EE6404 – MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT-I NOTES

FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENTS

It is important to have a systematic organization and analysis of measurement systems. An

instrument may be defined as a device or a system which is designed to maintain a functional
relationship between prescribed properties of physical variables and must include ways and
means of communication to a human observer. The functional relationship remains valid only as
long as the static calibration of system remains constant. It is possible and desirable to describe
the operation of a measuring instrument or a system in a generalized manner without resorting
to intricate details of the physical aspects of a specific instrument or a system. The whole
operation can be described in terms of functional elements. Most of the measurement systems
contain three main functional elements. They are 1. Primary sensing element, 2. Variable
conversion element, and 3. Data presentation element. Each functional element is made up of a
distinct component or groups of components which perform the required and definite steps in
the measurement. These may be taken as basic elements, whose scope is determined by their
functioning rather than their construction.

Primary Sensing Element. The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the
primary sensing element of a measurement system. In other words the measurand is first
detected by primary sensor. This act is then immediately followed by the conversion of
measurand into an analogous electrical Signal. This is done by a transducer. A transducer in
general, is defined as a device which converts energy from one form to another. But in
Electrical measurement systems, this definition is limited in scope. A transducer is defined as a
device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical quantity. The physical quantity to be
measured, in the first place is sensed and detected by an element which gives the output in a
different analogous form. This output is then converted into an electrical signal by a transducer.
This is true of most of the cases but is not true for all. In many cases the physical quantity is
directly converted into an electrical quantity by a transducer. The first stage of a measurement
system is known as a detector transducer stage.

Variable Conversion Element. The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical
signal of any form. It may be voltage, a frequency or some other electrical parameter.
Sometimes this output is not suited to the system. For the instrument to perform the desired
function it may be necessary, to convert this output to some other suitable form while preserving
the information content of the original signal. We may cite an example. Suppose output is in
analog form and the next stage of the system accepts input signals only in digital form and
therefore, an A/D converter will have to used for converting signals from analog to digital form
for them to be acceptable for the next stage of the system. Many instruments do not need any
variable conversion element, while others need more than one variable conversion element.

Quantity to
be measured Primary Variable Variable Data Data
Sensing Conversion Manipulation Transmission Presentation
element Element Element Element Element

Data Conditioning Element

Functional Elements of Measurement System

Variable Manipulation Element. The function of this element is to manipulate the signal
presented to it preserving the original nature of the signal. Manipulation here means only a
change in numerical value of the signal. For example, an electronic amplifier accepts a small
voltage signal as input and produces an output signal which is also voltage but of greater
magnitude. Thus voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. It is not necessary
that a variable manipulation element should follow the variable conversion element as shown in
Figure. It may precede the variable conversion element in many cases. In case, the voltage is too
high, attenuators are used which lower the voltage or power for the subsequent stages of the
system. Further the impedance of the attenuator to mached to the input and output circuits and
further for multi ratio attenuator these impedance ratios are constant irrespective of the ratio
setting.
The output of transducer contains information needed for, further processing by the system
and the output signal is usually a voltage or some other form of electrical signal. The two most
important properties of voltage are its magnitude and frequency though polarity may be a
consideration in some cases. Many transducers develop low voltages of the order of mV and
some even µV. A fundamental problem is to prevent this signal being contaminated by
unwanted signals like noise due to an extraneous source which may interfere with the original
output signal. Another problem is that a weak signal may be distorted by processing equipment.
The signal after being sensed cannot be directly transmitted to the next stage without removing
the interfering sources, as otherwise highly distorted results may be obtained which are far from
true. Many a times it becomes necessary to perform certain operations on the signal before it is
transmitted further. These processes may be linear like amplification, attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition and subtraction. Some non-linear processes like modulation, detection,
sampling, filtering, chopping and clipping etc. are also performed on the signal to bring it to the
desired form to be accepted by the next stage of measurement system. This process of
conversion is called Signal Conditioning. The term signal conditioning includes many other
functions in addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation. In fact the element that
follows the primary sensing element in any instrument or measurement system is called Signal
Conditioning Element.
When the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated, it becomes necessary
to transmit data from one to another. The element that performs this function is called a Data
Transmission Element. For example space-crafts are physically separated from the earth where
the control stations guiding their movements are located. Therefore control signals are sent from
these stations to space-crafts by complicated telemetry systems using radio signals. The signal
conditioning and transmission stage is commonly known as Intermediate Stage.

