Concrete

Beton
The Official Journal of
The Concrete Society of Southern Africa

TECHNICAL PAPER
• Fibre Reinforcement – Steel versus Macro
(Structural) Synthetic

CONCRETE CHATTER
• KZN Branch – Concrete Achiever Award 2006
• Eastern Cape Branch – Student Award
• National Honorary Award conferred on
Prof MG Alexander

FULTON AWARDS 2007 WINNER – DESIGN

ASPECTS
• Mkomaas River Pedestrian Bridge

LAUNCH OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

CONCRETE TIPS
• Proportioning of Concrete Mixes
• Chemical Admixtures for use in Concrete

NUMBER 115

July 2007
Contents

President’s Message President

D.C. Miles
A Message from the President 3 Vice President
F.B. Bain
Immediate Past President
V.A. da Silva
Concrete Chatter Treasurer
G.S. Gamble
KZN Branch - Concrete Achiever Award 2006 4 Branch Chairmen
L. Hendricks, K. Brown, T. Sawyer,
Eastern Cape Branch - Student Award 5 L. Visser
Elected Council Members
Inland Branch - Concrete Boat Race 5 P. Ronné, N. Pienaar, P. Flower
Administrator
National Honorary Award conferred on Prof MG Alexander 5 I. Dyssel
Honorary Members
Dr N. Stutterheim, Dr D. Davis,
W.M. Johns, D.P. Samson,
Fulton Awards 2007 Review of Gala Event 6 C.J. Thompson, A.R. Dutton,
Prof G. Loedolff, Prof M.O.de Kock,
Mkomaas River Pedestrian Bridge 8 Prof M.G. Alexander
The late: A.C. Liebenburg, R. Copp
Launch of Self Compacting Concrete 14 Prestressed Division
B. Cox
Editorial Board
President (Ex Officio), F. Bain,
Technical Paper P. Gage, G. Fanourakis, D. Lamble
Reviewers of Technical Papers
Fibre Reinforcement – Steel versus Macro(Structural) Synthetic 16 Dr G.R.H. Grieve,
Dr R. Amtsbüchler,
Dr R.E. Oberholster, Mr B.D. Perrie,
Prof M.G. Alexander,
Concrete Tips
Prof M. Gohnert, Dr P.C. Pretorius,
Prof Y. Ballim, Mr J. Lane,
Proportioning of Concrete Mixes 22
Prof V. Marshall, Prof G. Blight,
Mr F. Crofts, Dr G Krige,
Chemical Admixtures for use in Concrete 24
Mr I. Luker, Mr D. Kruger.
All papers published are reviewed by at least two reviewers.
© Copyright: All editorial material published in Concrete Beton is
reserved to the Concrete Society.
Requests for permission to use any of the material, in part or in
Branch Calendars 26 full, should be addressed to the President.
Although the Concrete Society of Southern Africa does its best
to ensure that any information it may give is accurate, no liability
for negligence is accepted by the Society, its members, publish-
Diary of forthcoming events 27 ers or agents.
ISSN No: 1682-6116

OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF: The Concrete Society of Southern Africa

• PO Box 11529, Silver Lakes, 0054 • Tel: (012) 809 1824 • Fax: (012) 809 1823
• Physical Address: Silver Lakes Office Park, Silver Lakes, Pretoria
• E-mail: [email protected] • Web site: www.concretesociety.co.za
President: D.C. Miles
Vision
To be the most relevant forum for all who have an interest in concrete and to promote the
concrete related services of the Society's members.
Mission Statement
To promote excellence and innovation in the use of concrete and to provide a forum for networking
and for the sharing of knowledge and information on concrete.

2
President's Message

The Fulton Awards 2007, held believe that this will give our members far more insight
over a weekend at Champagne into each of the winning projects. We hope that you will
Sports Resort, was a resounding enjoy these series of articles.
success. We can proudly reflect
on what was generally believed It is with great sadness that I must announce that our
to have been the best Fulton administrator, Irma Dyssel, after 13 years with the
Awards that we have ever had. Concrete Society, has decided to pursue other interests.
The weekend event was attended Irma has done extensive work for the Society and we
by over 400 people partaking in will really miss her. Irma will be leaving us at the end
more than 500 activities, like golf, of September. On behalf of Council and the members, I
bird-watching, helicopter flips, would like to thank her for all her hard work, dedication
spa treatments and horse riding. and loyal service to the Society and wish her well for the
It appears that everybody enjoyed the new future.
format and many have encouraged us to follow
the same format in the future. This we will A replacement for Irma is being sought and we will
gladly endeavour to do if our sponsors support communicate these details to you as soon as they are
us again. Some have already indicated that available.
they want to be part of the next Fulton Awards
event. We also welcome new sponsors who We are in the process of organizing a national seminar on
would want to be actively involved with the ‘Durability’ in conjunction with the Cement and Concrete
Concrete Society and especially the Fulton Institute. This should take place in October this year.
Awards. Your respective branches will be communicating with
you shortly regarding the exact details of this seminar.
It was an honour and pleasure to be able Considering how lively the last seminar on ‘Durability’
to attend the branch reviews as well. was, you would not want to miss this one!
Unfortunately I do not get the opportunity to
attend branch functions often and it was very We hope that you will enjoy this edition of Concrete
pleasing to meet so many members of the Beton.
Concrete Society.

I wish to extend to the winners of Fulton Awards

2007, on behalf of the Concrete Society of
Southern Africa, sincere congratulations. All of
you deserved the accolades that you received.
You will notice that in this edition of Concrete
Beton we have started a series of articles on Dave Miles
the project winners of the Fulton Awards. We President 2006/2007

The Concrete Society of Southern Africa

has now been registered as a voluntary
association of the Engineering Council of
South Africa (ECSA). Our members will
derive great benefit from this development.
The first of which, is that members
will be able to claim CPD (Continued
Professional Development) points for
attending technical Society events. A
reviewing committee will evaluate all
technical talks, seminars and conferences
before accrediting and allocating points
to an event. This practice adheres to the
principles of ECSA.

We trust that this will encourage

professionals to become members of the
Concrete Society.

For more information, please contact the

office.

3
Concrete Chatter

KZN Branch

Concrete Achiever 2006 bridge, a practical and cost effective design in this
context.
One of the highlights
of the year for the KZN A prestressed concrete ribbon bridge consists of a ribbon
CSSA branch is always of precast concrete elements that are post tensioned to
the presentation of the induce continuity in the deck, and are designed to remain
Concrete Achiever of in compression under design loads. The use of precast
the year award. This concrete elements was also beneficial as these could be
year the KZN Branch constructed concurrently with the abutments, thereby
Committee had no hesi- reducing the overall construction time. Precast elements
tation in recognising Mr have the added benefit of being cast in a casting yard
Corrie Meintjes as the and transported to the site. This would present fewer
most worthy recipient challenges for the contractor to face in the rural setting
of this award for his sig- of the Mkomaas River Pedestrian Bridge.
nificant contribution to-
wards the promotion of This construction method has been successfully used in
concrete during 2006. the northern hemisphere. The Mkomaas River Pedestrian
Bridge is a first of its kind in South Africa and its clear
Mr Corrie Meintjes, span of 150m is equal to the world record for this type
senior partner of Jeffares & Green, has been involved in of pedestrian bridge (as far as could be determined, the
the design of concrete structures for more than 30 years. current world record of 150m is held by a similar bridge
In this time he has been involved in key projects such over the ship canal in Plovdiv, Bulgaria). Mr Meintjes
as elevated motorways, incrementally launched bridges was therefore presented with design and construction
and various other types of concrete structures. challenges which have never previously been attempted
in this country.
Recently, he was involved with, and responsible for, the
concept and design of the Mkomaas River Pedestrian In catenary type structures such as stress ribbon bridges
Bridge in the Squandulweni area. This bridge was the deflections are large, therefore conventional software
commissioned by the KwaZulu - Natal: Department of is unable to analyse these structures as it assumes
Transport. It came to their attention that children in the deflections are small relative to the structures dimensions.
area were often unable to attend school due to dangerous In order to analyse the structure, independent, self-
water levels denying them access to the school on the generated spreadsheets were developed in house by
opposite bank of the river. The construction of a bridge Jeffares & Green. Then, due to the novelty of this concept
over the Mkomaas River would resolve this problem, as in South Africa, the Institute of Civil Engineering at the
well as being of long-term benefit to the community in University of Stellenbosch was commissioned to do a
general. finite element analysis of the bridge using a sophisticated
computer package. This analysis confirmed the in-house
Mr Meintjes determined that the most practical design results obtained. An external wind expert was also asked
for crossing the Mkomaas River was to construct a to assess the behaviour of the structure under various
single span bridge. This would obviate the need for wind loadings and determined that the design was safe.
piers, thereby eliminating any structural obstruction in Even under high wind conditions, in which people would
the watercourse, as well as any potentially dangerous not venture outside, the structural integrity of the bridge
construction work, which would have to take place is not compromised.
within the river basin. This choice was justified, as from
January to March 2006, during the period of construction The Mkomaas River Pedestrian Bridge is environmentally
of the bridge, high water levels in the Mkomaas River friendly in that there are no elements that interfere with
made it difficult for the contractor to cross the river, let the flow of the river, and the vertical curvature of the
alone construct within its basin. structure is aesthetically pleasing and compliments the
rural landscape.
Several types of bridges such as cable stay, suspension
and a hybrid between these are capable of the required Congratulations once again to Corrie and we trust
150m single span. However, in recently constructed that this project will inspire the industry even further,
suspension structures, the local communities have especially with the amount of interesting and challenging
expressed their concern about the movement of these work to be done before 2010. The KZN Branch looks
structures under load. Mr Meintjes therefore looked to forward to some tough decisions for this annual award
a more innovative design concept. His investigations in the next few years.
lead him to investigate the prestressed concrete ribbon

4
Concrete Chatter

Eastern Cape Branch

Student Award
The Eastern Cape Branch presented a student prize to
Regardt Strydom. He completed his National Diploma
Building at N.M.M.U. at the end of 2006 and was top of
his class in concrete and structures for which Concrete
Society awarded him a cheque for R250-00 , a Fulton
Concrete Technology text book and a Concrete Society
membership. Regardt is currently working for MCM
Property Developers.

