the Earth's crust.

The mineral deposit may be precipitated from the solution with or without
demonstrable association with igneous processes. These waters may deposit their
dissolved minerals in openings in the rock, thus filling the cavities, or they may
replace the rocks themselves to form so-called replacement deposits. The two
processes may occur simultaneously, the filling of an opening by precipitation
accompanying the replacement of the walls of the opening.
Conditions necessary for the formation of hydrothermal ore deposits include:

a) Presence of hot water to dissolve and transport minerals

b) Presence of interconnected openings in the rock to allow the solutions to move

c) Availability of sites for the deposits, and

d) Chemical reaction that will result in deposition

Deposition is most affected by changes in the temperature and pressure: the

solubility decreases, hence precipitation occurs as the temperature and pressure
decrease. Although hydrothermal ore deposits may form in any host rock, deposition
is influenced or localized by certain kinds of rock. For example, lead-zinc-silver ores in
some parts of Mexico occur in dolomitic rather than pure limestone; the reverse is
true at Santa Eulalia, where massive sulfide deposits end abruptly at the limestone-
dolomite contact.
Origins of the Solutions

Hydrothermal deposits are never formed from pure water, because pure water is a
poor solvent of most ore minerals. Rather, they are formed by hot brines, making it
more appropriate to refer to them as products of hydrothermal solutions. Brines,
and especially sodium-calcium chloride brines, are effective solvents of many sulfide
and oxide ore minerals, and they are even capable of dissolving and transporting
native metals such as gold and silver.

The water in a hydrothermal solution can come from any of several sources. It may
be released by a crystallizing magma; it can be expelled from a mass of rock
undergoing metamorphism; or it may originate at the Earth's surface as rainwater or
seawater and then trickle down to great depths through fractures and porous rocks,
where it will be heated, react with adjacent rocks, and become a hydrothermal
solution. Connate waters, when set into motion by tectonic activity, may also
constitute hydrothermal fluids.
During wet partial melting, the water that causes the melting is released when the
magma solidifies. This water carries with it soluble constituents such as NaCl, as well
as elements such as Au, Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn, Hg, and Mo that do not easily enter into the
common minerals (e.g. quartz, feldspar) by ionic substitution.
Meteoric and seawater can also form hydrothermal solutions if they are heated
sufficiently and a convection system is generated. The source of this heat is magmatic
intrusions, so magma is a key ingredient in the generation of hydrothermal mineral
deposits. Hydrothermal mineral deposits are thus associated with convergent and
divergent plate boundaries.

Regardless of the origin and initial composition of the water, the final compositions
of all hydrothermal solutions tend to converge, owing to reactions between solutions
and the rocks they encounter.
Composition of the Solutions
The principle ingredient of hydrothermal solutions is water. Pure water, however,
can not dissolve metals. Hydrothermal solutions are always brines, containing
dissolved salts such as NaCl, KCl, CaSO4 and CaCl2. The range in salinity varies from
that of seawater (around 3.5 wt %) to about ten times the salinity of seawater. Such
brines are capable of dissolving small amounts of elements such as Au, Ag, Cu, Pb
and Zn. High temperatures increase the effectiveness of the brines to dissolve
metals.
Hydrothermal solutions are sodium-calcium chloride brines with additions of
magnesium and potassium salts, plus small amounts of many other chemical
elements. The solutions range in concentration from a few percent to as much as 50
percent dissolved solids by weight. Existing hydrothermal solutions can be studied at
hot springs, in subsurface brine reservoirs such as those in the Imperial Valley of
California or the Cheleken Peninsula on the eastern edge of the Caspian Sea in
Turkmenistan, and in oil-field brines. Fossil hydrothermal solutions can be studied in
fluid inclusions, which are tiny samples of solution trapped in crystal imperfections
by a growing mineral.
Causes of Precipitation
Because hydrothermal solutions form as a result of many processes, they are quite
common within the Earth's crust. Hydrothermal mineral deposits, on the other hand,
are neither common nor very large compared to other geologic features. It is
apparent from this that most solutions eventually mix in with the rest of the
hydrosphere and leave few obvious traces of their former presence. Those solutions
that do form mineral deposits (and thereby leave obvious evidence of their former
presence) do so because some process causes them to deposit their dissolved loads
in a restricted space or small volume of porous rock. It is most convenient, therefore,
to discuss hydrothermal mineral deposits in the context of their settings.

Hot brines can hold in solution greater concentrations of metals than cold brines. As a
hydrothermal solution moves upwards, it cools and the dissolved minerals precipitate
out of solution. To be effective in generating sufficient mineralisation to form ore
bodies, the process must be continuous over a large period of time, so a convection
cell is required to maintain a constant precipitation.
If the upward movement is slow, the precipitation of the minerals would be spread
over a wide area and may not be sufficiently concentrated to form an ore body.
Sudden cooling, caused by rapid movement of the fluid into porous layers such as
volcanic tephra or into open fractures such as veins and brecciated rocks, leads to
rapid cooling and the rapid precipitation of minerals over a limited region.
Boiling, rapid pressure decrease, reactions with adjacent rock types, and mixing with
seawater can also cause rapid precipitation and the concentration of mineral deposits.
Types of Deposits:

The hydrothermal deposits are formed within a temperature range of 500 to 50°C.
The modes of formation are replacement and cavity filling. Lindgren divided this class
into three subclasses viz. (a) hypothermal, (b) mesothermal and (c) epithermal,
according to the temperature of formation of the minerals of each sub-
class. Mutation
The replacement deposits are formed at the higher end of the temperature range
and close to the intrusive. Most deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc,
mercury, antimony and molybdenum come under this class. Most deposits of
minor metals and many non-metallic minerals are formed by this process. Cr, Ti, V,
Zr, U, Ce, Ta and Pt are absent in deposits of this class.
The replacement deposits have always an alteration zone surrounding the ore-
bodies. The nature of the alteration varies with the kind of enclosing rocks. The
different types of wall rock alteration characteristic of different sub-classes of
hydrothermal deposits may be summarised as follows :
Hypothermal: Greisenization, Serpentinization
Mesothermal : Sericitization, silioification. and argillic alteration
Epithermal : Silicification, argillic alteration & alunitization.
The wall rock alterations have often been used as a guide to ore-finding for
where weathering has removed the top of the ore-body, these alteration haloes
serve as indicator of hidden ore-bodies.

Hydrothermal Deposits Forming Today

1. Imperial Valley, southern California
In 1962, oil/gas drilling struck a 350°C brine at 1.5 km depth. As the brine
flowed upwards and cooled, it deposited a siliceous scale. Over a period of 3
months, some 8 tons were precipitated, containing 20 wt % Cu and 8 wt % Ag.
This was the first unambiguous evidence that mineral deposits can be formed
from hydrothermal fluids.

2. Red Sea

In 1964, oceanographers discovered a sries of hot, dense brines at the bottom of

the Red Sea. The higher density of the brines (i.e. increased sanility) means that
they remain at the bottom of the sea, despite being hot. The sediments at the
 bottom of these pools contain ore minerals such as chalcopyrite, sphalerite and
galena. The Red Sea is a stratabound mineral deposit in the making.

3. East Pacific Rise

In 1978, deep-sea submarines on the East Pacific Rise, at 21°N, found 300°C hot
springs emerging in plumes along the oceanic ridge, 2500 m below sea level. Minerals
precipitated out of the solution as soon as it emerged, and around the vents was a
blanket of sulphide minerals. This is the modern analogue of volcanogenic massive
sulphide (VMS) deposits.

