Network Lab Manual

QMP 7.
1 D/F
Channabasaveshwara Institute of Technology
(An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution)
NH 206 (B.H. Road), Gubbi, Tumkur – 572 216. Karnataka.
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
LAB MANUAL
( 2017–18 )
15CSL57 COMPUTER NETWORK LABORATORY
V Semester CSE
Name : _________________________________________________
U S N : _________________________________________________
Batch : _____________________ Section : _______________

‘Instructions to the Candidates’
1. Students should come with thorough preparation for the experiment to be

conducted.
2. Students will not be permitted to attend the laboratory unless they bring the
practical record fully completed in all respects pertaining to the experiment
conducted in the previous class.
3. Practical record should be neatly maintained.
4. They should obtain the signature of the staff-in-charge in the observation book
after completing each experiment.
5. Theory regarding each experiment should be written in the practical record before
procedure in your own words.
6. Ask lab technician for assistance if you have any problem.
7. Save your class work, assignments in system .
8. Do not download or install software without the assistance of the laboratory

technician.
9. Do not alter the configuration of the system.
10. Turnoff the systems after use.

Channabasaveshwara Institute of Technology
(An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution)
NH 206 (B.H. Road), Gubbi, Tumkur – 572 216. Karnataka.
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BASICS OF NS2
1. Introduction to NS2 1
2. XGraph 9
3. Awk and advanced 10
Part-A
4. Three node point to point network 12
5. Transmission of Ping messages 14
6. Ethernet Lan using n-nodes with multiple traffic 18
7. Simple ESS with wireless Lan 22
8. Performance of GSM using MAC layer 26
9. Performance of CDMA 30
Part-B
1. CRC-CCITT 34
2. Bellman-Ford Algorithm 39
3. Client server using TCP/IP sockets 42
4. Client-Server Communication 46
5. RSA Algorithm to Encrypt and Decrypt the Data 49
6. Congestion Control Using Leaky Bucket Algorithm 54
Viva-voice 58
References 61
Computer Network Laboratory 2017-18
PART-A
Introduction to NS-2:
 Widely known as NS2, is simply an event driven simulation tool.
 Useful in studying the dynamic nature of communication networks.
 Simulation of wired as well as wireless network functions and protocols (e.g., routing
algorithms, TCP, UDP) can be done using NS2.
 In general, NS2 provides users with a way of specifying such network protocols and
simulating their corresponding behaviors.
Basic Architecture of NS2
Tcl scripting
• Tcl is a general purpose scripting language. [Interpreter]
• Tcl runs on most of the platforms such as Unix, Windows, and Mac.
• The strength of Tcl is its simplicity.
• It is not necessary to declare a data type for variable prior to the usage.
Basics of TCL
Syntax: command arg1 arg2 arg3
 Hello World!
puts stdout{Hello, World!}
Hello, World!
 Variables Command Substitution
set a 5 set len [string length foobar]
set b $a set len [expr [string length foobar] + 9]
Dept. of CSE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 1

 Simple Arithmetic
expr 7.2 / 4
 Procedures
proc Diag {a b} {
set c [expr sqrt($a * $a + $b * $b)]
return $c }
puts ―Diagonal of a 3, 4 right triangle is [Diag 3 4]‖
Output: Diagonal of a 3, 4 right triangle is 5.0
 Loops
while{$i < $n} { for {set i 0} {$i < $n} {incr i} {
... ...
} }
Wired TCL Script Components
Create the event scheduler
Open new files & turn on the tracing
Create the nodes
Setup the links
Configure the traffic type (e.g., TCP, UDP, etc)
Set the time of traffic generation (e.g., CBR, FTP)
Terminate the simulation
NS Simulator Preliminaries.
1. Initialization and termination aspects of the ns simulator.
2. Definition of network nodes, links, queues and topology.
3. Definition of agents and of applications.
4. The nam visualization tool.
5. Tracing and random variables.
Initialization and Termination of TCL Script in NS-2

An ns simulation starts with the command
set ns [new Simulator]
Which is thus the first line in the tcl script? This line declares a new variable as using the set
command, you can call this variable as you wish, In general people declares it as ns because

it is an instance of the Simulator class, so an object the code[new Simulator] is indeed the
installation of the class Simulator using the reserved word new.
In order to have output files with data on the simulation (trace files) or files used for
visualization (nam files), we need to create the files using ―open‖ command:
#Open the Trace file
set tracefile1 [open out.tr w]
$ns trace-all $tracefile1
#Open the NAM trace file

set namfile [open out.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $namfile
The above creates a trace file called ―out.tr‖ and a nam visualization trace file called
―out.nam‖. Within the tcl script, these files are not called explicitly by their names, but
instead by pointers that are declared above and called ―tracefile1‖ and ―namfile‖ respectively.
Remark that they begins with a # symbol. The second line open the file ―out.tr‖ to be used for
writing, declared with the letter ―w‖. The third line uses a simulator method called trace-all
that have as parameter the name of the file where the traces will go.
The last line tells the simulator to record all simulation traces in NAM input format. It
also gives the file name that the trace will be written to later by the command $ns flush-trace.
In our case, this will be the file pointed at by the pointer ―$namfile‖, i.e the file ―out.tr‖.
The termination of the program is done using a ―finish‖ procedure.
#Define a „finish‟ procedure
Proc finish { } {
global ns tracefile1 namfile
$ns flush-trace
Close $tracefile1
Close $namfile
Exec nam out.nam &
Exit 0

The word proc declares a procedure in this case called finish and without arguments.
The word global is used to tell that we are using variables declared outside the procedure.
The simulator method ―flush-trace” will dump the traces on the respective files. The tcl
command ―close” closes the trace files defined before and exec executes the nam program for
visualization. The command exit will ends the application and return the number 0 as status
to the system. Zero is the default for a clean exit. Other values can be used to say that is a exit
because something fails.
At the end of ns program we should call the procedure ―finish‖ and specify at what
time the termination should occur. For example,
$ns at 125.0 “finish”
will be used to call ―finish‖ at time 125sec.Indeed,the at method of the simulator allows us to
schedule events explicitly.
The simulation can then begin using the command
$ns run
Definition of a network of links and nodes

The way to define a node is
set n0 [$ns node]
The node is created which is printed by the variable n0. When we shall refer to that node in
the script we shall thus write $n0.
Once we define several nodes, we can define the links that connect them. An example
of a definition of a link is:
$ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 10Mb 10ms DropTail
Which means that $n0 and $n2 are connected using a bi-directional link that has 10ms
of propagation delay and a capacity of 10Mb per sec for each direction.
To define a directional link instead of a bi-directional one, we should replace ―duplex-
link‖ by ―simplex-link‖.
In NS, an output queue of a node is implemented as a part of each link whose input is
that node. The definition of the link then includes the way to handle overflow at that queue.
In our case, if the buffer capacity of the output queue is exceeded then the last packet to
arrive is dropped. Many alternative options exist, such as the RED (Random Early Discard)
mechanism, the FQ (Fair Queuing), the DRR (Deficit Round Robin), the stochastic Fair
Queuing (SFQ) and the CBQ (which including a priority and a round-robin scheduler).
In ns, an output queue of a node is implemented as a part of each link whose input is
that node. We should also define the buffer capacity of the queue related to each link. An
example would be:
#set Queue Size of link (n0-n2) to 20
$ns queue-limit $n0 $n2 20
Agents and Applications

We need to define routing (sources, destinations) the agents (protocols) the
application that use them.
FTP over TCP

TCP is a dynamic reliable congestion control protocol. It uses Acknowledgements
created by the destination to know whether packets are well received.
There are number variants of the TCP protocol, such as Tahoe, Reno, NewReno,
Vegas. The type of agent appears in the first line:
set tcp [new Agent/TCP]
The command $ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp defines the source node of the tcp connection.
The command
set sink [new Agent /TCPSink]
Defines the behavior of the destination node of TCP and assigns to it a pointer called sink.
#Setup a UDP connection

set udp [new Agent/UDP]
$ns attach-agent $n1 $udp
set null [new Agent/Null]

