Mass Transfer
Mass Transfer
Mass Transfer
Mass Transfer
________________________________________________
15.1 INTRODUCTION
In general, the transfer of mass is treated as a subject of mechanics. The mass transfer that is
associated with convection occurs on a macroscopic level that is due to a change in momentum
and is called mass (fluid) transport. Mass transport is usually treated as a subject of fluid
mechanics. When a system contains two or more species (components) whose concentrations
vary from point to point, there is a natural tendency for mass to be transferred to minimize the
concentration difference within the system. This transport of mass on a microscopic level as a
result of diffusion from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration is called
mass transfer.
1097
1098 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The convective heat transfer coefficient is a flow property that depends on fluid flow
properties and geometry. Similarly, the convective mass transfer coefficient also de-
pends on flow and geometrical parameters and they can be described by similar
governing equations.
There are also some significant differences between heat and mass transfer:
1. Heat transfer is a one-way phenomenon. The flow is always from a high temperature
region to a region of lower temperature. Mass transfer, on the other hand, is a multi-
way phenomenon. When two locations P and Q are at different concentrations within a
system of species 1, 2, 3, etc., the different species diffuse simultaneously between P
and Q, depending on the concentration gradient. Some species may diffuse from P to Q
while others may diffuse from Q to P, and their diffusion rates will also be different.
2. Except at very low concentrations, the concentration change affects the momentum and
continuity equations, and they can not be solved independently.
3. In heat transfer, the boundary conditions may involve a specified temperature, specified
heat flux, convection or radiation boundary, and their treatment is rather simple. On the
other hand, in mass transfer, the boundary may involve different phases and inter-
phases, such as condensation, evaporation, adsorption, chemical reaction, etc. This
makes the boundary conditions much more complex.
4. The mass diffusion rate depends on the molecular size of the diffusing species
compared to a medium size in heat transfer.
5. Heat conduction in its pure state does not treat medium velocities. Pure mass diffusion
deals with the bulk velocity of the medium.
Mass of component A m A
Number of moles of component A = = (15.3)
Molecular weight of A M A
Mass of component A ρ
Therefore, molar concentration CA = = A (15.4)
Volume of mixture × M A M A
where MA = molecular weight of component A.
Mass Fraction
The mass fraction mf, A is defined as the ratio of the mass concentration of species A to the mass
density ρ of the mixture or
ρA
mf, A = (15.5)
ρ
Mole Fraction
The mole fraction is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of component A to the total
number of moles of the mixture. It is denoted by γA and is expressed as
C
γA = A (15.6)
C
Partial Pressure
Partial pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a single component in a mixture when it
exists alone in the system at the temperature and volume of the mixture. The total pressure of a
mixture is the summation of partial pressures of all components in the mixture, i.e.,
p = p1 + p2 + p3 + " + pn (15.7)
The Concentration for a Gaseous Mixture
For a binary mixture of components A and B (Figure 15.1), the following summary of rules may
be applied:
ρA + ρB = ρ (15.8)
CA + CB = C (15.9)
mf, A + mf, B = 1 (15.10)
γA + γB = 1 (15.11)
mf , A mf, B 1
+ = (15.12)
MA MB M Figure 15.1 Two components in a mixture
where ρ, C, and M are the quantities pertaining to
the mixture.
For a mixture of two perfect gases A and B we have
pAV = nA RuT
15.4 CONCENTRATIONS, VELOCITIES, AND FLUXES 1101
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
15.4.2 Velocities
In a multicomponent system, the various species normally move at different velocities.
Mass Average Velocity
The mass average velocity u for a binary mixture of components A and B is defined in terms of
mass densities and component velocities as
n
∑ρ u
i =1
i i
ρ A u A + ρ Bu B
u= = (15.15)
n
ρ
∑ρ
i =1
i
ρA ρ
or u= uA + B uB = mf , A uA + mf , B uB (15.16)
ρ ρ
Molar Average Velocity
The molar average velocity for a binary mixture is defined in terms of the molar concentrations of
components A and B as
n
∑C u
i =1
i i
C A u A + C Bu B
v= n
= (15.17)
C
∑C
i =1
i
CA C
or = u A + B u B = γ A u A + γ Bu B (15.18)
C C
The velocity of a particular component relative to the mass average or molar average veloci-
ty is called a diffusion velocity. We can therefore define mass diffusion velocity and molar
diffusion velocity as
1102 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
15.4.3 Fluxes
Mass Flux
The mass flux of a species is defined as the mass of a species that passes through a unit area per
unit time relative to a stationary coordinate. For species A of a multicomponent mixture,
absolute flux = ρAuA
bulk motion flux = ρAu
m
diffusion flux JA = A
A
m
where the quantity JA = A is the mass flow rate per unit area per unit time. The absolute flux of
A
any constituent seen by a stationary observer
= Diffusion flux + Bulk motion flux
m
ρ A u A = A + ρA u
A
m
or diffusion flux JA = A = ρ A (u A − u ) (15.19)
A
Molar Flux
The molar flux can be defined in a way that is similar to mass flux as the number of moles of a
species passing through a unit area per unit time with respect to a stationary coordinate, or
n
Absolute flux NA = A = CA u A
A
Bulk motion flux = CA v
Diffusion flux NA = CA (u A − v) (15.20)
Example 15.1 A mixture of O2 and CO2 is kept in a container at 21°C and at 151.9 kPa. The
mean velocity of O2 is 0.08 m/s and that of the CO2 is –0.02 m/s. If the molar fraction of the O2 is
0.4, calculate the
(i) Molar fraction of the CO2
(ii) Molecular weight of the mixture
(iii) Molar concentration of CO2 and O2
15.4 CONCENTRATIONS, VELOCITIES, AND FLUXES 1103
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
To find:
(i) Molar fraction of the CO2
(ii) Molecular weight of the mixture
(iii) Molar concentration of CO2 and O2
(iv) Mass concentration of CO2 and O2
(v) Mass fraction of CO2 and O2
(vi) Mass diffusion velocities of both components
(vii) Molar diffusion velocities of both components
(viii) Molar fluxes of CO2 and O2
(ix) Mass fluxes of CO2 and O2
Analysis:
(i) Molar fraction of the CO2
We have γA + γB = 1
or γB = 1 – γA = 1 – γ O 2 = 1 – 0.4 = 0.6 Answer
(ii) Molecular weight of the mixture
M = γ O 2 M O 2 + γ CO 2 M CO 2 = 0.4 × 32 + 0.6 × 44 = 39.2 Answer
(iii) Molar concentrations
pi
We have γi =
p
Thus p O 2 = 0.4 × p = 0.4 × 151.9 = 60.76 kPa
and p CO 2 = 0.6 × 151.9 = 91.14 kPa
1104 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Concentration of O2:
pO2 60.76
C O2 = = = 0.0248 kg mol/m3 Answer
R uT 8.314 × 294
Concentration of CO2:
p CO 2 91.14
C CO 2 = = = 0.0372 kg mol/m3 Answer
R uT 8.314 × 294
Thus C = C O 2 + C CO 2 = 0.0248 + 0.0372 = 0.062 kg mol/m3
(iv) Mass concentrations
ρ O 2 = C O 2 M O 2 = 0.0248 × 32 = 0.793 kg/m3 Answer
ρ CO = C CO M CO = 0.0372 × 44 = 1.636 kg/m3 Answer
2 2 2
The diffusion rate is governed by Fick’s law, which states that the mass flux of a constituent
per unit area is proportional to the concentration gradient. Thus
m A dρA
= −D AB (15.21)
A dx
where m A = mass flow rate of component A, kg/s
A = area through which mass m A is flowing, m2
m A
= mass flux of component A, kg/s·m2
A
ρA = mass concentration of component A per unit volume, kg/m3
DAB = constant of proportionality, called the diffusion coefficient
or mass diffusivity of component A in component B, m2/s
d ρA
= concentration gradient of component A, a driving potential for diffusion
dx
The negative sign indicates that the mass diffusion takes place in the direction of decreasing
concentration.