Skarns Deposits

Skarn is an old Swedish mining term used to describe a type of silicate gangue, or
waste rock, associated with iron-ore bearing sulfide. In modern usage the term
"skarn" has been expanded to refer to rocks containing calcium-bearing silicate
minerals. In America the term "tactite" is often used synonymously with skarn.
Skarns and tactites are most often formed at the contact zone between intrusions of
granitic magma bodies into contact with carbonate sedimentary rocks such as
limestone and rdolostone. Hot waters derived from the granitic magma are rich in
silica, iron, aluminium, and magnesium. These fluids mix in the contact zone, dissolve
calcium-rich carbonate rocks, and convert the host carbonate rock to skarn deposits
in a metamorphic process known as "metasomatism". The resulting metamorphic
rock may consist of a very wide variety of mineral assemblages dependent largely on
the original composition of the magmatic fluids and the purity of the carbonate
sedimentary rocks.
Typical
skarn minerals include pyroxene, garnet, idocrase, wollastonite, actinolite, magnetite
orhematite, and epidote. Because skarns are formed from incompatible-element
rich, siliceous aqueous fluids a variety of uncommon mineral types are found in the
skarn environment, such
as: tourmaline,topaz, beryl,corundum, fluorite, apatite, barite, strontianite, tantalite,
anglesite, and others. Often,feldspathoids and rare calc-silicates such
as scapolite are found in more marginal areas.
Skarns are sometimes associated with mineable accumulations of metallic ores of
iron, copper, iron, zinc, lead, gold, and several others. In such cases these deposits
are called "skarn deposits".
Skarns can be subdivided according to several criteria, the most common being their
mineralogy and their enclosing rock types. Exoskarns are skarns developed in the
sedimentary rocks surrounding the themal source (pluton). Endoskarns are those
developed within the igneous intrusion. Magnesian and calcic skarn can be used to
describe the dominant composition of the original rock and resulting skarn minerals.
Such terms can be combined, as in the case of a magnesian exoskarn which contains
forsterite-diopside skarn formed from dolostone.
The vast majority of skarn deposits are associated with magmatic arcs related to
subduction beneath continental crust.

Types of Skarn Deposits

A descriptive skarn classification can be based on the dominant economic minerals.
1. Iron Skarns
The largest skarn deposits, with many over 500 milliion tonnes. They are mined
for their magnetite. Minor amounts of Ni, Cu, Co and Au may be present, but
typically only Fe is recovered. They are dominantly magnetite, with only minor
silicate gangue.
2. Gold Skarns
Most gold skarns are associated with relatively mafic diorite - granodiorite plutons
and dyke/sill complexes. Some large Fe or Cu skarns have Au in the distal zones.
There is the potential that other skarn types have undiscovered precious metals if
the entire system has not been explored.
3. Tungsten Skarns
These are found in association with calc-alkaline plutons in major orogenic belts.
They are associated with coarse grained, equigranular batholiths (with pegmatite
and aplite dykes), surrounded by high temperature metamorphic aureoles. This is
indicative of a deep environment.
4. Copper Skarns
These are the world's most abundant type and are particularly common in orogenic
zones related to subduction both in continental and oceanic settings. Most are
associated with porphyritic plutons with co-genetic volcanic rocks, stockwork
veining, brittle fracturing, brecciation and intense hydrothermal aleteration. These
features are all indicative of a relatively shallow environment. The largest copper
skarns can exceed 1 billion tonnes and are associated with porphyry copper
deposits.
5. Zinc Skarns
 Most occur in continental settings associated either with subduction or rifting. They
are also mined for lead and silver, and are high grade. They form in the distal zone
to associated igneous rocks.
6. Molybdenum Skarns
Most are associated with leucocratic (lacking ferromagnesian minerals) granites and
form high graade, small deposits. other metals are also commonly associated, the
most common being Mo-W-Cu skarns.
7. Tin Skarns
These are almost exclusively associated with high silica granites generated by

partial melting of continental crust. Greisen alteration by fluorine produces a

characteristic yellowish mica.

Ore Deposits Formed by Sedimentation

The process of sedimentation results in the formation of some important mineral
deposits viz., iron, manganese, copper, phosphate, coal, oil shale, carbonates,
cement rock, diatomaceous earths, bentonite, fuller’s earth magnesite, sulfur and
uranium-vanadium deposits.

The essential conditions for the formation of sedimentary deposits are:

1) an adequate source of material

2) gathering of the solution by solution or other processes

3) transportation of the material to the site of deposition, and

4) deposition of material in sedimentary basins.

Compaction, alteration or other chemical changes may follow deposition.

Source of Material:

Materials of sedimentary deposits have been derived chiefly from:

1) weathering of rocks
 2) weathering and oxidation of former mineral deposits viz., iron, manganese, copper.

3) some material constituting sedimentary deposits may have passed through an intermediate
organic stage.

The earth’s crust contains on average 5.6% Fe. This means that beneath the surface, upto a depth of 30
km, the earth’s crust contains about 30 million tons/km2 of iron. Of this, only 0.0001% is concentrated
in commercial deposits. Iron in sedimentary rocks comes from the iron bearing minerals of igneous
rocks such as hornblende, pyroxene and mica, from the iron-bearing minerals of sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks, and from the red coloring matter of sedimentary rocks. Manganese of sedimentary
deposits hs been derived from the weathering of Mn-bearing minerals in rocks, former sedimentary
concentrations and lode deposits of manganese. Mn makes up about 0.095% of the earth’s crust, there
being 50 times as much iron as manganese. There are over 200 minerals containing manganese as an
essential constituent.

The source of sedimentary phosphate is phosphorous bearing minerals , among

which apatite is the most common. Some phosphorous is also derives from the

weathering of collophanite and dahllite in sedimentary rocks. Constituents of

sedimentary carbonates viz., industrial limestone, dolomite and magnesite are

derived from the sea or saline waters to which they are largely supplied by rock

weathering. Constituents of clay deposits, bentonite and fuller’s earth originate in

rock weathering.

Solution & Transportation:

Solution of material constituting sedimentary deposits goes on during

weathering. This is true of Fe, Mg, P, CO3, Cu, and some rare metals, but not of

clays. The chief solvents are carbonated waters, humic and other organic acids and

sulfate solutions.
 Carbonated Waters:

These are very effective solvents of limestones, iron. Manganese and

phosphorous. Vast quantities of metals are transported as carbonates by

carbonated waters. Ferrous iron is soluble whereas ferric iron offers

resistance. To undergo solution, ferric iron must first b converted to the ferrous

state. Organic matter aids such a conversion. The Precambrian iron ores were

probably transported as ferrous bicarbonate solutions or in the colloidal state.

Humic and other Organic Acids:

These are the decomposition products of vegetation and are considered excellent

solvents. Weak organic acids dissolve large quantities and are the most effective

of all solvents. It has been noticed that iron is not carried as bicarbonate in

surface waters rich in organic matter.