From left to right

Regardt Strydom and Eastern Cape Chairman Louis Visser

Inland Branch

Concrete Boat Race Day

The Inland Branch will, once again, be hosting the
celebrated Annual Concrete Boat Race Day competition.
This occasion is intended to bring together members
from various disciplines that consititute the Concrete
Society, as well as students from the various tertiary
education institutions’ built environment departments.

The event serves to introduce the student to the cement

and concrete industry and facilitate networking between
the various interest groups in a ‘fun’ atmosphere. This is
an ideal opportunity to offer your employees a family fun
day, a reward, an inter- departmental challenge, a team-
COME ALONG FOR A FUN-FILLED FAMILY DAY !! building exercise, and more.
Many boats already entered!!
Date: Saturday 15th September 2007 Please note that the format will be the same as last
Time: Approx. 08h00 to 15h00 year’s. The boat must be a one-man craft which will be
(to be confirmed nearer the day) raced on a 4-person relay basis. Please ensure there are
Venue: Victoria Lake, Germiston four people available to take part in each race. Inland
Contact: Zoe Perks, e-mail: [email protected] branch looks forward to see you there.
by 31 August 2007

Honorary Award

Honorary Membership conferred on Prof Mark Alexander

In recognition of his out- At a special function held in Cape Town recently , the
standing commitment president of the Concrete Society, Mr Dave Miles,
and dedication to the presented the Honorary Membership certificate to
Concrete Society, in par- Professor Alexander, stating that the award was also
ticular the Western Cape made in appreciation of his academic career and
Branch, and its objectives contribution in guiding engineers as well as the greater
over many years, Profes- construction industry.
sor Mark Alexander from
the University of Cape Prof. Alexander, currently Deputy Dean of the Faculty
Town has been awarded of Civil Engineering at the University of Cape Town, has
Honorary Membership of published widely and presented numerous papers at
the Society. conferences and symposia both locally and overseas.

5
Fulton Awards

Review of Gala Event

The Fulton Awards 2007 Gala function was held at the The project stand competition created considerable
Champagne Sports Resort in the Drakensberg on 8- interest, especially since the first prize was a trip for 2
10 June 2007. Approximately 400 people attended this people to Dubai.
event and judging by all the tremendous feedback that
was received, it is evident that everyone really enjoyed The Black Tie Gala Event took place on Saturday
the weekend. evening and provided the perfect culmination to an
exciting weekend. The Fulton Award Winners and
The main aim of the weekend was to give far greater Commendations were announced at a glittering event
exposure to the nominated projects, contractors, that had a very professional and personable Michelle
suppliers and our sponsors. It also provided an McLean as MC for the evening. The Concrete Institute
opportunity for guests to network in a relaxed of Australia gave a short and informative presentation
atmosphere. The Concrete Society is proud to confirm by Dr.Daksh Baweja, President of CIA and Mr. Ian Booth
that these objectives were achieved. Written and verbal CEO of CIA.
feedback confirm that the Industry at large regards this
event as the best Fulton Awards function ever. After the Fulton Golf Challenge prizes were presented
the party started with the great entertainment of Danny’s
An informal dinner on Friday evening, 8 June, started the Angels and for quite a few people, the evening lasted
weekend’s proceedings. After a hard week and a long until the early hours in the cosy Cathkin’s Bar.
drive the food, entertainment and music were enjoyed
by all. The Concrete Society of Southern Africa wishes to
congratulate all the project winners and those who
The Fulton Golf Challenge took place on Saturday received commendations. We wish to extend our sincere
morning with a field of 96 golfers. Various other organised appreciation to all the Sponsors, who helped making this
activities also took place, such as Spa Treatments, a event possible.
presentation by Michelle McLean, Birds of Prey outing,
helicopter flips and horse riding. For those who did not Fulton Awards 2009, quo vadis?
feel too energetic, the beautiful view from the Hotel,
together with inviting log fires was the ideal way to relax.

Winner of the Project

Stand Competition
Mrs Michelle Theodosiou.
She and her husband
Fulton Judge & CSSA Gary Theodosiou,
Fulton Judge Neil Macleod with Fulton Judge Hassan Asmal President Dave Miles from C&CI, won a tip to
Michelle McLean with Michele McLean with Michelle McLean Dubai.
6
Fulton Awards

Civil Engineering

Fulton Award for Commendation,

Civil Engineering Maguga Dam
and Commendation Regulating Weir,
for Construction Power Station,
Techniques, Impala Foundation &
Platinum No16 Shaft Superstructure

Building Projects

Fulton Award, Commendation,

Athlone Soccer Walter Sisulu
Stadium East Square of
Stand Dedication

Aesthetic Appeal

Fulton Award, Commendation,

Bosmansdam L’Ormarins
Road Pedestrian Exposed
Bridge Aggregate Roads

Construction Techniques

Fulton Award, Commendation,

Durban Harbour Cradock to Tarka
Services Tunnel Bridge Road
Rehabilitation

Design Aspects

Fulton Award, Commendation,

Mkomaas River Mondi
Pedestrian Secondary
Bridge Effluent
Treatment Plant.

Special Recognition

Fulton Award,
Spoornet Universal/
Infrabolt Concrete
Sleeper Project

7
Fulton Awards

Project Motivation For The Mkomaas River Pedestrian Bridge

ABSTRACT

Jeffares & Green was appointed by the KwaZulu- Typically pre-stressed concrete ribbon bridges consist
Natal Department of Transport to design a pedestrian of pre-cast concrete elements suspended from cables
bridge over the Mkomaas River in the Sisonke District tensioned between abutments. These elements are
Municipality. then joined and stressed along the length of the bridge
by tensioning a second set of cables placed in ducts
As the client was experiencing problems with the through the elements. Compression stresses induced
resonant behaviour of cable supported pedestrian this way compensate for tensile stresses resulting from
bridges, Jeffares & Green was asked to investigate subsequent live loads. As far as can be ascertained,
alternatives that will render a more stable walkway the construction method used for the Mkomaas River
for a long-span bridge such as that required over the pedestrian bridge is a first in Africa and the length of its
Mkomaas River. After considering various alternatives clear span equals the world record of 150 meters set by
the consultant proposed a pre-stressed concrete ribbon the Plovdiv footbridge over a ship canal in Bulgaria.
type structure for this site.