The diffusion rate of component B in component A is given by
m B dρB
= −D BA (15.22)
A dx
1106 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The diffusion coefficients DAB and DBA are relative diffusivities, and they are equal in mag-
nitude.
Fick’s law in terms of molar flux NA, molar concentration CA, and mass diffusivity DAB can
also be expressed as
d CA
NA = −D AB (15.23)
dx
Fick’s law of diffusion is analogous to
(i) Fourier law of heat conduction
Q dT
= q = −k and
A dx
(ii) Newton’s law of viscosity
du
τ = −μ
dy
The Fourier equation describes the transport of heat energy due to the temperature gradient,
Newton’s law of viscosity describes the transport of momentum due to the velocity gradient, and
Fick’s law describes the mass transport due to the concentration gradient.
Further, the units of the mass diffusion coefficient are
m A
kg/s ⋅ m 2
DAB = A = = m 2 /s
dρA kg/m 4
dx
which is identical to the units of thermal diffusivity α and momentum diffusivity ν.
The physical mechanism of mass diffusion can
be understood by considering Figure 15.3. The con-
centration of component A is greater on the left side
of the imaginary plane than it is on the right side. The
higher concentration means there are more molecules
per unit volume, and thus more molecules moving in
random fashion will cross the imaginary plane per
unit time. It means that due to concentration dif-
ference, more molecules are moving from left to right
across the plane than in the opposite direction, which
results in a net mass transfer from a region of high Figure 15.3 Diffusion dependence
concentration to a region of lower concentration. on the concentration profile
Some important aspects of Fick’s law of diffu-
sion are:
15.5 FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION 1107
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Fick’s law is based on experimental evidence and hence cannot be derived from first
principle.
2. Fick’s law is valid in any state of all matters.
3. The mass diffusion rate depends on the concentration gradient caused by a temperature
gradient, a pressure gradient, or an external force.
4. A component in a mixture diffuses in the direction of decreasing concentration.
5. The diffusion coefficient DAB in general depends on temperature, pressure, and the
nature of the system components.
⎛ m ⎞
When working with Fick’s law, one may use the mass flux per unit area ⎜ A ⎟ and mass
⎝ A ⎠
concentration ( ρA) as in Eq. (15.21), or Fick’s law may be expressed in terms of molar concentra-
tion (CA) and fluxes. There is no specific rule regarding the use of expression. For gases, Fick’s
law may also be used in terms of partial pressures by using perfect gas equation of state
p = ρRuT
In terms of the universal gas constant Ru, for gas component A we have
pA M p
ρA = = A
R uT R uT
The density ρA represents the mass concentration of species A. Then Fick’s law is
m A M dpA
= −D AB A (15.24a)
A R u T dx
For gas component B in an isothermal diffusion we have
m B M dp B
= −D BA B (15.24b)
A R u T dx
Mass Diffusion Coefficient
The constant of proportionality DAB in Fick’s law is known as the mass diffusion coefficient or
mass diffusivity. The value of mass diffusivity varies widely from phase to phase.
In a binary mixture of two gases A and B, the diffusion coefficient can be obtained by using
the semi-empirical equation given by Gilliland
T 3/ 2
DAB ∝
p
T 3/2 1 1
or DAB = 435.7 = + (15.25)
p (VA + VB )
1/3 1/3
MA MB
where DAB = diffusion coefficient, cm2/s
1108 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
T = absolute temperature, K
p = total pressure of system, N/m2 or Pa
VA = molecular volume of component A
VB = molecular volume of component B
MA = molecular weight of component A
MB = molecular weight of component B
From the relation, it is evident that the diffusion coefficient depends on the pressure,
temperature, and other molecular properties of gases. These values can be extended to other
temperatures and pressures as
3/ 2
D1 ⎛T ⎞ ⎛ p2 ⎞
= ⎜ 1⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (15.26)
D2 ⎝ T2 ⎠ ⎝ p1 ⎠
The molecular volume and molecular weight of the mixture constituents can be obtained
from Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Molecular weight and molecular volume of gases
Molecular volume
Gas Molecular weight at normal boiling point
Air 28.9 29.9 cm3/gm mole
Ammonia NH3 17 25.81
Carbon dioxide CO2 44 34.00
Carbon monoxide CO 28 30.71
Hydrogen H2 2 28.6
Nitrogen N2 28 31.20
Oxygen O2 32 14.8
Sulphur dioxide SO2 64 44.78
For a gas mixture of nonpolar, nonreacting molecules, the diffusion coefficient is given by
1/ 2
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
0.001858 T 3/ 2 ⎢ + ⎥
⎣ MA MB ⎦
DAB = (15.27)
p (σ AB ) 2 Ω
where DAB = mass diffusivity of species A through B in cm2/s
T = absolute temperature in K
MA, MB = molecular weights of species A and B, respectively
p = absolute pressure in atmosphere
15.5 FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION 1109
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Example 15.3 Calculate the diffusion coefficient for CO2 in air at atmospheric pressure and
25°C.
