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Production of Brandy

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 35

CHAPTER
Production of Brandy
Anju K. Dhiman1 and Surekha Attri2
1.Directorate of Extension Education, 2.Department of Postharvest Technology,
Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (HP) – 173 230

1. INTRODUCTION
Most cognoscenti think of ‘Cognac’ when the word brandy is mentioned. In fact, the word ‘Brandy’
captures all the wine distillates. Brandy does not refer to a particular area of production, however,
more specific names are often applied to a certain area e.g. Cognac and Armagnac drink, the styles of
brandy in two France regions. Each country, each region, and even each distillery strives to achieve a
unique style. Grapes are the fruits which are most frequently employed to prepare brandy. Wine has
been distilled to concentrate the alcohol to a higher percentage than that occurred in the original wine
since ages.1 These wine distillates have been called aqua vini, eaux-de-vie, weinbrand, Cognac,
Branntwein, aquardiente, aquavit and in English speaking countries, ‘Brandy’. It is made by distilling
wine and then ageing in oak barrels. The complete process of brandy production includes fermentation
of juice or mash, distillation of wine followed by aging in oak wood barrels. Here in this chapter all
aspects of ‘Production of brandy’ has been discussed.

2. DEFINITION OF BRANDY
Brandy is a distillate or a mixture of distillates obtained solely from the fermented juice or mash of
grapes (Table 1).

3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The tales of how brandy was first invented are many, but the true origin of brandy may never be
known. Thus, preparation of brandy is an ancient process that has lost its origin. Not only this, but
whether it was invented first by the Greeks, the Arabs or by the Chinese is debatable.76,130,152 The
derivations of the words ‘alcohol’ and alambic, from the Arabic word al-koh’l and al-anbiq, indicate
that it was from the Islamic word that the practice of distillation first entered Europe. Untill the end of
2 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

Table 1. Different definitions of brandy.

• “Brandy” is an alcoholic distillate made from the fermented juice, mash or wine of fruit or from the residue
there of, produced at less than 190° proof in such a manner that the distillate possesses the taste, aroma and
characteristics generally attributed to the product, and bottled at not less than 80° proof.
• “Fruit brandy” is distilled solely from the fermented juice or mash of whole, sound ripe fruit, or from standard
grape, citrus or other fruit wine with or without the addition of not more than 20 per cent by weight of the
pomace of such juice or wine, or 30 per cent by volume of the lees of such wine or both calculated prior to the
addition of water to facilitate fermentation or distillation. Fruit brandy may include mixtures of such brandies
with not more than 30 per cent (calculated on a proof gallon basis) of lees brandy. Fruit brandy derived from
grapes, shall be designated as ‘grape brandy’. In brandy except that (other than neutral brandy, pomace brandy,
marc brandy or grappa brandy) distilled from the fermented juice, mash or wine of grapes or the residue and
which has been stored in oak containers for less than 2 years, the statement of class and type shall be
immediately preceded, in the same size and kind of type, by the word ‘immature’.
• “Fruit brandy” other than grape brandy, derived from one variety of fruit are designated by the word ‘brandy’
qualified by the name of such fruit, e.g. peach brandy, apple brandy etc. Apple brandy derived from more than
one variety of fruit shall be designated as “fruit brandy” qualified by a truthful and adequate statement of
composition.
• “Cognac” or “Cognac (grape) brandy” is the grape brandy distilled in the Cognac region of France which is
entitled to be so designated by the laws and regulation of the French Government.
• “Lees brandy” is a brandy distilled from the lees of standard grape, citrus or other fruit wine and shall be
designated as ‘lees brandy’ qualified by the name of the fruit from which such lees are derived.
• “Pomace brandy” or “marc brandy” is the brandy distilled from the skin and pulp of sound, ripe grapes, citrus
or other fruit, after the withdrawl of the juice or wine therefrom, and are designated as ‘pomace brandy’ or
‘marc brandy’ qualified by the name of the fruit from which it is derived. Grape pomace brandy may be
designated as ‘grappa’ or ‘grappa brandy’.
• “Residue brandy” is brandy distilled wholly or in part from the fermented residue of fruit or wine, and are
designated as ‘residue brandy’ qualified by the name of the fruit from which it is derived.
• “Dried fruit brandy” is brandy that conforms to the standard for fruit brandy except that it has been derived
from sound, dried fruit, or from the standard wine or such fruit. Brandy derived from raisins or from raisin
wine, is called ‘raisin brandy’. Other brandies shall be designated in the same manner as fruit brandy with
prefixing name of the corresponding variety or varieties of fruit except that the name of the fruit shall be
qualified by the word ‘dried’.
• “Neutral brandy” is a brandy produced at more than 170° proof and is designated in accordance with the
standards given for all the brandies except that the name shall be qualified by the word ‘neutral’, for example
‘neutral citrus residue brandy’.
• “Sub-standard brandy” shall bear as a part of its designation, the word “sub-standard” and include:
i. Any brandy distilled from fermented juice, mash or wine having a volatile acidity (as acetic acid)
and exclusive of sulphur dioxide, in excess of 0.20 gram per 100 c.c. (20°C). Calculations of
volatile acidity are made exclusive of water added to facilitate distillation.
ii. Any brandy which has been distilled from unsound, moldy, diseased or decomposed juice, mash,
wine, lees, pomace, or residue and the finished product shows any taste, aroma or characteristic
associated with products distilled from such material.
• “Blended applejack” (applejack-a blend) is a mixture which contains at least 20 per cent of apple brandy on a
proof gallon basis, stored in oak container for not less than 2 years, and not more than 80 per cent of neutral
spirits on a proof gallon basis if such mixture at the time of bottling is not less than 80° proof.
 Production of Brandy 3

• “Flavoured brandy” is the brandy to which natural flavouring materials are added with or without the addition
of sugar and bottled at not less than 70° proof. The name of the predominant flavour is included as a part of the
designation. If the finished product contains more than 2½ per cent by volume of wine, the kinds and
percentages by volume of wine must be stated in the designation, except that a flavoured brandy may contain
an additional 12½ % by volume of wine, without label disclosure and if the additional wine is derived from the
particular fruit corresponding to the labeled flavour of the product.
• “Imitation” shall bear, as a part of the designation, the word ‘imitation’ and include the following:
i. Any class or type of distilled spirits to which colouring or flavouring material of such a nature has been
added that cause the resultant product to simulate any other class or type of distilled spirits.
ii. Any class or type of distilled spirit to which flavours considered to be artificial or imitation has been
added. In determining whether a flavour is artificial or imitation, recognition is given to “good commercial
practice” in the flavour manufacturing industry.
iii. Any class or type of distilled spirits to which any whisky essence, brandy essence, rum essence, or
similar essence or extract has been added. And this stimulates or enhances, or is used by the trade or in
the particular product to stimulate or enhance, the characteristics of any class or type of
distilled spirits.
• “Geographical designation”
i. The distinctive types of distilled spirits with geographical names that have not become generic are Eau de
Vie Dantzig (Dantziger Foldwasser), Ojen, Swedish Punch. Geographical names for distinctive types of
distilled spirits are used to designate only distilled spirits conforming to the standards of identity.
ii. Only such geographical names for distilled spirits as the Director finds have by usage and common
knowledge lost their geographical significance to such extent that they have become generic e.g. London
dry gin, Geneva (Holland) gin.
iii. Geographical names that are not the names for distinctive type of distilled spirits and that have not
become generic, should not be applied to distilled spirits produced in any other place than the particular
place or region indicated in the name e.g. Cognac, Armagnac, Greek brandy, Pisco brandy etc.

Source: Ref. No. 155.

the 15th century, distilled wine (aqua vitae) seems to have been used largely as a medicine. But in
1493, a Nuremburg doctor noted every one in the city had got into the habit of drinking. As a result,
three years later the city authorities forbade the sale of alcohol on feast days. The expenses of stills and
distillation being the closely guarded secret restricted the spread of distillates. Thus, the production of
brandy within France, only emerged from the control of doctors and apothecaries when Louis XII
granted the privilege of distilling to the guild of vinegar makers in 1514. Brandy further got
encouragement when Francis I enabled the victuallers to distill it in 1537.152
The story regarding the development of brandy involves a Dutch shipmaster who was in the business
of transporting wine from France to Holland around the sixteenth century. Trying to make as much
money as possible he realized that by removing most of the water by distillation he could concentrate
the wine and thus could ship more back to Holland, adding the water once it arrived. Unfortunately,
he did not think his friends and crew would start to drink the concentrated wine, believing that to
add water only adultrated this nectar and to do so was, therefore, a sin. The concentrated wine was
4 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

called ‘Brandewijn’, which literally meaning burnt wine. With the passage of time, it was shortened
to brandy. Although, the Dutch had provided much of the original capital together with the stills and
the technology necessary for distillation, local producers had also invested in the production of
brandy and they were, therefore, forced to seek new markets for their products. Elsewhere throughout
France, but particularly in Armagnac, other wine producers had also begun to distill their wines,
especially when those were of poor quality. However, Brandy gradually came to be made, wherever,
the raw material was available. Later, it poured out of the vine-growing lands of the south: Andalusia
near Jerez, Catalonia, Languedoc.

4. BRANDY TYPES
Brandy is produced in almost all the wine producing countries of the world. The brandies produced for
beverage purposes may be divided into the following classes:

4.1 France brandies

The best known brandies of France are Cognac and Armagnac.

4.1.1 Cognac
The most highly regarded of the world’s great brandies is Cognac, rather considered as benchmark by
which most other brandies are judged. Cognac dominated the concept of brandy to such an extent that
the word is widely used in other countries as a synonymous-‘Conac’ in Spain, ‘Conhac’ in Portugal,
‘Konyak’ in Central Europe and so on. All Cognac are brandies but all brandies are not Cognac. It is
produced only in the Cognac region, located on the West Central Atlantic Coast of France in the
Departments of Charente and Charente-Maritime. Production of the Crus takes place in well defined
districts: Grande Champagne, Petite Champagne, Borderies, Sous-Bois, Bois Ordinate. Vinification is
restricted to the most basic operation.74 The first two of these regions produce the best Cognac and the
prices paid for these wines and brandies are always higher than those of others. Cognacs produced from
these districts are also entitled to the appellation “fine Champagne” and is a blend of atleast 50%
Grande Champagne and Petite Champagne.4 Cognac basically is produced from the varieties: Saint
Emilion also called Trebbiano in Italy or Ugniblanc in South of France with lesser amounts of Colombar
(called French Colombard in this country) and Folle Blanche. But Saint Ernilion variety has gradually
replaced Folle Blance because of its resistance to botrytis. Variety per se is usually not a critical factor
in brandy quality. The cool climate of the region limits ripening so that the wines for distillation have
a relatively low alcohol content.
There are no age statements on Cognac. The industry has adopted some generally accepted terms to
differentiate Cognac. Some of the quality markings used by Cognac skipper are as follows :
• VS/VSP/Three star: V.S. - very superior; V.S.P. - very superior pale. A minimum of two years aging
for the youngest Cognac though the industry average is four to five years.
• V.S.O.P. Very superior old pale. A minimum of four years cask aging for the youngest cognac with
the industry average being between 10-15 years.
 Production of Brandy 5

• X.O./Luxury : XO -extra old. A minimum of six years aging for the youngest cognac with the
average age running 20 years old.
These markings attempt to indicate the age or quality of the youngest cognac used in the blend which
makes up the product in the bottle. The names like Grand five Champagne or Grande Champagne are
also seen which indicate a blend from grapes in the Grande Champagne and Petite Champagne regions
and contain a minimum 50% from the Grande Champagne regions.

4.1.2 Armagnac
Armagnac is the oldest type of brandy in France and is produced in a delimited area in the southwest of
France especially in the districts of Gers. Armagnac region is located in the heart of the ancient province
of Gascony in the southwest corner of France, in the regional growing zones: Bas-Armagnac, eastern
Haut Armagnac and the Central portion Tenareze. The primary grape varieties used for the preparation
of Armagnac are Bacco blanc, Ugni blanc, Folle Blanche, Colombard and Juran Con. The products of
these districts are not, however, distinguishable on a quality basis as are those of the Cognac sub-
districts, although many armagnac producers claim to find differences in the quality produced on the
different soil types. The climate is cool and is influenced by the proximity of the Atlantic.4 There is a
change in the varieties planted in this region due to phylloxera and as in Cognac, Saint Emilion is
important. Folle Blanche called as Picpoul or Piquepoult has been nearly abandoned and a direct-
producer hybrid, Bacco 22A, is extensively grown.

4.1.3 Other regions

Many other eaux-de-vie are produced in France, particularly in the south where continuous stills are
used for distillation. The pomace brandy (aux-de-vie-de-morc) is occasionally made in Burgundy,
Champagne and elsewhere. Here the pot stills are used and the brandy is often aged in glass or paraffined
barrels since it is nearly colourless. The aroma of this brandy is pungent and one must acquire a taste
for it.

4.2 Italian brandies

Italy has a long history of brandy production dating back to at least the 16th centuries. Unlike Spain or
France, there are no specific brandy-producing regions. The brandies are made from regional wine
grapes. Most of them are produced in column stills, though there are now a number of small producers
using pot stills. They are aged for a minimum period of one to two years, with six to eight years being
the average of industry. The Italian brandies tend to be light and delicate with a residual sweetness
touch Italian pomace brandy called grappa is produced in substantial amounts. Grappa is made from
both the raw, fire water variety and the more elegant designated grape type. The brandies are frequently
packaged in hand-blown bottles. The California pomace brandies from the United states are produced
in Italian style and are usually called Grappa, even when they are made from non-Italian grape varieties.
Best known for good quality brandies are Brance, Oro Pilla and Stock (X O aged for nine years). Italy
also boasts some small distillers like Buton famous for its Vecchia Romagna brands. Vecchia Romagna
Etichetta Nera (Black Label) is a blend of three year old pot and continuous still brandies. Ora (Gold
6 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

Label) contains seven year old components, whereas, extra old i.e. 25 and 35 years old brandies are
marketed in small quantities in specially designed bottles.

4.3 Greece brandies

Greeks have been associated with wine making for more than 2000 years, however, distillation seems
to have been an after-thought. Sypros Metaxa was the first to distil wine in 1888 and the company he
found now sells over a million cases world-wide. Greece produces pot distilled brandies. Most of these
like well known Metaxa are flavoured with Muscat wine, anise or other spices. These brandies are
often sweet and some are flavoured.4 Greek brandies are generally lower in 2-methyl-1-propanol and
propanol than French or Italian brandies.127 Isoamyle alcohol was about the same. Metaxa is double
distilled and aged for variable lengths of time depending upon the quality of end product desired. The
company markets three to seven years old aged brandies. They are distinguished by stars, each of
which represents one year of aging. Metaxa adds a little Muscat wine for smoothness and extra aroma.
Extra old metaxa brandies are marketed in handsome, painted, ceramic bottles. Tirnavou is the other
export-oriented Greek distiller with fine brands. Greek brandies have gained world-wide popularity
with considerable help from Greek restaurants in north America, northern European countries and
Australia and sun-starved northern European tourists visiting this sunny Mediterranean country.