Data Presentation Element. The information about the quantity under measurement has to be
conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or
analysis purposes. The information conveyed must be in a form intelligible to the personnel or
to the intelligent instrumentation system. This function is done by data presentation element. In
case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are needed. These devices may be analog or
digital indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters etc. In case the data is to be recorded,
recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera and T.V. equipment, storage type C.RT,
printers, analog and digital computers or micro-processors may be used. For control and
analysis purpose micro-processors or computers may be used. The final stage in a measurement
system is known as terminating stage. As an example of a measurement system, consider the
simple bourdon tube pressure gauge as shown in figure. This gauge offers a good example of a
measurement system. In this case the bourdon tube acts as the primary sensing element and a
variable conversion element. It senses the input quantity (pressure in this case). On account of
the pressure the closed end of the bourdon tube is displaced. Thus the pressure is converted into
a small displacement.
 Bourdon Tube Mech. Linkage Gearing Pointer & Dial

Pressure Primary Variable Data Variable Data

Sensing Conversion Transmission Manipulation Presentation
element Element Element Element Element

Force Displacement
Schematic Diagram of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INSTRUMENT

Accuracy, Precision, Static sensitivity, Reproducibility,Drift,Static error and Dead zone

Static characteristics of a measurement system are, those that must be considered when the
system or instrument is used to measure a condition not varying with time. Some applications
involve the measurements of quantities are constant; to define a set of criteria that gives quality of
measurement etc.
Accuracy
It is defined as the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the
quantity being measured. Accuracy means conformity of truth. The accuracy may be specified in
terms of inaccuracy or limits of error and can be expressed in point accuracy or percentage of full
scale or percentage of true value.
Precision
It is a measure of reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity,
precision is a measure of the degree of agreement with in a group of measurements.
It is composed of two characteristics;
1. Conformity
2. Number of significant figures
Resolution
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary (non-zero) input value, it will again be found
that output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called
resolution or discrimination of the instrument. Thus resolution refers to the smallest measurable
input change
Static sensitivity
It is the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal or response to the magnitude of the output
signal or the quantity being measured.

infinitesimal change in output D q0

Static sensitivity = =
infinitesimal change in input D qi

Reproducibility.
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It may be
specified in terms of units for a given period of time.
Define signal to noise ratio.

2
S signal power (signal of interest expressed in volt )
= = 2
N noise power (unwanted noise expressed in volt)

Drift
Gradual change in instruments measurements.
Measure of difference in repeatability.
Under laboratory conditions drift of an element can be determined by one of two ways;
Point drift
Calibration drift
Point Drift
By maintaining exact operating and load conditions , monitoring of output variations for a fixed
input signals as a function of time is called point drift.Used for stable process conditions
Calibration Drift
By maintaining input signals, operating conditions, a load approximately constant comparison of
calibration curves at the beginning and at specified intervals of time is called Calibration drift.Used
for varying process conditions
Linearity
This is the closeness to a straight line of the relationship between the true process variable and the
measurement. Lack of linearity does not necessarily degrade sensor performance. If the
nonlinearity can be modeled and an appropriate correction applied to the measurement before it is
used for monitoring and control, the effect of the non-linearity can be eliminated.

Reliability
Reliability is the probability that a device will adequately perform (as specified) for a period of time
under specified operating conditions. Some sensors are required for safety or product quality, and
Static Error
 Numerical differences between true value of a quantity and its value as obtained by
measurement.
 Static errors are generally of three types;
1. Mistake or gross error (human mistakes)
2. Systematic errors (instrumental or environmental errors)
3. Random or accidental errors (unknown)
Dead time.
It is defined as the time required by a measurement system to begin to respond to a change in the
measurand.

Dead zone.
It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the instrument.

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INSTRUMENT IN DETAIL

Speed of response
Measuring lag
Fidelity
Dynamic error
Speed of response- The rapidity with which an instrument responds changes in measured quantity.
Dynamic error- The difference between the true and measured value with no static error.
Lag – delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the measured variable.
Fidelity – the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without
dynamic error (faithful reproduction).