$ns attach-agent $n5 $null
$ns connect $udp $null
$udp set fid_2

#setup a CBR over UDP connection

set cbr [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr attach-agent $udp
$cbr set packetsize_ 100
$cbr set rate_ 0.01Mb
$cbr set random_ false
Above shows the definition of a CBR application using a UDP agent

The command $ns attach-agent $n4 $sink defines the destination node. The
command $ns connect $tcp $sink finally makes the TCP connection between the source and
destination nodes.
TCP has many parameters with initial fixed defaults values that can be changed if
mentioned explicitly. For example, the default TCP packet size has a size of 1000bytes.This
can be changed to another value, say 552bytes, using the command $tcp set packetSize_
552.
When we have several flows, we may wish to distinguish them so that we can identify
them with different colors in the visualization part. This is done by the command $tcp set
fid_ 1 that assigns to the TCP connection a flow identification of ―1‖.We shall later give the
flow identification of ―2‖ to the UDP connection.
CBR over UDP

A UDP source and destination is defined in a similar way as in the case of TCP.
Instead of defining the rate in the command $cbr set rate_ 0.01Mb, one can define the
time interval between transmission of packets using the command.
$cbr set interval_ 0.005
The packet size can be set to some value using
$cbr set packetSize_ <packet size>

Scheduling Events
NS is a discrete event based simulation. The tcp script defines when event should
occur. The initializing command set ns [new Simulator] creates an event scheduler, and
events are then scheduled using the format:
$ns at <time> <event>
The scheduler is started when running ns that is through the command $ns run.
The beginning and end of the FTP and CBR application can be done through the following
command
$ns at 0.1 “$cbr start”
$ns at 1.0 “ $ftp start”
$ns at 124.0 “$ftp stop”
$ns at 124.5 “$cbr stop”
Structure of Trace Files

When tracing into an output ASCII file, the trace is organized in 12 fields as follows
in fig shown below, The meaning of the fields are:
Event Time From To PKT PKT Flags Fid Src Dest Seq Pkt
Node Node Type Size Addr Addr Num id
1. The first field is the event type. It is given by one of four possible symbols r, +, -, d which
correspond respectively to receive (at the output of the link), enqueued, dequeued and
dropped.
2. The second field gives the time at which the event occurs.
3. Gives the input node of the link at which the event occurs.
4. Gives the output node of the link at which the event occurs.
5. Gives the packet type (eg CBR or TCP)
6. Gives the packet size
7. Some flags
8. This is the flow id (fid) of IPv6 that a user can set for each flow at the input OTcl script
one can further use this field for analysis purposes; it is also used when specifying stream
color for the NAM display.

9. This is the source address given in the form of ―node.port‖.

10. This is the destination address, given in the same form.
11. This is the network layer protocol’s packet sequence number. Even though UDP
implementations in a real network do not use sequence number, ns keeps track of UDP
packet sequence number for analysis purposes
12. The last field shows the Unique id of the packet.

XGRAPH
The xgraph program draws a graph on an x-display given data read from either data
file or from standard input if no files are specified. It can display upto 64 independent data
sets using different colors and line styles for each set. It annotates the graph with a title, axis
labels, grid lines or tick marks, grid labels and a legend.
Syntax:
Xgraph [options] file-name
Options are listed here

/-bd <color> (Border)
This specifies the border color of the xgraph window.
/-bg <color> (Background)
This specifies the background color of the xgraph window.
/-fg<color> (Foreground)
This specifies the foreground color of the xgraph window.
/-lf <fontname> (LabelFont)
All axis labels and grid labels are drawn using this font.
/-t<string> (Title Text)
This string is centered at the top of the graph.
/-x <unit name> (XunitText)
This is the unit name for the x-axis. Its default is ―X‖.
/-y <unit name> (YunitText)
This is the unit name for the y-axis. Its default is ―Y‖.

Awk- An Advanced
Awk is a programmable, pattern-matching, and processing tool available in UNIX. It

works equally well with text and numbers.
Awk is not just a command, but a programming language too. In other words, awk
utility is a pattern scanning and processing language. It searches one or more files to see if
they contain lines that match specified patterns and then perform associated actions, such as
writing the line to the standard output or incrementing a counter each time it finds a match.
Syntax:
awk option ‘selection_criteria {action}’ file(s)
Here, selection_criteria filters input and select lines for the action component to act
upon. The selection_criteria is enclosed within single quotes and the action within the curly
braces. Both the selection_criteria and action forms an awk program.
Example: $ awk „/manager/ {print}‟ emp.lst
Variables
Awk allows the user to use variables of there choice. You can now print a serial
number, using the variable kount, and apply it those directors drawing a salary exceeding
6700:
$ awk –F”|” „$3 == “director” && $6 > 6700 {
kount =kount+1
printf “ %3f %20s %-12s %d\n”, kount,$2,$3,$6 }‟ empn.lst
THE –f OPTION: STORING awk PROGRAMS IN A FILE

You should holds large awk programs in separate file and provide them with the awk
extension for easier identification. Let’s first store the previous program in the file
empawk.awk:
$ cat empawk.awk
Observe that this time we haven’t used quotes to enclose the awk program. You can
now use awk with the –f filename option to obtain the same output:
Awk –F”|” –f empawk.awk empn.lst

THE BEGIN AND END SECTIONS

Awk statements are usually applied to all lines selected by the address, and if there are
no addresses, then they are applied to every line of input. But, if you have to print something
before processing the first line, for example, a heading, then the BEGIN section can be used
gainfully. Similarly, the end section useful in printing some totals after processing is over.
The BEGIN and END sections are optional and take the form
BEGIN {action}
END {action}
These two sections, when present, are delimited by the body of the awk program. You
can use them to print a suitable heading at the beginning and the average salary at the end.
BUILT-IN VARIABLES
Awk has several built-in variables. They are all assigned automatically, though it is
also possible for a user to reassign some of them. You have already used NR, which signifies
the record number of the current line. We’ll now have a brief look at some of the other
variable.
The FS Variable: as stated elsewhere, awk uses a contiguous string of spaces as the default
field delimiter. FS redefines this field separator, which in the sample database happens to be
the |. When used at all, it must occur in the BEGIN section so that the body of the program
knows its value before it starts processing:
BEGIN {FS=”|”}
This is an alternative to the –F option which does the same thing.
The OFS Variable: when you used the print statement with comma-separated arguments,
each argument was separated from the other by a space. This is awk’s default output field
separator, and can reassigned using the variable OFS in the BEGIN section:
BEGIN { OFS=”~” }
When you reassign this variable with a ~ (tilde), awk will use this character for delimiting the
print arguments. This is a useful variable for creating lines with delimited fields.
The NF variable: NF comes in quite handy for cleaning up a database of lines that don’t
contain the right number of fields. By using it on a file, say emp.lst, you can locate those lines
not having 6 fields, and which have crept in due to faulty data entry:
$awk „BEGIN {FS = “|”}
NF! =6 {
Print “Record No “, NR, “has”, “fields”}‟ empx.lst

Part-A
Experiment No: 1 Date:
THREE NODE POINT TO POINT NETWORK
Aim: Implement three nodes point – to – point network with duplex links between them. Set
the queue size, vary the bandwidth and find the number of packets dropped.
set ns [new Simulator] # Letter S is capital

set nf [open lab1.nam w] # open a nam trace file in write mode
$ns namtrace-all $nf # nf nam filename
set tf [open lab1.tr w] # tf trace filename
$ns trace-all $tf
proc finish { } {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace # clears trace file contents
close $nf
close $tf
exec nam lab1.nam &
exit 0
}
set n0 [$ns node] # creates 3 nodes
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
$ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 200Mb 10ms DropTail # establishing links

set udp0 [new Agent/UDP] # attaching transport layer protocols

$ns attach-agent $n0 $udp0
set cbr0 [new Application/Traffic/CBR] # attaching application layer protocols
$cbr0 set packetSize_ 500
$cbr0 set interval_ 0.005
$cbr0 attach-agent $udp0
set null0 [new Agent/Null] # creating sink(destination) node