Solution
The diffusion coefficient in gases is
T 3/2 1 1
DAB = 435.7 +
p (V + VB1/3 )
1/3
A MA MB
From Table 15.1, we have
VCO 2 = 34.0 Vair = 29.9
M CO 2 = 44 Mair = 28.9
(298) 3/ 2 1 1
Thus, DAB = 435.7 × × +
(1.01325 × 10 ) (34 + 29.9 )
5 1/3 1/3
28.9 44
= 0.132 cm2/s = 13.2 × 10–6 m2/s Answer
Example 15.4 Hydrogen gas is maintained at a pressure of 2.4 bar and 1 bar on the opposite
side of a plastic membrane 0.3 mm thick. The binary diffusion coefficient of hydrogen in the
plastic is 8.7 × 10–8 m2/s. The solubility of hydrogen in the membrane is 1.5 × 10–3 kg mol/m3 · bar.
Calculate, under a uniform condition of 25°C, the
(i) Molar concentration of hydrogen on opposite faces of the membrane
(ii) Molar and mass diffusion flux of hydrogen through the membrane
Solution
Given: Diffusion of two hydrogen gas streams through a plastic membrane
Solubility S = 1.5 × 10–3 kg·mol/m3·bar
p1 = 2.4 bar p2 = 1 bar
L = 0.3 mm DAB = 8.7 × 10–8 m2/s
T = 25°C = 298 K M H 2 = 2 kg/kg·mol
To find:
(i) Molar concentrations of hydrogen at opposite faces of the membrane
(ii) Molar and mass diffusion flux
Analysis:
(i) Molar concentrations: the molar concentration, pressure, and solubility are related as
C = Sp
Therefore C H 2 , 1 = 1.5 × 10–3 × 2.4 = 3.6 × 10–3 kg·mol/m3 Answer
Example 15.5 The tire tube of a vehicle has a surface area of 0.62 m2 and a wall thickness of
10 mm. The tube is filled with air at a pressure of 2.2 bar. The air pressure drops to 2.18 bar in a
period of 6 days. The solubility of the air in the rubber is 0.075 m3 of air/m3 of rubber at 1 bar.
The volume of air in the tube is 0.034 m3 and the operating temperature is 300 K. Calculate the
diffusivity of air in the rubber.
Solution
Given: Diffusion of air in a tire tube
A = 0.62 m2 V = 0.034 m3
Δx = 10 mm = 0.01 m p1 = 2.2 bar p2 = 2.18 bar
t = 6 days = 518,400 s S = 0.075 m of air/m3 of rubber
3
T = 300 K
To find: Diffusivity, or the diffusion coefficient of air
Assumptions:
1. Steady diffusion of air in the tube
2. Gas constant of air as 0.287 kJ/kg·K
3. Constant properties
4. Atmospheric pressure as 1 bar
Analysis: The initial mass of air in the tube is
p1V 220 × 0.034
m1 = = = 0.0868 kg
RT1 0.287 × 300
The mass of air in the tube after 6 days is
p 2 V 218 × 0.034
m2 = = = 0.0860 kg
RT2 0.287 × 300
The mass of air escaped through the tube is
Δm = m1 – m2 = 0.0868 – 0.0860 = 0.0008 kg
1112 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 15.4 Control volume for the mass diffusion equation in Cartesian coordinates
given as the net rate of the diffusion fluxes that enter the control volume in the x, y, and z
directions, expressed as
NA, X dy dz + NA, Y dx dz + NA, Z dx dy (15.35)
where NA = molar flux.
The net rate of diffusion fluxes leaving the control volume in the x, y, and z directions is
NA, (x + dx) dy dz + NA, (y + dy) dx dz + NA, (z + dz) dx dy
According to Taylor’s series expansion,
∂
NA, (x + dx) ≈ NA, x +
(NA, x ) dx
∂x
The mass of species A accumulated in the control volume due to diffusion is
Net rate of flux in – Net rate of flux leaving the control volume
⎡∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
= − ⎢ (NA, x ) + (NA, y ) + (NA, z ) ⎥ dx dy dz (15.36)
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
In mass diffusion, the mass generation rate is important. The mass generation in any species
may be due to the chemical reaction that may generate or absorb a particular species. If m A, g is
the mass generation rate per unit volume,
The net rate of mass generation of species A = m A, g dx dy dz (15.37)
1114 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Due to mass accumulation and mass generation in the control volume, the mass concentra-
tion of the control volume may change. The rate of change of molar concentration of species A is
∂ CA
= dx dy dz (15.38)
∂t
Making the mass balance on the control volume we have
⎡∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
− ⎢ (NA , x ) + (NA , y ) + (NA , z ) ⎥ dx dy dz + m A, g dx dy dz
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
∂ CA
= dx dy dz
∂t
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂C
or − (NA , x ) + (NA , y ) + (NA , z ) m A, g = A
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Using Fick’s law in terms of the molar concentration,
∂ CA
NA, x = − DAB
∂x
∂ ⎛ ∂ CA ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ CA ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ CA ⎞ ∂ CA
we get − ⎜ −DAB ⎟− ⎜ −DAB ⎟− ⎜ −DAB ⎟ + m A, g =
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂ y ⎝ ∂ y ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ∂t
∂ 2 CA ∂ 2 CA ∂ 2 CA m A, g 1 ∂ CA
or + + + = (15.39)
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2
DAB DAB ∂ t
This is a governing mass diffusion equation in Cartesian coordinates.
Without any mass generation, Eq. (15.39) takes the form
1 ∂ CA
∇ 2 CA = (15.40)
DAB ∂t
∂ CA
In steady state, = 0, and thus Eq. (15.40) becomes
∂t
∇ 2 CA = 0 (15.41)
For one dimension, the governing equation in steady state without mass generation modifies
to
∂ 2 CA
=0 (15.42)
∂x 2
Consider the isothermal evaporation of water from a surface and its diffusion through a
stagnant air as shown in Figure 15.5. The free surface of water is exposed to air in the tank and
the air that is flowing over the tank in a perpendicular direction removes the water vapor that
reaches that level. We assume the following.
1. The system is isothermal and the total pressure remains constant.
2. The system is in steady state, and hence the concentration profile of the air does not
change.
