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1 TRANSMISSION

1.1 Optical Fiber Communication:

An optical telegraph was built by Claude Chappe in 1790s in France. The information travels
from the transmitter to the receiver over the information channel. There are basically two
types of information channels: unguided or guided channels. Atmosphere is an unguided type
of channel over which waves can propagate. Guided channels are those which guide the
electromagnetic waves through them. Two wire lines, coaxial cable, waveguide and optic
fibre are the examples of Guided information channels. Guided channels have the advantages
of privacy, no weather dependence and the ability to convey messages within, under and
around physical structures.

An optical fiber is a thin strand of glass or plastic serving as the transmission medium over
which the information passes. The basic fiber–optic system is a link connecting optical
transmitter and receiver.

1.1.1 Advantages of Fibers

 Wide Bandwidth:

The information carrying capacity which increases with the bandwidth of the transmission
medium, is very large in fibers. The bandwidth available on a pair of single mode fibers is in
the order of several GHz. Thus, thousands of circuits can be carried on the fibers whether the
information is voice, data or video or a combination of these.

 Low Loss:

Bandwidth is an effective indication of the rate at which information can be sent. Loss
indicates how far the information can be sent. As a signal travels along a transmission path
the signal loses strength. This loss of strength is known as attenuation. In a copper cable,
attenuation increases with the modulation frequency: the higher the frequency of the
information signal, the greater is the loss. In an optical fibre, attenuation is flat: loss is the
same at any signaling frequency until a very high frequency. Thus, the problem of loss is
much more in a copper cable as information carrying capacity increases.
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Fig.9 shows the loss characteristics Vs the channel bandwidth for fibres, and coaxial cable.
Loss in coaxial cable increases with frequency, whereas loss in the optical cable remains flat.

Fig. 1: Attenuation versus Frequency (BW)

The loss at very high frequencies in the optical fibre does not result from additional
attenuation of the light by the fibre. The loss is caused by loss of information, not by optical
power, but due to the variation of the optical power. At very high frequencies, distortion
causes a reduction or loss of this information.

 Electromagnetic Immunity:

Optic fibres are insulators. No electric current flows through them, either due to the
transmitted signal or due to external radiation striking the fibre. For these reasons, fibres do
not radiate or pick–up electromagnetic radiation as in copper cables. Any copper conductor
acts like an antenna, either transmitting or receiving energy.

Since fibers do not radiate or receive electromagnetic energy, they make an ideal
transmission medium. As a consequence to fibre's electromagnetic immunity, signals do not
become distorted by EMI. Fibres offer very high standards in error free transmission.

 Small Size:

Fibres are hair thin in size. Fibers covered with protective coverings are still smaller than the
equivalent copper conductor. The small size of fibre optic cables makes them attractive for
applications where space is at a premium.
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 Light Weight:

A glass fibre weighs considerably less than a copper conductor. A fibre–optic cable with the
same information carrying as a copper cable weighs less than the copper cable. Weight
savings are important in such applications as aircraft and automobiles.

 Greater Safety:

A fibre is a dielectric. It does not carry electricity. If the cable is damaged, it does not present
any spark or fire hazard, so it cannot cause explosions or fires as a faulty copper cable can.
Moreover, it does not attract lightning. The fiber–optic cable can be run through hazardous
areas.

 Higher Security:

Fibre optics is a highly secure transmission medium, because the fibres do not radiate energy
that can be received by a nearby antenna without getting detected. It is also extremely
difficult to tap a fibre.

1.2 DWDM:
Since the very beginning of telecommunications, the need to extend the capacity of a
communications channel has been present. The purpose could be to allow the use of this
channel by multiple users, to perform a better management of the available resource or just to
boost the transmission capacity. Development of these systems was always limited by the
maximum capacity allowed by the communications channel and the available technology.
Several techniques can be used to improve the use of a communication channel. The
principles are, e.g: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM). These are commonly used techniques in radio and copper transmission systems.

With TDM each user is assigned to a certain time slot thus making the transmission time
shared by all the users. With FDM each user is assigned to a certain frequency slot
transmitting only with the corresponding carrier. This way the available bandwidth is
shared.In the case of optical systems the available bandwidth can exceed several Terahertz

(1012 Hz). TDM could not be used to take advantage of this tremendous bandwidth due to

limitations on electrical technology. Electrical circuits simply cannot work on these

frequencies. Typical FDM was also a problem in the same way, it was not possible to use
frequency multiplexing at the electrical level.The solution was to use frequency multiplexing
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at the optical level or Wavelength Division Multiplexing. The basic idea is to use different
optical carriers or colors to transmit different signals in the same fibre. A distinction is made
between WDM and DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing). With WDM the
spacing between channels can be relatively large. In Dense multiplexing the frequency
spacing between channels can be as small as 50 GHz or less, increasing the overall spectral
density of the transmitted signal.