4.4 German Brandies

Germans produce considerable amounts of brandy and consume it in substantial quantities too. Even
then, base wine and/or finished product must be imported mostly from France and/or Italy for aging
and blending. German monks were distilling brandy in the 14th century. As early as 1588 the German
distillers had organized their own guild. German brandy called as ‘weinbrand’ has been made from
imported wine rather than the more valuable local varieties, almost from the start. Most of these
brandies are produced in pot stills and must be aged for a minimum of 6 months in oak. Brandies which
have been aged in oak atleast for one year are called uralt or alter (means ‘older’). The best German
brandies are fragrant, somewhat lighter than Cognac, smooth and having a touch of sweetness. These
are well aged products with a fine balance and can be enjoyed on their own, in cocktails and with soft
drinks. Asbach Uralt and Dujardin are the two famous brands which export to other European countries
and North America.

4.5 South African Brandies

South Africa has produced brandies since the arrival of the first dutch settlers in the Cape Colony
earned a reputation for being harsh fire waters (Witblits, White lightening was a typical nickname). In
early 20th century, the introduction of modern production techniques and government regulation led to
an improvement in the quality of local brandies. Modren South Africa brandies are made from Ugni
blanc, Colombard Chanin Blanc, and Polomino grapes using both pot and column stills and aged in oak
for a minimum period of 3 years. South Africa has made a major effort to improve the quality of its
brandy by use of pot stills and adequate aging. The result is that the South African brandies have been
of very pleasant character but are more neutral than those of Cognac.4 Brandy is the national South
 Production of Brandy 7

African distillate mostly produced for the mass-market palate by KWV. However, this huge winery-
cum-distillery also markets a 10 year old well blended international award-winning brandies at extremely
attractive prices. Boplaas, in the Kloin Karoo issue a five year old Colombard brandy, whereas, Clos
Cabriere uses Chardonnay and Paarl Rock Muscat d’Alexandrie, and Backberg Chenin Blanc Sough
African distillers are making and marketing a wide range of appealing brandies well worth looking for.

4.6 Israel brandies

In Israel, the brandy production dates back only to 1880s when French Jewishh philanthropist Baron
Edmond de Rothschild established the wine industry. Now this has become the Modern Israeli wine
industry along French lines. Israeli brandy is made from Colombard grapes in the similar manner as
the Cognac made by distillation in both pot and column stills and matured in Fresh Limosin oak casks.
Israel is the largest Kosher brandy producer in the world. The first still was shipped from France, by
the wine branch of the Rothschild family. Kosher brandy must be distilled from Kosher wine subject to
many rules and regulations. The vines must be atleast three years old, grapes had harvested, rotten
grapes must be discarded prior to pressing. All grapes must be fermented with indigenous yeast and the
wine must be made in extra-clean premises employing Kosher-keeping individuals. The all Kosher
vineyards fruit must be sold to gentiles every seventh year. Kosher brandies of Israel have a sweetish
edge which is preferred by locals. France, Italy and USA also produce Kosher brandy.

4.7 Georgia and Armenia brandies

In the Caucasus region, along the eastern shore of the Black Ace, the ancient nation of Georgia and
Armenia draw on monastic traditions. They produce intensely flavoured pot still brandies both from
local grapes and imported varieties like Muscadine from France, Sercial and Verdelho from Madeira.
Tests on good Soviet brandies especially from Armenia and Moldavia revealed that some of their
ordinary brandies are hot to taste.4 Georgia, located just north of Armenia, has been distilling brandy
for centuries, which were flavoured, but displayed a rustic texture mostly due to short aging in
inappropriate casks and limited blending expertise. Armenian brandy has always been the preferred
distillate of USSR diplomats. The Yerevan brandy factory, in the capital of this tiny republic in the
Caucasus mountains, is now owned and managed by Pernod Ricard, a huge French beverage alcohol
conglomerate. This factory markets its products under the Ararat brand available in 3,5,8,12 and 18
years old. All of these are aged in oak barrels of Krasnoyarsk oak. The young i.e. 3 to 5 years old
brandies tend to be somewhat rough on the edges, but 8,12 and 18 year old exude fine apricot and
vanilla aromas which are much appreciated by connoisseurs and others alike. Texturally, Armenia
brandies tend to be refined light and smooth. Packaging has been improved and Pernod Ricard instituted
ambitious export campaigns to increase volume. Most of the Armenian brandy is exported to Russia
and a little to western countries.

4.8 Cyprus brandies

Grape production in Cyprus consists of wine grapes (85%) and table grapes (15%). The largest amount
of grapes (67%) is delivered to the industrial wineries and only small quantities are employed for home
8 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

production of vine products. The most important alcoholic beverages produced by the wineries are
wine (39%), grape must/juice (33%), spirits (21%) and intoxicating liquors (7%). The per capita
consumption of wine in Cyprus is very low (21 L) because Cypriots prefer to drink brandy (6 L) with
their meals during cool season of the years and beers (45 L) during hot season of the year.103 Zivania is
the native brandy, having about 100o proof.67 It is often produced in small stills (less than 50 gal.). On
the Greek section of Cyprus, the wine growing Haggipavlou family imported a pot still from Cognac
in 1868. This is still operational brandy popular among Cypriots and some even drink it throughout
their meals. Aglias, the first blended brandy of Cyprus (1930) is the most popular both in the country
and Cypriot brandy exported to U.K. Cypriot brandies are well made and deeply flavoured with a
sweetish tinge but a pleasant and lingering after-taste may be associated with quality.

4.9 U.S.A. California brandies

In California, the brandy production has been practiced since Spanish missions in the late 18th and 19th
centuries though the Americans mostly treated them as second class products and used in cocktails e.g.
Alexander brandy, and in cooking. In the pre-prohibition period a number of producers distilled wine
by using both pot and continuous stills. The aging was usually done in new 50 gal. American oak
barrels for 3 to 10 or 15 years.4 In the year of Civil war it became a major industry and developed
export trade to Europe by the end of the century. At that time, Leland Stanford, founder of Stanford
University was the world’s largest brandy producer. Phylloxera and National Prohibition almost shut
down the industry in 1920s. But during and after the World War II, when other beverages were in short
supply, these brandies were found most useful to the industry. Since the war, the production of California
brandy has continued to increase. By the end of the World War II, the industry commissioned the
Department of Viticulture and Oenology at the University of California at Devis to develop a prototype
“California Style” brandy. It had a clean palate, good mixture flavour profile and was lighter in style
than most of the European brandies. With time, the California brandy producers began to change over
to this new style. California brandy does not use quality designation such as V.S.O.P. or stars. The most
expensive brands usually contain a percentage of older vintages and pot-distilled brandies in the blend.
A view of an old (1909) distillery is depicted in Plate 85.

4.10 Latin American brandies

A large amount of wine is produced in Mexico, though little known outside the country because most
of it is used for brandy making. Mexican brandies are made from a mix of grape varieties such as
Thompson Seedless, Palomino and Ugni Blanc and are produced both in column and pot stills, using
Solera system for aging. Brandy now outsells tequila and rum in Mexico. Presidente and Don Pedro
are the largest selling brandies in the world with 5.8 and 3.5 million cases, respectively. Both the
brandies are sweetened with syrup, solera aged and blended and consumed on the rocks with coca-cola.

4.11 South American Brandies

These brandies are, generally, confined to their domestic markets but have been popular for centuries.
The best known type is Pisco, a clear, raw brandy from Peru and Chile which is made from Muscat
 Production of Brandy 9

grapes and double-distilled in pot stills with a perfumed fragrance. It serves as a base for a variety of
mixed drinks, including the famous Pisco sour. The word ‘Pisco’ comes from Quechua though there is
some discrepancy about the meaning as some says it means bird, whereas, others relate with the fired
clay pots in which the Quechua stored their chicha a local spirit. Pisco is widely popular in Peru and
Chile, no matter who owns the appellation rights.

4.11.1 Pisco brandy in Peru

Peruvian pisco is a grape brandy or aquardiente, distilled from must of fresh grape in stills which do
not rectify the final product. Thus, it is transparent, slightly yellowish with an alcohol content of about
42%. Pisco means Seagull Quechna, the Inca language. It was also the name of a fertile valley often
visited by Condors and settled by descentants of the ancient Paracas culture. The local potter also called
piscos crafted the large clay jars used to ferment chicha and other alcoholic beverages using Pisco
varieties defined by flavour and not their aroma. According to the ingredients used there are 4 types of
Piscos i.e. Pisco puro made from non-aromatic grapes, Pisco aromatic-made from aromatic grapes,
Pisco acholado-distilled from several different grape varieties and Pisco mosto verde-distilled from
grape must that has yet to fully ferment.

4.11.2 Pisco brandy in Chile

In Chile, the production of Pisco-oriented grape is confined to the North of the country. Pisco is a
fruity unaged eau de vie registered under earliest appellation d’origine in the country and is designated
as the area from the desert fringe to the agricultural valleys between Copiapo and Choapa rivers
representing 7.5% of the country’s total vineyards. The Muscat grape production in Chile is dedicated
almost exclusively to Pisco production3. It has been shown that fruit ripening and brandy quality were
affected by training system of the plantation111 and among the 13 grape types accepted for production
of Pisco under Chilean legislation, Muscat varieties are the most extensively planted. The industry is,
however, aware of considerable difference in aroma among them.

4.12 Spanish brandies

Any discussion of European brandy without mentioning Jerej from Spain would be incomplete.
Production is very diversified with 10% of total production used for industrial alcohol and brandy. As
in France and Italy, the people involved in the production have a distinct social character.75 Brandy de
Jerej is made by the Sherry houses centered around the city of Jerez de La Frontera in the Southwest
corner of Spain. The majority of Jerej brandy base wine originates in La Muncha in the heart of Spain
because the local sherry grapes are too valuable to convert into brandy production. The base grape is
Airen, which is the most widely planted white grape on earth. Originally, direct fired pot stills were
used but nowadays most of the distilling is done in column stills. Then, it is shipped to Jerej for aging
in used sherry casks in a solera system which is similar to that used for sherry wine. The basic de Jerej
solera brandy must be aged for a minimum period of six months, Reservas and Gran Reservas for a
minimum period of one year and three years, respectively. In practice, both these brandies are frequently
aged for 12-15 years. Another brandy Penedes comes from the Penedes region of Catalonia in the
10 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

northeast corner of Spain near Barcelona and is modeled after Cognac of France. It is made from a mix
of regional grapes and locally grown Ugni blanc and is distilled in pot stills and aged either in soleras
consisting of butts made of Limousin oak or in the standard non-solera manner but also in Limousin
oak. The brandy thus produced is heartier than Cognac but leaner and drier than Jerej brandy. Plate 86
reflects the image of a well established wine distillation plant in Spain.

5. TECHNOLOGY FOR PRODUCTION OF BRANDY

The brandy is made by distillation of wine. The various unit operations involved in brandy production
are shown in Fig. 1. Technique of distillation and the related equipments and other aspects are discussed
here.

Fig. 1. Unit operations involved in Brandy production

5.1 Distilling materials

The basic raw materials for the production of brandy are fruits including wild fruits which are noted to
contain higher acid content, tannins, stronger aroma making them a valuable raw material for production
of wine.130 Sound grapes should be used for producing distilling material even for wine spirits for
fortifying avoiding the use of moldy, partially fermented and otherwise rotten grapes. In California,
brandies are made from table grape varieties such as Thompson seedless and Flame Tokay, but new
generation Cognac-inspired pot distillers are using the classic Ugni Blanc, Comombard and Folle
Blanche grapes. The wines of French Colombard produced brandies of more distinctive aroma but
those of Thompson seedless were significantly better.123 Late harvested French Colombard produced
wines whose distillates were of lesser quality as compared to earlier harvesting but time of harvest had
little effect on distillate quality with Thompson seedless. Chromatographically, the distillates from
wine of Thompson seedless, Sauvignon blanc, Peverella and French Colombard in a small copper pot
still operated in the ‘Charente’ style were comparable,99 but Sensory panels preferred French Colombard
to Thompson seedless. For California brandies grape variety is of lesser importance than clean low-
temperature fermentations, use of fresh wine of immature grapes, good distillation practice and proper
aging. Dried fruits can also be used. Generally, it is believed that wines of high acidity produce the best
 Production of Brandy 11

beverage brandy. Out of grapes harvested at four stages of maturity, the best brandy was made from
mature grapes.86 Wines from early-harvested grapes (14% sugar, 1.2 % titratable acidity) produced
brandies with ratio of 1.52 to 1.62, whereas, wines of mature grapes (22-23% sugar, 0.5-0.6% titratable
acidity) produced brandies with ratios of 2.29 to 3.34. A higher alcohol/volatile ester ratio of 2:1
makes the best brandy. For brandy production, white varieties, clarified juice (to reduce fusel oil
formation), no sulfur dioxide (unless grapes of poor quality) have been recommended.40 Further, the
use of yeast strains that form relatively small quantities of fusel oil, fermentation at temperature below
24°C (75°F) (also to reduce fusel oil production) and immediate distillation after fermentation should
be followed. When pomace mash is used as distilling material, an early distillation should always be
employed. Since the alcohol content of such material will be low, the contamination and undesirable
microorganism growth may occur. The wines of high volatile acidity produce poor quality brandy. The
best beverage brandy should be made only from wine. Pomace mash wines should be used only for
production of wine spirits for fortifying. Raisins and raisin wash water have also been successfully
used.4 The other raw material, indispensable for the production of practically all types of wine, is sugar
which is obtained from sugar beet or sugar cane.

5.2 Distillation
Distillation is the technique used to separate and select, by use of heat, the specific volatile components
from a liquid mixture such as wine.

