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Reference
BIOMEDICAL
Khandpur R.S, Handbook of Bio-Medical
INSTRUMENTATION Instrumentation, 3rd Edition, McGraw Hill
Education 2014.
Arumugam,M. Biomedical Instrumentation.
Anuradha Agencies, 2nd Edition, 2002.
Richard C. Fries. Handbook of Medical
Device Design. Marcel Dekker Inc.
Publications, 2001.
Dr. K. Adalarasu
Email id : [email protected]

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Textbook and Materials

Leslie Cromwell, Fred.J.Weibell and Erich A.Pfeiffer.
Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements. PHI,
2nd Edition, 2008.
Electro–Physiological
John Webster. Medical Instrumentation Application &
Design. 4th Edition, Wiley, New York, 2010.
and Non Electrical
Richard C. Fries. Reliable Design of Medical
Devices. 3rd Edition, CRC Press, 2013.
Measurements
Shekar Bhansali and Abhay Vasudev, MEMS for
Biomedical Applications, Woodhead Publishing Ltd.,
USA, 2012.
Power Point Presentation
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Instrumentation System
 Detected quantity may be converted to a
mechanical or electrical form of energy

Electro– Input Output

Physiological Sensor Signal

Display
conditioner
Measurand Recorder

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Components of Biomedical System

Basic Components Subject

Stimulus
of a Biomedical Transducer
Signal conditioning equipment
System Display equipment
Recording , data processing and
transmission equipment
Control devices

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Components of Biomedical System Components of Biomedical System

Control feedback  Transducer

 Capable of converting one form of energy or signal
to another
Transducer Signal
 In Man – Machine system each transducer is used to
conditioning Display
Stimulus

produce an electrical signal that is an analog of the

Transducer equipment
phenomenon being measured
Transducer  Measure temperature, Pressure, flow, or any of the
other variables that can be found in the body
 But its output is always an electric signal
 Two or more transducers may be used
Recording , data
simultaneously to obtain relative variations between
processing and
phenomena
transmission of data

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Components of Biomedical System Components of Biomedical System

 Subject  Signal conditioning equipment

 Subject is the human being on whom the measurements  Amplifies, modifies or in any other way changes the electric
are made output of the transducer
 Stimulus  It is also used to combine or relate the outputs of two or
 Response to some form of external stimulus is required. more transducers
 Instrumentation used to generate & present this stimulus  Purpose of SPU is to process the signals from the
to the subject is a vital part of the Man – Machine system transducers in order to satisfy the functions of the system
whenever responses are measured.  To prepare signals suitable for operating the display or
 Stimulus may be visual ( e.g. a flash of light ), auditory ( recording equipment that follows
e.g. a tone), tactile ( e.g. a blow to the Achilles tendon), or
direct electrical stimulation of some part of the nervous
system.
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Components of Biomedical System Components of Biomedical System

Display equipment Control devices

Input to the display machine is the modified It is desirable to have automatic control of the
electric signal from the SPU stimulus, transducers or any other part of Man –
Machine system
Its output is some form of visual, audible, or
A control system is incorporated.
sometime tactile information.
In Man – Machine system the display machine It usually consists of a feedback loop in which part
of the output from the signal processing unit
may include a graphic pen recorder
(SPU) or display machine
Which produces & permanent record of data
Used to control the operation of the system in some
way.

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Components of Biomedical System

 Recording, data processing and transmission

equipment
 It is often necessary, or at least desirable to record
measured information for possible later use or to transmit
it from one location to another. (Local to Local or local to
global). Electrodes Theory
 Recorders
 Graphic pen recorder is a device used to produce a paper
record of analog waveforms.
 Magnetic tape recorder is a device used for data recording
for future playback

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Biopotential Electrodes Measurement of Bioelectric Potentials

 EMG
 Diagnosing neuromuscular diseases The designation of the Bio potential waveform
 EEG
 Identifying brain dysfunction and evaluating sleep ends with “Gram”.
 Mechanism of electric conductivity in the body
involves ions as charge carriers
 Picking up bioelectric signals involves interacting The name of the instrument bio potential
with these ionic charge carriers
 Transducing ionic currents into electric currents normally ends with “Graph”
required by wires and electronic instrumentation