Sulfate Solutions:

These are excellent solvents of Fe and Mn but rarely abundant enough to effect large scale solution
and transportation. FeS2 + 7O + H2O  FeSO4 + H2SO4. Most of the materials (except coal) are
transported by rivers and subsurface waters. Most often these substances reach the sea, but some
are arrested en route and are deposited in inland water bodies or basins. The dissolved substance
remain in solution so long as the solution does not undergo any appreciable physical or chemical
change. Some or all of the iron and manganese may be lost if the solution traverses limestone
country. If Fe and Mn escape these hazards, they may be transported to bogs, lakes, playas or the
sea, where their concentration and deposition takes place.

Deposition:

Deposition of material that forms sedimentary mineral deposits can take place in one

of the following manner:

 a) Mechanically

b) Chemically

c) Bio-chemically

The manner of deposition depends upon:

a) The nature of solvent

b) The place of deposition

c) The pH and Eh (redox) conditions, eg. in the sea or swampy basins.

Deposition from solutions depends upon the environmental relations of chemical

sediments in normal sea water.

Depositional Separation of Manganese & Iron:

Separation of manganese and iron occurs if precipitation is taking place from

carbonate solutions. This happens because manganese carbonate is more stable in

carbonate solutions than iron carbonates, and is hence carried further than the

latter. The separation of iron and manganese in an oxidizing environment takes

place because the iron oxides precipitate at a lower oxidation potential than the

comparable manganese compounds at any given pH. Similarly under fixed Eh, iron

starts precipitating as an oxide at a lower pH than manganese. In a neutral

environment both iron and manganese may precipitate together as carbonates.

Weathering Products and Residual Deposits

Weathering not only disintegrates a rock but by removing the undesirable constituents in it,
concentrates the residual useful substance which forms an economic deposit.
The effects of weathering usually do not extend deeper than a couple of meters but occasionally reach
30 to 60 meters. It is most active in tropical and sub-tropical climates. In such climates, rock decay is
carried further; leaching is more complete; the silicates are thoroughly broken down and surface water
readily removes the silica, thus bringing about the concentration of the residual material which, when
useful, forms valuable mineral deposits.
Bauxite is an important example of this kind. Valuable deposits of clay have been formed by removal in
solution of the lime in a limestone bed. The removing by weathering of the useless constituents has
brought about the concentration of the sparse nickel content in ultrabasic rocks to form valuable
deposits of the metal.
Alluvial and eluvial deposits are the results of weathering and mechanical

concentration. The tough, chemically stable useful metals or minerals disseminated

through a rock are freed from their matrix and moving water or air progressively

concentrate the released particles due to their higher specific gravity. In other

words, nature acts as a gravity separator in which the heavy minerals are separated

from the lighter ones. The only difference is that nature takes a much longer time to

do the job.

 Under the action of weathering, rocks and enclosed mineral deposits undergo disintegration and
decomposition - soluble parts are removed and insoluble residues accumulate, forming residual
mineral deposits.

 Mechanical disintegration, such as that by frost action, frees minerals and renders them capable of
being carried by various agencies, and be sorted according to size and specific gravity.

Residual Concentration:

 Residual concentration results in the accumulation of valuable minerals when undesired constituents
of rocks or mineral deposits are removed during weathering.

 The concentration is largely due to a decrease in volume effected by surficial chemical weathering.

 The residues may continue to accumulate till their purity and volume make them of commercial
importance.

Mechanical Concentration:
 Mechanical concentration is the natural gravity separation of heavy from light minerals by means of
moving water or wind.

 The resulting deposits are called placer deposits and their formation involves two stages:

1) freeing of the stable minerals from their matrix by weathering, and

2) their concentration.

 Concentration can occur only if the valuable minerals have:

a) high specific gravity

b) chemical resistance to weathering, and

c) durability (malleability, toughness and hardness).

Process of Formation of Residual Deposits:

 The first condition is the availability of rocks or lodes containing valuable minerals, of which the
undesired substances are soluble and the desired ones insoluble under surface conditions.

 The climatic conditions should favour chemical decay. Tropical & sub-tropical climatic conditions are
most favourable.

 The relief must not be too great, or the valuable minerals will be washed away as soon as they are in
the least concentrated.

 Long continued crustal stability is essential for residues to accumulate in quantity, and the deposits
may not be destroyed by erosion.

 Important deposits include: Iron ores, manganese, bauxite, clays, nickel, phosphate, kyanite, barite,
ochers, tin, gold, etc.

 Given these conditions, a limestone formation with minor iron oxides will slowly be dissolved leaving
the insoluble iron oxides as a residue. As bed after bed of limestone disappears, an overlying mantle
of iron ores of sufficient thickness, and grade accumulates to make a workable deposit.

Residual deposits therefore form in two ways:

1) the residue is simply an accumulation of a mineral that has not changed during the process
e.g. iron oxides in banded iron formations, and

2) the valuable mineral first comes into existence as a result of weathering processes, and then
persists and accumulates e.g. the feldspars of a syenite decomposes upon weathering to
form bauxite, which persists at the surface while other constituents are removed in solution.

 Valuable deposits of iron ore, manganese, bauxite, clays, nickel, phosphate, kyanite, barite, ochre,
tin, gold and other substances occur as residual concentrations.
Residual Deposits and their Source Materials:

Iron Concentrations:

1) Lode deposits of siderite or iron sulfides - these residues are rarely used as iron ores.

2) Disseminated iron minerals in non-aluminous limestones.

3) Limestones that have been partly replaced by iron minerals, either before or during the period of
weathering.

4) Basic igneous rocks.

5) ferruginous siliceous sediments.

Manganese Concentrations:

1) Limestones or dolomites low in alumina but containing disseminated syngenetic manganese

carbonates and oxides.

2) Limestones containing disseminated introduced manganese. Carbonate rocks precipitate manganese

under certain conditions.

3) Manganiferous silicate rocks such as crystalline schists or altered igneous rocks.

4) Lode deposits of manganese minerals or ores high in manganese e.g. veins, replacement deposits or
contact metasomatic deposits (containing rhodochrosite, rhodonite, manganiferous siderite and
calcite, spessartite, tephroite, alleghenite, piedmontite, hausmannite, manganosite, etc.).

Bauxite Formation:

Rocks relatively high in aluminum silicates and low in iron and free quartz e.g.

1) nephline syenite.

2) Limestones or clays in limestones

3) Clastic sediments derived from Archaean rocks

4) Basalts

5) Clay alluvium

6) Feldspathic sandstones

Clay Formation:

The source rocks are crystalline rocks and silicic granular rocks rich in feldspars and low in iron minerals
such as:

1) Granites and gneisses

2) Basic ignous rocks

3) Feldspar rich pegmatites

4) Syenites

5) Limestones

6) Shales

7) Sericitized igneous rocks

Process of Formation by Mechanical Concentration:

When mineral grains of different density are moved by flowing water, the less dense
grains will be most rapidly moved, and a separation of high-density and low-density
grains can be effected. Mineral deposits formed as a result of gravity separation based
on density are called placer deposits.
For effective concentration, placer minerals must not only have a high density (greater
than about 3.3 grams per cubic centimetre), they must also possess a high degree of
chemical resistance to dissolution or reaction with surface water and be mechanically
durable. The common sulfide ore minerals do not form placers, because they rapidly
oxidize and break down. Ore minerals having suitable properties for forming placers
are the oxides cassiterite (tin), chromite (chromium), columbite (niobium), ilmenite
and rutile (titanium), magnetite (iron), monazite and xenotime (rare-earth metals), and
zircon (zirconium). In addition, native gold and platinum have been mined from
placers, and several gemstone minerals--in particular, diamond, ruby, and sapphire--
also concentrate in placers.