$ns attach-agent $n3 $null0
$ns connect $udp0 $null0
$ns at 0.1 "$cbr0 start"

$ns at 1.0 "finish"
$ns run
AWK file: (Open a new editor using “vi command” and write awk file and save with “.awk”
extension)
#immediately after BEGIN should open braces „{„

BEGIN{ c=0;}
{
if($1= ="d")
{ c++;
printf("%s\t%s\n",$5,$11);
}
}
END{ printf("The number of packets dropped is %d\n",c); }
Steps for execution

 Open gedit editor and type program. Program name should have the extension
“ .tcl ”
[root@localhost ~]# gedit lab1.tcl
 Save the program and close the file.
 Open gedit editor and type awk program. Program name should have the
extension “.awk ”
[root@localhost ~]# gedit lab1.awk
 Run the simulation program
[root@localhost~]# ns lab1.tcl
 Here “ns” indicates network simulator. We get the topology shown in the
snapshot.
 Now press the play button in the simulation window and the simulation will
begins.
 After simulation is completed run awk file to see the output ,
[root@localhost~]# awk –f lab1.awk lab1.tr
 To see the trace file contents open the file as ,
[root@localhost~]# gedit lab1.tr
Trace file contains 12 columns:

Event type, Event time, From Node, To Node, Packet Type, Packet Size, Flags
(indicated by --------), Flow ID, Source address, Destination address, Sequence ID,
Packet ID
Contents of Trace File Topology Output


TRANSMISSION OF PING MESSAGE
Aim: Implement transmission of ping messages/trace route over a network topology

consisting of 6 nodes and find the number of packets dropped due to congestion.
set ns [ new Simulator ]
set nf [ open lab2.nam w ]

$ns namtrace-all $nf
set tf [ open lab2.tr w ]

$ns trace-all $tf
set n0 [$ns node]

set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]

set p1 [new Agent/Ping] # letters A and P should be capital

$ns attach-agent $n0 $p1
$p1 set packetSize_ 50000
$p1 set interval_ 0.0001


$p3 set packetSize_ 30000
$p3 set interval_ 0.00001




Agent/Ping instproc recv {from rtt} {
$self instvar node_
puts "node [$node_ id] received answer from $from with round trip time $rtt msec"
}
# please provide space between $node_ and id. No space between $ and from. No space
between and $ and rtt */
$ns connect $p1 $p5

$ns connect $p3 $p4
proc finish { } {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
close $tf
exec nam lab2.nam &
exit 0
}
$ns at 0.1 "$p1 send"

$ns at 2.0 "finish"

$ns run
AWK file: (Open a new editor using “gedit command” and write awk file and save with
“.awk” extension)
BEGIN{
drop=0;
}

{
if($1= ="d" )
{
drop++;
}
}
END{
printf("Total number of %s packets dropped due to congestion =%d\n",$5,drop);
}
Steps for execution

“ .tcl ”
snapshot.
begins.
Topology Output

Output


ETHERNET LAN USING N-NODES WITH MULTIPLE TRAFFIC
Aim: Implement an Ethernet LAN using n nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and plot
congestion window for different source / destination

set tf [open lab3.tr w]
$ns trace-all $tf
set nf [open lab3.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $nf
set n0 [$ns node]

$n0 color "magenta"
$n0 label "src1"
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
$n2 color "magenta"
$n2 label "src2"
set n3 [$ns node]
$n3 color "blue"
$n3 label "dest2"
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]
$n5 color "blue"
$n5 label "dest1"
$ns make-lan "$n0 $n1 $n2 $n3 $n4" 100Mb 100ms LL Queue/ DropTail Mac/802_3
set tcp0 [new Agent/TCP]

$ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp0
set ftp0 [new Application/FTP]

$ftp0 attach-agent $tcp0
$ftp0 set packetSize_ 500
$ftp0 set interval_ 0.0001
set sink5 [new Agent/TCPSink]

$ns attach-agent $n5 $sink5
$ns connect $tcp0 $sink5



$ftp2 set packetSize_ 600

$ftp2 set interval_ 0.001
set file1 [open file1.tr w]

$tcp0 attach $file1
set file2 [open file2.tr w]

$tcp2 attach $file2
$tcp0 trace cwnd_ # must put underscore ( _ ) after cwnd and no space between them
$tcp2 trace cwnd_
proc finish { } {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace
close $tf
close $nf
exec nam lab3.nam &
exit 0
}
$ns at 0.1 "$ftp0 start"

$ns at 5 "$ftp0 stop"
$ns at 7 "$ftp0 start"
$ns at 0.2 "$ftp2 start"
$ns at 16 "finish"
$ns run
cwnd:- means congestion window
BEGIN {
}
{
if($6= ="cwnd_") # don‟t leave space after writing cwnd_
printf("%f\t%f\t\n",$1,$7); # you must put \n in printf
}
END {
}

Steps for execution

“ .tcl ”
snapshot.
begins.
[root@localhost~]# awk –f lab3.awk file1.tr > a1
[root@localhost~]# awk –f lab3.awk file2.tr > a2
[root@localhost~]# xgraph a1 a2\
 Here we are using the congestion window trace files i.e. file1.tr and file2.tr and we
are redirecting the contents of those files to new files say a1 and a2 using output
redirection operator (>).
Topolgy:

Output:


SIMPLE ESS WITH WIRELESS LAN
Aim: Implement simple ESS and with transmitting nodes in wire-less LAN by simulation and
determine the performance with respect to transmission of packets.

set tf [open lab4.tr w]
$ns trace-all $tf
set topo [new Topography]
$topo load_flatgrid 1000 1000
set nf [open lab4.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all-wireless $nf 1000 1000
$ns node-config -adhocRouting DSDV \

-llType LL \
-macType Mac/802_11 \
-ifqType Queue/DropTail \
-ifqLen 50 \
-phyType Phy/WirelessPhy \
-channelType Channel/WirelessChannel \
-prrootype Propagation/TwoRayGround \
-antType Antenna/OmniAntenna \
-topoInstance $topo \
-agentTrace ON \
-routerTrace ON
create-god 3
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
$n0 label "tcp0"

$n1 label "sink1/tcp1"
$n2 label "sink2"
$n0 set X_ 50
$n0 set Y_ 50
$n0 set Z_ 0
$n1 set X_ 100
$n1 set Y_ 100
$n1 set Z_ 0
$n2 set X_ 600
$n2 set Y_ 600
$n2 set Z_ 0
$ns at 0.1 "$n0 setdest 50 50 15"

$ns at 0.1 "$n1 setdest 100 100 25"
$ns at 0.1 "$n2 setdest 600 600 25"



$ns at 100 "$n1 setdest 550 550 15"

$ns at 190 "$n1 setdest 70 70 15"
proc finish { } {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace
exec nam lab4.nam &
close $tf
exit 0
}
$ns at 250 "finish"
$ns run
BEGIN{
count1=0
count2=0
pack1=0
pack2=0
time1=0
time2=0
}
{
if($1= ="r"&& $3= ="_1_" && $4= ="AGT")
{
count1++
pack1=pack1+$8
time1=$2
}
if($1= ="r" && $3= ="_2_" && $4= ="AGT")

{
count2++
pack2=pack2+$8
time2=$2
}
}
END{
printf("The Throughput from n0 to n1: %f Mbps \n‖, ((count1*pack1*8)/(time1*1000000)));
printf("The Throughput from n1 to n2: %f Mbps", ((count2*pack2*8)/(time2*1000000)));
}
Steps for execution

“ .tcl ”
snapshot.
begins.
Output:
Node 1 and 2 are communicating Node 2 is moving towards node 3