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Measurement of Bioelectric Potentials Biopotential Electrodes

 For most electrode systems
 Necessary to provide some interface between the  Cations in solution and the metal of the electrodes are the same
body and the electronic measuring apparatus  Able to conduct small current across the interface between
the body and the electronic measuring circuit.
 Bio-potential electrodes carry out this interface function
 A net current that crosses the interface, passing from the
 A transducer consists of two electrodes electrode to electrolyte consist of
 Electrons moving in a direction opposite to that of current in the
 Which measure ionic potential difference between two electrode
 Cations moving in the same direction
points
 Anios moving in direction opposite to that of current in electrolyte

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Electrode-Electrolyte Interface Half-Cell Potential
Oxidation reaction causes atom to lose  Half-cell potentials can be important when using electrodes
for low frequency or dc measurements
electron
Reduction reaction causes atom to gain
electron
Oxidation is dominant
When the current flow is from electrode to
electrolyte
Reduction dominate
When the current flow is in the opposite.
Half-cell Potentials for Materials and Reactions Encountered in
Biopotential Measurement
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Half-Cell Potential Half-Cell Potential
When the metal comes in contact with Electrochemists have adopted the Half Cell
solution potential for hydrogen electrode to be zero.
Electrolyte surrounding the metal is at different Half-Cell potential for any metal electrode is
electric potential from rest of the solution measured with respect to the hydrogen
A second electrode is required to find half cell electrode
potential- hydrogen Reason for Half Cell Potential
Half-Cell potential is determined by Charge Separation at Interface
Oxidation or reduction reactions at the electrode-
Metal involved electrolyte interface lead to a double-charge layer
Concentration of its ion in solution Similar to that which exists along electrically active
Temperature biological cell membranes

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Measuring Half Cell Potential Equivalent circuit for a biopotential

electrode in contact with an electrolyte

Cd : capacitance of electrode-eletrolyte

interface
Rd : resistance of electrode-eletrolyte
interface
Rs : resistance of electrode lead wire
Ecell : cell potential for electrode

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Electric Characteristics A silver/silver chloride electrode, shown in

cross section
 Electric characteristics of biopotential electrodes are
generally nonlinear and a function of the current
density at their surface
 Represented by linear models requires
 Operated at low potentials and currents

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Electrode-Skin Interface Electrode-Skin Interface

Ehe

 Transparent electrolyte gel containing Cl is used to

maintain good contact between the electrode and Electrode Cd Rd

the skin Rs
Sweat glands
and ducts
Gel
100 m

Ese EP

Stratum Corneum
Epidermis Ce Re CP RP

100 m Dermis and

subcutaneous layer Ru

Skin impedance for 1cm2 patch:

200kΩ @1Hz
200 Ω @ 1MHz

KA – BEI – Unit II – July, 2018, Sastra University KA – BEI – Unit II – July, 2018, Sastra University

Polarizable and Non-Polarizable 32

Electrodes
Use for
 Polarizable Electrodes recording
 No charge crosses the electrode-electrolyte interface when
a current is applied.

Electrodes Tissue  electrode behaves like a capacitor

 e. g Platinum electrode

Interface  Non-Polarizable Electrode

Use for
stimulation
 Current passes freely across the electrode-electrolyte
interface.
 Requiring no energy to make the transition
 e.g. Ag/AgCl Electrode
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Properties of Bioelectrodes Bio Potential Electrodes
 Good conductors  Micro Electrodes
 Bio electric potential near or within a single cell
 Low impedance
 Metal Type—Tip must be tungsten or stainless steel
 They should not polarize when a current flows
 Micro pipette---It is a glass micropipet with size of 1
through them micron, It is filled with electrolyte
 They should establish a good contact with the body
and not cause motion.
 Skin surface electrode
 They should not cause itching swelling or discomfort  Measure ECG,EEG,EMG
to the patient
 The metal should not be toxic
 Needle electrode
 Mechanically rugged
 Penetrate the skin to record EEG
 Easy to clean.
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Unipolar and Bipolar Electrode
For noninvasive recordings
Proper skin preparation
Which normally involves cleansing the skin with
alcohol or the application of a small amount of
an electrolyte paste
Electrodes Helps to minimize the impedance of the skin–
electrode interface and improve the quality of the
recorded signal considerably