8
Fulton Awards

This innovative all-concrete design is cost effective, This is a catenary type bridge, which found favour with
aesthetically pleasing, highly functional and some designers in Europe, Asia and North America. As
environmentally friendly in so far as it does not interfere yet the consulting engineer could not find evidence to
with the flow of the river in any way, neither does it have suggest that this method of construction has ever been
towers, stabilisers or large abutments that impose on used before on the African continent, or elsewhere in
the rural landscape. the southern hemisphere. The following construction
sequence is typical for this type of bridge:
PRELIMINARY DESIGN / CONCEPT DESIGN
• First abutments are built and anchored back to rock
In August 2004 the mayor of the Sisonke District on either side of the river (see fig. 1 a and b).
Municipality wrote to the KwaZulu-Natal MEC of Transport • Main bearer cables are then placed and stressed
requesting assistance in respect of the difficulties faced between the two abutments (see fig. 1 c).
by children crossing the Mkomaas River to and from
• Pre-cast concrete elements are manufactured and
school. According to him during the wet season and
suspended from these cables and slid across the
when the level of the river rises, even fractionally, these
river on these cables to their respective positions
children were denied access to their school, sometimes
for many days at a time. Shortly thereafter Jeffares along the length of the bridge (See fig. 1 d).
& Green was appointed by the provincial regional • These pre-cast deck elements are then joined by
engineer for the design and construction monitoring of a lapping reinforcement and placing insitu concrete
pedestrian bridge over the river at this site. In particular, in order to render the deck into a continuous ribbon
the consulting engineer was cautioned against the use of running from one abutment to the other
cable supported bridges, as the department of transport (see fig. 1 e).
has experienced problems with people refusing to make • Longitudinal post-tension cables are then placed
use of bridges that resonate in response to live loads. along the length of the bridge, in ducts inside the
elements and tensioned in order to provide sufficient
The consulting engineer nevertheless favoured the compression stresses to compensate for live load
concept of a single long span bridge over the river due induced tensile stresses within the elements
to environmental and construction constraints. In this (see fig. 1 f).
case the construction of single long-span bridge will • Handrails and other finishing then follow before the
not impede the river’s flow and therefore cannot be bridge is commissioned (see fig. 1 g).
classed as an activity listed in terms of GN No. R1182
of 5 September 1997 and therefore does not require The other long-span alternative considered was a
environmental authorization in terms of Section 22 of suspension bridge. This type of bridge is often used
the Environmental Conservation Act, 1989 (Act No. for pedestrian bridges, pipe bridges and other light
73 of 1989) and no delay was experienced in waiting structures in South Africa. On the negative side the
for a record of decision from the KZN Department of client had experienced problems with people refusing
Agriculture and Environmental Affairs. to make use of such bridges, as they tend to resonate
while pedestrians are crossing. Even the introduction
Due to its large and relatively steep catchment area the of stabilisers to dampen this resonance proved only
Mkomaas River is known for its fast flowing waters and moderately successful. Their towers also tend to impose
flash floods. And as the construction of a bridge this size on a rural landscape and are largely steel structures,
would require several months it was inevitable for some which are relatively expensive to maintain.
of the work to take place in the rainy season. Therefore,
the river’s potential for flooding also influenced the The stress ribbon bridge was determined to be the
choice of a single-span bridge and proved to be correct, more viable option, in terms of meeting the design
as during the period of January until March of 2006 the requirements, cost effectiveness and time constraints.
level of the river was so high that the contractor had
great difficulty in crossing the river, let alone construct DESIGN
anything in it.
Geometric conditions
The consulting engineer also considered the use of pre- The maximum slope of the bridge was limited in the
cast concrete elements beneficial, as it reduced the design to 1:8 as per the SABS specifications (refer
time for construction in so far as tasks may overlap. SABS 0400-1990, Part D paragraph 3). Figure 2 is
That is, deck panels could be manufactured before the an exaggerated diagram of the bridge profile used in
abutments were in place. The use of pre-cast panels determining the geometric conditions for design.
also reduced the concrete work required on site, under
difficult circumstances, and therefore a pre-stress
concrete ribbon type bridge seemed like the logical
choice.

9
Fulton Awards

a. Cast Abutments b. Add Rock Anchors

c. Tension Bearer Cables d. Add Precast Deck Elements

e. Add Insitu Concrete f. Post-Tension

g. Final Product
Figure 1: Construction sequence of stressed ribbon bridges

10
Fulton Awards

Later on the Institute of Civil Engineering at University

of Stellenbosch was commissioned to conduct finite
element analysis on the bridge by using the sophisticated
Diana Finite Element Structural Analysis Package.
The results obtained from this analysis confirmed
those determined by the self-generated spreadsheets
described above, and dynamic loads would have a
negligible influence on the bridge’s behaviour.
Figure 2: Geometry of stress ribbon showing apex height (a)
Walls built at the front of the abutment were introduced
to prevent cattle from being driven over the bridge as
The cross sectional geometry of the deck is given in
such an action could over-load the structure.
figure 3. Voids were provided underneath each deck
panel to reduce the static load imposed on the cables.
Wind effects
The CSIR’s Dr. Adam Goliger, was employed to visit the
HOLLOW SECTION site, to assess the local conditions, and to advise the
STEEL RAILING consulting engineer on anticipated wind loadings. His
1200 report provided an extensive review of literature pertaining
BEARING TENDONS
to wind loading on similar bridges and stated that in the
case of the Mkomaas River Bridge it is unlikely that wind
1100

will play a significant role in the lifespan of the bridge.

The report mentioned that it is not normal for people to
venture outside during winds with speeds exceeding
80 km/h and are therefore not likely to be on the bridge
300

POST TENSIONING
when such a wind is blowing. For wind speeds less
than 80 km/h aeroelastic excitations of the bridge will
TENDONS
be insignificant. Under extreme wind loads (with return
1740 periods in the order of 1:250 years and gusting up to
150 km/hr) the bridge will resonate moderately, but the
structure will remain intact.
Figure 3: The deck section of the
Apart from an extensive literature search, Dr. Goliger
Mkomaas River Pedestrian Bridge
conducted an analysis using a computer model of the
bridge and a physical water tunnel test.
Analysis of stress ribbon
As conventional software packages are based on the
Geotechnical Design
assumption that plane sections remain plane and that
The maximum horizontal force that could be applied
deflections are small in relation to actual dimensions,
to each of the abutments under working loads is in the
these are unable to analyse catenary type structures,
order of 10 MN, which meant that the abutments had to
where deflections are large. Therefore the design was
be securely anchored.
done on self-generated spreadsheets based on first
principles.
After preliminary assessments of both the site and the
intended design, two possible options were evaluated
The in-house analysis began by examining a catenary
for anchoring the abutments. The first was the use of
with an assumed nadir depth (“a”, as shown in figure
a dead man anchor located in the alluvial soils and the
2) with the ultimate goal of minimising the slope such
second was the use of anchors drilled and grouted into
that the bridge could accommodate pedestrians as per
the underlying rock.
the SABS stipulation. Knowing the length and shape
Under the design loadings the size of the dead man
of the catenary it was possible to calculate the tensile
anchor block was determined, using conventional
stress in the cables, and derive from this calculation
earth pressure analysis, to be 25 metres wide for a 9
the stress in the cables with a hypothetical zero loading
metre deep block. The required volume of concrete
(straight cable). This same zero loading had to hold for
exceeds that of the abutment itself and was considered
subsequent loadings. Obviously the work included a fair
uneconomical.
amount of examination by trial-and-error.
As competent rock (charnockite with a compressive
It is common for tensile stresses to generate below the
strength of approximately 50 Mpa) was discovered
deck near the abutments when the post-tension force is
on site, the use of rock anchors became a technically
applied to the structure. However, these stresses were
feasible option. Preliminary investigations suggested
reversed by the introduction of haunches at the two
that the anchor interface required for the estimated
abutment ends and a lowering of the post-tension cable
load of 10 MN was in the order of 20 square metres.
in this area.
This was based on the side resistance of the hard rock

11
Fulton Awards:

being about 5% of the compressive strength of the rock prestressing tendons and 31.5 MN prestressing
(Williams et al, 1980) and using a factor of safety of 5 due anchorages.
to the “fail-unsafe” mode of failure.
The tendered price for the Works (including VAT) was
Eventually rock anchors were used, as it was more cost- R3,53 million, which was well within the client’s initial
effective than dead man anchors. estimate of R5,0 million.

The analysis of the movement of the base assumed a The main Contractor was:
stressing sequence beginning with the front anchors, Somerset Oaks Trading 19 (Pty) Ltd
then the middle, followed by the back anchors. The
settlement and horizontal movement of the base was And sub-contractors included:
calculated at each stage. It was noted that, if the Infraset Manufacture and supply of pre-cast concrete
preloading of the anchors was left at the maximum level deck elements
then the application of the prestressing to the bridge Esor Installation of ground anchors
cables led to an overload on the back anchors. The Freyssinet Pre-tensioning and post-tensioning
required loads were therefore calculated for the anchors operations
ranging from 250 to 2000 kN such that once the deck
loads were applied, the loads in all the anchors would SUMMARY
be the same.
The Mkomaas River Bridge presented the designers
During construction, the rock strength parameters with challenges that have never been attempted before
determined in the geotechnical investigation were in Africa, as it is the first pre-stressed concrete ribbon
confirmed, to ensure that the assumed conditions are bridge built in the country and its clear span of 150 meters
similar to the actual conditions. Cement based grout equals the world record for this type of footbridge.
was used to bond the anchor cables to the rock. The
performance of the anchors was evaluated as part of the It is an honest structure without imposing towers that will
construction phase. detract from the rural landscape in which it was built. Its
walkway is also its main structural member that spans
As the design of a Stress Ribbon Bridge is a new clear across the river without props, piers or stabilisers
concept in the African context, it was decided by the that could impeded the flow of water under the bridge.
Engineers involved, that the loads experienced by the
anchors should be monitored and compared with the The design was sensitive to the many challenges faced
design values. The Mechanical Engineering School at by a contractor when building a bridge over a large river
the University of KwaZulu-Natal was commissioned to in a remote area of KwaZulu-Natal. It made use of pre-
design and construct load cells to measure the maximum cast concrete deck elements which reduced the amount
stresses imposed on the anchors. The load cells were of construction required on site thereby alleviating some
constructed from a “smart” material of which magnetic of the burden on the contractor to produce a quality
properties change under stress, and the measurement product under difficult circumstances. The use of a
and interpretation of these properties determine the single span Stress Ribbon Bridge also did not require
maximum stress exerted on the material. the contractor to work inside a river notorious for its
flash floods.
Construction The extensive use of concrete elements makes this a
bridge that will serve its purpose virtually maintenance
Construction of the Mkomaas River Pedestrian Bridge free for many years.
commenced in November 2005 and was completed in
December 2006 and, remarkably, it is the first bridge
that this contractor was ever commissioned to build.