Node 2 is coming back from node 3 towards node1 Trace File

Here “M” indicates mobile nodes, “AGT” indicates Agent Trace, “RTR” indicates
Route Trace


PERFORMANCE OF GSM USING MAC LAYER
Aim: Implement and study the performance of GSM on NS2/NS3 (Using MAC layer) or
equivalent environment.
Source Code:
# General Parameters
set opt(title) zero ;
set opt(stop) 100 ;# Stop time.
set opt(ecn) 0 ;
# Topology
set opt(type) gsm ;#type of link:
set opt(secondDelay) 55 ;# average delay of access links in ms
# AQM parameters
set opt(minth) 30 ;
set opt(maxth) 0 ;
set opt(adaptive) 1 ;# 1 for Adaptive RED, 0 for plain RED
# Traffic generation.
set opt(flows) 0 ;# number of long-lived TCP flows
set opt(window) 30 ;# window for long-lived traffic
set opt(web) 2 ;# number of web sessions
# Plotting statistics.
set opt(quiet) 0 ;# popup anything
set opt(wrap) 100 ;# wrap plots
set opt(srcTrace) is ;# where to plot traffic
set opt(dstTrace) bs2 ;# where to plot traffic
set opt(gsmbuf) 10 ; # buffer size for gsm
#default downlink bandwidth in bps
set bwDL(gsm) 9600
#default uplink bandwidth in bps
set bwUL(gsm) 9600
#default downlink propagation delay in seconds
set propDL(gsm) .500
#default uplink propagation delay in seconds
set propUL(gsm) .500
#default buffer size in packets
set buf(gsm) 10


set tf [open out.tr w]
$ns trace-all $tf
set nodes(is) [$ns node]
set nodes(ms) [$ns node]
set nodes(bs1) [$ns node]
set nodes(lp) [$ns node]
proc cell_topo {} {
global ns nodes
$ns duplex-link $nodes(lp) $nodes(bs1) 3Mbps 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $nodes(bs1) $nodes(ms) 1 1 RED
$ns duplex-link $nodes(ms) $nodes(bs2) 1 1 RED
$ns duplex-link $nodes(bs2) $nodes(is) 3Mbps 50ms DropTail
puts "Cell Topology"
}
proc set_link_params {t} {
global ns nodes bwUL bwDL propUL propDL buf
$ns bandwidth $nodes(bs1) $nodes(ms) $bwDL($t) simplex
$ns bandwidth $nodes(ms) $nodes(bs1) $bwUL($t) simplex
$ns delay $nodes(bs1) $nodes(ms) $propDL($t) simplex
$ns delay $nodes(ms) $nodes(bs1) $propDL($t) simplex
$ns queue-limit $nodes(bs1) $nodes(ms) $buf($t)
$ns queue-limit $nodes(ms) $nodes(bs1) $buf($t)
}
# RED and TCP parameters
Queue/RED set summarystats_ true
Queue/DropTail set summarystats_ true
Queue/RED set adaptive_ $opt(adaptive)
Queue/RED set q_weight_ 0.0
Queue/RED set thresh_ $opt(minth)
Queue/RED set maxthresh_ $opt(maxth)
Queue/DropTail set shrink_drops_ true
Agent/TCP set ecn_ $opt(ecn)
Agent/TCP set window_ $opt(window)
DelayLink set avoidReordering_ true
source web.tcl
#Create topology
switch $opt(type) {
gsm -
gprs -
umts {cell_topo}
}
set_link_params $opt(type)

$ns insert-delayer $nodes(ms) $nodes(bs1) [new Delayer]

$ns insert-delayer $nodes(bs1) $nodes(ms) [new Delayer]
# Set up forward TCP connection
if {$opt(flows) == 0} {
set tcp1 [$ns create-connection TCP/Sack1 $nodes(is) TCPSink/Sack1 $nodes(lp) 0]
set ftp1 [[set tcp1] attach-app FTP]
$ns at 0.8 "[set ftp1] start"
}
if {$opt(flows) > 0} {
$tcp1 set window_ 100
$ns at 3.5 "[set ftp1] stop"
$tcp2 set window_ 3
}
proc stop {} {
global nodes opt nf
set wrap $opt(wrap)
set sid [$nodes($opt(srcTrace)) id]
set did [$nodes($opt(dstTrace)) id]
if {$opt(srcTrace) == "is"} {
set a "-a out.tr"
} else {
set a "out.tr"
}
set GETRC "../../../bin/getrc"
set RAW2XG "../../../bin/raw2xg"
exec $GETRC -s $sid -d $did -f 0 out.tr | \
$RAW2XG -s 0.01 -m $wrap -r > plot.xgr
exec $GETRC -s $did -d $sid -f 0 out.tr | \
$RAW2XG -a -s 0.01 -m $wrap >> plot.xgr
$RAW2XG -s 0.01 -m $wrap -r >> plot.xgr
$RAW2XG -s 0.01 -m $wrap -a >> plot.xgr
exec ./xg2gp.awk plot.xgr
if {!$opt(quiet)} {
exec xgraph -bb -tk -nl -m -x time -y packets plot.xgr &
}
exit 0
}
$ns at $opt(stop) "stop"
$ns run



PERFORMANCE OF CDMA
Aim: Implement and study the performance of CDMA on NS2/NS3 (Using stack called Call
net) or equivalent environment.
Source Code:
# General Parameters
set opt(title) zero ;
set opt(stop) 100 ;# Stop time.
set opt(ecn) 0 ;
# Topology
set opt(type) umts ;#type of link:
set opt(secondDelay) 55 ;# average delay of access links in ms
# AQM parameters
set opt(minth) 30 ;
set opt(maxth) 0 ;
set opt(adaptive) 1 ;# 1 for Adaptive RED, 0 for plain RED
# Traffic generation.
set opt(flows) 0 ;# number of long-lived TCP flows
set opt(window) 30 ;# window for long-lived traffic
set opt(web) 2 ;# number of web sessions
# Plotting statistics.
set opt(quiet) 0 ;# popup anything
set opt(wrap) 100 ;# wrap plots
set opt(srcTrace) is ;# where to plot traffic
set opt(dstTrace) bs2 ;# where to plot traffic
set opt(umtsbuf) 10 ; # buffer size for umts
#default downlink bandwidth in bps
set bwDL(umts) 384000
#default uplink bandwidth in bps
set bwUL(umts) 64000
#default downlink propagation delay in seconds
set propDL(umts) .150
#default uplink propagation delay in seconds
set propUL(umts) .150
#default buffer size in packets
set buf(umts) 20


set tf [open out.tr w]
$ns trace-all $tf
set nodes(is) [$ns node]
set nodes(ms) [$ns node]
set nodes(lp) [$ns node]
proc cell_topo {} {
global ns nodes
$ns duplex-link $nodes(lp) $nodes(bs1) 3Mbps 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $nodes(bs1) $nodes(ms) 1 1 RED
$ns duplex-link $nodes(ms) $nodes(bs2) 1 1 RED
$ns duplex-link $nodes(bs2) $nodes(is) 3Mbps 50ms DropTail
puts "Cell Topology"
}
proc set_link_params {t} {
global ns nodes bwUL bwDL propUL propDL buf
}
# RED and TCP parameters
Queue/RED set summarystats_ true
Queue/DropTail set summarystats_ true
Queue/RED set adaptive_ $opt(adaptive)
Queue/RED set q_weight_ 0.0
Queue/RED set thresh_ $opt(minth)
Queue/RED set maxthresh_ $opt(maxth)
Queue/DropTail set shrink_drops_ true
Agent/TCP set ecn_ $opt(ecn)
Agent/TCP set window_ $opt(window)
DelayLink set avoidReordering_ true
source web.tcl
#Create topology
switch $opt(type) {
umts {cell_topo}
}
set_link_params $opt(type)