1.2.1 Advantages:
Optical networks are opening up new horizons for telecommunication operators.
Technologies such as wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) and optical amplification are
giving them a multitude of ways to satisfy the exploding demand for capacity. New
architectures will increase network reliability and decrease the cost of bit rates and distance,
therefore, creating economic benefits for network operators and users alike. Based on existing
fibre optic backbone networks, the idea of an all optical network (AON) is revolutionizing
the structures of our communication networks. In short, optical networks are the future of the
information superhighway.

1.2.2 DWDM Routes:

 Short Route Length Application:

Short lengths are of special interest in Metropolitan WDM networks.No optical amplification
is used, therefore, the transmission distance is limited, e.g. in the range of 80 km.

 Medium Route Length Application:

If the DWDM Terminals are equipped with optical booster and optical preamplifiers, longer
distances can be achieved, without additional optical amplifier units. This technique achieves
hop lengths in the range of 140 km.

 Long Route Length Application:

Extremely long routes can be bridged without electrical regeneration by only utilizing
optical amplification. Using this technique long hops without regeneration can be
achieved, with a route length beyond 1000 km in special cases.

1.3 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH):

It is an international standard networking principle and a multiplexing method. The name of
hierarchy has been taken from the multiplexing method which is synchronous by nature. The
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evolution of this system will assist in improving the economy of operability and reliability of
a digital network.

1.3.1 Merits of SDH:

 Simplified multiplexing/de-multiplexing techniques.
 Direct access to lower speed tributaries, without need to multiplex/
 de-multiplex the entire high speed signal.
 Enhanced operations, Administration, Maintenance and provisioning capabilities.
 Easy growth to higher bit rates in step with evolution of transmission technology.
 Capable of transporting existing PDH signals.
 Capable of transporting future broadband (ATM) channel bit rates.
 Capable of operating in a multi-vendor and multi-operator environment

1.3.2 S.D.H. Evolution:

S.D.H.evolution is possible because of the following factors :

 Fiber Optic Bandwidth: The bandwidth in Optical Fiber can be increased and there
is no limit for it. This gives a great advantage for using SDH.
 Technical Sophistication: Although, SDH circuitry is highly complicated, it is
possible to have such circuitry because of VLSI technique which is also very cost
effective.
 Intelligence: The availability of cheaper memory opens new possibilities.
 Customer Service Needs: The requirement of the customer with respect to different
bandwidth requirements could be easily met without much additional equipment. The
different services it supports are : Low/High speed data, Voice, Interconnection of
LAN, Computer links, Feature services like H.D.T.V, Broadband ISDN transport
(ATM transport)

1.3.3 Advantages:
 Multi-vendor environment (mid span meet) : Prior to 1988 international agreement on
SDH all vendors used proprietary non-standard techniques for transporting
information on fibre. The only way to interconnect was to convert to the copper
transmission standards (G702/703/704). The cost and complexity levels were very
high.
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 Synchronous networking: SDH supports multi-point or hub configurations whereas,

asynchronous networking only supports point-to-point configurations.
 Enhanced OAM&P: The telecoms need the ability to administer, surveil, provision,
and control the network from a central location.
 Positioning the network for transport on new services: LAN to LAN, HDTV,
interactive multimedia, video conferencing.
 HUB : A hub is an intermediate site from which traffic is distributed to 3 or more
spur. It allows the nodes to communicate as an angle network, thus reducing the back-
to-back multiplexing and de-multiplexing.

2 SWITCHING

Switch is defined as Establishing a Temporary Connection From the calling subscriber to the
called Subscriber.Switch is a Device that makes the connection and breaks the
connection.Switch is a device that channels incoming data from any of multiple input ports to
the specific output that will take the data towards its intended destination.The process
performed by a switch is called Switching.

The interconnection of circuits in order to establish a temporary connection between two or

more subscribers is also called as Switching.

2.1 Switching types:

 Circuit switching

 packet switching

 Message switching

2.1.1 Circuit Switching

 Dedicated communication path established for the entire duration of the conversation
 e.g. telephone network.