Difficulties were encountered in installing rock anchors

through a 4 m deep boulder layer on the south abutment,
but once that was completed the work went ahead
without major incident.

The launching rate of the deck elements exceeded

the designers’ best expectations as up to twenty-four
elements were launched in a single day making the
launching of the ninety-three deck elements no more
than a five day operation.
The leading quantities for this bridge are 190m3 of
concrete, 37t of steel reinforcement, 2500 MNm

12
Fulton Awards

Various stages of the construction of the Mkomaas River Pedestrian Bridge

13
Launch of Self Compacting Concrete

Lafarge Aggregates & Readymix has announced the “Pumping costs can be reduced by up to 60% because
launch of the Lafarge Ultra Series SCC, a new range of the product’s high fluidity and the superior flow and
of innovative self compacting concrete. This product is quality with the resulting superior finish significantly
specifically aimed at providing maximum performance reduces the need for time consuming and costly
and quality for demanding construction requirements patching,” he adds. “Other benefits include labour
and designed to save time in the overall construction cost savings, as less labour time is required due to the
process. increase of speed of casting and pouring.”

This is according to Maxime Sibille, National Marketing With regard to coverage, 1 cubic metre of Ultra Series
Manager, Lafarge Aggregates & Readymix, who says SCC will cover an area of 10 square metres at a 100mm
that this new product range offers a new innovative thickness.
concrete mix design, backed by 10 years of intense
worldwide research and development (R&D) into cement, The Ultra Series SCC range of concrete can be used
aggregates and admixtures. for different applications Ultra Series SCC Vertical for
columns, walls, and all areas with heavily re-enforced
“This has resulted in one of Lafarge’s most important structures and Ultra Series SCC Horizontal for flatworks
innovations in the readymix arena to date,” says Sibille. and foundations in housing, commercial and industrial
“Among other things, the new range offers excellent applications.
strength, quality and durability, ease-of-use and
eliminates many steps in the construction process and Sibille says that Ultra Series SCC also provides a
is more economical than traditional concrete solution better quality surface finish than conventional concrete,
resulting in reduced costs.” with excellent strength and improved durability. “It is
particularly suitable for mass concrete pans, bridge
Because of its self compacting design, application times decks, walls, columns, slabs, trenches and pre-cast
are dramatically cut compared to the application of applications and all areas with re-enforced structures.”
traditional concrete, resulting in cost savings of up to
70%, depending on the individual job site. “It creates “More complicated design options and shapes that were
value for the client due to the reduction in labour previously technically difficult to create with traditional
requirements, application time, pumping costs, hiring of concrete are now easy to construct,” he adds. “This
equipment and overall construction costs,” he says. is due to the product’s fluidity and improved ability to
completely fill previously difficult areas, allowing for
Its fluidity enables it to fill in all corners and areas in the design of more complex shapes and forms to be
the formwork or mold, spreading easily and quickly created.”
throughout. “Furthermore, the high fluidity of the
product means that the traditional requirements for Ultra Series SCC is part of the new range of Lafarge
noisy vibrations in order to compact concrete, is readymix concrete Ultra Series. Product ranges include
eliminated providing a healthier work environment for fibre concrete, early strength, flowable, waterproof, pool,
construction workers,” says Sibille. “Ultra Series SCC is foam, ultra light, industrial floor solutions and aqua floor
quick and easy to place and moves effortlessly through concrete for under water construction.
highly congested re-enforced areas with no bleeding or
segregation and provides the best quality.” “It’s the best thing since sliced bread and the right
solution for easy, fast and demanding construction in
Faster, unassisted placing means lower site costs with South Africa providing an ultra performance, ultra quality
reduced risks and exposure to move and vibration. and ultra innovation,” Sabille concludes.

Top: Maxime Sibille, National Marketing Manager A&C

Left: rom left to right- Dennis Berthon, Regional President Aggregates

and Concrete; Maxime Sibille, National Marketing Manager, Aggregates
and Concrete; Ulrich Aumuller, MD Aggregates and Concrete and
model.

14
15
Technical Paper

FIBRE REINFORCEMENT
STEEL VERSUS MACRO(STRUCTURAL) SYNTHETIC
R. Ratcliffe BE MIEAust CPEng
General Manager BOSFA
(Bekaert OneSteel Fibres Australasia)
Introduction

Around the millennium, suppliers of micro synthetic This evolution into structural applications was mainly the
fibres started to offer macro synthetic fibres, with the result of the progress made in SFRC technology, as well
typical marketing approach being that they can provide as the research done at different universities and technical
the same performance as steel fibres at a lower cost per institutes in order to understand and quantify the material
cubic metre and with enhanced durability (no rusting). properties. In the early nineties, recommendations for
Interestingly, the performance established for steel design rules for steel fibre reinforced concrete started
fibres using the EFNARC(1996) panel test to a mid point to be developed. Since October 2003, RILEM TC 162-
deflection of 25mm and the correlating 40mm mid point TDF(2003) recommendations for design rules have been
deflection of the newly introduced ASTM C-1550(2005) available for steel fibre reinforced concrete.
test was taken by the early suppliers of macro synthetic
fibres to be the bench mark by which macro synthetic Background on macro (structural) synthetic fibres
fibres should be compared to steel, despite the fact
that the shapes of the curves for each type of fibre are Micro synthetic fibres are typically 6 to 12 mm long and
markedly different with no work having been undertaken to have a diameter of 16 to 35 micron, and are widely used
establish the relevance of a performance test determined to reduce plastic shrinkage cracks, as well as to reduce
for steel fibres when using macro synthetics. concrete spalling during a fire. As Young’s modulus for
This is not to say that macro synthetic fibres do not have a polyolefin is typically around 3,000 to 5,000 MPa, it is
their applications, a number of fibre suppliers actually sell generally understood that the reinforcing effect of these
both steel and synthetic. This paper has been written to fibres is gone after a couple of hours of hardening of
provide what will hopefully be perceived as an unbiased the concrete, as hardened concrete typically shows a
assessment of the true comparative performance of Young’s modulus of around 30,000 MPa.
steel and macro synthetic fibres. Macro synthetic fibres typically have dimensions equal
to steel fibres, with length varying from 15 to 60 mm, and
Background on steel fibres diameters from 0,4 to 1,5 mm. Macro synthetic fibres
are to be considered as a relatively new construction
Steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) was introduced material, but are often marketed as being equal to steel
into the European market in the second half of the fibres on the basis of their performance in toughness
1970’s. No standards, nor recommendations were tests. But is this a reasonable proposition?
available at that time which was a major obstacle for the
acceptance of this new technology. In the beginning, steel Fibre Reinforcement.
fibres were mostly used as a substitute for secondary
reinforcement or for crack control in less critical parts Fibres have typically been added into the internal matrix
of the construction. However, over time, SFRC came to of other materials to form a composite material of
be applied in many different construction applications, enhanced robustness that will perform better in terms of
such as in tunnel linings, ground support in mines, floors its load carrying characteristics. Typical well established
on grade, floors on piles and prefabricated elements, to examples are horse hair or straw added to mud bricks,
the point where, nowadays, steel fibres are widely used asbestos or cellulose fibres added to cement sheets
as the main and unique reinforcement for industrial floor (FRC), glass fibres or mats inside a polymer matrix
slabs, shotcrete and prefabricated concrete products. (fibreglass) and glass fibres added to cement or cement
Steel fibres are also now being considered for many sand mortars(GFRC). In all these cases the primary aim
structural purposes contributing to the construction’s is to either increase the load carrying capacity of the
strength, stability and durability in:- parent material or make it less prone to damage during
installation.
- foundation piles When it comes to cementitious materials, the aim has
- pile supported slabs typically been to enhance the inherently low tensile
- precast tunnel segments strength of the parent matrix when subjected to either
- concrete cellars and slab foundations direct tensile or flexural strain actions. This is typically
- pre-stressed construction elements as shear achieved by targeting one of the three load/deflection or
reinforcement tensile stress/strain response graphs shown in Figure 1.

16
Technical Paper (cont.) - Fibre Reinforcement Steel Versus Macro (Structural) Synthetic
support and in fact many other common applications
used in everyday construction - it is not an uncommon
phenomenon.
The ability of SFRC to provide strain hardening behaviour
depends, not only on providing continuity in the loaded
element but on the performance of the fibre reinforcement,
where the performance of the fibre reinforcement is in
turn a function of the dosage and physical properties of
the fibres used.