# Set up forward TCP connection
if {$opt(flows) == 0} {
}
if {$opt(flows) > 0} {
$tcp1 set window_ 100
$tcp2 set window_ 3
}
proc stop {} {
global nodes opt nf
set wrap $opt(wrap)
set sid [$nodes($opt(srcTrace)) id]
set did [$nodes($opt(dstTrace)) id]
if {$opt(srcTrace) == "is"} {
set a "-a out.tr"
} else {
set a "out.tr"
}
set GETRC "../../../bin/getrc"
set RAW2XG "../../../bin/raw2xg"
$RAW2XG -s 0.01 -m $wrap -r > plot.xgr
$RAW2XG -a -s 0.01 -m $wrap >> plot.xgr
$RAW2XG -s 0.01 -m $wrap -r >> plot.xgr
$RAW2XG -s 0.01 -m $wrap -a >> plot.xgr
exec ./xg2gp.awk plot.xgr
if {!$opt(quiet)} {
exec xgraph -bb -tk -nl -m -x time -y packets plot.xgr &
}
exit 0
}
$ns at $opt(stop) "stop"
$ns run

Output:
CDMA Trace file:

Part-B
Error Detecting Code Using CRC-CCITT (16-bit)
Aim: Write a Program for ERROR detecting code using CRC-CCITT (16bit).
Whenever digital data is stored or interfaced, data corruption might occur. Since the
beginning of computer science, developers have been thinking of ways to deal with this type
of problem. For serial data they came up with the solution to attach a parity bit to each sent
byte. This simple detection mechanism works if an odd number of bits in a byte changes, but
an even number of false bits in one byte will not be detected by the parity check. To
overcome this problem developers have searched for mathematical sound mechanisms to
detect multiple false bits. The CRC calculation or cyclic redundancy check was the result of
this. Nowadays CRC calculations are used in all types of communications. All packets sent
over a network connection are checked with a CRC. Also each data block on your hard disk
has a CRC value attached to it. Modern computer world cannot do without these CRC
calculations. So let's see why they are so widely used. The answer is simple; they are
powerful, detect many types of errors and are extremely fast to calculate especially when
dedicated hardware chips are used.
The idea behind CRC calculation is to look at the data as one large binary number.
This number is divided by a certain value and the remainder of the calculation is called the
CRC. Dividing in the CRC calculation at first looks to cost a lot of computing power, but it
can be performed very quickly if we use a method similar to the one learned at school. We
will as an example calculate the remainder for the character 'm'—which is 1101101 in binary
notation—by dividing it by 19 or 10011. Please note that 19 is an odd number. This is
necessary as we will see further on. Please refer to your schoolbooks as the binary calculation
method here is not very different from the decimal method you learned when you were

young. It might only look a little bit strange. Also notations differ between countries, but the
method is similar.
With decimal calculations you can quickly check that 109 divided by 19 gives a
quotient of 5 with 14 as the remainder. But what we also see in the scheme is that every bit
extra to check only costs one binary comparison and in 50% of the cases one binary
subtraction. You can easily increase the number of bits of the test data string—for example to
56 bits if we use our example value "Lammert"—and the result can be calculated with 56
binary comparisons and an average of 28 binary subtractions. This can be implemented in
hardware directly with only very few transistors involved. Also software algorithms can be
very efficient.
All of the CRC formulas you will encounter are simply checksum algorithms based
on modulo-2 binary division where we ignore carry bits and in effect the subtraction will be
equal to an exclusive or operation. Though some differences exist in the specifics across
different CRC formulas, the basic mathematical process is always the same:
 The message bits are appended with c zero bits; this augmented message is the
dividend
 A predetermined c+1-bit binary sequence, called the generator polynomial, is the
divisor
 The checksum is the c-bit remainder that results from the division operation
Table 1 lists some of the most commonly used generator polynomials for 16- and 32-bit
CRCs. Remember that the width of the divisor is always one bit wider than the remainder.
So, for example, you’d use a 17-bit generator polynomial whenever a 16-bit checksum is
required.
Table 1: International Standard CRC Polynomials
CRC-CCITT CRC-16 CRC-32
Checksum
16 bits 16 bits 32 bits
Width
Generator
10001000000100001 11000000000000101 100000100110000010001110110110111
Polynomial
Error detection with CRC
Consider a message represented by the polynomial M(x)

Consider a generating polynomial G(x)

This is used to generate a CRC = C(x) to be appended to M(x).
Note this G(x) is prime.
Steps:
1. Multiply M(x) by highest power in G(x). i.e. Add So much zeros to M(x).
2. Divide the result by G(x). The remainder = C(x).
Special case: This won't work if bitstring =all zeros. We don't allow such an
M(x).But M(x) bitstring = 1 will work, for example. Can divide 1101 into 1000.
3. If: x div y gives remainder c
that means: x = n y + c
Hence (x-c) = n y
(x-c) div y gives remainder 0
Here (x-c) = (x+c)
Hence (x+c) div y gives remainder 0
4. Transmit: T(x) = M(x) + C(x)
5. Receiver end: Receive T(x). Divide by G(x), should have remainder 0.
Note if G(x) has order n - highest power is xn,

then G(x) will cover (n+1) bits
and the remainder will cover n bits.
i.e. Add n bits (Zeros) to message.
Some CRC polynomials that are actually used
Some CRC polynomials

 CRC-8:
x8+x2+x+1
o Used in: 802.16 (along with error correction).
 CRC-CCITT:
x16+x12+x5+1
o Used in: HDLC, SDLC, PPP default
 IBM-CRC-16 (ANSI):
x16+x15+x2+1

 802.3:
x32+x26+x23+x22 +x16+x12+x11+x10 +x8+x7+x5+x4+x2+x+1
o Used in: Ethernet, PPP rootion
Source Code:
import java.util.*;
class crc
{ void div(int a[],int k)
{ int gp[]={1,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1};
int count=0;
for(int i=0;i<k;i++)
{
if(a[i]==gp[0])
{
for(int j=i;j<17+i;j++)
{
a[j]=a[j]^gp[count++];
}
count=0;
}
}
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
int a[]=new int[100];
int b[]=new int[100];
int len,k;
crc ob=new crc();
System.out.println("Enter the length of Data Frame:");
Scanner sc=new Scanner(System.in);
len=sc.nextInt();
int flag=0;
System.out.println("Enter the Message:");
for(int i=0;i<len;i++)
{ a[i]=sc.nextInt();
}
for(int i=0;i<16;i++)
{ a[len++]=0;
}
k=len-16;
{ b[i]=a[i];
}
ob.div(a,k);
a[i]=a[i]^b[i];
System.out.println("Data to be transmitted: ");
{
System.out.print(a[i]+" ");
}
System.out.println();
System.out.println("Enter the Reveived Data: ");
{
a[i]=sc.nextInt();
}
ob.div(a, k);
{
if(a[i]!=0)
{
flag=1;
break;
}
}
if(flag==1)
System.out.println("error in data");
else
System.out.println("no error");
}
}
Output:
Enter the length of Data Frame: 4

Enter the Message: 1 0 1 1
Data to be transmitted: 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
Enter the Reveived Data: 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
ERROR in Recived Data
**********************************************************