Placer deposits are formed as a result of the concentration of valuable minerals in

depositions of the detritus developing during the disintegration and redeposition of the
materials of rocks and minerals. Their development is linked with the physical and
chemical weathering of both rocks and minerals..

Placer deposits are formed as a result of the concentration of valuable minerals in

depositions of the detritus developing during the disintegration and redeposition of

the materials of rocks and minerals. Their development is linked with the physical

and chemical weathering of both rocks and minerals.

The placers formed on the site of the destruction of the primary sources are known as Eluvial. When the
weathered and disintegrated material is shifted downhill Scree or Deluvial (talus) placers are
formed. Accumulation of the material at the foot of a slope can lead to the development of a Proluvial
(colluvial) placer. When clastic and weathered material is carried away by streams, it serves as the
source of Stream (River) or Alluvial placers. Beach or Lateral placers are built up along the shores of
lakes, seas and oceans. In addition, Glacial placers can develop as a result of glacial activity
and Eolian placers as a result of the action of wind.

 Placer minerals that can be mechanically concentrated are gold, platinum, tin-stone, magnetite,
chromite, ilmenite, rutile, native copper, gemstones, zircon, monazite, phosphate and quicksilver (rare).

 Depending upon the agency involved, placers are of three types:

1) Eluvial placers - form upon hill slopes, concentration of valuable minerals by gravity

2) Stream or alluvial placers - concentration of valuable minerals by running water

3) Eolian placers - concentration of valuable minerals by wind action

Eluvial Palcers:

These may be considered an intermediate or embryonic stage in the formation of stream or beach
placers. They are formed, without stream action, upon hill slopes from materials released from
weathered lodes that outcrop above them. The heavier, resistant minerals collect below the outcrops;
the lighter nonresistant products of decay are dissolved or swept downhill by train wash or are blown
away by wind. This brings about a partial concentration by reduction in volume, a process that
continues with continued down slope creed. Fairly rich lodes necessary to yield workable deposits by
this incomplete concentration. Important deposits formed in this manner are of gold and tin, minor
deposits include manganese, tungsten, kyanite, barite and gemstones.

Stream or Alluvial Placers:

Flowing water is the most effective separator of heavy from light material, and

stream placers are the most important type of placid deposits. They have even the

greatest quantity of placid gold, in stone, Platinum, and precious stones. Likely

places of accumulation of heavy material along a stream channel are:

i. the middle reaches of streams

ii. where streams flow through polished canyon floors

iii. where they enter valleys of gentler gradient

iv. convex side of meanders

v. where streams cross highly inclined or vertically layered hard and soft rocks
 vi. at the confluence of two streams, at the mouth of the more sluggish one

The minerals that make up placer deposits may be derived from:

a) Commercial deposits, such as gold veins, and

b) Non-commercial lodes such as gold stringers or veinlets of cassiterite.

Eolian Placers:

Wind instead of water may act as the agent of concentration and give rise to placer deposits. This can
occur only in arid regions. These are the least important of all placer deposits. It is reported that some
eolian gold placers have been formed in the Australian deserts from the disintegration of gold quartz
lodes. The light decomposed materials have been blown away; the heavy gold particles, freed from
their matrix, remained behind. Similar concentration has taken place El Arco, in Lower California,
Mexico.

Ore Deposits Formed by Oxidation and Supergene Enrichment

 When ore deposits are exposed to the oxidation zone they are weathered and altered with the
country rocks.
 The surface waters oxidize many ore minerals and yield solvents that dissolve other minerals.
 An orebody thus becomes oxidized and generally leached of many of its valuable materials
down to the groundwater table, or to depth where oxidation cannot take place.
 The effects oxidation may, however, extend far below the one of oxidation.
 As the cold, dilute, leaching solutions trickle
downwards, they may lose a part or all of their metallic
content within the zone of oxidation to give rise to
oxidized ore deposits.
 The oxidized or near-surface part of an orebody is
made colorful due to the oxidation of sulfides to oxides and
sulfates.
 As the down trickling solutions penetrate the water
table, their metallic content may be precipitated in the form
of secondary sulfides to give rise to a zone of secondary or
supergene sulfide enrichment.
 The lower, unaffected part of the orebody is called the
hypogene zone.
 In some places the supergene zone is absent and in rare
cases the oxidized zone may be shallow or lacking (as in
some glaciated areas undergoing rapid erosion).
 Special conditions of time, climate, physiographic
development and amenable ores are necessary for the process of oxidation and supergene
enrichment to be effective.
 Such ores occur in most of the non-glaciated land areas of the world.

Secondary enrichment

An especially important class of residual deposit is formed by both the removal of

valueless material in solution and the solution and redeposition of valuable ore
minerals. Because solution and redeposition can produce highly enriched deposits, the
process is known as a secondary enrichment.
Secondary enrichment can affect most classes of ore deposit, but it is notably
important in three circumstances:

1. The first circumstance arises when gold-bearing rocks--even rocks containing only
traces of gold--are subjected to lateritic weathering. Under such circumstances, the
gold can be secondarily enriched into nuggets near the base of the laterite. The
importance of secondary enrichment of gold in lateritic regions was realized only
during the gold boom of the 1980s, especially in Australia.
2. The second circumstance involves mineral deposits containing sulfide minerals,
especially copper sulfides, that are subjected to weathering under desert
conditions. Sulfide minerals are oxidized at the surface and produce sulfuric acid,
and acidified rainwater then carries the copper, as copper sulfate, down to the
water table. Below the water table, where sulfide minerals remain unoxidized, any
iron sulfide grains present will react with the copper sulfate solution, putting iron
into solution and precipitating a copper mineral. The net result is that copper is
transferred from the oxidizing upper portion of the deposit to that portion at and
just below the water table. Secondary enrichment of porphyry copper deposits in
the southwestern United States, Mexico, Peru, and Chile is an important factor in
making those deposits ores. Lead, zinc, and silver deposits are also subject to
secondary enrichment under conditions of desert weathering.
3. The third circumstance in which secondary enrichment is important involves
Banded Iron Formations and sedimentary manganese deposits. A primary BIF may
contain only 25 to 30 percent iron by weight, but, when subjected to intense
weathering and secondary enrichment, portions of the deposit can be enriched to as
high as 65 percent iron. Some primary BIFs are now mined and beneficiated under
the name taconite, but in essentially all of these deposits mining actually
commenced in the high-grade secondary-enrichment zone. Sedimentary
manganese deposits, especially those formed as a result of submarine volcanism,
must also be secondarily enriched before they become ores.

Effects of Oxidation & Supergene Enrichment:

 Effects of oxidation on mineral deposits are profound - the minerals are altered and the
structure is obliterated.
 The metallic substances are leached or altered to new compounds which require different
metallurgical treatment for their extraction unlike that employed for the extraction for the
unoxidized ore.
 The texture and type of deposits are obscured. Compact ores are rendered cavernous,
ubiquitous limonite obscures everything and imparts to the gossan the familiar rusty
color. The effects are therefore:

1) To render barren the upper parts of many ore deposits.

2) To change minerals into more usable or less usable form or to make rich bonanzas.
3) Supergene enrichment may add much where there was little.
4) Leaner parts of the vein may be made rich.
5) Unworkable protore may be enriched to the ore grade. E.g. many of the copper districts would
not have come into existence except for the process of enrichment.