3. The air and water vapor behave as an ideal gas.
As water evaporates, it diffuses upward through the air, and in steady state this upward
movement is balanced by a downward diffusion of air. Therefore, the concentration at any
location x remains constant.
The diffusion of air downward is given by
D A M A dpA
m A = − AB (15.43)
R uT dx
where A = cross-sectional area of the tank
MA = molecular weight of component A
At the surface of water, the air cannot move downward, and hence there must be bulk mass
movement upward with a velocity to compensate for the mass diffusion of air downward.
Upward mass transfer of air = – ρA uA A
p
= − A MA A u A (15.44)
R uT
where uA is the bulk mass velocity in the upward direction.
Equating Eqs. (15.43) and (15.44),
− DAB A M A dpA p
= − A M A A uA
R uT dx R uT
D dpA
we get uA = AB (15.45)
pA dx
1116 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 15.6 Variation of partial pressures of air and water during evaporation
π π
A = d2 =
× (0.2) 2 = 0.0314 m 2
4 4
Mw = 18
p = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2
(m w ) total 0.25 × 10 −4 × 18 1.01325 × 10 5 ⎛ 101.32 − 0 ⎞
∴ = × × ln ⎜ ⎟
A 8314 × 298 0.01 ⎝ 101.325 − 3.169 ⎠
= 5.96 × 10–5 kg/m2·s
The time required for the evaporation of all the water is then
π
(m w ) total × As × t = d 2 × height of water × ρ w
4
π π
5.96 × 10–5 × × (0.2)2 × t = (0.2)2 × 0.01 m × 1000
4 4
or t = 1677355 = 46.6 h Answer
Example 15.7 A well that is 40 m deep and 9 m in diameter is exposed to atmosphere at 25°C.
(See Figure 15.7.) The air at the top has relative humidity of 50%. Calculate the rate of diffusion
of water vapor through the wall. Take DAB = 2.58 × 10–5 m2/s, Mw = 18 kg/kg·mol.
Solution
Given: Evaporation of water in stagnant air
Δx = 40 m d=9m
T = 25°C = 298 K RH = 0.5
–5 2
DAB = 2.58 × 10 m /s Mw = 18 kg/kg·mol
To find: Diffusion rate of the water
Analysis: The partial pressure ps of water vapor at level 1,
which corresponds to 25°C, is
Figure 15.7 Schematic
ps = 3.169 kPa
for Example 15.7
The partial pressure of air at the top of the well is
p∞ = RH × ps = 0.5 × 3.169 = 1.585 kPa
The diffusion rate of water into the air is then
DAB A M w p ⎛ p − p∞ ⎞
(m w ) total = × ln ⎜ ⎟
R uT ( x 2 − x1 ) ⎝ p − ps ⎠
2.58 × 10 −5 × (π /4) × 9 2 × 18 1.01325 × 10 5 ⎛ 101.325 − 1.585 ⎞
= × ln ⎜ ⎟
8314 × 298 40 ⎝ 101.325 − 3.169 ⎠
= 1.1924 × 2533.125 × 0.0160 = 4.835 × 10–7 kg/s Answer
15.7 DIFFUSION THROUGH A STAGNANT GAS 1119
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Example 15.8 Estimate the diffusion rate of water from the bottom of a test tube 1.5 cm in
diameter and 15 cm long into dry atmospheric air at 25°C. (See Figure 15.8.)
Take a diffusion coefficient of 25.6 × 10–6 m2/s.
Solution
Given: Evaporation of water from a test tube
d = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
x2 – x1 = Δx = 15 cm = 0.15 m
T = 25°C = 298 K
DAB = 25.6 × 10–6 m2/s
To find: Diffusion rate of the water
Analysis: The partial pressure of water vapor at level 1, which
corresponds to the saturation temperature of 25°C, is
ps = 3.169 kPa Figure 15.8 Schematic
for Example 15.8
The partial pressure of water at the top of the tube, dry air, is
p∞ = 0
The diffusion rate of the water from the tube is then
DAB A M w p ⎛ p − p∞ ⎞
(m w ) total = ln ⎜ ⎟
R uT x 2 − x1 ⎝ p − p s ⎠
25.6 × 10 −6 × (π /4) × (0.015) 2 × 18 1.01325 × 10 5 ⎛ 101.32 − 0 ⎞
= × × ln ⎜ ⎟
8314 × 298 0.15 ⎝ 101.32 − 3.169 ⎠
= 3.28 × 10–14 × 675500 × 0.0317 = 7.05 × 10–10 kg/s
= 0.0025 gm/h Answer
Example 15.9 In a solar pond, salt is placed at the bottom of the pond, which is 1.5 m deep.
The surface is flushed constantly so that the concentration of salt at the top layer is zero. The salt
concentration at the bottom layer is 5 kg mol/m3. Calculate the rate at which the salt is washed
off at the top at steady-state condition per m2. Take DAB = 1.24 × 10–9 m2/s. The total concentra-
tion = 55.55 kg mol/m3.
Solution
Given: Diffusion of salt into a solar pond
L = 1.5 m C A2 = 0 C A1 = 5 kg·mol/m3
DAB = 1.24 × 10–9 m2/s C = 55.55 kg·mol/m3
To find: Diffusion rate of the salt
1120 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
⎝ 1 atm ⎠
Further,
Volume of gas at mean pressure = Solubility
∴ V = 6.24 × 10–3 kg mol/m3
Using the ideal gas law, we have
pV
m=
R H2 T
9.90 × 10 −4 − 0
Thus m = = 2.9 × 10–10 kg/s·m Answer
34.0 × 10 5
Using Fick’s law, the molar diffusion rates of components A and B are given by
d CA
NA = − DAB (15.58)
dx
1124 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
d CB
and NB = −DBA (15.59)
dx
For steady-state conditions
NA + NB = 0 or NA = –NB
and DAB = DBA
d CA d CB
we get = −
dx dx
Rearranging Eq. (15.58) and integrating
x2 C A,2
NA ∫ dx = −DAB ∫ d CA
x1 CA,1
The convection mass transfer coefficient can also be defined in terms of molar flux and
molar concentrations.
NA kg ⋅ mol/s ⋅ m 2
Kc = = = m/s (15.65)
(CA,1 − CA, 2 ) kg ⋅ mol/m 3
and mass (kg·mol/s) = Kc A (CA,1 − CA, 2 )
for diffusion of water through a stagnant air layer.