Bellman-ford Algorithm
Aim: Write a program to find the shortest path between vertices using bellman-ford
algorithm.
Distance Vector Algorithm is a decentralized routing algorithm that requires that each
router simply inform its neighbors of its routing table. For each network path, the receiving
routers pick the neighbor advertising the lowest cost, then add this entry into its routing table
for re-advertisement. To find the shortest path, Distance Vector Algorithm is based on one of
two basic algorithms: the Bellman-Ford and the Dijkstra algorithms.
Routers that use this algorithm have to maintain the distance tables (which is a one-
dimension array -- "a vector"), which tell the distances and shortest path to sending packets to
each node in the network. The information in the distance table is always upd by exchanging
information with the neighboring nodes. The number of data in the table equals to that of all
nodes in networks (excluded itself). The columns of table represent the directly attached
neighbors whereas the rows represent all destinations in the network. Each data contains the
path for sending packets to each destination in the network and distance/or time to transmit
on that path (we call this as "cost"). The measurements in this algorithm are the number of
hops, latency, the number of outgoing packets, etc.\
The Bellman–Ford algorithm is an algorithm that computes shortest paths from a single
source vertex to all of the other vertices in a weighted digraph. It is slower than Dijkstra's
algorithm for the same problem, but more versatile, as it is capable of handling graphs in which
some of the edge weights are negative numbers. Negative edge weights are found in various
applications of graphs, hence the usefulness of this algorithm. If a graph contains a "negative
cycle" (i.e. a cycle whose edges sum to a negative value) that is reachable from the source, then
there is no cheapest path: any path that has a point on the negative cycle can be made cheaper by
one more walk around the negative cycle. In such a case, the Bellman–Ford algorithm can detect
negative cycles and report their existence
Implementation Algorithm:
1. send my routing table to all my neighbors whenever my link table changes
2. when I get a routing table from a neighbor on port P with link metric M:
a. add L to each of the neighbor's metrics
b. for each entry (D, P', M') in the updated neighbor's table:
i. if I do not have an entry for D, add (D, P, M') to my routing table

ii. if I have an entry for D with metric M", add (D, P, M') to my routing
table if M' < M"
3. if my routing table has changed, send all the new entries to all my neighbors.
Source Code:
import java.util.Scanner;
public class BellmanFord
{ private int D[];
private int num_ver;
public static final int MAX_VALUE = 999;
public BellmanFord(int n)
{ this.n=n;
D = new int[n+1];
}
public void shortest(int s,int A[][])
{ for (int i=1;i<=n;i++)
{ D[i]=MAX_VALUE;
} D[s] = 0;
for(int k=1;k<=n-1;k++)
{ for(int i=1;i<=n;i++)
{ for(int j=1;j<=n;j++)
{ if(A[i][j]!=MAX_VALUE)
{ if(D[j]>D[i]+A[i][j])
D[j]=D[i]+A[i][j];
}
}
}
}
for(int i=1;i<=n;i++)
{ if(A[i][j]!=MAX_VALUE)
{ if(D[j]>D[i]+A[i][j])
{
System.out.println("The Graph contains negative egde cycle");
return;
} }
}
}
{
System.out.println("Distance of source " + s + " to "+ i + " is " + D[i]);
}
}
public static void main(String[ ] args)
{ int n=0,s;
Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter the number of vertices");
n = sc.nextInt();

int A[][] = new int[n+1][n+1];

System.out.println("Enter the Weighted matrix");
{ A[i][j]=sc.nextInt();
if(i==j)
{ A[i][j]=0;
continue;
}
if(A[i][j]==0)
{ A[i][j]=MAX_VALUE;
}
}
}
System.out.println("Enter the source vertex");
s=sc.nextInt();
BellmanFord b = new BellmanFord(n);
b.shortest(s,A);
sc.close();
}
}
Output:
Enter the number of vertices
4
Enter the adjacency matrix
0 5 0 0
5 0 3 4
0 3 0 2
0 4 2 0
Enter the source vertex
2
Distance of source 2 to 1 is 5


Client-server using TCP/IP sockets
Aim: Using TCP/IP Sockets, write a client-server program to make client sending the file
name and the server to send back the contents of the requested file if present. Implement the
above program using as message queues or FIFOs as IPC channels.
Socket is an interface which enables the client and the server to communicate and pass on
information from one another. Sockets provide the communication mechanism between two
computers using TCP. A client program creates a socket on its end of the communication and
attempts to connect that socket to a server. When the connection is made, the server creates a
socket object on its end of the communication. The client and the server can now communicate
by writing to and reading from the socket.
Source Code:
TCP Client
import java.io.BufferedReader;
import java.io.DataInputStream;
import java.io.DataOutputStream;
import java.io.EOFException;
import java.io.File;
import java.io.FileOutputStream;
import java.io.InputStreamReader;
import java.net.Socket;
class Client
{
public static void main(String args[])throws Exception
{
String address = "";
System.out.println("Enter Server Address: ");
address=sc.nextLine();
//create the socket on port 5000
Socket s=new Socket(address,5000);
DataInputStream din=new DataInputStream(s.getInputStream());
DataOutputStream dout=new DataOutputStream(s.getOutputStream());
BufferedReader br=new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
System.out.println("Send Get to start...");
String str="",filename="";
try
{
while(!str.equals("start"))
str=br.readLine();
dout.writeUTF(str);
dout.flush();
filename=din.readUTF();

System.out.println("Receving file: "+filename);

filename="client"+filename;
System.out.println("Saving as file: "+filename);
long sz=Long.parseLong(din.readUTF());
System.out.println ("File Size: "+(sz/(1024*1024))+" MB");
byte b[]=new byte [1024];
System.out.println("Receving file..");
FileOutputStream fos=new FileOutputStream(new File(filename),true);
long bytesRead;
do
{
bytesRead = din.read(b, 0, b.length);
fos.write(b,0,b.length);
}
while(!(bytesRead<1024));
System.out.println("Comleted");
fos.close();
dout.close();
s.close();
}
catch(EOFException e)
{
//do nothing
}
}
}
TCP Server
import java.io.DataInputStream;
import java.io.DataOutputStream;
import java.io.File;
import java.io.FileInputStream;
import java.net.ServerSocket;
import java.net.Socket;
class Server
{
public static void main(String args[])throws Exception
{
String filename;
System.out.println("Enter File Name: ");
filename=sc.nextLine();
sc.close();
while(true)
{
//create server socket on port 5000
ServerSocket ss=new ServerSocket(5000);
System.out.println ("Waiting for request");
Socket s=ss.accept();
System.out.println ("Connected With "+s.getInetAddress().toString());
DataInputStream din=new DataInputStream(s.getInputStream());
DataOutputStream dout=new DataOutputStream(s.getOutputStream());
try
{
String str="";
str=din.readUTF();
System.out.println("SendGet....Ok");
if(!str.equals("stop"))
{ System.out.println("Sending File: "+filename);
dout.writeUTF(filename);
dout.flush();
File f=new File(filename);
FileInputStream fin=new FileInputStream(f);
long sz=(int) f.length();
byte b[]=new byte [1024];
int read;
dout.writeUTF(Long.toString(sz));
dout.flush();
System.out.println ("Size: "+sz);
System.out.println ("Buf size: "+ss.getReceiveBufferSize()); while((read = fin.read(b)) != -1)
{
dout.write(b, 0, read); dout.flush();
}
fin.close();
System.out.println("..ok"); dout.flush();
}
dout.writeUTF("stop");
System.out.println("Send Complete"); dout.flush();
}
catch(Exception e)
{
e.printStackTrace();
System.out.println("An error occured");
}
din.close();
s.close();
ss.close();
}
}
}
Output:
At server side:

At Client Side:


Client-Server Communication
Aim: Write a program on datagram socket for client/server to display the messages on client
side, typed at the server side.
A datagram socket is the one for sending or receiving point for a packet delivery service.
Each packet sent or received on a datagram socket is individually addressed and routed. Multiple
packets sent from one machine to another may be routed differently, and may arrive in any order.
Source Code:
UDP Client
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
public class UDPC
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
DatagramSocket skt; try
{
skt=new DatagramSocket();
String msg= "text message ";
byte[] b = msg.getBytes();
InetAddress host=InetAddress.getByName("127.0.0.1");
int serverSocket=6788;
DatagramPacket request =new DatagramPacket (b,b.length,host,serverSocket);
skt.send(request);
byte[] buffer =new byte[1000];
DatagramPacket reply= new DatagramPacket(buffer,buffer.length);
skt.receive(reply);
System.out.println("client received:" +new String(reply.getData()));
skt.close();
}
catch(Exception ex)
{
}
}
}
UDP Server
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
public class UDPS
{
{
DatagramSocket skt=null;
try
{

skt=new DatagramSocket(6788);
byte[] buffer = new byte[1000];
while(true)
{
DatagramPacket request = new DatagramPacket(buffer,buffer.length);
skt.receive(request);
String[] message = (new String(request.getData())).split(" ");
byte[] sendMsg= (message[1]+ " server processed").getBytes();
DatagramPacket reply = new DatagramPacket(sendMsg,sendMsg.length,request.getAddress
(),request.getPort());
skt.send(reply);
}
}
catch(Exception ex)
{
}
}
}
Output:
AT SERVER SIDE
[root@localhost ]# cc prg6s.c
[root@localhost ]# ./a.out
SERVER online!
CLIENT online!
Waiting for request....SERVER: /Test.txt found!
Transfering the contents...
SERVER transfer Completed!
SERVER transfer Completed!
Output:
AT CLIENT SIDE
[root@localhost]# cc prg6c.c
[root@localhost]# ./a.out
Waiting for SERVER...
SERVER online!
CLIENT: Enter the path: /Test.txt
Wating for reply...
File recieved! Displaying the contents:
Sockets are a mechanism for exchanging data between processes. These processes can
either be on the same machine, or on different machines connected via a network. Once a

socket connection is established, data can be sent in both directions until one of the endpoints
closes the connection.
I needed to use sockets for a project I was working on, so I developed and refined a few
C++ classes to encapsulate the raw socket API calls. Generally, the application requesting the
data is called the client, and the application servicing the request is called the server. I created
two primary classes, C ZlientSocket and ServerSocket, that the client and server could use to
exchange data.
Output:
At Server Side:
At Client Side:


RSA Algorithm to Encrypt and Decrypt the Data
Aim: C Program for Simple RSA Algorithm to encrypt and decrypt the data
The RSA algorithm can be used for both public key encryption and digital signatures.
Its security is based on the difficulty of factoring large integers.
The RSA algorithm's efficiency requires a fast method for performing the modular
exponentiation operation. A less efficient, conventional method includes raising a number
(the input) to a power (the secret or public key of the algorithm, denoted e and d,
respectively) and taking the remainder of the division with N. A straight-forward
implementation performs these two steps of the operation sequentially: first, raise it to the
power and second, apply modulo.
A very simple example of RSA encryption
This is an extremely simple example using numbers you can work out on a pocket
calculator (those of you over the age of 35 can probably even do it by hand on paper).
1. Select primes p = 11, q = 3.
2. n = pq = 11.3 = 33
phi = (p-1)(q-1) = 10.2 = 20
3. Choose e=3
Check gcd(e, p-1) = gcd(3, 10) = 1 (i.e. 3 and 10 have no common factors except 1),
and check gcd(e, q-1) = gcd(3, 2) = 1
therefore gcd(e, phi) = gcd(e, (p-1)(q-1)) = gcd(3, 20) = 1
4. Compute d such that ed ≡ 1 (mod phi)
i.e. compute d = e^-1 mod phi = 3^-1 mod 20
i.e. find a value for d such that phi divides (ed-1)
i.e. find d such that 20 divides 3d-1.
Simple testing (d = 1, 2, ...) gives d = 7
Check: ed-1 = 3.7 - 1 = 20, which is divisible by phi.
5. Public key = (n, e) = (33, 3)
Private key = (n, d) = (33, 7).
This is actually the smallest possible value for the modulus n for which the RSA
algorithm works.
Now say we want to encrypt the message m = 7,
c = mê mod n = 7^3 mod 33 = 343 mod 33 = 13.
Hence the ciphertext c = 13.
To check decryption we compute

m' = c^d mod n = 13^7 mod 33 = 7.
Note that we don't have to calculate the full value of 13 to the power 7 here. We can
make use of the fact that a = bc mod n = (b mod n).(c mod n) mod n so we can break down a
potentially large number into its components and combine the results of easier, smaller
calculations to calculate the final value.
One way of calculating m' is as follows:-
m' = 13^7 mod 33 = 13^(3+3+1) mod 33 = 13^3.13^3.13 mod 33
= (13^3 mod 33).(13^3 mod 33).(13 mod 33) mod 33
= (2197 mod 33).(2197 mod 33).(13 mod 33) mod 33
= 19.19.13 mod 33 = 4693 mod 33
= 7.
Now if we calculate the cipher text c for all the possible values of m (0 to 32), we get
m 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
c 0 1 8 27 31 26 18 13 17 3 10 11 12 19 5 9 4
m 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
c 29 24 28 14 21 22 23 30 16 20 15 7 2 6 25 32
Note that all 33 values of m (0 to 32) map to a unique code c in the same range in a
sort of random manner. In this case we have nine values of m that map to the same value of c
- these are known as unconcealed messages. m = 0 and 1 will always do this for any N, no
matter how large. But in practice, higher values shouldn't be a problem when we use large
values for N.
If we wanted to use this system to keep secrets, we could let A=2, B=3, ..., Z=27. (We
specifically avoid 0 and 1 here for the reason given above). Thus the plaintext message
"HELLOWORLD" would be represented by the set of integers m1, m2, ...
{9,6,13,13,16,24,16,19,13,5}
Using our table above, we obtain ciphertext integers c1, c2, ...
{3,18,19,19,4,30,4,28,19,26}
Note that this example is no more secure than using a simple Caesar substitution
cipher, but it serves to illustrate a simple example of the mechanics of RSA encryption.
Remember that calculating mê mod n is easy, but calculating the inverse c^-e mod n
is very difficult, well, for large n's anyway. However, if we can factor n into its prime factors

p and q, the solution becomes easy again, even for large n's. Obviously, if we can get hold of
the secret exponent d, the solution is easy, too.
Key Generation Algorithm
1. Generate two large random primes, p and q, of approximately equal size such that
their product n = pq is of the required bit length, e.g. 1024 bits. [See note 1].
2. Compute n = pq and (φ) phi = (p-1)(q-1).
3. Choose an integer e, 1 < e < phi, such that gcd(e, phi) = 1. [See note 2].
4. Compute the secret exponent d, 1 < d < phi, such that
ed ≡ 1 (mod phi). [See note 3].
5. The public key is (n, e) and the private key is (n, d). The values of p, q, and phi
should also be kept secret.
 n is known as the modulus.
 e is known as the public exponent or encryption exponent.
 d is known as the secret exponent or decryption exponent.
Encryption
Sender A does the following:-
1. Obtains the recipient B's public key (n, e).
2. Represents the plaintext message as a positive integer m [see note 4].
3. Computes the ciphertext c = mê mod n.
4. Sends the ciphertext c to B.
Decryption
Recipient B does the following:-
1. Uses his private key (n, d) to compute m = c^d mod n.
2. Extracts the plaintext from the integer representative m.
Source Code:
import java.util.*;
import java.io.*;
public class rsa
{ static int gcd(int m,int n)
{ while(n!=0)
{ int r=m%n;
m=n;
n=r;
}
return m;
}

public static void main(String args[])

{
int p=0,q=0,n=0,e=0,d=0,phi=0;
int nummes[]=new int[100];
int encrypted[]=new int[100];
int decrypted[]=new int[100];
int i=0,j=0,nofelem=0;
String message ;
System.out.println("Enter the Message tobe encrypted:");
message= sc.nextLine();
System.out.println("Enter value of p and q\n");
p=sc.nextInt();
q=sc.nextInt();
n=p*q;
phi=(p-1)*(q-1);
for(i=2;i<phi;i++)
if(gcd(i,phi)==1) break;
e=i;
for(i=2;i<phi;i++)
if((e*i-1)%phi==0)
break;
d=i;
for(i=0;i<message.length();i++)
{
char c = message.charAt(i);
int a =(int)c;
nummes[i]=c-96;
}
nofelem=message.length();
for(i=0;i<nofelem;i++)
{
encrypted[i]=1;
for(j=0;j<e;j++)
encrypted[i] =(encrypted[i]*nummes[i])%n;
}
System.out.println("\n Encrypted message\n");
{
System.out.print(encrypted[i]);
System.out.print((char)(encrypted[i]+96));
}
{ decrypted[i]=1;
for(j=0;j<d;j++)

decrypted[i]=(decrypted[i]*encrypted[i])%n;
}
System.out.println("\n Decrypted message\n ");