2.2 Packet Switching

 Data sent out in sequence
 Small chunks (packets) of data at a time
 Packets passed from node to node between source and destination
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 E.g. computer to computer communications

2.3 Digital Switching

 The switching network sets up a temporary connection between two or more
exchange terminations and ensures transmission of signals (speech & data) between
these terminations in digital form with reliable accuracy.
 Switching network can be classified into
 Space Division and
 Time Division systems.

2.4 Telephone exchange:

Telephone was patented by G. Bell in 1876

 Born in Edinburgh, Scotland on March 3, 1847.

 Also worked on optical telecommunications and aeronautics.
 Today’s telecommunication technologies have evolved from the earliest smoke
signals to almost instant global transmission of large amounts of data.

Basic Diagram for Telephone Exchange

E/A

Switch MDF Extnl.

Power Plant Room plant

Battery-A OMC

Battery-B

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Fig2:Telephone Exchange

2.4.1 Manual Exchange :

 In this generation, number dialing facility in not available at the customer end.

 A transmitter, receiver and the ringer equipment is available at Customer premises.

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 Call connectivity will be arranged manually by an operator present in the exchange.

 The operator feeds the ringing supply from the exchange to the calling customer for
giving call alert.

 After that the operator physically connects the calling and the called parties.

2.4.2 Automatic Exchanges

 In this generation, complete automatic call connectivity was invented .

 Selectors in crossbar exchanges have horizontal and vertical bars (like matrix)
operated by electromagnetic relay coils, so that the contacts at a particular point in a
matrix may be operated under the control of these relays

2.4.3 Electronic Exchange

 With the invention of electronic exchanges the practical difficulties with the
automatic exchanges were solved.

 The customer was provided with lot of advanced features.

 Chronological Development of Electronic Exchanges.

3 MOBILE

3.1 3G Cellular Systems:

3G systems are planned with objective of integration of all kinds of wireless systems into
universal mobile telecommunication system. Work is continuing in European research
consortium, RACE, and in ETSI towards developing UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System) on an joint European basis. At the same time ITU is working
globally towards IMT-2000 (International Mobile Communication-2000) with mutual
agreements and information exchange.

One of the main objective of 3G systems is that they will gather existing mobile services
(cellular, cordless, paging etc.) into one single network. The multiplicity of services and
features of the system will make it possible for the users to choose among multiple terminals
and service provides. Terminals will become smarter and will be able to support several radio
interface with the help of software radio technology. Among the objectives that have been
assigned to 3G system designers are : voice quality as with fixed networks, satellite services
for non covered areas, low terminal and services costs, high bit rate mobile multi-media
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services (2 Mbps for indoor and reduced mobility users, 384 Kbps for urban outdoor , and
144 Kbps for rural outdoor), multiple services per user (speech at 8 Kbps, data at 2,4 or 6 x
64=384 Kbps, video at 384 Kbps and multimedia, security and antifraud features against
access to data by non-authorized people or entities.

3.2 CDMA:
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access .The basic requirements for a CDMA
system are:Services (Eg: Voice, Low speed data, FAX)Capacity- It should be high, PSTN
connectivity, Maintainability, Cost- It is low when compared to Landline.

3.2.1 Advantages of CDMA systems:

 Over Wire line: Easy Installation, Maintenance, Low cost, Mobility, Ease of
operation. Call drop < 2%
 Over Mobile (GSM System): Large Coverage, Large Capacity

3.3 Salient Features of CDMA:

It is an advanced comm. Technology, It has Anti-jam and security features, Large capacity as
compared to other Technology like FDMA and TDMA, It uses spread spectrum technology,
Better use of the multipath, Frequency Reuse.

 Advantages of CDMA (1): Frequency reuse factor is 1, network design and

expanding become much easier.
 Advantages of CDMA(2): large coverage, almost 2 times than GSM, save money for
operator.

4 IP ADDRESSING AND TELECOM SERVICES

4.1 IP Addressing:
Each host on a TCP/IP network is uniquely identified at the IP layer with an address.The IP
address is also known as Protocol address. The IPv4 address is 32 bits long.
2^32=4294967296. At present we are having two types of IP they are IPv4 and IPv6.The
Internet machines sees the IP address as 11001010000011100100000000000001.For human
understanding the 32 bits of IP address are separated into 4 bytes of 8 binary digits. Each
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binary byte is converted into decimal and is separated by a dot hence also known as Dotted
Decimal Notation. How we see the IP address is 140.179.220.220.