The mass concentration difference may be modeled as
Mw
ρ A1 − ρ A2 = ( p s − p∞ )
R uT
and the mass transfer coefficient for this situation can be obtained from Eqs. (15.49) and (15.63):
⎧M ⎫ D ApMw ⎛ p − p∞ ⎞
Kc A ⎨ w ( p s − p ∞ ) ⎬ = AB ln ⎜ ⎟
⎩ R uT ⎭ R u T (x 2 − x1 ) ⎝ p − p s ⎠
DAB p ⎛ p − ps ⎞
or Kc = × ln ⎜ ⎟ (15.66)
( x 2 − x1 ) ( p s − p ∞ ) ⎝ p − p∞ ⎠
where ps = saturation pressure of water corresponds to the saturation
temperature of water
p∞ = partial pressure of water vapor in air
The convection mass transfer coefficient is measured in m/s in SI units.
Example 15.11 A tank contains a mixture of CO2 and N2 in the mole proportion of 0.2 and 0.8
at 1 bar and 290 K. (See Figure 15.11.) It is connected by a duct of cross-sectional area 0.1 m2,
0.5 m long to another tank containing a mixture of CO2 and N2 in the molar proportion of 0.8 and
0.2, respectively. Calculate the diffusion rates of CO2 and N2. Assume diffusivity coefficient DAB =
0.17 × 10–4 m2/s.
Solution
Given: Equimolar diffusion of CO2 and N2
x2 – x1 = 0.5 m
Ac = 0.1 m2
DAB = 0.17 × 10–4 m2/s
p = 1 bar
T = 290 K Figure 15.11 Schematic for
To find: Diffusion rates of CO2 and N2 Example 15.11
1126 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The heat and momentum transfers are interrelated by Reynolds analogy for fluids having
Pr = 1.
Nu h C fx
= = St = (15.70)
Re Pr ρ Cp u∞ 2
A similar analysis for mass and momentum transfer for Sc = 1 results
Sh Cfx
=
Re Sc 2
K L ν μ
where Sh = c and Sc = =
DAB DAB ρ DAB
Kc L Cfx
∴ =
⎛ ρ um L ⎞ ⎛ μ ⎞ 2
DAB ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ μ ⎠ ⎝ ρ DAB ⎠
Kc Cfx
or = (15.71)
um 2
The Reynolds-Colburn analogy for tube flow may also be extended to mass transfer prob-
lems to express the friction factor as
K c 2/3 f
Sc = (15.72)
um 8
which is analogous to
f
Stx Pr2/3 =
8
When Pr and Sc are not unity, the Reynolds-Colburn equation for turbulent flow inside tubes is
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr1/3 (15.73)
The analogous relation for mass transfer in a wetted wall column is given as
Sh = 0.023 Re0.8 Sc1/3 (15.74)
A wetted column means there is a vertical tube with liquid flowing in a thin film down the inside
wall of the tube and a gas flowing upward in the tube.
If we consider a laminar boundary layer on a flat plate in which mass diffusion occurs, the
equation for concentration can be written as
∂ CA ∂C ∂ 2 CA
u + v A = DAB (15.75)
∂x ∂y ∂y 2
where CA is the molar concentration of component A diffusing through the boundary layer.
The similarities between the governing equations for heat, mass, and momentum transfer
suggest that the empirical correlation for mass transfer coefficient would be similar to that of heat
transfer coefficient. Thus
K x
Shx = cx = f (Re x ,Sc)
DAB
For flow over a smooth flat plate, the local value of the mass transfer coefficient can be ob-
tained from the relation
K x
Shx = cx = 0.332 (Re x ) 1/ 2 Sc1/3
DAB
for laminar flow Re < 5 × 105 (15.76)
δ
and = Sc1/3 (15.77)
δc
where δ = thickness of the velocity boundary layer
δc = thickness of the concentration boundary layer
The corresponding average value is
Sh = 0.664 Re1/L 2 Sc 1/3 (15.78)
or Kc = 2Kcx (15.79)
For a mixed boundary condition, the average value of the mass transfer coefficient can be
obtained from
L − 870) Sc
Sh = (0.037 Re 0.8 1/3
(15.80)
The mass transfer coefficient from a turbulent boundary layer over a flat plate is
Shx = 0.0292 Re 0.8
x Sc
1/3
for Re > 5 × 105 (15.81)
The coefficient of friction for flow over a smooth flat plate can be obtained from the Rey-
nolds analogy for mass transfer as
K cx 2/3 Cfx
for laminar flow: Sc = = 0.332 Re −x 1/2 (15.82)
u∞ 2
K cx 2/3 Cfx
for turbulent flow: Sc = = 0.296 Re–1/5 (15.83)
u∞ 2
1130 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
When both heat and mass transfer occur simultaneously, the heat and mass transfer coeffi-
cients may be related as
h
= ρ Cp Le2/3 (15.84)
Kc
For turbulent flow through pipes, the mass transfer coefficient is correlated as
Kc d
= 0.023 Re0.83 Sc0.44 (15.85)
DAB
For diffusion over a sphere,
Sh = 2 (1 + 0.276 Re1/2 Sc1/3) (15.86)
There are six variables that affect the phenomenon, and they are expressed in three primary
dimensions. According to the Buckingham π theorem, the number of independent dimensionless
groups formed is 6 – 3 = 3 or π1, π2, and π3 are
a
π1 = DAB Lb μ c K c
d
π2 = DAB Le μ f ρ
g
π3 = DAB Lh μ i g Δ ρA
Solving for the three π groups, we get
K L
π1 = c = Sh (Sherwood number)
DAB
ρ DAB 1
π2 = = (reciprocal of Schmidt number)
μ Sc
L3 g Δ ρA
and π3 =
μ DAB
Multiplying π2 and π3, we get
⎛ ρ DAB ⎞ ⎛ L3 g Δ ρA ⎞ ρ L3 g Δ ρ A
π2π3 = ⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟= = GrAB (15.89)
⎝ μ ⎠ ⎝ μ D AB ⎠ μ2
where GrAB is called the mass transfer Grashof number.
The natural convection mass transfer suggests the correlation
Sh = f (GrAB, Sc) (15.90)
which is analogous to the relation for natural convection heat transfer.