5.2.1 Distillation Theory

The mean kinetic energy of molecules of a liquid increases as its temperature is raised. The number and
velocity of the molecules escaping from the surface of the liquid also become greater thereby, increasing
the vapour pressure. When the vapour pressure of the liquid on the liquid surface equals that of
external pressure (Atmospheric pressure), the liquid ‘boils’. Varying degrees of heat is required by
different substances to raise their temperature by one degree, i.e. their specific heat varies (that of
alcohol is only about 0.6 compared to water at 1.0). The heat required to change the substance from
liquid state to vapour state is known as the heat of vapourization which is approximately the same for
substances having similar molecular weight. The liquid-vapour system of ethanol and water follows
the Dalton’s and Henry’s laws.4 The vapour leaving a water alcohol boiling mixture contain a higher
percentage of ethanol than the original liquid. This forms the basis for the separation of ethanol and
water by factional distillation. The degree of separation is also affected by the nature of the mixture
and the method of distillation. Furthermore, binary mixtures may form maximum or minimum boiling
point mixtures and thus, prevent separation of the two components at lower or higher temperatures.
The boiling points of water and alcohol are 212°F (100°C) and 173.3°F (78.5°C), respectively, at
atmospheric pressure (760 mm). Since only one liquid phase is present so this mixture is homogeneous.
In addition, this is a binary azeotrope with a minimum boiling point. The alcohol content of the
distillate always stays below 96 % alcohol by volume (Max. 80 % alcohol/Vol.) during the Cognac
distillation.76 The ethanol water system has a minimum boiling point at 97.4% ethanol. So the separation
of the two components above boiling point of 78.1°C (126.6°F) is impossible at atmospheric pressure.
12 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

The ethanol content of the constant boiling point mixture is higher at reduced pressures. The ratio
between the percentage of ethanol in the vapour and that in the liquid is called the Sorel or k value
which varies with the ethanolic strength of the liquid. CaCl2, CoCl2, CuCl2 and NaCl could break the
ethanol-water azeotrope and hence, hyperazeotrope was achieved in alcohol obtained by extracting
distillation. NaCl could break the azeotrope but it increased the energetic efficiency of the alcohol
separation. The catalytic effect of CuCl2 increased concentration of ethyl acetate and correspondingly
acetaldehyde concentration was decreased.90

5.2.2 Distillation apparatus

In the beginning, the stills were used to distill a liquid (alcohol) used for medicinal purposes and to
make perfumes. In the early stills (Fig. 2) part of vapours were condensed in the wool which was
changed from time-to-time to obtain the distillate. Alchemists and Monks progressively made
improvements both in technique of the distillation (Fig. 3) and the apparatus. In order to create a
distillation apparatus, it is necessary to have four basic items : (1) a heat source to heat ferment; (2) a
pot to hold ferment; (3) a condenser to cool the vapours; (4) and a receiver to collect the distillate.
Rudimentary stills were very simple and consisted of such construction as bamboo, wood or clay which
are also very dangerous. The sketch in Fig. 4 is an example of very ancient still which is used in India.
In another traditional method (Fig. 5) in Himachal Pradesh (India), an empty ghee tin (canister) about
15 kg capacity is used for boiling the fermented liquid by heating it on fire. A rubber pipe is inserted
on the opening of the canister to receive the alcoholic vapours. The pipe is passed through a water
trough to condense the vapours. The distillate is then collected in glass or plastic cans. Must is prepared

Fig. 2. Early still. Source: Ref. 76.

 Production of Brandy 13

Fig. 3. Later distillation equipment. Fig. 4. Very ancient still used in India.
Source : Ref. 76. Courtesy: Ref. 164.

Fig. 5. Sketch of traditional still used in Himachal Pradesh (India). Source: Ref. 58.
14 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

from dried grapes, apple and chuli etc. for the production of country liqueur.58 The product made from
grapes is called Angoori.
The modern still, incorporating more safety factors and a more efficient condensing system than
earlier stills, was developed by a German named Liebig, called as Liebig Single Surface Condenser
still (Fig. 6). The addition of thermometer was made and bulb was placed just below the side arm
where the vapour leaves the still. It allows to select the temperature required for whatever the product
is to be distilled. In this case, the desired temperature is 172 to 174°F. Normally, at or above 170°F, a
water cooled condenser is not required, as an elongated or helical (spiral) coil provides sufficient heat
loss to reliquify the vapours. However, a water condenser accelerate the process and is safe. The still
could be of stainless steel, glass, copper or some other material except iron to prevent corrosion. These
simple stills are relatively inefficient than fractional distillation stills.

5.2.2.1 Reflux still

The length and width of the reflux column (Fig. 7) determine the efficiency of the mechanism.
Generally a column of six inches in height and three to four inches in diameter packed with stainless
steel, wool, glass beads, marbles, broken chinaware etc. will give the equivalent amount of alcohol.
A column of 18 inches packed in the same fashion will help in saving time and effort. A reflux still
is more efficient than other simple stills as it allows greater control of temperature and thereby,
negating the undesirable by-products of ordinary distillation caused by lower or higher temperatures.
For more details see reference.164

Fig. 6. Sketch of a Liebig’s still.

Courtesy: Ref. 164.

Fig. 7. Sketch of a reflux still.

Courtesy: Ref. 164.
 Production of Brandy 15

5.2.2.2 Laboratory type of still

The wine is loaded into a boiler which is heated by a gas burner for partial vapourization. The vapours
are condensed and collected into one or a series of fractions called as distillate. Working version of the
professional apparatus used by the World finest distilleries is shown in Plate 87.

5.2.2.3 Pot sills

The original and least complex distillation is in a pot still (Fig. 8) which is a batch process method. The
pot still consists of, in its most elemental form, a receptacle into which the liquid can be placed and
heated. There is some sort of long tapered neck attached at the top to collect the vapours which are
formed when the liquid is heated. A spiral copper tube is attached to this neck and will pass through a
cooling medium, usually water. The decrease in temperature condense the vapours to a liquid again.
The product is a distilled spirit but it is not necessarily a finished product. Cognac, e.g. is the result of
a double distillation. Highly volatile elements, which will vaporize first can be collected separately as
can the least volatile elements since they vaporize last. In Cognac distillation, the highly volatile
fraction is called the “headings” and least volatile the “tailings”. The middle distillate is heart the one
which contains the most alcohol and it is given the second distillation. The headings and tailings are
again separated during the second distillation and the middle portion becomes Cognac. Operation of a
pot still is considerably more complex.76 During distillation, wine is exposed to higher temperature
resulting in many Maillard and Strecker degradation reactions such as reaction between sugars and
amino acids producing heterocyclics such as furans, pyridines and pyrazines, as well as hydrolyzing
non-volatile terpene glycosides and polyols to free volatile terpenes143. The construction of pot stills
from copper provides protection from long exposure to heat and action of wine acids. In addition,
copper acts with sulfur and fatty acids, forming insoluble constituents, which can be removed from the

Fig. 8. Diagram of a pot (alambic) brandy still. Source: Ref. 53.

16 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

distillate by filtration.53,71 However, organic copper compounds of butyric, caproic, caprylic, capric
and lauric acid are formed during heating and are distilled. Though these acids have a very disagreeable
odour, but the copper fixes these as their salts are insoluble. The cleaning of pot stills after every eight
days is recommended. Sodium phytate was found a useful means of removing the copper from brandy.22
When more than 6 mg/L of copper was present, the efficiency to remove copper was less. Normal
Cognac have less than 0.2 mg/L of lead.70 Little analytical differences were reported between pot and
column distilled brandies from the same wine.35 The difference between continuous and pot distilled
brandies is through thermal load during distillation leading to newly formed constituents in the pot still
products.87 In the preparation of grappa, fresh pomace produces a less distinctive product but the odour
of grappa from aged pomace is too strong for many consumers.4 In California, it is customary to
redistill the pot still product in a continuous still. The pomace in brandy may exceed the legal limits if
the pomace is pressed too tightly.156

5.2.2.4 Cognac type of still-Alambic

The pot still used in the Cognac area is known as an alambic and is made of copper and bronze. There
are some parts which affect the quality of Cognac or the brandy and can be made of stainless steel e.g.
valves, fittings, condenser tank etc. However, copper is considered as the most efficient metal to build
alambics. The advantages of using copper are (i) it is malleable and good conduction of heat; (ii) resist
corrosion from fire and from wine; (iii) reacts with wine components such as sulfur components and
fatty acids. This property is favourable for the Cognac of brandy quality (iv) acts as catalyst for
favourable reaction between wine components. A typical Alambic still consists of different parts76 as
discussed below:

Copper boiler
The boiler is the main part of the alembic pot. It is specially built to withstand continuous direct flame
of high temperature (Approximately 1500°F) and ease of cleaning. To facilitate easy cleaning, the
inside of the boiler is well polished and presents a smooth surface. The boiler equipment includes (i)
the pipe to fill the boiler; (ii) the vent and the side glass; (iii) the sprinkler to clean boiler and (iv) the
valve to empty the boiler.

Hat (chapiteau, chapeau)

Depending upon the specifications required by the distiller, the volume or the hat is about 10%to 12%
of the capacity of the boiler which is located directly above the boiler. The shape and volume of the hat
determine the concentration selection, and separation of the different volatile components. The selection
process takes place when the volatile components condense in chapiteau and fall back down into the
boiler. Here they must be redistilled upward. This phenomenon is called reflux process.

Swan’s neck (col de eygne)

In alembic still, this part is curved like the neck of a swan and directs the vapour into the coil. Its height
and the curve are extremely important to the reflux process.
 Production of Brandy 17

Preheater (chaufee-vin)
Preheater is a cost effective part of the alambic and swan’s neck runs through it and around its back.
The preheater is refilled for the next batch of distillation during the first hours of distillation. The wine
can be preheated for the next distillation by directing the hot vapours of the currently distilling pot still
through the preheater. When the temperature of the contents in the preheater is correct, the alternative
pipe running around the outside of preheater is used. This will avoid over-heating the contents of the
preheater.

Coil (serpentin)
The pipe of the coil is also made of copper. The copper reacts with components of the distillates (e.g.
sulfur and fatty acids) to give insoluble combination during the condensation process. When these
combinations reach the hydrometer port, they are removed from the distillate by filtration. The coil
performs two functions: to condense vapours and to cool distillate to proper temperature for filtration.
In the beginning, the coil has a larger diameter to facilitate the condensation. Progressively, the diameter
of coil becomes smaller until it reaches the hydrometer port.

Condenser (condenseur)
Condenser is a cylindrical tank. It is made of copper or stainless steel which contains the copper coil
pipe. It has capacity of around 1300 gallons. During distillation, it is filled with water. The cold water
enters the condenser at the bottom, while the hot water (heated during the condensation) exists-off at
the top of the condenser.

Hydrometer port (porte-alcoometer)

The hydrometer port is made of copper with the purpose of: to filtering the distillate, to monitor the
temperature and the alcohol content of the future Cognac or brandy, to offer an access point for the
distiller and to check the progress of the distillation.

Heads tank
It is a small stainless steel tank of about 15 gal capacity and is used to collect the first part of the
distillate, called head.

Gas burner
The gas burner is equipped with a pilot light along with a reliable security system. The fuels used are
propane, butane and natural gas. The gas panel is located at the front of the alambic to monitor the
burner. The temperature under the boiler reaches 1400°F to 1600°F. This high temperature is necessary
to heat and cool the wine to create aromas in distillation process. About 450 pounds of liquid is
required to produce 100 gallons of pure alcohol of Cognac or brandy.
18 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

5.2.2.5 Column stills

There are stills which operate continuously, as long as a spirituous liquid is fed in one end, a distillate
spirit will come out of the other end. A continuous still is a type of series of interconnected pot stills. The
continuous still is much more efficient than the pot stills. The first one was invented by Scotsman Robert
Stein in 1826, and the design was perfected and patented by Aeneas Coffey, Inspector General of Excise
in Ireland in 1830. The most common name for the apparatus is Coffey still, but the terms tower, column
and continuous may be used as well. The main advantages of column still are speed, increased productivity
and, moreover, the apparatus does not have to be emptied and cleaned between batches as is done in pot
stills. The modern column still is a cylindrical shell divided into sections by a series of plates. The plates
are perforated or may have openings covered by bubble caps (about 10% of their area is open) to allow
passage of vapour. Bubble cap plates with down pipes are used in the upper section of the column, though
recent installation use valve or sieve trays. In the column, the plates are spaced 18 to 30 inches apart.
The vapour capacity must be kept slow, if the plates are close together. The alcohol-containing liquid
is pumped into the top of a tall column or a tower called rectifier. The liquid is carried down in twisting
pipes to the bottom of the column. As it descends, the hot vapours rising through the column warm the
alcohol liquid. The warm liquid is now pumped to the top of a second column, the analyzer. When the
hot liquid enters at the top, it drains through the top plate onto the one below and so on until it reaches
the bottom. The steam entering from the bottom, causes vaporization of the volatile elements of the
liquid, as it travels down through the column. Only the water and least volatile compounds reach the
bottom and are drained away. The vapours are drawn-off at the top and sent back to the first column.
These vapours enter the rectifier at the bottom and rise. They are in fact the hot vapours and these are used
to warm the incoming liquid. The hot vapours while warming the liquid, will cool the vapours resulting
in condensation of vapours back into a liquid. Distillates of varying strength can be drawn, depending on
the height at which this occurs. At relatively lower heights, less volatile elements will condense, while at
higher levels, the more volatile fractions will turn back into a liquid. In this way, the distiller can exercise
great control over the process and the distilling proof.
There are different types of column stills (Plate 88, 89, 90). The single and double or split column
stills may be operated either with an overhead product or side draw. The still with an aldehyde section
is particularly advantageous in producing neutral fortifying spirits. Some complicated stills have been
built which can produce a neutral product at below 178 proof. In one of the cases, a low oils cut (about
20% of the brandy rate) is fed into a fusel oil concentrating column to concentrate the alcohol in the
low oils from approximately 130° to 190° proof. Thus, a fusel oil cut from this column is sufficiently
concentrated to separate into oil and aqueous layers in a conventional fusel oil decanter. The 190°
proof alcohol, thus very low in higher alcohols, is recycled to the main column. Another arrangement
effects a partial separation of higher alcohols, especially the amyls, by concentrating (about 170°
proof) in the primary concentrating column which permits some separation of fusel oil in its decanter.
The brandy stream is subsequently, reduced to 170° proof or less by blending it with a low proof
stream drawn from an appropriate plate low in the heads concentrating column, which is necessarily
heated with open steam. A continuous, double distillation (Soviet) for brandy production85 was found
to produce 26% ethanol from the first column and 66.4% from the second. A copper batch column still
 Production of Brandy 19

(Plate 91) has been used20 which was similar to those found throughout Europe for production of fruit
brandies. It was found that the use of whole fruit may yield a more distinct product. Plate 92 indicates
a column still with different parts.
Whatever the distillation system is employed, the ethanol containing vapour must be condensed back to
a liquid. The condensers perform two main functions, (i) conversion of vapour to liquid; (ii) cooling
the resultant liquid to room temperature. The second function removes only a small amount of the total
heat, but requires greater condenser area because there is a slower heat transfer through cooling surfaces
with liquids on both sides. The function of transfer of heat between liquid and vapour is performed by
the film of stationary liquid on the water side and the film of stationary vapour on the vapour side. As
the vapour films are thinner, hence, heat transfer is more rapid for an apparatus condensing a vapour
than for the same apparatus cooling a liquid. The coefficient of heat transfer may be increased by
increasing the velocity of the cooling water through the tubes or by using condensers of special design.
Air-cooled condensers are also used in recent stills. Vapour from the top of the column still passes
through a dephlegmator and condenser. At first, a portion of the vapour condenses and is returned to
the column as the reflux. Condenser may also return a reflux to the column and the remainder be taken
off as head. In this case, the actual product is removed as a side stream from the upper plates in the
column. To reclaim ethanol from the heads fraction a modified still has been designed.177 To ensure
hydrolysis of acetals the charge was diluted to 55/60 % ethanol (v/v) and was boiled under reflux at pH
< 2 with spraying by inert gas (CO2 or N2). The vapours discharged, are vented under water and then
to the exterior of the still house. When the acetaldehyde concentration in the charges reaches < 200 mg/
litre, it is adjusted to pH > 0 with sodium hydrioxide solution. The reflux continued for 20 minutes and
distilled at over 95%. The recovery of 99% is reported. This reclaimed spirit is mixed in the ratio of
2:1 with wine spirits and used for fortification. A sensor for controlling the withdrawal of the ester-
aldehyde cut from continuous brandy stills is also used.6

5.2.3 Double distillation technique

In this case, the Ist mixture A is distilled to produce a second mixture B. When the mixture B is
sufficient in volume, this is then distilled to produce mixture C. This is called as double distillation
technique (Fig. 9, 10, 11). Variations related to cuttings, mixtures (wine, heads, tails, brouilis, secondes
and running time of distillation tend to change the characteristics of Cognacs (Fig. 12, 13).