In decimal the address range is 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. The IP address is of the form
<networkID,hostID>. There are five classes of addresses A, B, C, D& E. A, B & C classes
are used to represent host and network address.Class D is a special type of address used for
multicasting.Class E is reserved for experimental use.

Fig1:IPv4 address class

Fig2:IP address bit patterns

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Fig3:Class-A address

Fig4:Class-B address

Fig5: Class-C address

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Fig6:Class-D&E address

4.2 SUB NETTING

Default subnet mask:

•Subnet Mask differentiates Network portion and Host Portion

•Represented with all 1’s in the network portion and with all 0’s in the host portion.

Class A : N.H.H.H

11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

Default Subnet Mask for Class A is 255.0.0.0

Class B : N.N.H.H

11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

Default Subnet Mask for Class B is 255.255.0.0

Class C : N.N.N.H

11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

Default Subnet Mask for Class C is 255.255.255.0

4.3 SUPER NETTING:

• Supernetting is nothing but “Aggregation”
• Supernetting is “Combining many small networks into one big network”
• The Main purpose of aggregation or supernetting is to decrease the size of routing
table.
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In Routing table, One entry / row for each

network. Many small networks hamper the speed.
Two or more N/Ws before a main Router combined
to form a supernet and gives to main router.

Fig7:Supernetting

4.3.1 Conditions for Supernetting:

 Continuous
 Same Size [ More over they should be of 2n]
 First Network ID should be divisible by
 size of the block [2n]

4.4 Telecom Services:

Prominent Services of BSNL are: Land lines (Fixed Access),High speed Broad band, FTTH
(Fibre to the Home), Mobile services (GSM 2G/3G) :Wi-MAX, IN (Intelligent Network)

4.4.1 FTTH:
Delivery of communication signals (Voice, Data & Video) over optical fiber up to home or
business point.

Features:
• Resilience and reliability of service;

• Unlimited scalability of the Telecom

Facilities:
• Continuous guaranteed service;

• Download speed upto 2.5 Gbps and upload upto 1.2 Gbpsmultiplay services like
Voice, Internet access, IPTV, Video on demand, VPN,LAN, VOIP services.

4.4.2 Wi MAX:
• World wide Interoperability for Microwave Access
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Features:

Providing wireless data over long distances 50, Mbps up to 10 Km, Also called as Wireless
MAN( Metropolitan Area Network), Works on OFDMA ( Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiple Access) , Supports Voice, Video and Internet data.

5 BROAD BAND SYSTEM AND SERVICES

Broadband indicates a means of connectivity at a high or ‘broad’ bandwidth, which is
capable of delivering multiple services simultaneously. There were no uniform standards for
Broadband connectivity and various countries followed various standards. Recently ITU had
stepped in and has defined Broadband. According to International Telecommunication Union
Broadband is defined as “Transmission capacity that is faster than primary rate ISDN, at 1.5
to 2 Mb/s” But in developing countries, as the average financial capability as well as usage,
is low, broadband is redefined.
Recognizing the potential of ubiquitous Broadband service in growth of GDP and
enhancement in quality of life through societal applications including tele-education, tele-
medicine, e-governance, entertainment as well as employment generation by way of high
speed access to information and web-based communication, Government of India have
finalised a policy to accelerate the growth of Broadband services.
Broadband Policy 2004 defines Broadband as “An ‘always-on’ data connection
supporting interactive services including, – Internet access and has the capability of the
minimum download speed of 256 kilo bits per second (kbps) to an individual subscriber from
the Point Of Presence (POP) of the service provider”.

5.1 Features of Broadband:

5.1.1 Fast connection to the Internet

Access to the services which would otherwise be impossible on a slower dial up
connection. These include facilities such as downloading music or video footage, listening to
your favourite radio station or downloading (or sending) large attached files with emails.

5.1.2 “Always-on” connection

Means that you are permanently connected to the internet;hence no need to dial up a
connection every time you want to surf the web, send email, etc.
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5.1.3 Flat-rate billing

If you choose an uncapped rate there will be no additional charges for the time you
are online. You can use it as much or as little as you would like, for a fixed fee. Some
connections are available at a lower cost, but limit you to the amount of data being
downloaded (known as 'capped rate').

5.1.4 Dedicated connection

Simultaneous use of both telephone & data line.

5.2 Broadband Services:

5.2.1 High speed Internet

Means that you are permanently connected to the internet, and don't need to dial up a
connection every time you want to surf the web, send email, etc.

5.2.2 Broadcast (BTV) & Time-shifted TV (TVOD)

Besides regular BTV services, Time shifted TV provides subscribers with virtual DVD
controls to pause, start, stop, rewind and fast forward live TV programs. Users also have the
flexibility to watch any previous broadcasted programs without pre-recording.