Under steady-state conditions (refer to Figure 15.12), the energy balance at the air–water
interface is
qconv = qevap
m
or h (T∞ – Ts) = w h f g (15.91)
A
m w
where = Kc ( ρs – ρ∞) from Eq. (15.63)
A
and m w = mass rate of the water that evaporates
h and Kc = heat and mass transfer coefficients, respectively
ρs and ρ∞ = mass concentrations at the surface and ambient, respectively
Rearranging Eq. (15.91) gives
h
(T∞ − Ts ) = hfg ( ρs – ρ∞)
Kc
Using Eq. (15.84), we get
ρCp Le2/3 (T∞ – Ts) = hfg ( ρs – ρ∞) (15.92)
This equation can be applied to a wet bulb thermometer to obtain the relative humidity or
ambient temperature. In terms of partial pressures we have
M w ps M p
ρs = and ρ ∞ = w ∞
R u Ts R u T∞
M w hf g ⎛ p s p∞ ⎞
∴ ρ Cp Le2/3 (T∞ – Ts) = ⎜ − ⎟
R u ⎝ Ts T∞ ⎠
The air properties should be used at Tf,
T + Ts
Tf = ∞
2
and Tf is approximately equal to Ts and T∞. Figure 15.12 Diffusion of water into air
from a horizontal surface
Thus (T∞ – Ts) =
hf g M w
( p s − p∞ ) (15.93)
ρ C p L2/3
e R u Tf
Example 15.13 Air at 35°C and 1 atm flows at a velocity of 60 m/s over a
(i) Flat plate 0.5 m long
(ii) Sphere 5 cm in diameter
Calculate the mass transfer coefficient of water vapor in air. Ignore the concentration of
vapor in air.
Solution
Given: Flow of air over the bodies with
p = 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2 T∞ = 35°C = 308 K
u∞ = 60 m/s
To find: Mass transfer coefficients
Analysis: The diffusion coefficient of water vapor in air (from Appendix Table A.11) is
DAB = 0.256 × 10–4 m2/s
The properties of air at 35°C (from Table A.4) are
1.01325 × 10 5
ρ= = 1.146 kg/m 3
287 × 308
and Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg·K μ = 2 × 10–5 kg/m·s Pr = 0.706
μ 2 × 10 −5
The Schmidt number is Sc = = = 0.682
ρ DAB 1.146 × 0.256 × 10 −4
(i) Flow over flat plate, Lc = 0.5 m
ρ u ∞ L c 1.146 × 60 × 0.5
Re = = = 1.719 × 10 6
μ 2 × 10 −5
which is greater than 5 × 105, and thus the flow is turbulent.
Using Eq. (15.81), we have
Sh = 0.0296 Re0.8 Sc1/3
15.11 EVAPORATION OF WATER INTO AIR 1135
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
K c × 0.5
or = 0.0296 × (1.719 × 10 6 ) 0.8 × (0.632) 1/3 = 2472.2
0.256 × 10 −4
or Kc = 0.1265 m/s Answer
(ii) Flow over a sphere, Lc = d = 0.05 m
ρ u ∞ d 1.146 × 60 × 0.05
Re = = = 171,900
μ 2 × 10 −5
Using correlation, Eq. (15.86), we find
Sh = 2 [1 + 0.276 Re1/2 Sc1/3]
K c × 0.05
= 2 [1 + 0.276 × (171900)1/2 × (0.632)1/3] = 198.4
0.256 × 10 −4
or Kc = 0.101 m/s Answer
Example 15.14 Air at 50°C and 1 atm flows over the surface of a water reservoir at an average
velocity of 2.3 m/s. The water surface is 0.65 m long and 0.65 m wide. The water surface
temperature is estimated at 30°C. The relative humidity of the air is 40%. The density of the air is
1.105 kg/m3 and its viscosity is 1.943 × 10–5 kg/m·s. Calculate the amount of water vapor that
evaporates per hour per square meter of water surface and state the direction of diffusion.
Solution
Given: Evaporation from the surface of a water reservoir
T∞ = 50°C p = 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2
u∞ = 2.3 m/s L = 0.65 m A = 0.65 × 0.65 = 0.4225 m2
Ts = 30°C = 303 K RH = 0.4
3
ρ = 1.105 kg/m μ = 1.943 × 10–5 kg/m·s
To find: The amount of water evaporation per hour per square meter of the reservoir with
direction and diffusion
Analysis: The Reynolds number of fluid flow is
ρ u ∞ L 1.105 × 2.3 × 0.65
Re = = = 85.02 × 10 3
μ 1.943 × 10 −5
This is less than 5 × 105, and thus the flow is laminar. The diffusion coefficient = 0.256 ×
10 m2/s (from Appendix Table A.11), thus the Schmidt number is
–4
μ 1.943 × 10 −5
Sc = = = 0.686
ρ DAB 1.105 × 0.256 × 10 −4
Using correlation, we get
Sh = 0.664 Re1/L 2 Sc1/3
1136 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
K c × 0.65
or = 0.664 × (85.02 × 103)1/2 × (0.686)1/3 = 170.75
0.256 × 10 −4
or Kc = 6.725 × 10–3 m/s
The partial pressure of water vapor at the water surface corresponding to the saturation tem-
perature of 30°C is
p s1 = 4.246 kPa
The saturation pressure of water vapor at 50°C is
p s 2 = 12.35 kPa
The partial pressure of water vapor in air at 50°C, 40% RH, is
p∞ = RH × p s 2 = 0.4 × 12.35 = 4.94 kPa
The concentrations are
p s1 M w 4.246 × 18
ρw = ρs = = = 0.0303 kg/m 3
1
R u Ts 8.314 × 303
p∞ M w 4.94 × 18
and ρ w = ρ∞ = = = 0.0353
2
R u Ts 8.314 × 303
The mass flux of water vapor evaporated is then
m w
= K c ( ρ s − ρ ∞ ) = 9.03 × 10 −3 × (0.0303 − 0.0353)
A
= – 4.513 kg/m2·s = – 0.162 kg/m2·h Answer
Because ρ∞ > ρs, the water vapor diffuses from the air to the water. Answer
Example 15.15 A tray 40 cm long and 20 cm wide is full of water. Air at 30°C flows over the
tray along the length at 2 m/s. The moving air is at 1.013 bar and the partial pressure of water in
the air is 0.007 bar. Calculate the rate of evaporation if the temperature of the water is 25°C.
Take for air ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, ν = 15 × 10–6 m2/s.