VARIOUS TYPES OF ERRORS

Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value of the
quantity under measurement.
Gross errors: is due to human fault.
Produced due to
1. Incorrect adjustment
2. Misreading of instrument scale
3. Incorrect recording of experimental data
4. Improper application of instrument
5. Computational mistakes
They cannot be treated mathematically.Can be avoided by careful reading and recording Reduced
by taking more than one reading.
Systematic errors:
Instrumental errors
Environmental errors
Observational errors
Instrumental errors: occurs due to instrument shortcomings and.Instrumental errors: due to
defective or worn-out parts, friction in bearings of meter movement, incorrect spring tension,
ageing of permanent magnets and improper calibration.Misuse of instruments: failure to
adjust the zero of instrument, poor initial adjustment, using leads of too high resistance, using
the instrument contrary to manufacturer’s instructions.
These errors can be reduced by proper maintenance and careful handling of instruments.
Environmental errors: due to temperature changes, pressure changes, humidity change,
strong electromagnetic and electrostatic fields and vibration.
To reduce provide air conditioning, shielding, proper earthing and spring mounting.
Observational error:
Parallax error: The pointer of a meter rests slightly above the surface of the scale .
Incurred unless the line of the observer is exactly above the pointer.
To minimize parallax errors, highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales.
Random errors: due to causes that cannot be directly established. These errors remail

STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF MEASUREMENT DATA

Mean value: The most probable value of measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the
number of readings taken. The best approximation is made when the number of readings of the
same quantity are very large.
Arithmetic mean = (x1 + x2 + …..+ xn) / n
Deviation: Deviation is departure of the observed reading from the arithmetic mean of the
group of readings.
Average deviation: The average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of
deviations divided by the number of readings. The absolute value of deviation is the value
without respect to its sign.
Variance: The variance is the mean square deviation, which is the same as std. deviation,
except that square root is not extracted.
Standard deviation: The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is defined as the root
of the individual deviation squared, divided by the number of readings.

The following 10 observations were recorded when measuring a voltage 41.7, 42.0, 41.8, 42.0,
42.l, 41.9, 42.0, 41.9, 42.5 and 41.8 volt. Find Mean, Standard Deviation, The probable error of
mean and range.
x d d2
41.7 -0.27 0.0729
42.0 +0.03 0.0009
41.8 -0.17 0.0289
42.0 +0.03 0.0009
42.1 +0.13 0.0169
41.9 -0.07 0.0049
42.0 +0.03 0.0009
41.9 -0.07 0.0049
42.5 +0.53 0.2809
41.8 -0.17 0.0289
x = 419.7 d2 = 0.441
 x 419.7
(i ). Mean length X    41.97 Volt
n 10
d2 0.441
(ii ). StadardDeviation     0.22 Volt
n 1 (10  1)
(iii ). Pr obable Error of one Re ading r1  0.6745 s  0.15Volt
r1 0.15
(iv ). Pr obable Error of Mean rm    0.05Volt
n 1 9
(v). Range  42.5  41.7  0.8Volt

2. In a test temperature is measured 100 times with variations in apparatus and

procedures. After applying the corrections, the results are :

Temp0C 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405
Frequency of 1 3 12 23 37 16 4 2 2
C occurrence
Calculate (a) Arithmetic mean (b) Mean deviation (c) Standard Deviation (d) probable
error of one reading (e) the standard deviation and the probable error of the mean.
INSTRUMENT STANDARDS
Standard in measurement
A standard in measurements is a physical representation of an unit of measurement. The term
standard is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical quantity.
They are used for the purpose of obtaining the values of the physical properties of other
equipments by comparison methods.
Classifications of Standards
International Standards
Primary standards
Secondary standards
Working standards
International Standard
Defined by International Agreement
Represent the closest possible accuracy attainable by the current science and technology
Primary Standard
Maintained at the National Std Lab (different for every country)
Function: the calibration and verification of secondary std
Each lab has its own secondary std which are periodically checked and certified by the
National Std Lab.
For example, in Malaysia, this function is carried out by SIRIM.
Secondary Standard
Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration
laboratories in industries.
Each industry has its own secondary standard.
Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standard to the National standards laboratory
for calibration and comparison against the primary standard.
After comparison and calibration, the National Standards Laboratory returns the secondary
standards to particular industrial laboratory with a certification of measuring accuracy in
terms of a primary standard.
Working Standard
Used to check and calibrate lab instrument for accuracy and performance.
For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors, resistors and many
more use a standard called a working standard for checking the component values being
manufactured.

Calibration:
Calibration involves the determination of the relationship between the input and output of
a measurement system.
Eliminate Bias error
The proving of a measurement system’s capability to quantify the input accurately
Calibration is accomplished by applying known magnitudes of the input and observing the
measurement system output.
The indirect measuring system must be calibrated.
Once a measurement device is selected, it must be calibrated
 Calibration –Comparison of instrument’s reading to a calibration standard
 Calibration standard created from a measurement.