Fig. 9. Double distillation technique. Source: Ref. 76.

20 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

Fig. 10. Diagram of First distillation. Source: Ref. 76.

Fig. 11. Diagram of Second distillation. Source: Ref. 76.

Cognac A is more aromatic. Cognac has the best characteristics for long aging.
Fig. 12. Distillation technique – cutting variation. Source: Ref. 76.
 Production of Brandy 21

Cognac A is more aromatic. Cognac has the best characteristics for long aging.
Fig. 13. Distillation technique – cutting variation. Source: Ref. 76.

5.2.4 Variation of the Alcohol content in Double distillation

If the wine is at 10% alcohol/volume.
First distillation: The distillate is cut into three fractions i.e. heads, heart or brouillis and tails. The
alcohol content of the distillate is around 60% alcohol/volume in the first fraction and it reaches 0%
alcohol/volume at the end of the first distillation.
Second distillation: In second distillation, the distillate is cut into four fractions i.e. heads; heart 1, or
Cognacor brandy; heart 2 or seconds; and tails. In the first fraction, the alcohol content of the distillate
is around 80% alcohol/volume and reaches 0% alcohol/volume at the end of the second distillation.

5.2.5 Distillation of volatile compounds of wines

There are about 300 volatile compounds in wines. Except water and alcohol, it is very complex to
calculate the volatility coefficient for each of them. Further, (i) How the volatile compounds distill:
Each of the volatile component will distill following three criteria: (a) boiling point (BP), (b)
relationship with alcohol or water and (c) the variation of alcohol content in the vapour during the
distillation. There are several possibilities with respect to the relationships with alcohol or water; (i)
the component is completely or partly soluble in alcohol and will distill when the vapour is rich in
alcohol; (ii) the component is soluble in water and will distill when the vapour is low in alcohol; (iii)
the component is soluble in both alcohol and water and will distill throughout the distillation; (iv)
the component is not soluble in water, but the water vapour will carry over this component i.e.
hydrodistillation.

5.2.6 Classification of volatile compounds

Types 1: These are components of first distillation. They have low boiling point and are soluble in
alcohol e.g. acetaldehyde boiling point 21°C (69.9°F), ethyl alcohol boiling point 77°C (170.6°F).
22 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

The majority of such components distill at the beginning of each distillation. Their concentration in the
heads and at the beginning of the heart is very high.
Type 2: These are components which distill at the beginning of the distillation. They have relatively
high boiling point and complete and partial solubility in alcohol. Table 2 indicates the fatty acids and
fatty esters of this category Some of these components finish distilling in the middle of the heart.
Type 3: These are the components in the heads and in the heart of the distillate and have low boiling
point (not above 200°C), are soluble in alcohol and are completely or partially soluble in water, e.g.
methanol [BP 65.5°C (150°F)] and higher alcohols like 1 propanol, isobutanol, methyl-2-butanol and
methyl-3-butanol.
Type 4: These are components which start distilling during the middle of the heart and have boiling
point above that of water and soluble or partially soluble in water e.g. acetic acid [BP 110°C (230°F)],
2-phenylethanol, ethyl lactate and diethyl succinate are in the same ease.
Type 5: The components which appear during the distillation and have high boiling point and are very
soluble in water. They start distilling during the middle of the heart e.g. furfural [BP 167°C (332.6°F)].
The concentration of furfural increases in the middle of the heart to the tails.
During the second distillation, the alcohol content of the brouillis is increased. The heating program
established for distillation of wine and brouillis can certainly influence the concentration of components
in the distillates (Table 3). Higher heat is favourable for the less volatile components, as increased heat
will allow them to distill earlier and to be present in the first fraction of the distillation in higher
Table 2. Fatty acids and fatty esters of Type 2 distillation.

Components Boiling point

Ethyl caprylate 208° (406.4°F)
Ethyl caprate 244°C (471.1°F)
Ethyl laurate 269°C (516.2°F)
Ethyl caproate 166.5°C (331.7°F)
Isoamyl acetate 137.5°C (279°F)

Source: Ref. No.76.

Table 3. Volumes and °proof for low-wines fractions and brandy fractions.

Variety First Redistillation of low wines

distillation/Low Heads Brandy Tails
Residue wines*
Thompson Seedless 14,000 150 54.80 2550 5820
Volume (ml)
°proof 71.2 157.4 150.0 49.6 –
French colombard 14,000 150 56.50 2500 5700
volume (ml)
°proof 7 157.0 140.8 45.4 –

* From distillation of 45 L (12 gal)

Source: Ref. No. 99.
 Production of Brandy
Fig. 14. Diagram of a Cognac distillation process. Source: Ref. 76.

23
24 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

concentration. The mixture remaining in the boiler after distillation is called as stillage. This
dealcoholized mixture must be treated to avoid pollution problems (Fig. 14).

5.2.7 Fractional distillation

Fractional distillation is more efficient than simple distillation wherein it is possible to separate volatile
liquids which have boiling points close to one another. It is premised on the fact that no two liquid, of
different chemical composition have the same vapour pressure at all temperatures nor very often the
same boiling point, however, every liquid has a definite vapour pressure at any given temperature. The
whole aim of fractional distillation is to achieve the closest possible contact between rising vapours and
descending liquid. The purification of the more volatile compounds by contact between such counter
current streams of vapour and liquid is referred to as ‘enrichment’ or ‘rectification’. The descending
liquid is known as a reflux and thus the still is called ‘reflux still’ the working of which has been
discussed under distillation apparatus section.

5.2.8 Vacuum Distillation

Vacuum distillation produces an especially desired brandy but with a coefficient of non-alcohols of
below 280. The French law requires beverage brandies to have a coefficient of at least 280. So, this
eliminated them from the beverage brandy market, which they consider unfair. The large vacuum stills
are expensive.4 The successful experiments with vacuum distillation have also been made in Hungary124.
This process produce too-neutral distillates for Cognac.73

5.2.9 Units of Measurements

The concentration of ethanol (ethyl alcohol) in distilled spirit is expressed differently in different
countries. In Germany, per cent alcohol is expressed by weight (g/100 g), whereas, in France, it is
per cent by volume (ml/100 ml). French also use a system called Gay-Lussac which describes the
alcohol percentage by degrees Gay-Lussac (G.L.). A spirit with 40% alcohol by volume would be
40° G.L. In England and the United States, the commonly used unit is proof. The term proof has an
interesting origin. Before the alcohol measuring instruments came into existence, the strength of the
newly distilled spirit was determined as follows. The spirit was mixed equally with gun powder and
lighted. If it was too strong or too weak, it either burned too fast or not at all. When it was of proper
strength, it burnt evenly, with a blue flame and the spirit was said to have been “proved”. It was later
found to be 50% alcohol strength. Thus, the 100 proof was used to describe a beverage with 50%
alcohol. The definition of proof differs in both the American and British system. In the United
States, the official definition “proof” shall mean the ethyl alcohol content of a liquid at 60°F, stated
as twice the per cent ethyl alcohol volume. So, the liquid of pure alcohol would have to be 200 proof
in American System. In addition ‘proof spirits’ shall mean that alcoholic liquor which contains 50%
of ethyl alcohol by volume at 60°F has a specific gravity of 0.93418 in air at 60°F referred to water
at 60°F as Unity”. From this “proof gallon” is defined as “the alcohol equivalent of a United States
gallon at 60°F, containing 50 per cent of ethyl alcohol by volume”. In England, proof is measured
by Sike’s hydrometer that “proof spirit” contains 49.28 alcohol by weight or 57.10 % by volume at
 Production of Brandy 25

15.56°C (60°F). For alcohol percentages below “proof spirit” the proof is termed as “underproof”
and above 57.10 as “overproof”.

5.2.9.1 Uses of proof

It can be used to describe the alcoholic content at three different stages in the life of the spirit. One
would be at the time of distillation, second at the time of aging and the third would be bottling proof.
The spirit is seldom aged at the same proof at which it comes from the still. It would have to be cut
with water prior to being placed in wood. Following wood aging the spirit is again cut with water to
reach the commercial strength of the bottled alcoholic content. For example, a spirit could be distilled
at 150 proof (75% alcohol) cut with water to 123 proof (62.5 % alcohol) for wood aging and 4 years
later cut again with water to 80 proof (40 % alcohol) prior to bottling. The bottling proof is usually a
marketing/economic decision although there are Federal regulations in some cases-Bottled in Bond is
one; the requirement is for 100 proof. The aging proof may be regulated, either by legal stipulation or
by tradition. The distillation proof, however, is of critical importance and is carefully specified by law
with virtually all products in all countries.

5.2.9.2 Relationship between distillation proof and product character

If a spirit were distilled at 150 proof, it would contain 75% alcohol and 25 % congeners. Such a spirit
would have considerably more potential character in the way of distinctive flavour, aroma, and body
than would the 200 proof spirit. It would not, however, have the flavour, aroma potential of a spirit
distilled at 120 proof, 60% alcohol and 40% Congeners. Specific types of products must be distilled at
particular proofs if they are to be typical examples of that type. In fact, anything over 190 proof is
legally termed “neutral” spirits because it has no distinctive characteristics other than those attributed
to alcohol. Cognac cannot be distilled at over 144 proof; in practice, the average is 140. California
brandy, which is typically much lighter than Cognac brandies, has a legal distillation maximum of 170
proof.

Table 4. Some of the Cogeners and their content in Cognac brandy.

Component Amount (mg/L)

Fusel oil 1544.00
Total acids (as acetic acid) 288
Esters (as ethyl acetate) 328
Aldehydes (as acetaldehyde) 60.800
Furfural 5.400
Total solids 5584.000
Tannins 200.000
Total congeners (w/v %) 0.239

Source: Ref. No.59.

26 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

5.2.10 Fusel oil removal

Separation of ethanol and water is not the only objective of distillation but various other desirable and
undesirable congeners (Table 4) must be retained or removed (may be partially). One of the important
problem in wine spirits for fortifying is the separation of higher alcohols. The term ‘fusel oil’ is used
to describe the higher alcohols and include various forms of propanol, butanol and amyl alcohol which
are congeners or by-products of ethyl fermentation especially iso-amyl alcohol. The presence of fusel
oil in the alcohol beverages is known to be a cause of headache and hangovers. According to US Code
of Federal regulation, 2002, distillates containing substantial quantities of fusel oil, aldehydes, other
extraneous substances may be removed from the distillery system prior to the fermenting or distilling
material at the distillery where produced. Distillates removed from the distilling system under the
provision of this para shall be added promptly to the fermenting or distilling material.
Decanter is a vessel used for the separation of two phase liquid. In a fusel oil decanter an upper fusel oil
phase is separated from a lower aqueous ethanol phase. Most continuous column stills have a fusel oil
decanter. In their simple form they consists of a try box into which the fusel oil is introduced through
a pipe at the top. A smaller perforated water pipe is inside this pipe. Therefore, the incoming fusel oil
is intimately mixed with water. The mixture is then passed through perforated screens and falls to the
liquid surface in the try box.4 The boiling point of fusel oil is higher than ethanol and is generally,
removed by distillation process to avoid accumulation in the rectifier. They are only slightly soluble in
water. They have high volatility with steam and are thus distilled upward in the column. The moment
they reach plates of higher ethanol content they become soluble. Then their volatility is normal and
they tend to return down the column. As a result they concentrate in the region of the still where the
increase in the alcohol percentage is highest (about 135° proof or boiling point about 84°C (183°F). A
minimum of four contiguous plates be connected to provide for drawing off of fusel oil36 on one or
more of these plates, temperature indicators should be installed. There should be provision for flow
meters for the dilution water lines and ‘low oils’ cut. The ratio of 2- 2.7 would improve fusel oil
recovery by decantation. When the column is used to produce commercial brandy at 170° or less proof,
the highest alcohol content on a plate was about 0.5%.37 It was indicated that higher alcohols can occur
when a ‘low oils’ cut is made one or two plates below that used for product removal. If a fusel oil cut
(7-10% of the brandy flow rate) is taken, the fusel oil content will be reduced by about 5% and this
will be useful for brandies which are aged for a minimum period of 2 years. If this cut is not taken the
distillation proof may be as low as 140°-150° without reducing the quality of aged brandy. A proof of
distillation (160-170°) is recommended for beverage brandy.41 In the distillation of fortifying brandy,
the fusel oil concentration in the column is sufficient so that it exceeds its solubility at about 130°
proof.4 The fusel oils are of great importance in the alcoholic beverage industry because they affect the
aroma and flavour of the beverages. Hence, their accurate quantitation is essential to ensure consumer
quality of alcoholic beverages. The base line separation of methyl/acetaldehyde and isoamyl/active
amyl alcohol successfully in a simple run on a common stationary phase.158

5.2.11 Aldehyde removal

 Production of Brandy 27

The removal of aldehydes is also desirable which can be accomplished by the use of an aldehyde
column. This high aldehyde product can be most frequently used into rapidly fermenting musts where
it is utilized for ethanol production. The brandies for aging contain no more than 3 mg/100 ml of
aldehydes or 50 of esters.4

5.2.12 Wine spirits and neutral spirits

Neutral spirits can be defined as distilled spirits’ produced from any material at or above 190° proof.
In practice, neutral spirit is purified odourless, tasteless and colourless ethanol which has been produced
by distillation and rectification techniques which remove any significant amount of congeners. It is
used in the production of beverages such as Vodka, gin, cordial and cream liqueurs. An alcohol spirit
purified in the still to minimum of 95% of absolute alcohol purity. At that degree of proof - 190°- the
spirit is considered to have no important taste and little body or flavour by US laws. Neutral spirits are
used to make blended whisky. Gas chromatograms of methylene chloride extract of a neutral brandy
aged 8 years in new US oak have been compared with gas chromatograms of extract of unaged neutral
brandy.44 The comparable chromatograms for unaged 100° proof distillate obtained from a sample of
the fill liquid stored in glass showed no peaks for furfural, 5-methyl furfural, diethyl succinate, or the
oak lactone, representing that these compounds were derived from the oak in the aged brandy. Generally,
fortifying brandies of high fusel oil (over 600 mg/litre), high aldehyde (over 200 mg/litre) and of poor
sensory quality produced poor desert wines.113 The neutral wine spirits are recommended for early
maturing desert wines production, but wines with spirits for slower maturing wines should be produced
from lower proof brandy.160

5.2.13 Rectification and Purification

If the brandy is purified or treated after distillation in any but the specified manner in the regulations,
a special rectification tax must be paid and the treatment done in a separate building. But after approval
of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms is secured it is permissible. It is also permissible to
treat the brandy continuously during distillation by passing it through oak savings or treating with an
oxidizing agent to improve flavour or to remove sulfur dioxide or other impurities4. Rectification
systems remove heavy material from light product.