Figure 1: Load/Deflection responses for a cementitious composite

Perfect elasto-plastic behaviour as depicted in Figure

1 is a concept rather than an achievable performance
when dealing with real materials. It is, however, certainly
feasible to achieve either strain softening or strain
hardening behaviour dependent on the type and dosage
of fibres. In a statically determinate element such as a
simply supported beam or a round panel supported on
three points, as in the ASTM C1550 test mentioned earlier,
Figure 2: Effect of fixity on strain hardening behaviour of the same
it is obviously necessary to provide strain hardening
shotcrete
behaviour rather than strain softening behaviour if the
element is not to suffer catastrophic failure once the
STEEL VERSUS MACRO SYNTHETIC FIBRES
parent material cracking load or modulus of rupture is
reached.
There are two main differences between steel and macro
The way this is avoided when testing strain softening
synthetic fibres in terms of the load carrying capacity
materials is to rapidly reduce the applied load, a scenario
provided in fibre reinforced concrete(FRC) as follows:-
not often encountered in the real world. Similarly, if true
elasto-plastic behaviour could be achieved the cracking
1. Young’s modulus
load could continue to be supported but only at the
Steel fibres combine a high tensile strength (typically
expense of ever greater rotations and deflections in the
800-2000MPa) with a Young’s modulus of around
supporting element, not usually a viable option from the
210,000MPa, whereas polyolefin fibres have more
point of view of serviceability.
moderate tensile strengths(300-600MPa) coupled with
The problem is, that in order to achieve strain hardening
a quite low modulus of typically 3,000 to 5,000MPa.
behaviour it is normally necessary to use quite high
Compare these modulus values to that of concrete,
dosages of fibres and although this might be cost effective
which is typically around 30,000MPa.
and practically achievable in very thin, low volume,
What this means in practical terms for SFRC is that steel
light elements such as used in Glass Fibre Reinforced
fibres tend to pick up load at very small crack widths
Cement and Fibre Reinforced Cement applications, it is
and hence deflections/rotations for the parent concrete,
neither economically viable nor practically achievable in
thereby providing the ability for load redistribution
the field when using large volumes of bulk materials like
to occur and the potential for a strain hardening load
concrete or shotcrete.
carrying capacity to be exhibited at quite low dosage
If then, the achievement of strain hardening in full
rates. Synthetic fibres on the other hand start working
scale concrete and shotcrete elements is economically
at significantly larger crack widths, so that where
uninteresting and practically problematic how can the
the optimal performance for steel fibres is typically
use of fibre reinforced concrete be justified in real life
in the crack width range of 0.3-1.0mm the optimal
applications? The answer is quite simple, use SFRC in
performance for synthetic fibres does not normally
statically indeterminate applications, where the ability of
occur until crack widths of at least 3mm are achieved.
the structural element to redistribute loads after cracking
This difference in load carrying behaviour for beam tests
can result in strain hardening behaviour as shown in
can be seen in Figure 3 for synthetic fibres at a dosage
Figure 2, despite using exactly the same SFRC.
of 1% by volume(9.1kg/m3) and steel fibres at 0.5% by
The types of structural elements where
volume(40kg/m3). These volume percent dosage rates
static indeterminacy can be relied on to provide load
were chosen in order to provide reasonably equivalent
redistribution and strain hardening behaviour are
fibre counts per cubic metre.
typically slabs on ground, pipes, shotcrete for ground

17
Technical Paper (cont.) - Fibre Reinforcement Steel Versus Macro (Structural) Synthetic

in a statically indeterminate system the concrete will

work to redistribute the stresses in it from cracked to
uncracked sections. If the consequential build up of
stress at an uncracked section becomes great enough
then cracking will occur there also. This process
proceeds with continued deflections and rotations
in the concrete until the final crack pattern is fully
established, at which time the ultimate load capacity
of the concrete is achieved and after which the load
carrying capacity of the concrete will reduce(refer
Figure 2).

Items 2 & 3 together explain the phenomenon of strain

hardening in concrete that spans continuously past
supports even though it would exhibit strain softening
Figure 3a: Typical Load v Deflection curve for 1% by volume macro
behaviour in a statically determinate beam or ASTM
synthetic
C1550 round determinate panel test i.e. as the first cracks
develop the load carrying capacity is determined as a
function of both the cracked and uncracked strength, only
to revert to strain softening behaviour once the full crack
pattern is established and the load carrying capacity is
determined as a function of the cracked strength only.
This progression in the load carrying capacity will be
much as represented in Figure 2 and is typical of the
load/deflection graphs produced when performing the
EFNARC square panel test referred to earlier.
Concrete is a brittle material. Consequently, it only
takes relatively small deflections and rotations to cause
cracking. For this reason, to get the optimum strain
hardening performance, the maximum cracked capacity
needs to be mobilised at relatively small crack widths,
exactly what occurs with steel fibres due to their high
Young’s modulus. With synthetics however, due to their
low Young’s modulus, the full crack pattern is typically
established before the full strength of the cracked
Figure 3b: Typical Load v Deflection curve for 0.5 vol % of hooked end
section can be mobilised and the strength provided by
steel fibres
the cracked section during the strain hardening phase is
well below optimum. Refer to the load capacity provided
The load that can be supported when a FRC is used in a in Figures 3 & 4 at a deflection of less than 1mm. NB
statically indeterminate element is determined by many a 100mm thick continuous concrete slab supported at
factors, including the following:- 2 metre centres will crack over the supports at a mid
support deflection of less than 0.3mm, so it doesn’t give
1. The distance between supports - the bending stress a lot of leeway for the maximum cracked strength to be
in an element spanning between supports increases mobilised before another crack forms.
as the square of span, so that for all else remaining Interestingly, at this point in time in the mining industry,
the effectiveness of a fibre reinforced shotcrete in terms
equal doubling the span will quadruple the bending
of ground support is seen in terms of the toughness or
stress in the shotcrete.
energy absorption being provided in an ASTM C1550
2. The occurrence of cracking and the subsequent
round determinate panel test to a mid point deflection of
strength of the cracked concrete – in strain softening 40mm, with the graph in Figure 4 (downloaded from the
concrete the strength after cracking is lower than internet with the crack width information added) being a
before cracking with this strength being a function of typical example of this approach. The argument is made,
the fibre dosage and the tensile load in the individual based on the graph information, that “synthetic fibre
fibres spanning the crack. In turn the tensile load in reinforced shotcrete is capable of sustaining superior
each individual fibre spanning a crack is determined energy absorption values when compared to steel fibre
by its Young’s modulus times its strain(a function of or steel mesh reinforced shotcrete and is undoubtedly
the crack width at each fibre). the most suitable reinforcement selection where high
3. The rate and extent of crack development – at the ground deformations are expected”.
earliest stage of cracking of strain softening concrete

18
Technical Paper (cont.) - Fibre Reinforcement Steel Versus Macro (Structural) Synthetic
it, especially if the element carrying load is quite prone
to creep. For this reason it is important to understand
the creep properties of both steel and macro synthetic
fibres. A perceived lack of definitive test information
along with the lack of a standard test procedure led
Lambrechts(2005) to publish the results of some in
house creep tests performed at NV Bekaert in Belgium
and the results are shown in Figure 6.
Macro synthetic fibres type1 and type 2 were added at a
dosage of 4,55 kg/m3 (0,5 vol%). Dramix RC-65/35-BN
steel fibres were dosed at 20 kg/m3(0.25 vol%). As there
is no standard test method it is worthwhile summarising
the main features of the test procedure adopted as
Mesh - F41; Steel fibres - Hooked end @ 40 kg/m3; follows:-
Structural synthetic - 48mm macro synthetic @ 10 kg/ 1. The long term load chosen to establish the creep
m3 behaviour of the beams was taken as 50% of the
residual load capacity measured at a deflection of
Figure 4: Comparison of performance for RDP tests
5mm in a standard displacement controlled beam
test - It is known that increasing the long term load as
There is no argument that macro synthetic fibres can
a percentage of a sections measured load capacity
provide a sufficient level of reinforcement, provided
the dosage is adequate, to ensure strain hardening will tend to increase the amount of creep measured.
behaviour can be achieved, at least in the short term. 2. The residual strength at a deflection of 5mm was
The problem is, that the basis for comparison between established for each beam using a standard test
steel and macro synthetic fibres being used to justify method, at which point the beam test was stopped.
quite low dosages of macro synthetic fibres is currently 50% of this load was then applied to that beam in
the toughness (or area under a load/deflection graph) the same four-point bending configuration used in
determined to very high deflections and crack widths. the beam test - In this way the tensile stress in each
The relevance of this approach seems very dubious if the fibre crossing the crack under the long term load
importance of load carrying capacity or strain hardening was targeted to be 50% of what it was for a 5mm
behaviour is accepted and serviceability requirements, deflection in the beam test. Hence every fibre beam
in regards to deflections, rotations and crack widths are tested was targeted to have exactly the same relative
not being overlooked. It is also in disagreement with starting point in terms of the stress in the fibres – 50%
the approach taken by RILEM(2003) and many other of their actual capacity.
international performance standards, where the typical 3. The resulting creep deflection was measured at
approach is to use the results from beam tests up to a regular intervals for a period of over 1 year. The results
maximum crack width not exceeding 4mm to determine achieved were recorded in 1/100mm increments as
the capacity of fibre reinforced concrete or shotcrete. per the Y-axis of Figure 6.
The relative importance of load carrying capacity at 4. No effects of temperature or humidity variations were
small crack widths, and hence small deflections and taken into account.
rotations, is of recent times, assuming much greater
importance to the designers of civil engineering tunnels As can be seen from Figure 6, the polypropylene fibres
in Australia. Even though the specified test of choice tended to creep 7 to 20 times more than the steel fibres
is typically the ASTM C1550 round determinate panel after 1 year. Moreover, the creep of the macro synthetic
test, the specifications now require the performance to fibres was continuing after one year i.e. the creep curve
comply with mid point deflections between 0.72mm and for the macro synthetic fibres and hence the crack
7.5mm, instead of, or in conjunction with, the overall widths, rotations and deflections had not stabilised.
toughness to a mid point deflection of 40mm. The mid Therefore considerably higher creep was still expected
point deflections nominated are in fact chosen on the for the macro synthetic fibres over time, perhaps eventual
basis of correlating back to equivalent crack widths used rupture.
in third point loaded flexural beam tests.
What this means in terms of FRC using macro synthetics
2. Creep as the sole reinforcement, is that if there is a sustained
load on a structural element, there will be a marked
It is one thing to achieve a certain level of load capacity or tendency for the deflections, crack widths and rotations
strain hardening but it can be quite another to maintain in that element to significantly increase over time.