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Unipolar and Bipolar Electrode Microelectrodes
 Most common type of needle electrode is the Used to measure bio-potential signals at the
concentric bipolar electrode
cellular level
Measure potential difference across cell
membrane
Due to small dimensions (mm), impedance
levels are high
So amplifier needs very high input
impedance
Intracellular
Extracellular

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Unipolar and Bipolar Electrode

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Microelectrodes
 Bipolar electrode Requirements
 Made from thin metallic wires encased inside a larger Small enough to be placed into cell
canula or hypodermic needle
Strong enough to penetrate cell membrane
 Two wires serve as the recording and reference
electrodes Typical tip diameter: 0.05 – 10 microns
 Unipolar needle electrode Types
 Made of a thin wire that is mostly insulated by a thin layer Solid metal -> Tungsten microelectrodes
of Teflon except about 0.3 mm near the distal tip
Supported metal (metal contained within/outside
 This electrode requires a second unipolar reference
glass needle)
electrode to form a closed electrical circuit
Glass micropipette -> with Ag-AgCl electrode
metal

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Microelectrodes Metal Microelectrodes

Strong material: Fine needle of a strong metal with proper
Solid-metal needle insulation
Glass needle with metal inside or surface Sharp tip by electrolytic etching with the metal as
anode
Glass micropipet with a lumen filled with an
Material: stainless steel, platinum-iridium alloy,
electrolyte solution tungsten, compound tungsten carbide
Supporting shaft: larger metal with surface
insulation
Insulation: a film of some polymeric material,
varnish
Only the extreme tip remains uninsulated
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Metal Microelectrodes Metal Supported Microelectrodes

C

Microns!

Extracellular recording – typically in brain where you

are interested in recording the firing of neurons
(spikes).

Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high

impedance amplifier…negative capacitance amplifier! (a) Metal inside glass (b) Glass inside metal

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Metal Supported Microelectrodes Glass Micropipette

Glass tube with its lumen filled with a metal  A glass micropipet electrode filled with an
Choose a metal with a melting point near the electrolytic solution
 Section of fine-bore glass capillary
softening point of the glass (silver solder alloy,
platinum and silver alloy, indium, Wood’s metal)  Capillary narrowed through heating and stretching
 Final structure of glass-pipet microelectrode.
Fill a glass tube with melted metal heat the
tube up to the softening point pull and cut  Intracellular recording – typically for recording from
two micropipets filled with metal cells, such as cardiac myocyte
Glass: support and insulation  Need high impedance amplifier…negative
capacitance amplifier!
 Softening point
 The temperature at which a material softens beyond Ag-AgCl wire+3M KCl has very low junction potential and
some arbitrary softness hence very accurate for dc measurements (e.g. action
potential)
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Metal Supported Microelectrodes Glass Micropipette

Deposited-metal-film microelectrode heat

Choose a solid glass rod or tube deposit

metal film ( tenths of µm) polymeric insulation
coating except the tip

Fill with
intracellular fluid
or 3M KCl

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Glass Micropipette Electrical Properties of Microelectrodes

Glass capillary heat up to the softening Metal Microelectrode

point pull (microelectrode puller) and cut
two micropipets with tip diameter of 1 µm
Filling solution: 3M KCl
Metal wire electrode: Ag/AgCl, platinum,
stainless steel

Metal microelectrode with tip placed

within cell
Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high impedance Equivalent circuits
amplifier…negative capacitance amplifier!

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Electrical Properties of Microelectrodes Electrical Properties of Microelectrodes
Metal microelectrode Glass Micropipette Microelectrode
Frequency dependent impedance: 10 – 100 MΩ
High-pass filtering effect
Good for measuring action potentials
Glass micropipet microelectrode
Frequency dependent impedance: 1 – 100 MΩ
Low-pass filtering effect
Good for measuring resting membrane potential

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Metal Plate Electrodes
Large surface: Ancient, therefore still used,
ECG
Metal disk with stainless steel; platinum or
Body-Surface Recording gold coated
EMG, EEG
Electrodes Smaller diameters
Motion artifacts
Disposable foam-pad: Cheap!