5.3 Aging
Beside from specific product categories like whisky, brandy, vodka another method to classify distilled
spirits is aged or unaged. Most of the distilled spirits except grappa, pisco, vodka and gin are aged in
wood after distillation for a specific periods. However, the minimum times are usually mandated by
law. They are aged in wooden barrels in odor to develop specific characteristics taste, colour and
aroma. The harsh burning taste and unpleasant odor of newly-distilled spirits are ameliorated by this
aging. The changes in spirits during aging are caused by three types of reactions (i) complex wood
constituents are extracted by the liquid; (ii) oxidation of components originally present in the liquid as
well as of material extracted from the wood; (iii) reaction between organic substances present in the
liquid leading in the formation of more or new congeners.
28 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

5.3.1 Aging preparation

As the brandy comes from the still at 170° proof or less, it is further diluted to about 110° or more
aging. Usually, caramel syrup is added before the use of water for dilution. Water is the most natural
additive normally used to cut excessive alcohol or heat. Sugar syrup is added, if Armagnac is too tannic
or to remove any rough edges it might contain. It is viscous and can either be dark or light. Legally, 2%
Cognac’s content can be sugar syrup. Caramel is a burnt sugar which is dark in colour, slightly bitter in
taste. It is not used to sweeten the brandy but to adjust its colour and establish consistency or to give the
spirit the impression of being older and smoother.

5.3.2 Oak wood chips barrels

Only oaks are important as maturation barrels, although many other woods have been used and a few
chestnut barrels are still found137. Two distinct types of oaks are used for hand made barrels either from
the Limousin or Troncais region. All the oaks used for cooperage are white oaks members of the
Leucobalanus or Lepidobalanu subgroup and in Europe, consists almost exclusively of the two species
Quercus rubur (pedunculate acorns) and Quercus petraea (sessile acorns). In North America, the
predominant cooperage specie is Quercus alba, but several others may also be used. Some spirits are
aged in new barrels while others in barrels that have been previously used for aging wine sherry or
other distilled spirits. Cognacs spend a year or so in small barrels of various ages and longer times in
larger casks of European oak.138 Other brandies are often matured in reused bourbon or other barrels of
intermediate lifetimes. Maximum solids extraction from oak is achieved at 55% ethanol and close to
that is traditional barreling proof for spirit maturation. In France, it is legal to add wood chips or a
liquid derived from a process involving wood chips to the barrels to enhance characteristics of age. The
process is called ‘boise’ which is created by boiling wood chips in water, then removing the chips and
slowly reducing the remaining liquid which is dark brown liquid and is replete with wood flavour and
tannin. It is used basically to give the impression of oak aging to a final spirit. An aged boise is also
available which is less bitter than straight boise and provide secondary wood aromas like vanilla and
grilled nuts as given by aging to a spirit. It is estimated that around 80% of the flavour comes from oak
barrels used to store them, such flavours can be replicated by soaking spirits with oak chips or shavings.
Maximum solids extraction from oak is obtained at 55% ethanol and close to which is traditional
barreling proof for spirit maturation139 and the brandy was considered better and described as ‘Vanillin-
floral’. However, at lower alcohol “Oaken” was the descriptor. At 10°C, the brandy retained a raw
flavour, while after six months at 50°C produced a strange ‘rummy’ flavour.138 A week was found necessary
to extract 90% as much as exhaustive extraction that would be possible from chips no larger than 1 mm
in their smallest dimension.139 Grinding the same chips to saw dust made little difference rather made the
spirit more difficult to clarify from the solution. Too rapid drying without proper care leads to ‘checking’
since the outer wood shrinks faster than the inner and can be checked by proper kilning as well as by slow
drying in the open. For details see a separate chapter on maturation of wine and brandies.138

5.3.3 Effect of toasting intensity

 Production of Brandy 29

The charring and toasting of the barrel wood produces large effects on extraction and flavours contributed
to the beverage being aged. European hand cooperages heat the raised barrel over a fire of wood chips
with various methods either swabbing with water or dipping to enable windlassing without breakage
and then strain relief after bending. There is some degree of darkening, ‘toasting’ but is difficult to
make it uniform132 depending upon the specifications given by the wine makers. Charred wood becomes
mostly the carbon, with pyrolysis products, which are partly distilled away giving smoky flavours that
are considered undesired at recognizable levels in wines. On the other hand, reuse of charred barrels in
brandy and other spirits gives much less of the charred flavour, while the toasting makes less drastic
changes depending upon the degree and depth.18
High temperature of oak is associated with decreased hemicelluloses and increased furfural derivatives
unless the heat is very high where the furfurals polymerize probably with lignin which produces
phenol-aldehyde insoluble resins. During toasting phenols may be lost by volatilization or may be
produced by pyrolysis. Charring destroys the carbohydrates in the char25. The major acid accumulate
during maturation is acetic acid.100 Considerable amount of it may be released in pyrolytic toasting and
more with charring. Although, it is driven off as pyroligneous acid during complete charring25. Neutral
spirits aged for 96 months in new charred American barrels gave increasing total sugar to 292 mg/L
with arabinose 35%, glucose 38%, xylose 12%, fructose 9%, rhamnose 4% and galactose 3% of the
total14. In old spirits, especially when matured in new toasted barrels, vanillin clearly exceeds threshold
concentration in water 2 mg/L in 10% ethanol 0.5 and in 40% ethanol 0.1 mg/L and probably is
augmented by its relatives.83 The vanillin plus analogs can be well above sensory threshold and important
to aroma of matured distilled spirits, particularly from new toasted sludge barrels.138 The sugar degradation
products maltol and 2-hydroxy-3-methyl-cyclopentanone with potentially desired sweet, caramelized
odors have been found at low levels in toasted than in untoasted oak. 95 The effect of heat on the
cooperage wood by using thermogravity and differential scanning colourimetry showed that both the
American and French oaks behaved similarly. Below 100°C water loss was observed but the dry weight
was lost beginning at about 250°C with increase in rate upto a shoulder at about 310°C and about 70%
of the original wood weight was lost at 400°C. The heat was given-off at a faster rate near the
temperatures 290°C, 340°C and 490°C. Increasing heat effected the volatile phenols levels in ethanol95.
Several different flavours can come from different levels of oak toasting (Fig. 15). Hemicelluloses are
totally pyrolized at about 220°C-300°C, whereas, celluloses depolymerize and pyrolyzes at about
310°C to 380°C with oxidation of solid residue between 460°C and 500°C. Condensation and side
chain splitting of lignins occurs between 220°C-250°C with active pyrolysis of aromatic rings at about
300-400°C. The extractable tannins were decreased drastically by toasting of wood.134 The European
oak tends to be high and potentially harsh in wood tannin and this may be the reason that European
coopers retained firing of barrels and American preferred steaming.
30 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

Fig. 15. Effect of toasting temperature on the development of flavour. Courtesy: Ref. 173.

5.3.4 Solera system of aging brandy

A solera is a series of large casks called ‘butts’. Each solera holding a slightly older brandy than the
previous one beside it. When the brandy is racked from the last butt, no more than third of the volume
is removed which is replenished with brandy drawn from the next butt in line all the way down the
solera line to the first butt, where newly distilled brandy is added. This system of racking through a
series of casks blends together a variety of vintages and results in speeding up of the maturation
process. Some solera have over 30 stages. The minimum aging period is three years but most are
matured for more than 10 years.

5.3.5 Rapid aging

To age brandies more rapidly, various mechanical, physical and chemical procedures have been used.
The use of mechanical vibration, variable temperatures, ultrasonics, adsorption, ion exchangers,
ultraviolet and infra-red has been tried.136 Besides these, ozone, peroxide, permanganate, electrolysis
and metallic and biological catalysers have also been used. In the aging of brandy, the use of oak chips
(treated with alkali or untreated) have been recommended. Optimum results were obtained by treating
oak chips with 0.063-0.075 N alkali at 10-15.56°C (50-60°F) for two days. 140 Keeping the brandy with
the treated oak chips at 20-25°C (68-77°F) for 6 to 8 months with periodic introduction of oxygen
(15-20 mg/L) was considered equivalent of 3 to 5 years aging in wood. Favourable effects have been
observed by storing 140° proof brandy in 5-litre oak barrels for 15 days at temperatures varied from
39-75°C (102.2-167°F).27 Heat treatment of young brandies for 20 days at 38-40°C (100.5-104.0°F)
with or without (30 days) improved their sensory quality.1 The compounds like syringic and vanillin as
well as gallic acid are extracted from oak chips.101 Adding of wood extracts to brandy at the beginning
of aging and then, holding in old wooden casks secure the advantage of some but not excessive amount
of lignin, tannin and aromatic aldehydes. The use of activated charcoal also helps to improve brandy
quality particularly in reducing excessive tannins in certain brandies.

5.3.6 Changes during aging

The evolution of the distillates during 3 to 5 years of storage in wood barrels is due to the aromatic
compounds such as phenolics, aldehydes, extracted from alcoholysis of lignin.116 The variation of
 Production of Brandy 31

Table 5. Total Solid and Phenol composition of Cognac of various ages.

Component (mg/L) 1 year 10 year 30 year

Total solids 297 1882 3615
Total phenols 92 553 833
Ellagitannins 10 31 4
Gallic acid 3 22 26
Lignins 12 127 219
Vanillin 0.6 5.8 7.2
Vanillic acid 0.9 3.1 5.4
Syringaldehyde 1.1 10.9 14.2
Syringic acid 0.8 4.0 6.4

Source: Ref. No. 159.

Table 6. Average concentration of sugars in brandies matured in paired oak barrels for 4 to 8 years.

Component (mg/L) Oak barrels

U.S. Limousin
Arabinose 123 71
Glucose 59 71
Xylose 32 24
Fructose 12 24
Rhamnose 17 12
Galactose 12 6

Source: Ref. No. 138.

major constituents of grappa were not found significant during aging though it is established that water
and ethanol escape from intact barrels during maturation.39,44. The brandies resulting from the higher
humidity storage of comparable barrels almost invariably had about 15% higher content of nine small
phenolic substances including vanillin and gallic acid. Irradiation of wooden barrels with UV or g-rays
tend to increase the oxidation reaction, enhanced maturation and gave higher free-radical products.110
Similar effects were observed when the barrels were heated with oxygen for 12 days. Heating of oak in
autoclave at 120°C (248°F) for 100 hours at 15 atmospheric oxygen pressure, reduced the cellulose
and increased lignin and aromatic aldehydes.92 Ethanol extract of treated wood were very high in
aromatic aldehydes comparable to 20-50 year old brandy. Very long-matured brandy has higher methoxyl
content (i.e. more lignin) than did fresh oak extract, indicating slow reactions.122 The maximum content
of lignin in aged spirits may be as high as 800 mg/L.159 But with moderate analysis 220 mg/L was
found in very old Cognac (Table 5). Acetate esters of isoamyl, n-hexyl and b-phenethyl alcohols
decreased during aging in oak barrels, while ethyl caproate, caprylate, and caprate increased.100 The
compounds derived partially or totally from oak were more abundant in brandies aged in American oak
than French oak. Much smaller changes in brandies stored in reused barrels have been reported.41 More
32 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

nitrogenous compounds were found in brandy stored in new barrels than in used barrel.109 The Limousin
and American chips extracts were made and aged brandies were compared.114 Hydrolysis of brandies
increased the concentration of all sugars (Table 6).
In another study,44 the American extracts had relatively high concentrations of diethyl succinate,
5-methyl furfural and b-methyl-g-octalactone compared to French oak. Fatty acids and esters present
in distillates have been found to rise and fall during oak aging.44,100 Volatile esters including ethyl
acetate have pleasant fruity odors and reasonably low thresholds. The development of a ‘Cognac’
flavour was best at a lower pH.77 A rapid decrease in volatile esters was also reported.78 Old cognacs
may develop a rancio odor mainly due to lauric acid.69 The degradation products of lignin add to this
flavour. Peroxidases from molds on the exterior of the casks may also react with fatty acids to
increase the odor. High surface/volume ratios accelerated aging but resulted in unbalanced brandies.41
The 12 years of brandy aging left about 94% of the original lignin, but only 45% of the original
tannins in the exposed barrel wood.119,121 The brandies resulting from higher humidity storage of
comparable barrels invariably contained 15% higher content of nine small phenolic substances
including vanillin and gallic acid.157

5.3.7 Removal from storage

The brandy may be removed from storage at any time but may not be bottled in bond, if less than 4
years of age or if not at 100° proof with a revenue stamp giving the dates of distillation and bottling.
For sale, some brandies are reduced to 80° proof with deionized or distilled water others are flavoured
to give them distinctive character though it is the trade secret of each producer. This usually consists of
some sweetening agent with a variety of flavouring material added. Some of the flavoured brandies are
too sweet and it would be preferable to limit treatment to caramel colour and not over 1% sweetening.4
When the young brandies are cut they contain a sediment of caramel or oak extractives. To prevent this
sediment getting into the bottles, chilling to -4 -6.7°C (20-25°F), settling at a low temperature for a
day or two and close filtration have been found useful. Brandies of more than 4 years of age are often
cut to 100° proof, chilled, filtered and bottled. During filtration, the clarity may be controlled by a
nephelomer operating at 90° angle.144

5.4 Blending, Bottling and Labelling

Blending is considered beneficial for uniformity of quality. In some cases, blending is permitted under
specific conditions while in other cases it is rectification. Blending may make possible the production of
more uniform and higher quality brandy. A linear mathematical method with a computer to make blends
to the desired ethanol, total extract, tannin, lignin, vanillin, aldehydes acetal, higher alcohols, esters
furfural, pH and sensory quality was used81. Virtually, all the bottled cognacs are blends of many different
spirits. A particular VSOP brand may be the end result of the blending of as many as 50 Cognacs. The
purpose of blending is to maintain a precise standard of taste and quality from batch to batch. Hennessy
was one of the first to introduce a system that would help consumers to differentiate blend from brandies
that have aged, a minimum of two years, but many have aged considerably longer. In Hennessy’s VS,
 Production of Brandy 33

Table 7. Comparison of proof gallon yields expected from various materials.