19
Technical Paper (cont.) - Fibre Reinforcement Steel Versus Macro (Structural) Synthetic
the load/deflection graph) produced for crack widths
exceeding 3-4mm unless the shape of the graphs are
also considered.
The propensity for synthetic fibres to creep should be
considered when the applied loads are to be sustained
over extended periods.

References

ASTM C 1550-05. “Standard Test Method for Flexural

Toughness of Fiber Reinforced Concrete (Using
Centrally Loaded Round Panel)”. Published by ASTM
Figure 5 Creep deflection (in 1/100mm) versus time (days) International in 2005(latest version).

Conclusions EFNARC (European Federation of Producers and

Applicators of Special Products for Structures) (1996).
The actual performance level required of FRC in most, if “European Specification for Sprayed Concrete”. ISBN
not all, structural applications, is to provide an increasing 0 9522483 1 X
level of load carrying capacity after cracking initiates i.e.
strain hardening behaviour. If this cannot be achieved, Lambrechts A. N. (2005). “The Technical Performance
either by virtue of the level of reinforcement or the use of of Steel and Polymer Based Fibre Concrete”.
statically indeterminate elements, then the FRC should Concrete for a New World - The Institute of Concrete
be designed as plain concrete. Technology/Annual Technical Symposium/5 April
In terms of quantifying the structural capacity of FRC it 2005.
is necessary to utilise guidelines such as RILEM TC 162-
TDF(2003), which are based on the results of beam tests RILEM TC162-TDF: “Test and design methods for
where the crack widths do not exceed 3.5mm. steel fibre reinforced concrete”, TC Membership,
The comparative performance of steel fibre and macro
Chairlady L. Vandewalle, Materials and Structures,
synthetic fibres when used to produce FRC should
Vol 36, October 2003, P560-567
never be done on the basis of the toughness (area under

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: THIS PAPER WAS OBTAINED COURTESY OF THE CONCRETE INSTITUTE OF AUSTRALIA

Visit our web site for the updated

"On-line Source Book"
Directory of Services for Concrete Construction
at www.concretesociety.co.za
The 2007/8 Source Book will be published in August 2007. The
electronic version of the Source Book has also proved to be very
popular and the hits on the site are exceeding our expectations. We
have also started to capture editions of Concrete Beton and Conquest
and the contents will be available to members, for downloading from
the website. You will need a password for this and it is obtainable from
our administrator.

Tel: (012) 809 1824

20
New publications available from the Cement & Prestressed Concrete Design & Practice
Concrete Institute’s information centre: by Vernon Marshall & John M Robberts
Reprint Available
1. Anna Maria Workshop 2006 – sustainability in the
cement and concrete industry at Holmes Beach, A reprint of this popular manual is
Florida, 25-27 November 2006. now available from the Concrete
2. Walloon Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport. Society’s office @R300.00
Bituminous and continuously reinforced motorways:
an economic comparison, Namur:Belgium, 2006. Email:
3. Cheng, F-T and Olsen, E. Concrete at home, admin@concretesociety.
Newtown: Taunton, 2005. co.za or
4. Delft University of Technology. Fundamental Tel 012 809 1824 or
modeling of design and performance of concrete Fax: 012 809 1823
pavements, pre-proceedings of the 6th International
DUT workshop held in Old-Turnhout, Belgium, 15- We require your Name, Postal
16 September 2006. Address & Telephone number.
5. Febelcem, Glance at the Belgian experience in
concrete pavements special edition on the occasion
of the 10th International Symposium on concrete
roads, Brussels, 2006.
6. Balazs, GL Keep concrete attractive , proceedings An URGENT Call for:
of the FIB symposium held in Budapest, Hungary, Long standing members of the Concrete Society!
23-25 May 2005
7. Law-Viljoen, B Light on a hill: Building the
Constitutional Court of South Africa, Johannesburg:
David Krut, 2006.
8. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI design
handbook: precast and prestressed concrete,
Chicago: PrCI, 2004.
9. Kovacs, I. Structural performance of steel fibre
reinforced concrete, Budapest: Budapest University
of Technology, 2004.
10. American Concrete Institute, Superplasticizers and
other chemical admixtures on concrete, proceedings
of the 8th CANMET/ACI international conference,
Sorrento, Oct 2006.
11. BRE, Great practice guides for in-situ concrete frame Are you a long standing member of the Society?
buildings: early striking and improved backpropping
for efficient flat slab construction, Crowthorne, BCA, We are interested in obtaining a copy of your old
2001. membership certificate. We are interested in tracing
the membership numbers as far back as we can.
12. BRE, Great practice guides for in-situ concrete frame
buildings: rationalization of flat slab reinforcement,
Crowthorne, BCA, 2000.
13. Concrete Centre, Concrete framed buildings: a guide
to design and construction, Camberley,Surrey: An URGENT Call for:
Concrete Centre, 2006.
14. Martin, R Guide to surface finishes of concrete slabs Your best concrete
on ground, St Louis,Missouri: ASCC, 2006. photograph.
15. ICCX Cape Town2007: International conference and
exhibition, Cape Town, 14-16 February 2007. Do you have any unusual photographs of any
16. ACPA, Stormwater management with pervious concrete related subject?
concrete pavement, Skokie, ACPA, 2006. We will be entering all photos into our
17. The Concrete Centre, Sustainable concrete: the exciting competition.
environmental, social and economic sustainability
credentials of concrete, Camberley;Surrey: Concrete You are welcome to email a high resolution photo to
Centre, 2006. [email protected] or you may post a copy to:
Concrete Society Photo Competition, PO Box 11529, Silver
Contact: 011 315 0300 for more information Lakes, 0054