 Water with dissolved and entangled oxygen is the most powerful oxidizing agent, but carbon
dioxide also plays n important role.
 Locally chlorides, bromides and iodides also play an important role.
 These substances react with certain minerals to yield strong solvents, such as ferric sulfate
and sulfuric acid.
 Sulfuric acid, in turn, reacting with sodium chloride yields hydrochloric acid, with which iron
yields the strongly oxidizing ferric chloride.
 Bacteria also promote oxidation, they oxidize ferrous iron to ferric iron at low pH.

Oxidation & Solution in the Zone of Oxidation:

 Supergene oxidation and reduction enrichment go hand in hand. Without oxidation there can
be no supply of solvents from which minerals may later be precipitated in the two zones.
 The process operates in three stages:
1) Oxidation & solution in the zone of oxidation
2) Deposition in the zone of oxidation
3) Supergene sulfide deposition

Chemical Changes:

 There are two main chemical changes within the zone of oxidation:
a) Oxidation, solution and removal of the valuable material.
b) Transformation, in situ, of metallic minerals into oxidized compounds.

 Most metallic minerals contain pyrite, which rapidly yields sulfur to form iron sulfate and
sulfuric acid:
FeS2 + 7O + H2O →FeSO4 + H2SO4
2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + O → Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O

 The ferrous sulfate readily oxidizes to ferric sulfate and ferric hydroxide:
6FeSO4 + 3O + 3H2O → Fe2(SO4)3 + 2Fe(OH)3
 The ferric sulfate hydrolizes to ferric hydroxide and sulfuric acid:
Fe2(SO4)3 + 6H2O → 2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2SO4

 Ferric sulfate is also a strong oxidizing agent and attacks pyrite and other sulfides to yield
more ferrous sulfate:
Fe2(SO4)3 + FeS2 →3FeSO4 + 2S

 The ferric hydroxide changes over to hematite and goethite and forms the ever present
“limonite” that characterizes all oxidized zones;
 The part played by ferric sulfate as a solvent can be seen by the following reactions:

Pyrite FeS2 + Fe2(SO4)3 → 3FeSO4 + 2S

Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 + 2Fe2(SO4)3 → CuSO4 + 5FeSO4 + 2S
Chalcocite Cu2S + Fe2(SO4)3 →CuSO4 + 2FeSO4 + CuS
Covellite CuS + Fe2(SO4)3 →2FeSO4 + S
Sphalerite ZnS + 4Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O →ZnSO4 + 8FeSO4 + 4H2SO4
Galena PbS + Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O + 3O →PbSO4 + 2FeSO4 + H2SO4
Silver 2Ag + Fe2(SO4)3 → Ag2SO4 + 2FeSO4

 Most of the sulfates formed are readily soluble, and these cold dilute solutions slowly trickle
downwards through the deposit till the proper Eh-pH conditions are met to cause deposition
of their metallic content.
 If pyrite is absent in deposits undergoing oxidation, only minor mounts of solvents are
formed, and the effects are mild. This is illustrated in the New Cornelia Mine, Ajo, Arizona.
 A country rock of limestone tends to inhibit migration of some sulfate solutions.

Deposits in the zone of oxidation: When the oxidised zone is well developed and the
secondary minerals sufficiently concentrated, it is a highly profitable zone to mine as
the processing is much cheaper and easier and the metals more concentrated.
However, most oxidised zones have been mined because they formed outcrops of
easily identifiable gossans. The most common minerals found in oxidised zones are:

Copper: malachite, azurite, chrysocolla

Gangue minerals: quartz (usually cryptocrystalline), baryte, calcite, aragonite
Iron: goethite, hematite
Lead: anglesite, cerussite
Manganese: pyrolusite, romanechite, rhodochrosite
Nickel: gaspeite, garnierite
Silver: native silver, chlorargyrite
Zinc: smithsonite

Deposits in the zone of supergene enrichment: In the supergene zone metals are
concntrated in a narrow band just below the water table. This is the richest part of an ore deposit
but in many instances, is either only very thin or not developed at all. The most common
minerals found in supergene zones are:

Copper: chalcocite, bornite

Lead: supergene galena
Nickel: violarite
Silver: acanthite, native silver
Zinc: supergene sphalerite, wurtzite

Ore Deposits Formed by Replacement

Replacement is the process of almost simultaneous solution and deposition whereby
one mineral replaces another. It is an important process in the formation of epigenetic
(those formed after the formation of the host rock) mineral deposits, in the formation
of high- and intermediate-temperature hydrothermal ore deposits, and in supergene
sulfide enrichment (enriched by generally downward moving fluids). Replacement is
the method whereby wood petrifies (silica replaces the wood fibres), one mineral
forms a pseudomorph of another, or an ore body takes the place of an equal volume of
rock. Hence replacement deposits are those in which solutions have reacted with host
rocks, leading to replacement of silicates and carbonates by new gangue and ore
minerals.

Replacement occurs when a mineralizing solution encounters minerals unstable in its

presence. The original mineral is dissolved and almost simultaneously exchanged for
another. The exchange does not occur molecule for molecule, but volume for volume.
This means that fewer molecules of a less dense mineral will be replaced by more
molecules of a denser mineral. Replacement takes place first along major channels in
a host rock through which the hydrothermal fluids enter it. Replacement along
smaller openings follows later. Eventually, rocks or at least some of their constituent
minerals are replaced even along capillary sized openings. Replacement occurs even
in those parts of the rock where fluids cannot flow. This happens by diffusion of ions
at the replacement front.

Early-formed replacement minerals are themselves replaced by later minerals, and

definite mineral successions have been established. The usual sequence among the
common hypogene (deposited by generally ascending solutions) metallic sulfide
minerals is pyrite, enargite, tetrahedrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, bornite, galena, and
pyrargyrite.

Although replacement can occur at any temperature or pressure, it is most effective at

elevated temperatures, at which chemical activity is enhanced. Replacement by cold
circulating waters is mostly confined to soluble rocks, such as limestone. These may
be replaced by iron oxides, manganese oxides, or calcium phosphates.

Many ore deposits have been enriched in terms of their metal content where
supergene (downward moving) fluids have dissolved metallic minerals from the near-
surface parts and redeposited these in the lower parts by replacement of other
(gangue) minerals. At higher temperatures the degree of replacement of preexisting
minerals increases, till in extreme cases, there is complete replacement. Mineralizing
solutions at intermediate temperatures form simple sulfides and sulfosalts while those
at higher temperatures form sulfides and oxides. Replacement deposits are the largest
and most valuable of all metallic ore deposits except those of iron. Large deposits of
lead-zinc deposits have formed where carbonates rocks (limestone, marl, dolomite)
have been replaced. The orebodies range in size from 0.5 million tonnes to 20 million
tonnes with over 14 % combined metal content. Replacement deposits commonly
show an envelope of weak mineralization around the ore, giving a larger dispersion
pattern and therefore a larger exploration target. The dispersion is controlled by
degree of disequilibrium between fluids and host rocks and level of
diffusion/interaction. This also gives rise to zoning of replacement deposits.

Replacement deposits commonly occur as massive (containing more than 50 %

sulfides) lenses, pipes, veins and disseminations often associated with intrusives.