DAB = 0.145 m2/h
Solution
Given: Forced convective evaporation from a tray
L = 40 cm = 0.4 m w = 20 cm = 0.2 m
T∞ = 30°C Ts = 25°C
u∞ = 2 m/s p = 1.013 bar
3
ρair = 1.2 kg/m ps = 0.007 bar
ν = 15 × 10 m /s DAB = 0.145 m2/h = 4.03 × 10–5 m2/s
–6 2
To find:
(i) Mass transfer coefficient for evaporation
(ii) Relative humidity of air for a change of state
Analysis:
(i) The thermophysical properties of air and water at 27°C are
For air ν = 15.89 × 10–6 m2/s
1
For water vg = 22.93 m3/kg → ρA = = 0.0436 kg/m 3
22.93
DAB = 0.26 × 10–4 m2/s
ν 15.89 × 10 −6
The Schmidt number is Sc = = = 0.611
DAB 0.26 × 10 −4
u∞ L 2 × 15
The Reynolds number is ReL = = = 1,887,980
ν 15.89 × 10 −6
which is greater than 5 × 105, and thus the flow is turbulent.
For the mixed boundary conditions, using correlation, Eq. (15.80), we have
L − 870) Sc
Sh = (0.037 Re 0.8 1/3
where ρ, ρs, ρ∞ are the densities of the air, the water vapor at the water surface, and in the air,
respectively.
Using the values gives
1.14 × 1.006 × (0.964)2/3 (50 – 22) = 2449 × (0.01920 – ρ∞)
⎛ 18 ⎞ 1.917
∴ ω2 = ⎜ ⎟× = 0.0120 kg/kg of dry air
⎝ 28.9 ⎠ 101.32 − 1.917
Pr 0.74
The Lewis number is Le = = = 1.233
Sc 0.6
0.0120 − ω1 1.004
Then = × (1.233) 2/3 = 0.00047
27 − 17 2461
and ω1 = 0.0073 kg/kg of dry air Answer
Example 15.18 Air at 1 atm, 25°C containing a small quantity of iodine flows with a velocity of
4 m/s inside a 25 mm diameter tube. Calculate the mass transfer coefficient for the iodine transfer
from the gas stream to the wall surface. If Cm is the mean concentration of the iodine in
kg·mol/m3 in the air stream, calculate the rate of deposition of iodine on the tube surface, where
the iodine concentration is zero.
Solution
Given: Flow of air containing iodine through a tube
p = 1 atm = 1.01325 bar T = 25°C = 298 K
u∞ = 4 m/s d = 25 mm
To find:
(i) Mass transfer coefficient of iodine
(ii) Rate of deposition of iodine on the tube surface
Analysis:
(i) For air at 25°C at 1 atm (from Table A.11),
ν = 1.58 × 10–5 m2/s
For iodine, DAB = 0.826 × 10–5 m2/s (from Table A.11)
u ∞ d 4 × 25 × 10 −3
The Reynolds number is Re = = = 6329
ν 1.58 × 10 −5
ν 1.58 × 10 −5
The Schmidt number is Sc = = = 1.913
DAB 0.826 × 10 −5
K c d K c × 25 × 10 −3
The Sherwood number is Sh = =
DAB 0.826 × 10 −5
and using correlation, Eq. (15.85), we have
Sh = 0.023 Re0.83 (Sc)0.44 = 0.023 (6329)0.83 (1.913)0.44 = 43.73
43.73 × 0.826 × 10 −5
or Kc = = 0.0144 m/s Answer
25 × 10 −3
15.11 EVAPORATION OF WATER INTO AIR 1141
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Example 15.20 Calculate the temperature of dry air at 1 atm whose wet bulb temperature is
18.3°C. If the air stream temperature is 32.2°C and the wet bulb temperature remains 18.3°C,
what would be the relative humidity of the air stream? Take
DAB = 0.26 × 10–4 m2/s α = 0.221 × 10–4 m2/s
Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg·K
Solution
Given: The temperature measurement by a wet bulb thermometer
(i) p = 1 atm = 1.01325 bar
Twb = 18.3°C
(ii) Tdb = 32.2°C Twb = 18.3°C
–4 2
DAB = 0.26 × 10 m /s α = 0.221 × 10–4 m2/s
Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg·K
To find:
(i) Dry bulb temperature when Twb = 18.3°C
(ii) Relative humidity when Tdb = 32.2°C and Twb = 18.3°C
Analysis:
(i) From the steam table at 18.3°C, we have
pg = ps = 2.107 kPa
vg = 65.08 m3/kg
hfg = 2456 kJ/kg
1 1
ρs = = = 0.01536 kg/m 3
vg 65.08
(ii) Here
T∞ = 32.2°C Ts = 18.3°C ρ = 1.212 kg/m3
hfg = 2456 kJ/kg·K Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg·K
Le = 0.85 ρ∞ ≠ 0
Using these in Eq. (15.92), we get
2456 × (0.01536 − ρ ∞ )
(32.2 – 18.3) =
1.212 × 1.004 × (0.85) 2/3
or 0.01536 – ρ∞ = 0.0062
or ρ∞ = 0.0092 kg/m3
From the steam table at 32.2°C, we have
vg = 29.24 m3/kg
1 1
∴ ρs = = = 0.0342 kg/m 3
vg 29.24
ρ ∞ 0.0092
Thus RH = = = 26.9% Answer
ρ s 0.0342
15.12 SUMMARY
The transport of mass on a microscopic level as a result of diffusion from a region of high
concentration to that of a lower concentration is called mass transfer.
The mass can be transferred by molecular diffusion, convection, and by change of phase.
The diffusion mass transfer is a molecular phenomenon and the diffusion coefficient or mass
diffusivity is a property.
Fick’s law states that the mass flux of a constituent per unit area is proportional to the con-
centration gradient:
m A d ρA
= − DAB
A dx
Alternatively,
d CA
NA = − DAB
dx
where m A = mass flow rate of the component A, kg/s
A = cross-sectional area, m2
ρA = mass concentration, kg/m3
1144 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
where Sc, the Schmidt number, is a ratio of momentum diffusivity to mass diffusivity. The other
dimensionless numbers used in mass transfer are the Lewis number (Le) and the Sherwood
number (Sh), which are defined as
Thermal diffusivity α
Le = =
Mass diffusivity DAB
Concentration gradient
and Sh =
Overall concentration gradient
The continuous evaporation of water into air results in a humidity increase in air and the
cooling of water simultaneously and yields the form
ω 2 − ω1 Cp
= Le 2/3
T∞ − Ts hf g
where ω1 and ω2 are specific humidities before and after evaporation.