Material Proof gal/gals of material Proof gal/100 lb of material

23.9% alcohol×9.2° Brix blending wine 0.643 7.42
70° grape rice concentrate 1.07 9.50
168° proof brandy distillate 1.68 23.60

Source: Ref. No. 45.

there are brandies that are upto 10 years old. VSOP (Very special old pale) refers to blends that are not less
than four year old. The descriptor XO (Extra old) denotes a blend of considerable age. In an attempt to
emulate the qualities of Cognac, some German brandies are blended solely from grape spirits produced in
pot stills. However, the best German brandy is blended from spirits derived from both and continuous
stills, giving its own style, with an emphasis on flavour and smoothness. Asbach Uralt Brandy is a blend
of both types of wine spirits, aged for over two years in small oak casks. The result epitomizes German
brandy at its best and is richer and rounder than many Cognac brandies. The results of fermentation tests
of a commercially produced 23.9 % alcohol×9.2° Brix blending wine with some calculations of parameters
of economic significance in comparison with grape juice concentrate and beverage brandy distillate are
presented in Table 7. After blending the brandy is bottled and accordingly labelled.

6. PRODUCTION OF TYPICAL BRANDIES

6.1 Cognac
The grapes are crushed and immediately pressed in (vertical or horizontal process), because
fermentation on the skin produces less desirable wines for distillation. In its production, various
factors such as : no late vineyard sulfuring, no botrytis on the fruit, high must fixed acidity, clean
fermentation without using pure yeast cultures, little or no sulphur dioxide, little press wine, low
alcohol, removal of seeds and dry stems, low volatile acidity, and storage of the wine in the absence
of air should be considered71. The must is fermented in cement tanks at a relatively high temperature,
25°C without prior sulfiting or classification. The use of SO2 is avoided for these fermentations due
to the reasons that (i) passage of SO2 into the brandy leads to the formation of sulphuric acid which
can lower the pH to a greater extent68; (ii) the combination of acetaldehyde and SO2 has the properties
of an acid sulfonate (strong acid) which corrodes the copper of the distilling columns11; (iii) the
reaction of ethanol and acetaldehyde to acetal, catalyzed by H+ ions, is favoured by sulfar dioxide or
bisulfite; (iv) SO2 favours the formation of acetaldehyde during the alcoholic fermentation and
lowers the aromatic quality of Cognac. The fermentation of the must is spontaneous and have low
concentrations of sugars (less than 180 g/l), tannins and high concentrations of malic acid. The wine,
thus, produced is of high acidity but with relatively low ethanol concentration. These characteristics
also help to protect the wine during storage prior to distillation and are quite suitable for ultimate
production of brandy.74 The yeast species present in the must and during the fermentation are S.
uvarum, S. rasie, S. capensis, S. chevalieri, S. globosus and quite often Saccharomycodes ludwigii
besides the dominant Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Sometimes, a surface film may develop resulting in
34 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

the formation of ethyl acetate which detracts from the bouquet of the brandy. The surface film may
include Candida valida, Hansenula anomala and Pichia kluyveri.104 Another problem which may
develop is oxidative casse due to oxidases of the grapes.68
The malo-lactic fermentation which usually occurs after the alcoholic fermentation was considered
undesirable earlier as the development of lactic acid bacteria could spoil the wine. In the beginning of
the alcoholic fermentation, the bacterial population of the musts conssits of 60% of Leuconostoc
mesentroides, 20% of L. oenos and 20% of Lactobacillus planatrum. The last species mentioned
disappears when the second day is on, and Leuconostoc mesentroides becomes preponderant. The entire
population consists of L. oenos at the end of the alcoholic fermentation and this may be considered as
the agent of the malo-lactic fermentation. Furthermore, the malo-lactic fermentation is facilitated by
higher K level, the relatively low alcohol concentration, the absence of antiseptics and the presence of
lees consisting of yeast and grape particles. The ethyl lactate concentration is increased by the malo-
lactic fermentation, but the quantity of esters does not affect the aroma of the brandy directly and the
fermentation is considered desirable. The distillation of wines while they are still undergoing
malo-lactic fermentation yields brandies with less desirable aroma. Untill the wines are distilled they
are kept on the lees. The heavy lees containing broken particles, sediments, pits or pulp are discarded,
whereas, the light lees consisting mainly of yeast are allowed to remain, provide reducing environment
which protects the wine against ‘maderisation’.
Distillation starts immediately after the vintage and continues until all the newly fermented wine is
distilled. The use of wine which has been stored for as short a time as possible, and which must not be
oxidized is emphasized. Normally, only direct-fired pot stills of small capacity, not exceeding 30 hl
(792 gal) are employed. The new wine with its lees (not more than 8% of added lees) is placed in the
still and brought to boiling. The distillation is allowed to continue until the vapour contains negligible
amount of alcohol. The distillation takes 8 or more hours and the main distillate (brouillis or low
wines) contains about 24-32 % alcohol. A tail fraction may be separated. The still is then, emptied and
refilled with fresh wine and also often with the tails of the previous distillation. A second distillation is
made followed by third distillation. These three distillates are finally combined and then, redistilled.
This last distillation takes longer time than the original distillation i.e. about 14 or more hours. Near
about 1-2% heads are separated. The main distillate (coeur) contains 58-60% ethanol and cannot
exceed 72%. A tails fraction (seconde) is also separated. To control the amount of each fraction,
continuous testing, using an alcoholic hydrometer and recycling of the heads and tails are practised.
The distillation is carried out gently to avoid mechanical entrainment; and no more than three distillations
are recommended in 24 h.73 The fatty acids produced during the fermentation and extracted by heating
the lees from insoluble salts with the copper of the pot of the stills resulting in undesirable taste,
therefore, they are eliminated. Since the experiments with pots made of glass or stainless steel have
given poor results, so copper is considered to be indispensable for the production of a quality brandy.72
The brandy with 70% by volume alcohol is first stored in new oak barrels from the Limousin or the
forest of Troncais. The staves are prepared from 40-50 years old trees. The trees are split, not sawed
and pieces of wood are used after prolonged exposure to the air. This permits aging of the wood,
 Production of Brandy 35

elimination of part of the highly astringent tannins, oxidation of tannins and phenols, development of
molds which darkens the wood and degradation of the lignin. Later, these brandies are transferred to
old casks to avoid any excessive enrichment in tannins. The very old brandies are kept in casks made
from dense wood fibre. The dissolution of soluble oak components especially tannins, polyphenols,
lignin, protein, pectins and minerals can be seen in the change of the colour of the brandy. The aging
process has been divided schematically into two phases. During the first year, the acidity increases,
acetal is formed, and extracted tannins are oxidized and intensifies the colour of the brandy. The hemi-
celluloses are hydrolyzed. The lignins and esters are alcoholized, and a vanilla like or flowery odour
appears. The aroma is highly strengthened by evaporation of water and ethanol between 10 and 30
years of storage. The taste of the brandy becomes sweeter due to the lower alcohol content and due to
the formation of sugars by hydrolysis of the hemi-cellulose. The alcohol concentration is reduced by
6-8% in a period of 15 years and the pH is lowered from 5 to 3.5 in 50 years.74 Cognac is sold at an
alcoholic concentration of 40% which can be obtained by very long aging in casks. All Cognac houses
maintain inventories of old vintage Cognac to use in blending with live brands. The oldest cognacs are
removed from their casks in time and stored in glass demizohus (large jugs) to prevent further loss
from evaporation and to limit excessively woody and astringent flavours. Luxury Cognacs are the very
finest cognacs of each individual cognac house. For more current production of brandies, they are
diluted with distilled water. But this dilution can lead to a lack of clarity due to reduction of the
solubility of esters or higher alcohols or may be by precipitation of calcium and copper salts. The
cognac is filtered at 5°C before being bottled and once bottled, it does not “age” any more. Good
Cognac has a golden colour and is smooth on the palate. It should not be too much pale or too much
dark and the poor cognac have too week or too sharp an aroma and taste. Cognac is usually drunk from
a balloon shaped glass, sometimes called as “sniffer”. This shape helps the aroma of the Cognac within
the glass and obtain the aroma as you drink. If the glass is slightly warmed the aroma can be enhanced
that is why it is named snifter.

6.2 Armagnac
The process of fermentation in production of armagnac is traditional. In its production, the wine is not
clarified. The use of sulfur dioxide and any other enological materials is avoided. The ethanol
concentration is 8-9 % by volume. The wines are stored on the yeast lees which are removed before
distillation. The new preheated wines are distilled in semi-continuous stills of special design, Verdier
system.4 The process of distillation is carried out by (i) Continuous distillation, (ii) discontinuous
distillation or redistillation. The Armagnac type still is made of copper having continuous feed and
with 2 or 3 heating vessels in series (vertically). The armagnac produced by double distillation have a
higher concentration of higher esters, particularly ethyl caprylate, caprate and laurate. The concentration
of butanedial and ethyle laurate can be used as the indicative of determining the method by which a
young Armagnac has been distilled74. After the distillation, the alcoholic concentration must not be
higher than 72% by volume. The proof of distillation is very low, not exceeding 126o. The resulting
brandy has a rustic, assertive character and aroma which require additional cask aging to mellow it out.
Armagnac is aged for 20 or more years but much is sold after only 5 to 8 years aging. The best
Armagnac are aged in casks made from peduncular oak which is rich in tannins than the oak used for
36 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

Fig. 16. Process of pisco production. Courtesy: Ref. 169, 17.

 Production of Brandy 37

the aging of Cognac. In recent years, Limousin and Troncais oak casks have been added to the mix
casks as suitable Monlezum oak becomes harder to find. Changes during aging are similar as discussed
earlier in earlier section of this chapter and detailed in the literature cited.117,118 Armagnac is sold with
an alcohol concentration of 40% by volume and is drier to taste than Cognac and the odour is less
distinctive. The yeast strain and the condition of the fermentation are much more sigificant in aroma
formation than the raw material.145 The quality of brandy is determined by a number of factors discussed
elsewhere.68

6.3 Pisco
Like wine, the process of pisco, obtained from various varieties of grapes such as Quebranta Moscatel,
Albilla, starts in the vineyards. The process is traditional and starts with the collection of the crop and
transportation to the production plant. Different unit operations involved in pisco production are shown
in Fig. 16. The grapes are crushed mechanically or by the traditional method of stepping on the grapes.
The must is kept in big deposits during fermentation (about 15 days) or until ready for distillation. The
distillation is done either in batch distillers or in falcas (very old distillers). The first alcohol is separated
and the process continues until it reaches 46° Gay Lursac of alcohol then, the process is interrupted.
This product is aged for 3 to 6 months preserving all the primary and secondary flavours before
bottling. Pisco is obtained by distillation of wine made from Muscat grapes. It is considered to be a
high quality product and a factor of important economical repercussion. However, there have been no
definite rules established for its elaboration. Therefore, the alcohol content as well as volatile composition
may vary broadly.153 Muscat grapes have been analysed for their aromatic potential3,48,178 and 54
components could be separated and 18 of these components including esters, alcohols, terpenes, acids,
aldehydes and miscellaneous compounds are detected for the first time in Pisco.48 Due to these variations,
the introduction of this beverage into the international market has been quite hindered. It is widely
accepted that the peculiar flavour of wines made from Muscat varieties is mainly due to terpene
alcohols and their derivaties. A distinctly Muscat fruit aroma distinguishes Pisco from other young
distillates. In Pisco, all production vinification and distillation process and technologies, are oriented at
heightening the final products aroma. The vinification of Muscat grapes has progressively evolved
from red to white vinification techniques to retain as much aroma as possible. Pisco is noted for its
fruity, Muscat aroma. However, various grape varieties having distinct aromatic profiles are used in the
production of this unaged wine distillate.3

6.4 Fruit brandies

Besides grape, most fruit brandies are madefrom fermented fruit mash like apple and pear, but some
fruits containing low sugar content are not capable of fermentation like raspberries and black berries.
They can be soaked in neutral spirits and then redistilled. Most fruit brandies are aged in steel, glass or
clay containers, keeping them colourless and clear. With the general category of fruit brandies, a
distinction is made among distillates from pomaceous fruits, stone fruits, berries and other fruits. A
flow sheet in Fig. 17 shows different steps involved in fruit brandy production process.
38 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

Fig. 17. Schematic flow-sheet for production of fruit brandy. Source : Ref. 20.

6.4.1 Brandy from Pomaceous fruits

6.4.1.1 Apple brandy

Apple brandy is called ‘Applejack’ locally in the United States. It has been a commercial product of
colonial and 19th century America but at present, its production is quite small. Applejack is thought by
many to be the first spirit produced in the British colonies. This colonial tradition has continued on the
East Coast with the Laird’s Distillery in New Jersey which was established in 1780 and in the oldest
distillery in America. Apple brandies that are more like eau-de-vie are produced in California and
Oregon. In France, Normandy is one of the few regions which does not have a substantial grape wine
industry but produces and distills cider into an apple brandy known as Calvados with 45% alcohol.
France is by far the leading exporter of brandy to the United States of America. Greece is the second
 Production of Brandy 39

Fig. 18. Flow-sheet for the preparation of apple brandy. Source: Ref. 58.

Table 8. Some of the major chemical components of apple brandy.