21
 Concrete Tips

Proportioning of Concrete Mixes

History A more fundamental problem with this type of mix is

that it is impossible to prescribe mix proportions, and
The Romans were probably the first to exploit the water/cement ratio, and minimum strength, and slump
properties of concrete in a systematic manner, although simultaneously. The reasons for this are that no account
earlier examples of construction with concrete and is taken of the water requirement of the aggregates or
mortar are known. In any event, many Roman concrete the strength characteristics of the cement. For example
structures have endured for 2000 years. The Romans a “1:2:4” mix could give characteristic strengths ranging
certainly knew the value of producing workable concrete from 20 to 35 MPa depending on the water content of
which could be thoroughly compacted. They had recipes the mix, the binder type and whether or not chemical
for proportioning mixes, they used pozzolanic materials admixtures are used in the mix.
such as volcanic ash and trass, used lightweight It follows that the control of concrete quality on site is
aggregates, and utilised hoop iron for reinforcement. extremely difficult. (A fairly common mistake, still evident
Knowledge of concrete construction was evidently today, was mixing 1 bag of cement to 2 wheelbarrows of
available throughout their area of influence as ruins from sand to 4 wheelbarrows of stone. This is in fact a 1:4:8
all parts of their Empire show. mix as the volume of a level wheelbarrow is equivalent to
In Roman times the mix ingredients would undoubtedly the volume of two bags of cement).
have been batched by volume, the volumes of the
ingredients being determined by experience. In 1918 Duff Abrams published his findings on the
relationship between compressive strength of fully
compacted concrete and water/cement ratio. This
Nominal volumetric proportions of the 1:2:4 type became, in retrospect, the foundation for a more rational
method of mix design, leading in turn to a move away
This state of affairs persisted until relatively recently. The from volume batching to batching by mass.
second report of the Concrete Committee of the Royal
Institute of British Architects (RIBA), issued in 1911, Now, of course, all concrete for important work is batched
stated that the minimum cube strength of a “1:2:4” mix by mass, while volume batching is still used extensively
should exceed 1800 pounds per square inch (psi) (12 for low strength concrete (and mortar, plaster and floor
MPa), and right up until the 1970’s British Standard Code screeds) in housing.
of Practice 114 continued to prescribe mixes by volume.
CP 114 also reflected minimum concrete strengths and Tables of standard mixes
maximum water/cement ratios. The strength of a “1:2:4”
mix was taken to be 3000 psi (21 MPa) with a water: A variation on the use of nominal mixes is the use of
cement ratio of 0,60. Nowadays an equivalent mix would standard mix design tables which are available from a
have a characteristic strength of around 30 MPa. number of sources. Normally the tables cater for different
coarse aggregate sizes, different compressive strengths,
This method of proportioning mixes was based on sand size and quality, and concrete workability. Generally
experience with aggregates in the United Kingdom where speaking standard mixes are given for compressive
the coarse aggregates were well-graded gravels with strength requirements only and durability criteria are
high bulk densities and the sands were fairly consistent. ignored. Different tables are required for different
It was based on the volume of a 94-lb. (42,7 kg) cement cement types and the tables do not, as a rule, cover the
bag which was taken as 1 cubic foot (28,3 litres). A 1:2:4 use of chemical admixtures.
mix was therefore 1 bag of cement to 2 cubic feet of To use these tables the user needs to be able to
sand to 4 cubic feet of well-graded stone. What is not distinguish whether the sand to be used is coarse,
generally realised is that the sand volume referred to dry medium or fine and whether it has a high, average or low
sand and that allowance still had to be made for bulking water requirement.
of the sand when damp. CP 114 mentioned this in the Mix design tables are drawn up by making assumptions
small print, as well as the fact that one could adjust the about the aggregate and binder properties. It is important
sand to stone ratio as long as the overall ratio of cement that the user understands the underlying assumptions.
to aggregate remained at 1 to 6. The small print was often These tables, which give mixes both by volume and by
overlooked which resulted in the batching and placing of mass, can be very useful at the estimating or tendering
harsh, under-sanded mixes which were difficult, if not stage to get a quick estimate of concrete material
impossible, to compact thoroughly. costs.
22
 Concrete Tips
The “eye-ball” method of mix design It is therefore necessary to know the strength and
durability characteristics of the available binders and
Despite the title, this method of mix design can produce their relative densities, and the relative and bulk densities
good results and is a very useful method if one has to of the aggregates and the grading characteristics of the
design a mix on-site in a hurry. The only information sand before one can apply this method. One also has to
needed by the mix designer is the required water/ have a fairly good guestimate (gained by experience) of
binder ratio of the concrete (and the knowledge that the the water requirements of the available aggregates.
available aggregates are suitable for use in concrete).
The designer does not need to know any of the physical Site adjustment of mixes
properties of the aggregates.
It is also a useful method for designing unusual mixes. Irrespective of the mix design method used, it is nearly
The first trial mixes for the exposed aggregate paving at always necessary to adjust mixes on site to compensate
the V&A Waterfront in Cape Town were carried out on for variations in aggregate properties, cement strength
site using this method. and so on. The adjustment of mixes in this way is part of
normal site practice.
The procedure is as follows:
• Weigh out cement (and extender if required) and Economics
water to satisfy the water/binder ratio requirement
Having touched on how mixes can be proportioned, it is
• If applicable measure the required amount of chemical
instructive to look at the economics of concrete mixes.
admixture
Many contractors’ buyers shop around for aggregate
• Weigh out excess quantities of air-dry sand and
prices and tend to purchase the cheapest sand and
stone stone available, but when costing concrete mixes
• Batch the binder, water, admixture, and some of the it is important to realise that the combination of the
sand and stone into the mixer and mix thoroughly cheapest available materials does not necessarily
• Add sand slowly until the slump is estimated to be produce the cheapest combination of materials. The
about 150mm reason is that the water requirement of the aggregates
• Add stone and more sand until the slump and stone affects the cement content of the mix and hence the
content appear more or less correct, carrying out cost.
slump tests as necessary For example if there are two sands available with costs
• Weigh the left-over sand and stone of R30 and R45/m3 and water requirements of 200 and
• Calculate the concrete mix proportions 180 litres/m3 respectively, the cost of the sands would be
R18 and R27 per cubic metre of concrete respectively,
The Cement and Concrete Institute method of mix i.e. R9 in favour of the cheaper sand.
design The difference in cement content would be 1,7*(200-
180) = 35 kg (roughly) for a 30 MPa mix. This equates
This method is based on the American Concrete Institute to a saving of about R21 per cubic metre in favour of the
standard ACI 211.1-91 (1997) Standard practice for more expensive sand.
selecting proportions for normal, heavyweight, and mass Assuming the stone contents of the two mixes is the
concrete. The method is described in detail in chapter same, one cubic metre of concrete with the expensive
11 of the eighth edition of Fulton’s concrete technology sand would be R12 cheaper than one cubic metre of
(Cement and Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2001). concrete made with the cheaper sand.
This method is the most versatile (and rational) mix It is therefore imperative that concrete is costed on a
design method and is the method which leads to the cubic metre basis.
optimum mix with the least amount of trial and error.
This method is based on the following 4 principles:
• The compressive strength (and for that matter
durability) of fully compacted concrete depends on
the water/binder ratio and the type of binder
• For a given set of aggregates and a given workability,
the water requirement of the mix will be substantially Acknowledgement:
constant
• There is an optimum stone content which is a function Compiled for ConQuest by:
of the workability of the mix, the bulk density of the
stone and the fineness of the sand Steve Crosswell
• The volume of a cubic metre of fully compacted
concrete is the sum of the solid volumes of the Pr Eng MICT – PPC Cement
constituent materials

23
 Concrete Tips

Chemical admixtures for use in concrete

Introduction • Admixtures for gunite (shotcrete)

Chemical admixtures have been used in concrete • Admixtures for dry-mix concrete (as used in brick
for many decades but have often been regarded with and block manufacture)
suspicion, particularly by specifiers (and cement
producers for that matter). These are outside the scope of this TIP and admixture
The truth is that the appropriate use of admixtures has manufacturers should be contacted for details.
greatly extended the range of concrete products and
applications, for example air-entraining agents provide Accelerators
resistance to freezing and thawing that would otherwise Accelerators are used to accelerate the setting time or
be unachievable, and superplasticisers are used to the rate of strength development of concrete, mortar
achieve strengths that would have been impossible two or grout. Generally they are used in precast operations
decades ago. where rapid turnover of moulds is required, or in cold
This TIP describes the basic types of admixtures, their weather, or in repair materials.
uses and side effects. The commonest (and one of the most effective) is calcium
“Accidental” admixtures are also touched on. chloride, but this chemical also acts as a catalyst in
Admixture manufacturers can provide detailed the corrosion of reinforcement and is not permitted in
information on their particular products. reinforced and prestressed concrete.
A specific use of calcium chloride is in shaft sinking in
Admixture types mines where high early strengths are required in order to
The five basic categories of admixtures are, by function: strip formwork safely.
Set accelerators, which can cause setting within a few
• Accelerators, either set accelerators or hardening seconds, are available for repair work and for use in
accelerators gunite for rock stabilisation in tunnels and underground
• Retarders, which retard setting time shafts.
• Air-entraining agents (AEA) High Alumina Cement (HAC) is a very effective accelerator
• Concrete plasticisers (also known as Water-Reducing for Portland cement concrete (and vice versa), but the
Agents (WRA)) mix ratio is critical.
• Superplasticisers (also known as High Range Water- Side effects of accelerators include lower ultimate
Reducing Agents (HRWRA)) strength, increased efflorescence and increased drying
shrinkage.
Admixtures with combined functions are also available, Generally speaking, the use of accelerators in structural
for example air-entraining plasticisers. concrete in South Africa is highly unusual.
In the past many of these materials were based on waste
products from other industrial processes, for example Retarders
ligno-sulphonates derived from timber processing Retarders are used to retard the setting time of concrete
were (and still are) used as retarders and plasticisers. in hot weather, or where long hauls or delays in placing
Nowadays, however, many admixtures are tailor-made are anticipated. They are used in pump mixes in hot
for specific applications. weather and are also sometimes used in concrete placed
There is no South African Bureau of Standards by tremie to reduce the risk of the tremie pipe becoming
specification for chemical admixtures and most comply stuck in the concrete.
with the relevant American (ASTM) or British (BS) Chemically most retarders are ligno-sulphonates with
standard. high sugar contents.
Many specialised types of admixture are also available, The main side effect is excessive retardation if overdosed.
some of which are: If excessive retardation does occur, the concrete will set
and harden normally eventually, but it must be protected
• Anti wash-out admixtures for placing concrete from drying out until it does set.
underwater Retarders do not affect concrete strength adversely and
• Pumping aids which modify the rheology of the there is evidence that compressive strengths are in fact
concrete slightly increased.
• Expansive admixtures for grouts
• Stabilising admixtures for grouts