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Body-Surface Recording Electrodes Metal Plate Electrodes

 Metal Plate Electrodes (historic)
 Suction Electrodes (historic interest)
 Floating Electrodes
 Flexible Electrodes

Electrode metal

Electrolyte

(a) Metal-plate electrode used for application to limbs.

(b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape.
(c)Disposable foam-pad electrodes, often used with ECG
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Body-Surface Recording Electrodes Floating electrodes
Suction electrodes Insulating
Metal disk

package
No straps or
adhesives required Double-sided
Adhesive-tape
Precordial (chest) ring Electrolyte gel
in recess
ECG (a) (b)
Reusable
Can only be used Snap coated with Ag-AgCl External snap
Gel-coated sponge
for short periods Plastic cup Plastic disk Disposable

Tack Dead cellular material

Foam pad
Capillary loops Germinating layer
(c)

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Body-Surface Recording Electrodes Flexible Electrodes

Flexible electrodes
Floating electrodes
Body contours are often irregular
Metal disk is recessed
Regularly shaped rigid electrodes may not always
Swimming in the electrolyte gel work.
Not in contact with the skin Special case : infants
Reduces motion artifact Material :
Usage: disposable electrode for ECG, stable Polymer or nylon with silver
against motion artifact Carbon filled silicon rubber (Mylar film)
Flexibility
X-ray transparent
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Flexible Electrodes Internal Electrodes
 No electrode gel is used and the interface is the
electrode-electrolyte interface
 Percutaneous electrode
 Electrode or lead wire crosses the skin
 Needle electrode: insulated needle electrode, coaxial
needle electrode, bipolar coaxial electrode
(a) Carbon-filled silicone  Wire electrode: fine-wire electrode, coiled fine-wire
rubber electrode. electrode
(b) Flexible thin-film neonatal
electrode.  EMG, ECG during surgery, fetal ECG (suction electrode,
(c) Cross-sectional view of helical electrode)
the thin-film electrode in (b).

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Internal Electrodes
Internal electrode
Implanted with radio-telemetry connection

Needle Electrode Wire-loop electrode

Silver-sphere cortical surface electrode
Multi-element depth electrode

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Needle and Wire Electrode Needle and Wire Electrode

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Fetal ECG Electrodes

Amplifiers

Electrodes for detecting fetal electrocardiogram during labor, by means

of intracutaneous needles (a) Suction electrode. (b) Cross-sectional view of
suction electrode in place, showing penetration of probe through epidermis.
(c) Helical electrode, which is attached to fetal skin by corkscrew type action.
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Amplifiers
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Preamplifiers
Signals available from the transducers are Amplifiers employed
often very small in magnitude AC/DC universal amplifier with special features
such as
Amplifiers boost the level of the input signal to
Capacity neutralization
match the requirements of the
Current injection
recording/display system or Low leakage current
To match the range of the analog-to-digital Low dc drift suitable for intracellular
convertor measurements through high resistance fluid-filled
Thus increasing the resolution and sensitivity electrodes
of the measurement or to make extracellular recordings through metal
microelectrodes for EMG, EEG, EOG, etc

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Preamplifiers Preamplifiers
Preamplifiers offer a wide range of input ECG amplifier with full 12 lead selection
sensitivities to cover virtually all signal and patient isolation
sources Transducer amplifier suited for bridge
Calibrated zero suppression to expand measurements on strain gauges
desired portions of an input signal Strain gauge based blood pressure transducers
Selectable low pass filtering facilities Force transducers
To reject noise or unwanted signal components Resistance temperature devices
are available on these amplifiers Direct low level dc input signals

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Preamplifiers Preamplifiers
DC amplifier used in conjunction with standard  Chopper input dc amplifiers
thermistor probes for the accurate measurement  Chopper stabilized dc amplifiers
of temperature within the range of medical  DC bridge amplifiers
applications