In general, it has been observed that certain minerals replace others preferentially.
Accordingly, a set of "rules" has been proposed:

a. Sulfides replace gangue or ore minerals

b. Gangue minerals replace host rock, but not the ore minerals
c. Oxides replace host rock and gangue, but rarely replace sulfides.

Evidence of Replacment:

1. Pseudomorphs.
2. Widening of fractures
3. Vermicular unoriented intergrowths
4. Islands (of the host or replaced mineral) having the same optical
orientation and surrounded by the new mineral
5. Relicts
6. Cusp and caries texture: (host or replaced mineral). Cusps are relict
protuberances of the replaced mineral or host rock between “caries”. The caries
are embayed surfaces concave towards the replacing mineral into the replaced
one.
 7. Non-matching walls of a fracture. This is a feature common when
replacement works outward from a central fissure (compare with open space
filling textures) (Fig. 6).
8. The occurrence of one mineral crosscutting older structures.
9. Selective association: Since replacement is a chemical process, specific
selective associations of pairs or combinations of minerals can be expected. For
example, chalcopyrite is more likely to replace bornite by a change in the
Cu/Fe ratio or in fS than it is to replace quartz. Therefore, the occurrence of
2

minerals with some chemical similarity in some textural relationship is often a

good indication of replacement.

Ore Deposits Formed by Biochemical Activity

The biosphere is a unique feature of the earth. It includes the boundary zone where
the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere meet. The important turning points in
the evolution of the biosphere are intimately related with the formation of important
mineral deposits.

The oxygen poor atmosphere of the earth between 3.0 to 1.0 Ga, promoted the
dissolution of many metals, mainly iron and manganese, from continental areas.
These were contributed to the seas which came to have a high dissolved content of
metals. The appearance of the first living organisms in the oceans, viz., prokaryotes,
blue bacteria and algae resulted in an increase in the dissolved O 2 concentration,
which in turn led to the precipitation of iron in the form of ferric oxides, producing the
world’s most important iron ore deposits – the BIFs.

Organic evolution led to the emergence of flora on the shores which produced the
abundant biomass which contributed to the extensive development of different kinds
of soils in humid and temperate climates as also to serve as the raw material for coal
formation. The remnants of first terrestrial plants in the littoral zones gave rise to the
development of the most important fossil fuel resource – the world-wide
Carboniferous (360-300 my) coal deposits.

In several places, and at several times during the geological past, marine evolution
was interrupted by events when the level of dissolved oxygen in sea water was
dramatically reduced. These periods, known as periods of anoxia, witnessed mass
extinctions of marine life, as a consequence of which organic matter accumulated in
sediments, to be later converted to hydrocarbons. Such periods of mass extinctions
mark the ends of the main epochs in earth’s history (eg the Paleozoic-Mesozoic
boundary) and are important moments of evolution. The increased organic content in
sediments can act s a geochemical barrier to induce sulfide precipitation by
maintaining a low Eh reducing environment for any metal-bearing solutions. Such
anoxic sedimentation frequently resulted in sulfide enrichment in sediments giving
rise to important ore deposits of the Kupferschiefer type (Germany and Poland).

The first step in the formation of hydrocarbons is the biological decomposition of

proteins, lipids and carbohydrates in the organic matter to form kerogene, a primitive
hydrocarbon species. This is followed by a long process of maturation during which
the organic matter is cracked into smaller and smaller molecules

Biomineralization:
Microbes interact with metals and minerals in natural environments, altering their
physical and chemical state. They can affect dissolution of minerals as well as their
precipitation from solutions. As such they play an important role in the genesis of
mineral deposits.

The term biomineralization represents the collective processes by which organisms

form minerals -- a widespread phenomenon mediated by bacteria, protists
(organisms made up of single or multiple cells which all contain a nucleus enclosed
by a membrane), fungi, plants and animals. Most biominerals are calcium carbonates,
silicates and iron oxides or sulfides. Biomineralization is itself an important
interdisciplinary research area, and one that overlaps with Geomicrobiology, which
involves the role of microbes in geological processes.

Microbes are capable of mediating metal and mineral precipitation, e.g. by metabolite
production, by changing the physico-chemical environmental conditions around the
biomass, and also by the indirect release of metal-precipitating substances from other
activities, such as production of phosphate from organic decomposition or phosphate
mineral solubilization by stromatolites. Stromatolites were very abundant on the earth
in Precambrian times. The Precambrian stromatolitic phosphorites of Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand are examples of biochemically precipitated phosphates.
The earliest stromatolite of confirmed microbial origin dates to 2.724 billion years
ago.

Many microbes can attack silicates, thus playing a role in the leaching of silica
(leading to the residual concentration of other constituents), genesis of clay minerals,
and in soil and sediment formation. Microbe–clay mineral interactions are also
important in soil evolution.

Many different metallic minerals form as a direct or indirect result of microbial

activity. Examples include various carbonates, phosphates, oxides and sulfides.
Microbial cell walls, outer layers, and exopolymers can sorb, bind or entrap many
soluble and insoluble metal species as well as clay minerals, colloids, oxides, etc.
which also have significant metal-sorption properties. Redox transformations are also
widespread in microbial metabolism.

Manganese-oxidizing and -reducing bacteria play an important role in the manganese

cycle in freshwater and marine environments. manganese-reducing microbes may
mobilize oxidized or fixed manganese, releasing it into the aqueous phase.
Manganese-oxidizing bacteria may form oxideswhich may be deposited as
concretions formed around sediment grains, pebbles, mollusc shells, coral fragments,
or other debris. Manganese oxide phases have high sorption capacities for numerous
metal cations (e.g. Ni, Zn, Cu, Co, Mn, Pb and Cd), and also serve as strong oxidants
for inorganic [e.g. As(III) to As(V); Cr(III) to Cr(IV)] and organic compounds such as
humic substances

Microbial reduction of manganese oxides may also lead to the formation of

manganous carbonate. Ferromanganese nodules on parts of the ocean floor are
inhabited by manganese-oxidizing and -reducing bacteria, and these are likely to
contribute to nodule formation.

Many bacteria can precipitate and deposit Fe(III) oxides and hydroxides (e.g. FeOOH,
Fe3O4) around their cells by enzymic, e.g. Gallionella sp., and non-enzymic processes,
e.g.Leptothrix sp.

Most non-ferrous sulfides are formed abiotically but some sedimentary deposits are of
biogenic origin. Sulfate reducing bacteria play an important role in some sedimentary
environments promoting the formation of certain sulfide minerals, especially iron
pyrite (FeS2). Microbial sulfide deposits result from the generation of H2S, usually
from bacterial reduction of sulfate.

Examples of important groups of microbes directly involved in geochemical

transformations include iron-oxidizing and -reducing bacteria, manganese-oxidizing
and -reducing bacteria, sulfate-reducing bacteria, sulfur-oxidizing and -reducing
bacteria, and many other prokaryotes (organisms made up of cells that lack a cell
nucleus or any membrane-encased organelles) and eukaryotes (organisms made up of
cells that possess a membrane-bound nucleus) that can form or degrade silicates,
carbonates, phosphates and other minerals.

Deposits:
Biochemical deposits are created when organisms use materials dissolved in air or
water to build their tissue. Examples include:
  Most types of limestone are formed from the calcareous skeletons of organisms
such as corals, mollusks, and foraminifera.
 Coal which forms as plants remove carbon from the atmosphere and combine
with other elements to build their tissue.
 Deposits of chert formed from the accumulation of siliceous skeletons from
microscopic organisms such as radiolaria and diatoms.