24
 Concrete Tips
Contrary to popular belief retarders do not reduce the of excessive retardation. Water reductions of up to 20%
heat of hydration of the concrete but they do reduce the (40 litres/cubic metre) or more are possible.
rate of heat evolution at early ages and hence delay the Their two main uses are the manufacture of very high
temperature peak. strength concrete, particularly when condensed silica
fume is used in the mix, and the manufacture of flowing,
Air-entraining agents self-compacting concrete.
Air-entraining agents produce millions of small, stable Early superplasticisers suffered from poor workability
air bubbles in the cement paste. In hardened concrete retention (the effect wore off after 30 minutes or so)
the two major benefits of air-entrainment are vastly but this has been largely overcome with subsequent
improved resistance to freeze-thaw exposure conditions generations of the admixtures.
and, paradoxically, decreased permeability (the air The main side effect is the increased possibility of
bubbles block capillary pores and are discontinuous). segregation of the mix.
In fresh concrete the benefits are reduced bleeding and
increased workability. Accidental “admixtures”
The only side effect of excessive air-entrainment is Experience has shown that accidental admixtures
reduced strength. sometimes get into the mix.
The amount of air entrained by a particular air-entraining
agent is highly dependant on the sand grading, and the These include:
cement type, and the extender (if any) and site trials • Sugar which causes severe retardation of set,
must be carried out to determine the air content of the discolouration and reduction of long term strength
concrete. The air content of concrete is measured with • Urine, which contains sugars, see above
a piece of equipment known as, logically enough, an air • Seeds which cause popping of the surface of the
meter. Air meters are expensive and are not generally concrete
available on site. • Organic impurities, normally in the sand, which may
Air-entraining agent dosages are small and it is easy cause severe retardation, but usually without the
to overdose the admixture. Air-entraining plasticisers discolouration associated with sugar
are less sensitive to mis-use and are recommended if • Small roots in the sand which cause localised
available. retardation and discolouration
• Chlorides which cause increased efflorescence and
Plasticisers increase the risk of reinforcement corrosion.
Plasticisers, or water reducing agents, are the most
commonly used admixtures in concrete. When Use of admixtures – practical tips
concrete is mixed the cement grains flocculate to some The following tips may seem obvious but...:
degree, trapping some of the mixing water in the floc. • Above all else, use manufacturers whose products
Plasticisers are dispersants which disperse the cement comply with recognised quality standards and who
flocs, releasing the trapped water. Typically the water can demonstrate compliance with a recognised
content of the concrete can be reduced by 10 to 15 litres
quality assurance programme and who can supply
per cubic metre.
expert technical back up.
Plasticisers can be used in one of three ways: • Follow the manufacturer’s instructions with regard to
• To increase the workability and maintain the strength storage, use and dosage.
of the concrete at constant water and cement • Use calibrated dispensing systems (which the
contents manufacturer will supply).
• To increase the strength of concrete by reducing • Design the concrete mixes to incorporate the
the water content of the concrete at a constant admixture, this is especially important in the case of
workability air entraining agents and superplasticisers.
• To make more economical concrete by reducing • Do not mix different admixtures in the same concrete
the water and cement contents of the mix while mix without consulting the manufacturer/(s). Even
maintaining the required workability. if supplied by the same manufacturer different
admixtures are not necessarily compatible.
The main side effect of plasticisers is retardation of set • Check the admixture is compatible with the cement
if overdosed. This can be used to advantage in hot and/or extender being used.
weather or where delays in placing are anticipated. • Be aware of possible side effects of the admixture.
Concrete plasticisers and mortar plasticisers are not the • Train staff on use of admixtures and the consequences
same. Mortar plasticisers are in fact air-entraining agents of both over- and under-dosing.
and will seriously weaken the mix if used in concrete.

Superplasticisers
Superplasticisers, or high range water reducers, are Acknowledgement:
chemically distinct from plasticisers and can be used at Compiled for ConQuest by:
much higher dosages as they do not have the side effect Steve Crosswell Pr Eng MICT – PPC Cement

25
Branch Calendars

INLAND BRANCH EVENTS CALENDAR Chairman: Trevor Sawyer, Cell: 082 851 1531

DATE MEETING/EVENT VENUE

02 Aug Branch Committee meeting C&CI, Waterfall Park, Midrand
23 Aug Concrete Cube Competition - Casting Not applicable
30 Aug Concrete Cube Competition - Crush-in To be advised
06 Sep Branch Committee meeting C&CI, Waterfall Park, Midrand
15 Sep Annual Concrete Boat Race Day Germiston Lake Club
04 Oct Branch Committee meeting C&CI, Waterfall Park, Midrand
18 Oct Durability Workshop TBA
01 Nov Branch Committee meeting C&CI, Waterfall Park, Midrand
09 Nov Chairman’s Luncheon To be advised
WESTERN CAPE BRANCH EVENTS CALENDAR Chairman: Lawrence Hendriks, Tel: 021 556 3255 Cell: 082 578 8264

DATE MEETING/EVENT VENUE

07 Aug Branch Committee meeting 3rd Floor, Ninham Shand Building
16 Aug Monthly Technical Meeting/Site visit To be confirmed
30 Aug Concrete Cube Casting date Not applicable
04 Sep Branch Committee meeting 3rd Floor, Ninham Shand Building
20 Sep Monthly Technical Meeting/Site visit To be confirmed
27 Sep Concrete Cube Crush-in and Branch Social To be confirmed
02 Oct Branch Committee meeting 3rd Floor, Ninham Shand Building
11 Oct Durability Workshop TBA
18 Oct Monthly Technical Meeting/Site visit To be confirmed
06 Nov Branch Committee meeting 3rd Floor, Ninham Shand Building
15 Nov Annual Cocktail party To be confirmed
04 Dec Branch Committee meeting 3rd Floor, Ninham Shand Building
KWAZULU NATAL BRANCH EVENTS CALENDAR Chairman: Ken Brown, Tel: 031 205 2707 or Cell: 082 554 5460

DATE MEETING/EVENT CONVENOR

16 Aug Case Study - Durban Harbour Tunnel Project TBA
21 Sep Cements - Specifications and Selection Rolf Schutte
17 Oct Durability Workshop TBA
18 Oct Site Visit - 2010 Soccer Stadium Garth Gamble
Oct Egg Protection Device Competition Lyn/Rolf
Oct Strongest Cube Competition Raj Naidoo
EASTERN CAPE BRANCH EVENTS CALENDAR Chairman: Louis Visser, Tel: 041 453 2813 or Cell: 082 491 8562

DATE MEETING/EVENT VENUE

Aug Rocla P.E. Site Visit (Precast Concrete Systems) TBA
Sep Bort Longyear Technical Talk TBA
Sep Golf Day TBA
10-Oct Durability Workshop TBA
Nov Year End Function TBA

26
Diary of Forthcoming Events

Diary 2007
15-17 August Sandton The Water, Energy, Earth and Air Exhibition
27-29 August Singapore 32nd Conference on our World in Concrete & Structures
3-5 September Ghent, Belgium 5th International RILEM Symposium on Self Compacting Concrete
4-6 September Dundee, Scotland 7th International Congress on Concrete: Construction’s Sustainable Option
10-12 September Cape Town 3rd International Conference on Structural Engineering, Mechanics and
Computation
19-21 September Maryland, USA 1st International Conference on Recent Advancement in Concrete
10-12 October Yantai, China 9th International Conference on Steel, Space & Composite Structures
14-15 October Beijing, China 9th International Conference on Steel, Space & Composite Structures
17-19 October Beijing, China 7th International Conference on Shock & Impact Loads on Structures
18-20 October Adelaide, Australia Concrete 07, Design, Materials & Construction
28-30 November Changsha, China 2nd International Conference on Geotechnical Engineering
2-5 December Kingdom of Bahrain 4th Middle East Nondestructive Testing Conference & Exhibition 2007

Diary 2008

20-22 February Johannesburg, South Africa International Concrete Conference and Exhibition (ICCX)
11-16 August Washington DC, USA 6th International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical
Engineering
August Singapore 33rd Conference on Our World in Concrete & Structures
24-26 November Cape Town, South Africa International Conference on Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation &
Retrofitting

DURABILITY ROAD SHOW IN OCTOBER 2007 !

The Concrete Society of Southern Africa will be hosting Durability Workshops

at the four main centres across the country in October 2007.
A number of key speakers will be presenting the latest information.
Following the success of the last seminar, this event is not to be missed.
CPD certificates will be issued to registered professionals
who book in advance of each function.

The dates are as follows:

10 October 2007 - Eastern Cape Branch – Port Elizabeth
11 October 2007 - Western Cape Branch – Cape Town
17 October 2007 - Kwa-Zulu Natal Branch – Durban
18 October 2007 - Inland Branch – Johannesburg
Times and venues will be communicated
to our members in due course.

27
Announcement
The Department of Education has again granted its accreditation to the Concrete Society of
Southern Africa’s journal

Concrete/Beton
Concrete/Beton, accredited under the new rules, invites academics to submit
technical papers on concrete research and practice. A panel of eminent professionals
will review all technical papers and on approval, the paper will be submitted for
publication.

This service is free of charge and affords significant benefits for authors and their
institutes:

• Financial rewards from the Department of Education

• Prestige gained by peer review and industry dissemination
• Automatic entry for the Richard Robinson prize for the best paper published each year.

You are invited to submit material for publishing

Contact : The Concrete Society of Southern Africa

C/O Mrs Irma Dyssel
Phone: (012) 809 1824
PO Box 11529
Silver Lakes
0054
e-mail: [email protected]

OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF: The Concrete Society of Southern Africa

• PO Box 11529, Silver Lakes, 0054 • Tel: (012) 809 1824 • Fax: (012) 809 1823
• E-mail: [email protected] • Web site: www.concretesociety.co.za
President: D.C. Miles