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Preamplifiers Differential Amplifier
 Differential Amplifier  Three input terminals out
 Which will reject any common mode signal that appears  One is arranged at the reference potential
simultaneously at both amplifier input terminals  Other two are live terminals
 Amplifies only the voltage difference that appears across  Differential amplifier is employed
its input terminals  When it is necessary to measure the voltage difference
 Most of the amplifiers used for measuring bioelectric between two points
signals are of the differential type  Both of them varying in amplitude at different rates and in
 Ac coupled amplifiers different patterns
 Used only for special medical applications such as  Heart-generated voltages picked
electrocardiograph machine  Electrodes on the arms and legs
 Carrier amplifiers  Brain-generated voltages picked
 DC amplifiers  Electrodes on the scalp

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Differential Amplifier Differential Amplifier
 Its excellence lies in its ability to reject common-  CMRR of the preamplifiers should be as high as
mode interference signals possible
 So that only the wanted signals find a way through the
amplifier
 All unwanted signals get rejected in the preamplifier stage

Typical differential  Very high CMRR can be achieved with the use of an
amplifier configuration active long-tail
 To minimize the effects of changes occurring in the
electrode impedances
 Preamplifier having a high input impedance

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Differential Amplifier Differential Amplifier
 Because of this signal
 If the collector current of T1 increases
 Collector current of T2 will decrease by the same amount
 Collector voltage of T1 will decrease while that of T2 will
increase
 Difference voltage between the two output terminals
that is proportional to the gain of the transistors
 CMRR is an important specification referred to the
differential amplifier and is normally expressed as
decibels

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Differential Amplifier Differential Amplifier

 To increase the input impedance of the op-amp
 To use field effect transistors (FET) in the input differential
stage
 Common approach is to use an instrumentation amplifier
 Discrimination factor between desired and undesired signals in the preamplifier stage
is given by

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Differential Amplifier Chopper Amplifier
 High input impedance is very necessary in order to obtain a Useful device in the field of medical electronics
high CMRR
Solution to the problem of achieving adequate low
 Electrode skin resistance should be low and as nearly equal
frequency response
as possible
 CMMR - typically between 60 dB and 90 dB While avoiding the drift problem inherent in direct
coupled amplifiers
Use of a chopping device
Which converts a slowly varying direct current to an
alternating form
Amplitude proportional to the input direct current
Phase dependent on the polarity of the original
signal
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Chopper Amplifier Chopper Amplifier
 Alternating voltage is then amplified by a  Amplifying this chopped signal in an ac amplifier
conventional ac amplifier (A1)
 Whose output is rectified back to get an amplified direct  Demodulating the output of the ac amplifier
current  Low frequency components are derived from the
 Chopper amplifier is an excellent device for signals input signal by passing it through the low-pass filter
of narrow bandwidth and reduces the drift problem  Chopping signal is generated by the oscillator
 Single-ended chopper stabilized amplifier  Filtered output is then further amplified in a second
 Achieves its ultra low dc offset voltage and bias current stage of dc amplification (A2)
 Chopping the low frequency components of the input  High frequency signals
signal
 Which are filtered out at the input of the chopper channel
 Coupled directly into the second stage amplifier

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Chopper Amplifier Chopper Amplifier
 Technique is to reduce the dc offsets and drift of the
second amplifier by a factor equal to the gain of the
chopper channel
 AC amplifier introduces no offsets
 Due to imperfect chopping
 Minor offsets and bias currents
 Extremely small
 Amplifier modules
 Chopper channel
 Including switches and switch-driving oscillator built on
the module
 Only the dc power is supplied externally
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Chopper Amplifier Isolation Amplifiers
 Shielding of feedback components is desirable in chopper
amplifiers
 It is particularly necessary in electrically noisy environments
 Voltage drift in chopper-stabilised amplifiers is 0.1 µV/ °C
 Current drift as 0.5 pA/°C
 Insensitivity to component changes due to ageing, temperature
change, power supply variation or other environmental factors
 Application
 Strain gauge pressure transducers
 Temperature sensors such as thermistors
 Strain gauge myographs
 Thermocouple

KA – BEI – Unit II – July, 2018, Sastra University KA – BEI – Unit II – July, 2018, Sastra University

Isolation Amplifiers

KA – BEI – Unit II – July, 2018, Sastra University

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