Some biochemical processes, like the activity of bacteria, can affect minerals in a rock
and are therefore seen as part of diagenesis. Fungi and plants (by their roots) and
various other organisms that live beneath the surface can also influence diagenesis.

Burial of rocks due to ongoing sedimentation leads to increased pressure and

temperature, which stimulates certain chemical reactions. An example is the reactions
by which organic material becomes lignite or coal. When temperature and pressure
increase still further, the realm of diagenesis makes way for metamorphism, the
process that forms metamorphic rock.

Ore Deposits Formed by Evaporation

Evaporation is an important mineral forming process, which supplies valuable
materials used by the housewife, farmer, builder, chemist, engineer, manufacturer and
even birds, beasts and plants. Great sections of the oceans may be cut off during slow
oscillations of land and sea and be gradually evaporated to yield deposits of gypsum,
common salt and potash. Ground waters reaching arid surfaces leave behind valuable
minerals upon evaporation. Lakes may disappear under arid conditions to form
playas. Mineral deposits resulting from the concentration and crystallization by
evaporation from aqueous solutions are called Evaporites.

Conditions of Formation:
Evaporation proceeds most rapidly in warm humid climates. Evaporation of bodies of
saline water leads to concentration of soluble salts, and when supersaturation is
reached, the salts are precipitated. Deposition of minerals by evaporation depends on
supersaturation, which in turn depends upon other factors, chief of which are:
a) temperature
b) pressure
c) depositional environment, and
d) seasonal & climatic changes
Types of Evaporites: There are two types of evaporite deposits - marine, which
can also be described as ocean deposits, and non-marine, which are found in
standing bodies of water such as lakes.

Marine Evaporites - Deposition from Oceanic Waters:

The salts of oceanic waters are mainly obtained from the weathering of terrestrial
rocks. Rain water carries soluble salts from continental areas to the oceans,
evaporates, leaving behind the salts, to return to the continents as more rain. Small
mounts are contributed by submarine volcanism, and by solution from oceanic
rocks. The total amount of salts in the ocean is estimated to be 21.8 million km3,
enough to form 60 m thick layer over the ocean bottom. Of this common salt would
constitute 47.5 m, MgCl2 5.8 m, MgSO4 3.9 m, CaSO4 2.3 m and the remaining salts
0.6 m. The rivers of the world are estimated to contribute 4 billion tons of salt to the
ocean annually. Ocean water also contains gold, silver, base metals, manganese,
aluminum, vanadium, nickel, cobalt as well as iodine, fluorine, phosphorous, uranium,
arsenic, lithium, rubidium, cesium, barium and strontium. Of these, iodine
concentrates in sea weeds, copper in shellfish, manganese, copper, nickel and other
metals in nodules which alone have become concentrated into potentially commercial
deposits. To attain the necessary conditions to induce precipitation, bodies of sea
water must become isolated from the ocean in places where evaporation exceeds
inflow. Such isolation may be effected by:
a) formation of barrier reefs
b) cutoffs near coasts where sills or reefs isolate sinking inland basins
c) formation of sand bars

If the original body of water contained 100 km3 of water and this were to be
concentrated to 50 km3, the iron oxide and calcium carbonate present would be
precipitated. The water would still contain 3500 million tons of salt of which 2700
million tons would be common salt. If evaporated to 20 km3, gypsum would be
precipitated. When the volume reaches about 10 km3, common salt would be
deposited. Subsequent evaporation would bring about deposition of magnesium
sulfate and chloride followed by the bittern salts.

Non-Marine Evaporites - Deposition from Salt Lakes:

The deposits formed from the evaporation of salt lakes are similar to those obtained
from ocean water because salt lakes contain the same salts as the ocean, but generally
in greater proportions. The relatively small size of lakes makes them more responsive
to climatic changes resulting in greater fluctuations of deposition. Evaporites formed
during periods of dessication may be redissolved during periods of subsequent
expansion. Since lakes constantly receive new supplies of fresh water, salts and
sediments, their deposits are generally thin bedded alternations of impure salts and
clays. On salt playas, desert winds distribute sands and silt upon which later salts may
be deposited during subsequent lake periods. Examples of deposits from salt lakes are:

a) Basin and Rang Province, USA

b) Salton area of the Imperial Valley, California
c) Salt pans throughout Central Asia and northern Africa

Deposition from Groundwater:

Evaporation of groundwater is universal and in arid regions the evaporites may
accumulate as long as the climate remains dry. Groundwater contains salts similar to
those of the ocean and salt lakes but their concentration is low and the proportion of
individual salts may vary according to the character of the soil, bedrock, topography
and climate. Calcium carbonate is almost always present; magnesium, sodium,
potassium, iron and manganese compounds are common. Silica, phosphorous and
locally boron and iodine are relatively abundant. Deposition ensues when evaporation
occurs at or near the surface, or in caves. If the site of evaporation is fed by fresh
supplies of groundwater, extensive deposits may eventually result. Evaporation of
groundwater will proceed most rapidly where it is supplied relatively close to the
surface viz., valley bottoms, slopes where hills and valleys merge, and long hill slopes
interrupted by gentler or reverse grades. Deposits of economic importance are:
a) nitrate salts with iodine
b) boron
c) calcium and sodium carbonate
d) common salt
e) Gauber’s salt
f) soda
g) epsom salts
h) borax

Artificial brines are obtained by pumping water down wells drilled into rock salt
beds, and the brines so formed are the main source of common salt production in
the US. Potash is also obtained in this manner.

Deposition from Hot Springs:

Substances contained in hot-spring waters build up deposits around their orifices. A

few of theses are of commercial importance, the others are scenically beautiful. Their
deposition is not always the result of evaporation alone, microscopic organisms help
deposit some substances, and the escape of carbon dioxide under reduced surface
pressure also causes deposition. The chief substances deposited in this manner are
calcium carbonate, in the form of tufa, travertine, or calcareous sinter; silica in the
form of siliceous sinter or geyserite; iron oxide in the form of ocher; and manganese
dioxide in the form of wad. Many other non-metallic and metallic substances are
deposited from hot springs but in relatively small amounts.

Important Minerals found in Evaporites:

Sea water is the prime source of minerals formed by evaporation. Sea water consists
of about 3.45% of dissolved salts, of which 99.9% consists of only seven ions. These
are:Na+ (30.61), Mg2+ (3.69), Ca2+ (1.16), K+ (1.10), Cl- (55.04), SO42- (7.68) and
HCO3-(0.41). About 45 other elements whose concentration is known in sea water
occur as trace minerals in evaporites. Evaporites often show a repeated sequence of
minerals, indicating cyclic conditions with a mineralogy determined by solubility. The
sequence in which minerals in marine evaporites are deposited is: calcite, gypsum,
anhydrite, halite, polyhalite, and lastly potassium and magnesium salts such as sylvite,
carnallite, kainite, and kieserite; anhydrite and halite dominate.