Component Value
Aldehyde 27 – 54.7 g/100 L
Esters 52.14 – 188.09 g/100 L
Higher alcohols 190 – 275 g/100 L
Volatile acidity (as acetic acid) 28 – 48 g/100 L
pH 4.4 – 4.9

Source: Ref. No. 64.

largest exporter followed by Spain, Germany and Italy.141 The local cider apples which tend to be small
and tart, are closer in type to crab apples than modern table apples, are used.
The method of apple brandy production58 has been described as early as 1939 and distillation technology
is same as for the grape brandy. Mostly the cull fruits are used for apple brandy production. Since it is
the wine which is distilled so its quality influences the brandy quality. For making quality apple brandy
the use of fresh, mold free and ripe apples for fermentation and distillation after clarification has been
40 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

recommended. The flow sheet for the preparation of apple brandy is presented in Fig. 18. The first
distillation gives a product of 60 proof which is redistilled to 110-130° proof after cutting suitable head
and tail. At present continuous columns are used to produce apple brandy. These abnormal characteristics
of naturally fermented beverages are correlated with raw material source and methods of distillation.59
Some major components of brandy are given in Table 8. All varieties of Calvados are aged in oak casks
for a minimum period of two years and has its own appellations, with the best brands coming from
Appellation Controlee Pays d’Auge near the Atlantic Seaport of Deauville and the rest in 10 adjacent
regions are designated Appellation Reglementee. Most Pays d’Auge and some of the better Appellation
Reglementee are produced in Pot stills. Cognac style quality and age terms such as V.S.O.P. and Hors
d’Age are frequently used on labels, but have no legal meaning. Apple brandies produced in USA are
aged in oak chips for a very short time.4 Pomace brandy has also been attempted but it contained higher
methanol content and efforts are being made to control its quality.149 For more details also see the
literature.19,59,62,106,151

6.4.1.2 Pear Brandy

For preparing pear brandy, tree ripened Williams (Bartlett in America) from local North-west orchards
are hand picked, carefully fermented and distilled. The distillation is done in copper pot stills and
century old traditional methods. The resulting distillates have rich aroma and fruit flavours that are
typical of Williams pear, considered one of the most precious throughout Europe. Brandy made from
William pears like Poire Williams and Williamine are especially good. Some bottles have an entire pear
in the bottle. Pear brandies (Poire) is now being produced in United States in California and Oregon.
Application of GA3 spray to frost affected trees at blossom induced parthenocarpic fruit development
in Williams L Bon Chretien L pear without affecting the flavour of the flesh or that of brandy prepared
from the fruits.51

6.4.2 Brandy from stone fruits

6.4.2.1 Peach brandy

The brandy produced from peach fruit is called as peach brandy. Peach brandy is popular in some
countries. Commercial demand for small quantities of fruit brandies had been noted in California and
sporadic attempts to prepare brandies from fruits including peach in California have been made. Methods
for preparing fruit brandy along with peach have been described.4,106,135,142 Peach brandy can be prepared
in a similar way as the grape brandy except for the method of wine preparation. The stone fruits like
peach are very pulpy. For fermentation these have to be diluted. This result in the reduction of sugar
content to a very low level, unlike grape and apple where such effect does not exist.135 Production of
brandy can soak up excessive production of peach especially the cullage, but the use of waste poor
quality waste fruit usually have little chance of making quality brandy. The peach fruit has a potential
to produce brandy of commercial acceptability from cv. July Elberta. However, the dried peach has not
been found suitable for wine making4 or for that purpose would not make a brandy. The process of
distillation is similar as that for apple brandy. A blend of tree ripened Sunny slope peaches is carefully
 Production of Brandy 41

Table 9. Biochemical characteristics of peach brandy from must with different sources of sugar.

Component Peach brandy

Sugar Molasses Jaggery
Total esters (mg/100 ml) 21.68 31.63 27.60
Fusel oil (mg/L) 48.71 36.33 41.43
Furfural (mg/L) 15.12 9.45 12.90
Aldehyde (mg/L) 24.59 19.19 21.43
Titratable acidity (mg/L) 58.47 92.22 60.76

Source: Ref. No. 135.

distilled to preserve the delicate aroma. Peach brandy is distilled in pot stills and centuries old traditional
methods. The resulting product has rich aroma and fruit flavour. A simple chromatography method to
estimate ethylcarbomate in spirits including peach has also been developed.57 Peach brandy was produced
by using peach pulp of July Elberta variety ameliorated with sugar, jaggary and Molasses as fermentable
sugar sources in peach must.135 Sugar based peach must gave the highest ethanol content amongst
jaggary and molasses (Table 12). Brandy treated with different wood chips viz. Quercus, Albizia and
Bombax recorded the higher esters, tannins, higher alcohols, ethanol and furfural contents than the
untreated brandy. Peach wine and brandy should be matured with Quercus wood chips for improvement
in all the quality characteristics.105 Composition and properties of peach brandies are affected by peach
variety107. For more details regarding production of peach brandy see references.16,57,105,107

6.4.2.2 Plum brandy

The generic name for plum brandy is slivovitz which is made from small blue Sljiva plum throughout
Eastern Europe and the Balkans. It is the national drink of the Middle European countries of Rumania,
Hungery and particularly, Yugoslavia.5 Plum brandy is usually colourless and quite potent. It is made in
Serbia and Bosnia from blue plums and is very highly regarded. Other varieties include mirabelle
which are made from yellow plums, Ouetsch from Alsatian plums and light green prunelic. Yugoslavia
slivovitz is often aged in oak, mulberry or acacia cooperage.79 It is mostly light yellow colour without
distinct evidence of wood-aged character. Yugoslavia is the leading plum producing country in Europe
and the variety used is quite similar in properties to the prune-plums grown in California. Plum
brandies produced in the Alsace region of France are named for the variety of fruit used e.g. Quetsch
and Mirabelle24. Besides the over-production, the growers are interested to turn cullage fruit, usually
having defects of size or side-split, into profitable products acceptable to American consumers. Although
for brandy production, plums must have high sugar content, but the pattern of sugar is also important.
Some plums contain sorbitol (0-36 % of total sugar) which is not a fermentable sugar. If the sorbitol
content is high, the sucrose content is low and vice-versa. The cultivars with high sorbitol content
include German Prune, Italian Prune, Chrudimes, Tulver Gras and Buhler Fruhzwetsche. Cultivars
with little or no sorbitol are Stanley, Ersinger, Bluefire and Grand Prize. There are differences between
42 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

the clones of one cv. So the two cultivars having the same percentage of sugar may result in production
of different quantities of alcohol depending upon the level of sorbitol. The content of sorbitol is also
influenced by climatic conditions i.e. in warm and sunny weather, the yield is low and the sorbitol
content is high that may cause bad fermentation47. At present, 50% of all plums grown in Yugoslavia
belong to cv. Pozegaca and another 49.5% are local cvs. used for brandy production (Slivoviz).108
Comparison of five local varieties with Grase romanesti, showed Gogosele de munte gave the highest
yields, was the hardiest and found suitable for plum brandy production.91

6.4.2.3 Apricot brandy

Apricots are greatly valued in Hungry and abroad as fresh and processed. Fruits are used for making
renowned apricot brandy.98 Brands include the French Abricotine and the Hungarian Barack Palinka. In
10 authentic laboratory brandies of stone fruit (sour and sweet cherry, damson plum and apricot), 0 to
6.4 mg of benzaldehyde per 100 ml of absolute alcohol and traces to 8.6 mg of hydrocyanic acid have
been revealed.8 In 12 commercial samples, benzaldehyde ranged from traces to 13.4 and hydrocyanic
acid from traces to about 10. The use of l-undecalactone in certain apricot liqueurs has been made.7
Brandy can also be prepared from wild apricot.60 The pulp is diluted in 1:1 ratio with water fortified
with 0.1% DAHP and fermented to completion with TSS of 25°B. The wine is then, distilled to make
brandy. The brandy made from 1:1 diluted pulp was superior to that from 1:2 dilution. The brandy
produced had intense flavour of apricot and high sensory acceptability. The product was treated with
slightly roasted oak wood chips, during maturation to impart colour and flavour. Comparison of the
methanol content of brandy made experimentally with that prepared locally showed a considerable
reduction in the quantity of this alcohol.58

6.4.2.4 Cherry brandy

The fruit growing regions of upper Rhine River are the Prime eau-de-vie production area of Europe.
The Black Forest Region of Bavaria in Germany and Alsace in France are known for their cherry
brandies named as ‘Kir’ in France and Kirschwasser in Germany. Dutch sour cherries have been
grown almost exclusively for processing. However, a large amounts of inexpensive deep-frozen
cherries are being imported from countries outside the EEC particularly, Yugoslavia. Assessment of
Dutch fruits used for various purposes for attributes like flavour and appearance by a panel have
concluded that among all, brandy wine scored the highest taste assessment.29 The suitability of
different cultivars of cherry for processing (as whole fruit) brandy or alcohol free juice have been
discussed.2

6.4.3 Brandy from berries

Most berries have too little fruits to ferment properly. They are soaked in neutral spirits which absorbs
the flavour. This mixture of alcohol and berries is then distilled. The best known berry brandy is the
raspberry brandy. The Black Forest region of Bavaria in Germany and Alsace in France are known for
their raspberry brandies (Framboise and Himbeergeist). The brandies are also made from bilberries,
black berries, strawberries, black and red currents and cranberries.
 Production of Brandy 43

Table 10. Chemical composition of guava brandy.

Cultivar Volatile acids Higher alcohol Aldehyde Esters as ethyl Vitamin C

(as % acetic acid) (g/100 L) (as acetaldehyde acetate (mg/L) (mg/100 ml)
(mg/L)
Allahabad Safeda 0.192 262.0 594.0 70.4 0.25
Banarsi surkha 0.330 120.0 774.4 79.2 0.25
Lucknow-49 0.408 208.0 704.0 79.2 2.50
Seedless 0.384 336.0 827.2 70.4 0.25

Source: Ref. No. 28.

6.4.4 Brandy from other fruits

6.4.4.1 Persimmon brandy

The mash prepared from fruits of Diospyros kaki cultivars Thiene, lycopersicon, Kurokuma, Tipo, Fugi
and Hachya were fermented at 15, 20 and 25°C with or without a starter yeast.179 Results suggested that
the most appropriate fermentation conditions were 20-25°C with selected starter yeast. The distillate
obtained from Kurokuma contained the lowest amount of acids and aldehydes, and was judged the best
following sensory evaluation.

6.4.4.2 Guava brandy

The wine prepared from Guava fruit gives a characteristic flavour10 and can be distilled into brandy.
The method of preparation of Guava brandy has been described elseqhere.28 The chemical composition
of guava brandy is given in Table 10.

6.4.4.3 Banana brandy

The fruit should neither be over-ripe nor under ripe for preparation of banana brandy.65 The over-ripe
fruit yield strongly flavoured brandy, whereas, astringent brandy is produced by under-ripe fruits. The
pulp of ripe banana is clarified and converted into juice. The juice is allowed to ferment and then,
distilled into a brandy with alcohol content of 35-40 %.66

6.4.4.4 Cashew brandy

In the Goa region of India, a type of brandy called ‘Fenni’ is made by fermenting the juice and then,
distilling through an old and crude method. Mostly the juice is fermented and made into liquor with
characteristic flavour to prevent its deterioration.88 The word ‘feni’ is derived from feun which means
Proth in Konkani.94 However, the beverage is produced on a cottage scale. The juice is extracted
mechanically using cashews apple expeller. The apples are fed to a small hopper and crushed between
a wooden roller and a concave wooden board. The yield of apple juice extracted is to the tune of
50-60 %. Similar juice extractors are employed on large scale.88 The extracted juice is kept for 2 to 3
days for fermentation with yeast which forms a film on the surface of the juice. The factors like type
44 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

Table 11. Composition of Feni-cashew apple brandy.

Component Content
Total solids 0.009 %
Total ash 0.003 (% wt./Vol.)
Volatile acid (as acetic acid) 9.4 g/100 L (absolute alcohol)
Esters 9.7 g/100 L
Acetaldehyde 24.8 g/100 L
Amyl alcohol 78.5 g/100 L
Copper 3 ppm
Alcohol content 24 %

Source: Ref. No. 88.

Fig. 19. Flow sheet for cashew apple brandy. Source: Ref. No. 59.
 Production of Brandy 45

of yeast, temperature of fermentation, extent of aeration are important in fermentation and need to be
kept optimum. The feni is obtained by distilling Uraq mixed with fermented juice (1:2). The alcohol
is recovered from the fermentation brew by distillation in a pot and made into brandy with 60%
alcohol. Distillation is carried out by using column stills. One ton of fruit is reported to yield on an
average about 580 litres of wine or about 74 litres of brandy. The brandy is aged in oak wood barrels.
The composition of brandy is shown in Table 13. The temperature of cellar is kept at 15°C. After
aging, the alcohol content is diluted by addition of water to 43%, followed by filtration, bottling and
labeling. The process of fenni production is depicted in Fig. 19. A product called “konioi” similar to
gin is made from cashew apple in Tanzania. In Brazil, cashew apple wine is prepared and marketed on
a commercial scale but its sale is declining.54 Another fascinating product bottled, is cashew apple-in-
sugarcane brandy. The method includes removal of the nut when the penduncle is still small which is
then, introduced into the bottle and allowed to grow. When fully matured, the apple is separated from
the main branch and sugarcane brandy is filled into the bottles.59

7. COMPONENTS OF BRANDY
Many compounds are present in grapes and many are formed during alcoholic fermentation of grape
must. During distillation, some compounds appear in the distillates while others are formed during
aging or extracted from wood and still others are added to beverage during processing. The bouquet
of brandy consists of a mixture of higher alcohols, esters, fatty acids, aldehydes, acetal and volatile
acids produced during fermentation. About 81 components were identified in a sample of genuine
Cognac and found evidence for 16 additional alcohol compounds133 which include 12 alcohols, 20
carbonyl compounds, 22 acids, 31 esters and 12 of miscellaneous nature. The application of FT-1R
spectroscopy to the characterization and classification of brandy was also made102. Spanish, French
and South African brandies as well as Cognacs and armagnacs were characterized and a complete
differentiation of the later two types from the rest of the samples of distilled drinks was obtained.
The concentration of 3-methyl-1-butanol can be used to distinguish Armagnac from whiskies61.
The characteristic differences are found for higher alcohols depending on the fruit used in production175.

7.1 Ethanol
Table 12. Methanol content of some brandies.

Name of brandy Quantity

Brandy Traces – 0.188 %
Cognac 59 g/hac L
Plum 1200 g/hac L
Apple 100 g/hac L
Pear 700 g/hac L
Pomace 0.039 - 0.86 %

Source: Ref. 59.