Review Questions
1. Why does mass transfer take place?
2. State the modes of mass transfer and give suitable examples.
3. Explain Fick’s law of diffusion. What is mass diffusivity? What is its dimension?
4. Compare Newton’s law of viscosity, the Fourier law of heat conduction, and Fick’s law of
diffusion.
5. Define mass fraction, mole fraction, molar concentration, mass flux, and molar flux.
6. State the generalized mass diffusion equation.
7. Explain the molecular diffusion through a stagnant gas.
8. Explain steady-state diffusion through a plane membrane.
9. What is diffusion resistance? What is the convective mass transfer coefficient and what is
its dimension?
10. Explain equimolar counter diffusion.
1146 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Problems
1. Estimate the diffusion rate of oxygen through a 1 cm2 area when it is diffusing through
stagnant carbon monoxide at 0°C and 1 atm under steady-state conditions. The partial
pressure of oxygen at two planes 0.3 cm apart is 100 mm Hg and 25 mm Hg, respectively.
Assume DAB = 0.185 cm2/s and Ru = 8.314 kJ/kg mol·K.
[Answer: 2.962 × 10–6 gm·mol/s]
2. An open tank, 6 mm in diameter, contains a 1 mm deep layer of benzene (M = 78
kg/kg·mol) at its bottom. The vapor pressure of benzene in the tank is 13.15 kPa and its
diffusion takes place through a stagnant air film 2.5 mm thick at the operating temperature
of 20°C. The diffusivity of the benzene in the tank is 8.0 × 10–6 m2/s. (a) Calculate the dif-
fusion rate of benzene. (b) If the density of the benzene is 880 kg/m3, calculate the time
taken for the entire layer of benzene to evaporate. Take atmospheric pressure as 101.3 kPa.
PROBLEMS 1147
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. At the bottom of a well 2.5 m in diameter is water 5 m deep. Calculate the diffusion rate
into dry atmospheric air at 25°C and 1.032 bar. Take diffusion coefficient DAB = 0.0925
m2/h. [Answer: 2.122 × 10–3 kg/h]
4. Hydrogen gas is maintained at 5 bar and 1 bar on the opposite side of a plastic membrane
that is 0.3 mm thick. The temperature is 25°C and the binary diffusion coefficient of
hydrogen in the plastic is 8.7 × 10–8 m2/s. The solubility of hydrogen in the membrane is
1.5 × 10–3 kg·mol/m3 bar. What is the mass flux of hydrogen by diffusion through the
membrane?
5. Calculate the mass diffusivity of the binary gas mixture of air–water vapor at 273 K and 1
atm and compare the result with that given in Table 10.2.
6. Calculate the diffusion coefficient for benzene in atmospheric air at 25°C.
7. Estimate the diffusion rate of water from the bottom of a test tube 10 mm in diameter and
15 cm long into dry atmospheric air at 25°C. Given: DAB = 0.256 × 10–4 m2/s.
[Answer: 1.131 × 10–10 kg/s]
8. Two large vessels contain uniform mixtures of nitrogen (component A) and carbon dioxide
(component B) at 1 atm, T= 289 K, but at different concentrations. Vessel 1 contains 90%
N2 and 10% CO2 by moles, whereas vessel 2 contains 20% N2 and 80% CO2 by moles. The
two vessels are connected by a duct of 0.1524 m ID, and 1.22 m long. Determine the rate
of nitrogen transfer between the two vessels by assuming that steady-state transfer takes
place in view of the large capacity of the two reservoirs. Take the mass diffusivity for
the N2–CO2 mixture as 0.16 × 10–4 m2/s.
9. A deep narrow tube open at the top contains toluene at the bottom. Air inside the tube is
motionless, while at the top the toluene concentration is zero. The entire system is at 1 atm,
18.7°C, when DAB = 0.826 × 10–4 m2/s. The saturated vapor pressure of toluene at the
liquid surface is 0.026 atm. Determine the rate of evaporation of toluene per unit area if the
distance from the liquid surface to the top is 1.524 m. [Answer: 0.597 × 10–8 kg mol/m2·s]
10. One method of measuring diffusion coefficients of vapors is to measure the rate of
evaporation of a liquid in narrow tubes. In one such experiment, a glass tube 1 cm in di-
ameter was filled with water at 20°C to within 4 cm of the top. Dry air at 20°C and 1.013
bar was blown across the top of the tube. At the end of 24 hours of steady-state operation,
the level of the water dropped 0.1 cm. Calculate the diffusivity of the air–vapor system at
20°C.
11. Air at 25°C and atmospheric pressure flows with a velocity of 7.6 m/s inside a 2.5 cm
inner diameter pipe. The inside surface of the tube contains a deposit of naphthalene. De-
termine the mass transfer coefficient for the transfer of naphthalene from the pipe surface
into the air in regions away from the inlet.
12. Dry air at atmospheric pressure and 10°C flows over a flat plate with a velocity of 1 m/s.
The plate is covered with a film of water that evaporates into the air stream. Determine the
average mass transfer coefficient for the transfer of water vapor over a distance of 0.6 m
from the leading edge of the plate.
1148 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
13. Atmospheric air at 30°C flows over a wet bulb thermometer that reads 20°C. Calculate the
concentration of water vapor in the air stream and the relative humidity of the air.
14. Dry air at 25°C and atmospheric pressure blows over a 30 cm2 surface of ice at a velocity
of 1.5 m/s. Estimate the amount of moisture evaporated per hour, assuming that the block
of ice is perfectly insulated except for the surface exposed to the air stream.
15. A thin plastic membrane is used to separate helium from a gas stream. Under steady-state
conditions, the concentration of helium in the membrane is known to be 0.02 kg·mol/m3
and 0.005 kg·mol/m3 at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. If the membrane is
1 mm thick and the binary diffusion coefficient of helium with respect to the plastic is
10–19 m2/s, what is the mass flux by diffusion?
16. Oxygen gas is maintained at a pressure of 2 bar and 1 bar on opposite sides of a rubber
membrane that is 0.5 mm thick, and the entire system is at 25°C. What is the molar diffu-
sive flux of O2 through the membrane? What are the molar concentrations of O2 on both
sides of the membrane (outside the rubber)?
17. Helium gas is stored at 20°C in a spherical container of fused silica that has an inner
diameter of 0.20 m and a wall thickness of 2 mm. If the container is charged to an initial
pressure of 4 bar, what is the rate at which this pressure decreases with time?
[Answer: 2.63 × 10–8 bar/s]