Following are the important minerals that form in marine evaporites:

Chlorides: Halite (NaCl), sylvite (KCl), carnallite (KMgCl3.6H2O), langbeinite
(K2Mg2(SO4)3 ), polyhalite (K2Ca2Mg(SO4)6.H2O), kainite (KMg(SO4)Cl.3H2O)
Sulfates: Anhydrite (CaSO4), gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), kieserite (MgSO4.H2O)
Carbonetes: Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2 ), Calcite (CaCO3), Magnesite (MgCO3)

Ore Deposits Formed by Metamorphism

 Metamorphic processes profoundly alter pre-existing mineral deposits and form
new ones.
 The chief agencies involved are heat, pressure, time, and various solutions.
 The materials acted upon are either earlier formed mineral deposits or rocks.
 Valuable nonmetallic mineral deposits are formed from rocks chiefly by the
crystallization and the combination of rock making minerals.

Role of Temperature and Pressure

 Metamorphic processes occur to make adjustments between the chemical potential

of any system and the changes in temperature and pressure.
 A particular chemical reaction that cannot occur in one environment may readily
do so under different temperature and pressure conditions.
 An increase in pressure will cause a reaction to move in a direction in which the
total volume of the system decreases, for example increasing pressure results in the
following changes with a reduction in the total molar volume:
Olivine + anorthite  garnet
augite +anorthite  garnet + quartz
ilmenite + anorthite  sphene + hornblende
nephelene + albite  glaucophane or jadeite
anorthite + gehlenite + wollastonite  grossularite
andalusite  sillimanite  kyanite

 An increase in temperature normally results in endothermic reactions. A possible

example is the conversion of pyroxene to hornblende during the metamorphism of
diabase to amphibolite.
 In short, metamorphic reactions result from the tendency of mineral systems to
adjust to their physicochemical environment of high temperatures and pressures in
contrast to the low temperatures of weathering processes, both of which processes
generally occur in the presence of water.

Metamorphism of Earlier Deposits

 When rocks are metamorphosed, enclosed mineral deposits may also be

metamorphosed.
 Unlike rocks that undergo both textual and mineralogical changes, Ores undergo
less mineral re-combinations.
 Textual changes, however, are pronounced. Schistose or gneissic textures are
induced, particularly with sectile minerals, and flow structure is not uncommon.
 Galena, for example, becomes gneissic. It may also be rendered so fine grained
that individual cleavage surfaces cannot be discerned with a hand lens.
 It "flows" around hard minerals, such as pyrite. Other minerals, such as
chalcopyrite, bornite, covellite, or stibnite, behave similarly.
 The result is that ores may exhibit streaked, banded, smeared appearances with
indistinct boundaries between minerals of different color.
 The original textures and structures may be so obscured that it is difficult to
determine to which class the originally deposits belonged. Such deposits are then
classified as "metamorphosed".

Formation of Mineral Deposits by Metamorphism

 Several kinds of nonmetallic mineral deposits are formed as a result of regional

metamorphism.
 The source materials are rock constitutions that have undergone recrystallization or
re-combination, or both.
 Rarely, water or carbon dioxide has been added, but other new constitutions are not
introduced as they are in contact metasomatism deposits.
 The enclosing rocks are wholly or in part metamorphosed; it is the rock
metamorphism that has given rise to the deposits.
 The chief deposits thus formed are asbestos, graphite, talc, soapstone, andalusite-
kyanite-sillimanite, dumortieritea, garnet, and possibly some emery.

a) Asbestos forms by the metamorphism (hydration) of ultrabasic igneous

rocks – peridotites and dunites.
b) Graphite forms by regional metamorphism of organic matter, crystallization
from igneous rocks, contact metamorphism and hydrothermal solutions.
c) Talc, soapstone and pyrophyllite form by a mild hydrothermal metamorphism
of magnesian minerals eg tremolite, actinolite, olivine, epidote and mica. Talc
also occurs in regionally metamorphosed limestones, altered ultrabasic igneous
rocks, and contact metamorphic zones.
d) Andalusite-kyanite-sillimanite – these minerals are high grade
refractories. Kyanite is formed by the dynamothermal metamorphism of
aluminous silicate minerals. Andalusite is formed by the pneumatolytic action
on aluminous silicates. Sillimanite results from high temperature
metamorphism of aluminous crystalline rocks.
e) Garnet forms during the regional and contact metamorphism and is
consequently found in schists and gneisses. It is also found as a constituent of
igneous rocks.
f) Emery is a mixture of corundum and magnetite with hematite or spinel and is
a product of contact metamorphism.

Bedded manganese deposits in parts of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, primarily

of sedimentary origin, have been subsequently effected by metamorphism. Braunite,
a manganese silicate, is the important ore mineral besides several other oxide
minerals.

Ore Deposits formed by Colloidal Deposition

A colloidal system consists of two phases:
1. The dispersed phase - is the diffused phase
2. The dispersion medium - in which the diffused phase is dispersed.
Colloidal particles range in size from those in true solutions to those in coarse
suspension. The limit of size are 10-3 to 10-7 cm (> solution < coarse
suspension). The colloidal material may be solid, liquid or gas and may be
dispersed in one of these same phases. In the study of ore transport, we are
concerned with solids suspended in liquids or a gaseous medium.
A colloidal system consisting of solids dispersed in a liquid is called a Sol. Colloidal
particles have large surface areas per unit volume. Ions absorbed on the
surfaces of such particles control their behaviour. If the particles absorb
cations they become positively charged, if they absorb anions they become
negatively charged. These charges prevent the particles of the sol from
coagulating or flocculating, but if an electrolyte is added the particles
neutralize and flocculate.

Most sulfides and organic sols are negative, whereas most oxide and hydroxide
sols are positive. There are some exceptions, eg. colloidal silica is negative.
Colloids are most stable in cool, dilute solutions and in the presence of a second
(protective) colloid. Eg. colloidal gold is stable below 150oC and coagulates
between 150-250oC. In the presence of colloidal silica this colloidal gold is stable
upto 350oC.
It is difficult to explain the colloidal migration of metals in depth because the
rocks at depth are dense and relatively impermeable. Some geologists suggest
that ore fluids change from solutions at depth to colloidal sols in the near
surface environments.
Precipitation from colloids involves two distinct stages:
1. Nucleation (the formation of centres of crystallisation), and
2. Crystal growth
Leaving aside the question of stability, it is the relative rates of these processes,
which determine the particle size of the precipitate so formed. A high degree of
dispersion and large number of crystals is obtained when the rate of nucleation is
high and the rate of crystal growth is low.
The initial rate of nucleation depends on the degree of supersaturation, which can
be reached before phase separation occurs, so that colloidal sols are most easily
obtained when the substance in question has a very low solubility. With material as
soluble as, for example, calcium carbonate, there is a tendency for the smaller
particles to dissolve and recrystallize on the larger particles as the precipitate is
allowed to age.
The rate of particle growth depends mainly on the following factors:
1. The amount of material available.
2. The viscosity of the medium, which controls the rate of diffusion of
material to the particle surface.
3. The ease with which the material is correctly orientated and incorporated
into the crystal lattice of the particle.
4. Adsorption of impurities on the particle surface, which act as growth
inhibitors.
5. Particle-particle aggregation.

Evidence of precipitation from colloids is furnished by certain minerals which

form colloform textures that are indicative of flocculation from a sol. Colloform
textures have the following characteristics:
1. Colloform textures occur in a series of concentrically curved or
scalloped layers in which the curvature is always convex towards the
younger or free surface.
2. The free surface is botryoidal, reniform or stalactitic.
3. Colloform textures are typically exhibited by agate, chalcedony,
malachite, azurite, collophane, manganese oxides, spodument,
wurtzite, lead and zinc ores, pyrite, cassiterite and wolframite.