46 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

Alcohol more specific ethanol i.e ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) is the intoxicating compound in wine and
other alcoholic beverages. It is a clear, colourless inflammable liquid with a density of 0.7939 at 100%
alcohol or at 200° proof. The distilled beverages contain 37-42% v/v or more alcohol content.59 During
aging of Cognac, the ethanol content decreases.4

7.2 Other alcohols

In addition to ethyl alcohol, brandy also contains other alcohols. Grapes of high pectin content if
moldy, may yield methanol i.e. methyl alcohol. A small amount of methanol may be present in brandy
(Table 12). It has physical properties similar to those of ethanol. The methanol content of 0.039 to 2.86
% was reported in 37 uncut Piedment pomace brandies.149 Fruit brandies contain higher quantity of
methanol than grape brandies. The methanol is toxic at high concentration (4%) and may cause blindness
or even death. The higher alcohols when present in high concentration have an unfavourable effect on
the bouquet of the brandy. The principal higher alcohols are 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-methyl-1-propanol,
2-methyl-1-butanol and n-propanol.21,30,38,40,82
In brandies at 50% by volume ethanol, the higher alcohols are generally within the range of 650 to
1000 mg/l, depending on the composition of the must, the microorganism of the fermentation and this
condition employed during vinification.40 In California commercial brandy distillates, 7.4 to 30.0 g/
litres at 100o proof of n-propanol, 6.8 to 25.0 os isobutanol and 20.0 to 87.5 of combined amyls sec-
butanol were found.38 The botanical origin of brandies with statistical methods by the use of data on the
concentrations of fractions of higher alcohols and methanol have been determined.174 For example,
Cognac and Armagnac contain little methanol; 2-buytanol, n-butanol, isopropylalcohol are absent in
quality brandies; but concentrations of 3-methyl-2 butanol are high.23 The components like ethyl formate,
acetaldehyde, acetal, ethyl acetate methanol, 2-butanol, 1-propanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol in Spanish
brandies have been identified.17 The Cognac, generally, have more higher alcohols than other European
brandies. If evaporation is taken into account, the higher alcohols do not increase during aging of
Cognac.73 The better quality distillates had more higher alcohols and always contained 2-propanol
(isopropanol), moderate amounts of 1-propanol (n-propanol) and 2-methyl-1-butanol (isoamyl) of
about 100 mg/litre.13 Pressing the juice from skins, lees, aeration of musts, use of clearest must, lower
fermentation temperatures (> 20°C, 68°F) and use of white grapes to reduce higher alcohol formation
have been recommended.39
The presence of 2-butanol is used as an indication of the growth of lactic acid bacteria either in the
must or the fruits. It has little effect on the quality of brandies.12,49,128,150,153 The yeast and lactic acid
bacteria produce 1-propanol and in high concentration it can be considered an indication of bacterial
spoilage of must or the wines.50 The components present in the low quality wine were recovered in
excess of 90% in the brandy product. But only 8% of B-phenethyl alcohol and 70-75% of its acetate
esters are recovered in brandy fraction. Compounds derived mostly or entirely from oak, furfural,
5-methyl furfural, diethyl succinate and the cis and trans isomers of B-methyl-y-octa-lactone (oak
lactone –a and –b) were more abundant in brandies aged in U.S. oak than in French oak and less
amounts of oak derived compounds were obtained in brandies from reused barrels.100
 Production of Brandy 47

Fig. 20. Composition of fusel oil fraction from the distillation of wine made from Muscat
of Alexanderia raisins. Source: Ref. No. 63.

Table 13. Average composition of volatile substances (mg/L) in Brandy.

Component (mg/L) Cognac Armagnac

Acetaldehyde 32.4 50-70
1-Buanol Trace 0-20
Phenyl ethanol 36.4 9-32
Ethyl acetate 268 500-600
Ethyl caprylate 13.6 8-100
Ethyl caprate 35.2 6-140
Ethyl laurate 36.8 5-70
Ethyl myristate 11.8 4-20
Ethyl lactate 268 100-500
Methanol 413 500-600
Isobutylalcohol 813 700-1000

Source: Ref. No. 74.

A fraction (15%) with boiling range higher than 3-methyl-1-butanol was separated from the fusel oil
obtained from distillation of wine made from Muscat of Alexandria raisins.63 This fraction was
found to contain various components (Fig.20). Small amounts of ethyl pentadecanoate, n-propyl
caprylate, isobutyl caprylate, isoamyl caproate, act amyl caprylate, act amyl caprylate, act amyl
laurate and traces of act amyl caproate, acetic, caproic, caprylic, capric and isovaleric acids and 5%
of 1-hexanol. Similar results on the esters and other compounds in Cognac were obtained.9 The
important volatile component in Cognacs and Armagnacs are listed in Table 13. Fusel oils are more
toxic than ethanol but are present in brandy in such a low concentration that they cause no danger to
48 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

the average brandy consumer’s health. Since they have higher boiling points than ethanol so can be
separated from it to quite a higher degree during distillation and are collected on certain plates of the
distillation column. Although their total content is usually less than 0.3% but they constitute an
important part of the flavour of brandies.4 The origin and composition of fusel oils have been
discussed in detail elsewhere.9,15,34,52,112,148

7.3 Aldehydes
In brandies, the aldehydes chiefly acetaldehyde are present in small amounts while the propanal,
butyraldehyde and heptanal have also been reported. During fermentation furfural (Pyromucic aldehyde)
is formed in the presence of lees containing lignin compounds.68 The furfural is constantly higher in
brandies aged in American oak, but in contrast, French oak barrels appear to constitute more extract
and colour.43 Acetaldehyde is formed by oxidation of ethanol. Some aldehydes are extracted from the
wood of the barrels146 during aging. The diethyl acetal present in all brandies is formed by condensation
of ethanol and acetaldehyde.11 Some lignin is alcoholyzed during the aging of brandies in barrels.
Oxidation of the compounds formed results in the formation of aldehydes of the vanilla type flavour
which plays an important role in aroma of brandies.4 The free aldehyde content of Cognac is 38 to 112
mg/litre115. The range for Italian brandies was 30 to 116. A range of 0.3-3.8 g/100 litres at 100° proof
of aldehydes (as acetaldehyde) was revealed.38 In Armagnac, the concentration of aromatic aldehydes
range about 1-4 mg/l and those of acids 2.6-12.2 mg/l.120 Ethanol and acetaldehyde react slowly and
form acetal, a compound of pronounced odour, increasing its acetal content to about 20 mg/litre,
though higher was found in Cognacs.73 The acetal in Cognacs varied from 26.5 to 77.5 mg/litre and
young Italian brandies from 27 to 165 in old 18 to 112. Diethyl succinate, 5-methyl’ furfural and B-
methyl-y octalactone were identified as substances derived from oak during aging.4 These components
were relatively high in concentration in brandies aged in American (U.S.) oak but were quite low or
apparently absent in French oak.44 The flavour of brandy is due to carboxyls, higher alcohols, esters,
phenolic compounds, lactones, nitrogen containing compounds and some micro-nutrients.80 The presence
of aromatic compounds in alcoholic extracts have been discussed extensively.26,32,42,55,56,129

7.4 Esters
The ethanol reacts with acids to form small amounts of esters such as ethyl acetate during distillation
and aging.
C2H5OH + CH3COOH ===== CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
Esters of propyl and bytul alcohols have also been reported and at small concentration, they are not
disagreeable. The volatile compounds in brandies are derived from the grapes and the fermentation.
They are concentrated by distillation and modified during aging. In case of certain varieties, they reach
the greatest intensity if they are grown in relatively cool districts, e.g. Ugni blanc grown in the Charentes. 68
The brandy of Folle Blanche was richer in a wider range of esters than those of Saint Emilion or of
Bacco 22A.33 The esters like ethyl, hexyl and isopentyl myristate; monoethyl sciccinate; capryl enanthate,
 Production of Brandy 49

ethyl oleonoate, and ethyl phenylcaproate are the major contributors to the aroma.82 The presence of
the last named compounds can be considered a sign of brandy quality. In 31 commercial California
distillates, 2.6 to 12.8 g/100 litre at 100° proof of total esters (as ethyl acetate) were reported.38 The
total ethyl esters present in unaged brandy decrease in amount during aging in the wood, especially,
ethyl laurate and caprate.44 High concentration of ethyl n-butyrate and ethyl n-valerate which gave
brandy an undesirable ‘lolly-like odour was found.176 Important differences were also revealed in the
concentration of ethyl acetate, n-propanol and n-hexanol.30 In Cognac, 124 esters have been reported89.
The highly volatile esters are associated with the Cognac odour.78 The better brandies were lower in
esters and aldehydes and inexplicably, higher in total acidifier.123 The ethyl esters of fatty acids present
in unaged brandy distillates diminishes in amount during aging particularly, laurate and ethyl caprate.
The 1-octanol acetate esters of isoamyl, n-hexyl and B-phenetyl alcohols decreased during aging in oak
barrels.100 The ethyl esters of fatty acids capric, caprylic and capric increased during aging while ethyl
laurate changed little or slightly decreased. Important differences were revealed in the concentration of
ethyl acetate, n-propanol and n-hexanol.30

7.5 Other constituents

Wine contains many other constituents like acetic acid and lactic acid. They are distilled in brandy in
small amounts usually less than 100 mg/litre of 100° proof brandy. Free fatty acids of fermented
solutions distill easily together with steam and alcohol and thus, may appear in appreciable amounts in
distilled beverages. The concentration of fatty acids in brandies is directly correlated with the yeast
biomass in wine at the time of distillation. Fatty acids of lower molecular weight are excreted by the
yeasts into the wine, whereas, those of higher molecular weight pass into the liquid at the time of
distillation.40,147 The concentration of fatty acids in brandies depends on the production technique used.
The caproic, Caprylic, lauric, myristic and Stearic acids are found in Cognac and play an important
role in its aroma.69 The presence of propionic and butyric acids is considered undesirable. In contrast,
only small concentrations of fatty acids higher than capric acid in Armagnac were reported33 and they
are largely esterified. When volatile fatty acids of Cognac were determined as free fatty acids from
acetic acid to isovaleric acid and also caproic, caprilic and capric acids were found.96 The acetic acid
regularly appears as the largest components alone constituting 80-90% of the total fatty acids.97 Although
propionic, isobutyric, butyric, 20 methylbutyric and isovaleric acids are relatively minor components
in fatty acid composition, their individual odours are many times as strong as the odours of acetic acid,
so they make a significant contribution to aroma. The small quantities of lactones and phenolics
compounds extracted from wood during aging also contribute to aroma. Animal experiments have
shown that aroma compounds in alcoholic beverages are not harmful to health.147 Vanillic, ferullic and
syringic acids have been isolated from aged brandies.46 In 7 California commercial brandy distillates,
0.70, 0.59 and 0.24 g/100 litres at 100° proof of caprylic (C8), capric (C10) and lauric (C12) free fatty
acids, respectively, were found.38 The terpene profiles could contribute much to the aroma of pisco3.
Terpenes impart flowery characteristics to certain brandies.78 The propionic and butyric acids may be
found in distillates, if they are distilled from spoiled wines. When the young wines are distilled, they
usually foam, resulting in the rapid loss of carbon dioxide though foam producing compounds have not
50 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

been identified4. If SO2 is present in wine, it would distill with alcohol and present in brandy. High
proof brandy which is high in SO2 should not be stored in metal tanks, since it will dissolve iron and
other metals from pumps, pipe lines and storage tanks. The sulfur dioxide oxidizes to sulfuric acid
which is an undesirable constitute of beverage brandy. In case of Cognacs media, the caramel addition
decrease the concentration of volatile sulfur compounds, hydrogen sulfide and thiols are especially
bounded.93 Sulfur may come from dusts applied to the vines and grapes and this may be reduced to
hydrogen sulfide during fermentation. The sulfur also reacts with alcohols to form mercaptans,
compounds of very disagreeable odours (garlic and skunk). Such wines should be either treated before
distilling or these can be used for the production of wine spirits for fortification.4 Small amounts of
acrolcin (a highly toxic, irritating to eyes and nose and has horse radish odor) appear in Swiss fruit
brandies but seldom in brandy distilled from wine or pomace.131 During storage, the amount decreases
but can only be removed completely by redistillation in a multicolumn still. Sometimes, brandies have
an excessive copper or iron content. Australian brandies contain 0.7 to 20 mg/litre of copper and it can

Table 14. Comparable properties of alcohol and gasoline.

Particular Alcohol (160° proof) Gasoline (Average grade)

Flash point (°F) (Alcohol from condenser is well above 68 –45
this temperature)
Ignition temperature (°F) (Any flame or electric spark is 793 530
above this temperature)
Explosive limit (% volume) (Note wide range of vapour/air 4.3 – 19 1.4 – 7.6
mixture which can be ignited)
Vapour density (Air = 1) 1.59 3–4

Source: Ref. No.168.

be removed from unaged brandy by treatment with cation-exchange.125 Bandies were also found to
contain 0.01 to 0.06 mg/litre of lead126 besides ammonia and various nitrogenous degradation products.

8. FIRE AND EXPLOSIVE HAZARDS

The recently emptied brandy barrels contain a highly explosive mixture of ethanol and air. Even a
spark of a cigarette can cause an explosion of such barrels. Hence, the distillery premises should be
made of fireproof materials. Smoking or open fires like blow torches, should not be permitted near the
still. Although, the rich alcohol vapours have the tendency to settle, but the ethanol flammable liquid
can release vapours which form explosive mixture with air at or above 13°C. The alcohol/air mixtures
in the inflammable range has a specific gravity only very little greater than air. Therefore, air currents
will distribute such mixtures that can travel a considerable distance to a source of ignition and flash
back to leak or open container. They can also accumulate in confined spaces resulting in toxicity and
flammable hazards. The closed containers may rupture violently when exposed to fire or excessive heat
 Production of Brandy 51

for a sufficient period of time. From fire point of view, it is understood that alcohol is almost as
hazardous as gasoline (Table 14). One can be inspired to distill the wine on his own. The home
distillation can either be very hazardous or reasonably safe depending on the degree of care taken. The
little mishandling may result in death or burns to people and a great loss to property.

9. FUTURE TREND AND SCOPE

Brandy is an alcoholic product and its consumption has been associated with medicinal properties
which enhances its importance among alcoholic beverages. Brandy has been relished for its elegant
aroma and taste. These characteristics are based on a number of compounds. The role of these compounds
in the development of brandy flavour is entirely related to type/variety of fruit, distillation, activity of
processes of interaction and chemical conversion. Other related factors are aging in barrels, treatment
with oakwood chips, mechanism and nature of non-enzymatic oxidation during aging, malo-lactic
fermentation, blending etc. The complexicity of these processes involves thorough understanding.
These processes have been the potential areas of investigations and offers a scope for further studies.
There is a need to know the components of brandy responsible for medicinal value. Though a lot of
work has been documented for grape brandy, yet very little efforts have been made towards utilization
of fruits other than grape. In the future, more work in this direction can be fruitful. Nevertheless, a
small amount of apple jack (apple brandy) and slivivotz (plum brandy) are produced on commercial
scale. A crisp survey of literature have revealed that a good quality brandy can be produced from fruits
other than grape. In several countries, indigenous alcoholic beverages/brandies are quite popular but
their processes of manufacture have not been documented. Therefore, there is an ample scope for
research and development for the utilization of various fruits in brandy production. Moreover, the cull
fruit usually representing defects of size, side-split and surplus production (which usually add to wastage
in horticulture industry) can also be utilized for brandy production. Although various aspects of brandy
production have been well investigated yet, there is always a scope for improvement in existing
knowledge, research and technological development in future.
52 Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations

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 Production of Brandy 57

108. Paunovic, S., Gavrilovic, M., Kapetanovic, N., Adamic, F., Stampar, K., Krgovic, L. and Paunovio, S.A.
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