5.2.3 \Video on Demand

Enables the user to select from an online library of content and select any of the
available choices for viewing at a convenient time with full DVD like controls. This is
similar to borrowing a Video for viewing.

5.2.4 Video Multicasting:

Similar to cable or terrestrial broadcast – the user can join at any time but the stream
begins and ends at the pre appointed times.

5.2.5 Interactive Gaming:

Enables multiple players to play online games pitted against each other or against
computers, through gaming servers employed by gaming content providers.

5.2.6 Audio and Video Conferencing:

Share ideas, information, and applications using video or audio.
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5.2.7 Dial VPN Service:

This service allows remote users to access their private network securely over the
service provider’s core network.

5.2.8 Distant Learning:

Consists of electronic classrooms with two-way and multi-way communication
among teachers and students.

5.2.9 Bandwidth on Demand:

Customer can change bandwidth as per his / her requirement. For example a customer
with 256 kbps can change to 1 Mbps during the video Conferencing session. Most of these
services require the service provider to have tie-ups with the various content providers.

5.3 Network Architecture of Broadband:

Network architecture can be broadly classified into three networks:

 Core Network
 Access Network
 Home Network
 Core Network or Provider’s network: It is the Service Provider’s backbone
network set up to provide the Broadband service. It will be having connectivity
extended to all types of service or content network, which the service provider
intends to extend. Also it will be having nodes covering all geographical locations it
intends to serve. Basically its function is to route the customer’s requests to the
particular service/content network. So the basic component in the core network is
routers.

In BSNL, the core network is known by the name National Internet Backbone (NIB), as it
was initially set up for extending internet access to all, all over the country, India. But, now
its objective has been enhanced. Its objective is to connect anything to anything at anytime.
The technology used in the core routers is Multi Protocol Label Switching(MPLS), which is
much faster and secure than the conventional IP routers.

 Access Network:Access network connects subscriber’s home network to the

Provider’s Core network. It is the last mile connecting the subscriber. The
connectivity can be either Wired & Wireless. Wire line technologies include
traditional telephone lines, coaxial cable lines, and fiber optic lines. Wireless
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communications involve cellular and fixed wireless technology, high speed short
range communications and satellite transmission.

Because physical infrastructure and geography are vastly different from country to country,
technology that works well in one geographic area may not work as well in another.
Therefore, it is up to each individual locality to determine the technologies that best meet its
needs. To handle the increasing bandwidth demand, localities are considering upgrading their
current telecommunications infrastructure or installing new infrastructure. It is essential that
communities and operators consider the present and future needs of their citizens when
examining the most appropriate systems. Broadband should be considered an accelerator of
economic development.

Factors affecting Broadband Access Choices are: Population density, Existing infrastructure
(e.g., twisted pair, cable, fiber),Government policies, Competitive and regulatory dynamics,
Technology evolution.

 Home Network:It’s the network at subscriber’s premises, connecting his various

communication devices to the broadband line.

BSNL has launched its Broadband Service through conventional telephone lines using ADSL
(Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) technology. ADSL exploits the copper wires which
have a much greater bandwidth or range of frequencies than that demanded for voice without
disturbing the line's ability to carry phone conversations. The A stands for asymmetric,
meaning that data transmission rate is not the same in both directions ie.,more bandwidth, or
data-carrying capacity, is devoted to data traveling downstream-from the Internet to your PC-
than to upstream data traveling from your PC to the Internet. The reason for the imbalance is
that, generally upstream traffic is very limited to a few words at a time, like for example –an
URL request and downstream traffic, carrying graphics, multimedia, and shareware program
downloads needs the extra capacity. An ADSL circuit connects an ADSL modem on each
end of a twisted pair telephone line, creating three information channels: A high speed
downstream channel, A medium speed duplex channel, A basic telephone service channel.
The basic telephone service channel is split off from the digital modem by filters, thus
guaranteeing uninterrupted basic telephone service, even if ADSL fails.
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6 CONCLUSION

Finally I conclude that I have learnt about different broadband services, working of internet
and how the calls can be transmitted from one terminal to another through several elements
like OMC to switching room to MDF to hand set, different types of mobile services like
CDMA GSM etc. I came to know in which medium transmission takes place faster
depending upon the application like in telephone coaxial or twisted pairs are apt whereas
optical fibers are majorly used in some cases of long distance transmission where we should
not have any information loss.