System.out.print((char)(decrypted[i]+96));
return;
}
#********************************************************
**RESULT**
Enter the text:

hello
Enter the value of P and Q :
5
7
Encrypted Text is: 8 h 10 j 17 q 17 q 15 o
Decrypted Text is: hello


Congestion Control Using Leaky Bucket Algorithm
Aim: C Program for Congestion control using Leaky Bucket Algorithm
The main concept of the leaky bucket algorithm is that the output data flow remains
constant despite the variant input traffic, such as the water flow in a bucket with a small hole
at the bottom. In case the bucket contains water (or packets) then the output flow follows a
constant rate, while if the bucket is full any additional load will be lost because of spillover.
In a similar way if the bucket is empty the output will be zero.
From network perspective, leaky bucket consists of a finite queue (bucket) where all the
incoming packets are stored in case there is space in the queue, otherwise the packets are
discarded. In order to regulate the output flow, leaky bucket transmits one packet from the
queue in a fixed time (e.g. at every clock tick). In the following figure we can notice the
main rationale of leaky bucket algorithm, for both the two approaches (e.g. leaky bucket with
water (a) and with packets (b)).
Figure 2.4 - The leaky bucket traffic shaping algorithm

While leaky bucket eliminates completely bursty traffic by regulating the incoming
data flow its main drawback is that it drops packets if the bucket is full. Also, it doesn’t take
into account the idle process of the sender which means that if the host doesn’t transmit data
for some time the bucket becomes empty without permitting the transmission of any packet.

Implementation Algorithm:
Steps:
1. Read The Data For Packets
2. Read The Queue Size
3. Divide the Data into Packets
4. Assign the random Propagation delays for each packets to input into the bucket
(input_packet).
5. wlile((Clock++<5*total_packets)and
(out_packets< total_paclets))
a. if (clock == input_packet)
i. insert into Queue
b. if (clock % 5 == 0 )
i. Remove paclet from Queue
6. End
Source Code:
import java.util.*;
public class leaky
{
static int min(int x,int y)
{
if(x<y)
return x;
else
return y;
}
{ int drop=0,mini,nsec,cap,count=0,i,process;
int inp[]=new int[25];
System.out.println("Enter The Bucket Size\n");

cap= sc.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter The Operation Rate\n");
process= sc.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter The No. Of Seconds You Want To Stimulate\n");
nsec=sc.nextInt();
for(i=0;i<nsec;i++)
{ System.out.print("Enter The Size Of The Packet Entering At "+ i+1 + "
sec");
inp[i] = sc.nextInt();
}
System.out.println("\nSecond | Packet Recieved | Packet Sent | Packet Left |
Packet Dropped|\n");
//System.out.println("--------------------------------------------------------------------
----\n");
for(i=0;i<nsec;i++)
{ count+=inp[i];
if(count>cap)
{ drop=count-cap;
count=cap;
}
System.out.print(i+1);
System.out.print("\t\t"+inp[i]);
mini=min(count,process);
System.out.print("\t\t"+mini);
count=count-mini;
System.out.print("\t\t"+count);
System.out.print("\t\t"+drop);
drop=0;
}
for(;count!=0;i++)
{
if(count>cap)
{
drop=count-cap;
count=cap;
}
System.out.print(i+1);
System.out.print("\t\t0");
mini=min(count,process);
System.out.print("\t\t"+mini);
count=count-mini;
System.out.print("\t\t"+count);
System.out.print("\t\t"+drop);
}
}
Output:
Enter The Bucket Size

5
Enter The Operation Rate
2
Enter The No. Of Seconds You Want To Stimulate
3

Enter The Size Of The Packet Entering At 1 sec

5
4
3
Second|Packet Recieved|Packet Sent|Packet Left|Packet Dropped|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 5 2 3 0
2 4 2 3 2
3 3 2 3 1
4 0 2 1 0
5 0 1 0 0

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What are functions of different layers?
2. Differentiate between TCP/IP Layers and OSI Layers
3. Why header is required?
4. What is the use of adding header and trailer to frames?
5. What is encapsulation?
6. Why fragmentation requires?
7. What is MTU?
8. Which layer imposes MTU?
9. Differentiate between flow control and congestion control.
10. Differentiate between Point-to-Point Connection and End-to-End connections.
11. What are protocols running in different layers?
12. What is Protocol Stack?
13. Differentiate between TCP and UDP.
14. Differentiate between Connectionless and connection oriented connection.
15. Why frame sorting is required?
16. What is meant by subnet?
17. What is meant by Gateway?
18. What is an IP address?
19. What is MAC address?
20. Why IP address is required when we have MAC address?
21. What is meant by port?
22. What are ephemerical port number and well known port numbers?
23. What is a socket?
24. What are the parameters of socket()?
25. Describe bind(), listen(), accept(),connect(), send() and recv().
26. What are system calls? Mention few of them.
27. What is IPC? Name three techniques.
28. Explain mkfifo(), open(), close() with parameters.
29. What is meant by file descriptor?
30. What is meant by traffic shaping?
31. How do you classify congestion control algorithms?
32. Differentiate between Leaky bucket and Token bucket.
33. How do you implement Leaky bucket?
34. How do you generate busty traffic?

35. What is the polynomial used in CRC-CCITT?
36. What are the other error detection algorithms?
37. What is difference between CRC and Hamming code?
38. Why Hamming code is called 7,4 code?
39. What is odd parity and even parity?
40. What is meant by syndrome?
41. What is generator matrix?
42. What is spanning tree?
43. Differentiate between Prim’s and Kruskal’s algorithm.
44. What are Routing algorithms?
45. How do you classify routing algorithms? Give examples for each.
46. What are drawbacks in distance vector algorithm?
47. How routers update distances to each of its neighbor?
48. How do you overcome count to infinity problem?
49. What is cryptography?
50. How do you classify cryptographic algorithms?
51. What is public key?
52. What is private key?
53. What are key, ciphertext and plaintext?
54. What is simulation?
55. What are advantages of simulation?
56. Differentiate between Simulation and Emulation.
57. What is meant by router?
58. What is meant by bridge?
59. What is meant by switch?
60. What is meant by hub?
61. Differentiate between route, bridge, switch and hub.
62. What is ping and telnet?
63. What is FTP?
64. What is BER?
65. What is meant by congestion window?
66. What is BSS?
67. What is incoming throughput and outgoing throughput?
68. What is collision?

69. How do you generate multiple traffics across different sender-receiver pairs?
70. How do you setup Ethernet LAN?
71. What is meant by mobile host?
72. What is meant by NCTUns?
73. What are dispatcher, coordinator and nctunsclient?
74. Name few other Network simulators
75. Differentiate between logical and physical address.
76. Which address gets affected if a system moves from one place to another place?
77. What is ICMP? What are uses of ICMP? Name few.
78. Which layer implements security for data?

REFERENCE
1. Communication Networks: Fundamental Concepts and Key

Architectures - Alberto Leon, Garcia and Indra Widjaja, 3rd Edition, Tata
McGraw- Hill, 2004.
2. Data and Computer Communication, William Stallings, 8th tEdition,
Pearson Education, 2007.
3. Computer Networks: A Systems Approach - Larry L. Peterson and Bruce S.
David, 4th Edition, Elsevier, 2007.
4. Introduction to Data Communications and Networking – Wayne Tomasi,
Pearson Education, 2005.
5. Communication Networks – Fundamental Concepts and Key
architectures – Alberto Leon- Garcia and Indra Widjaja:, 2rd Edition, Tata
McGraw-Hill, 2004
6. Computer and Communication Networks – Nader F. Mir:, Pearson
Education, 2007.

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QMP 7.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

15CSL57 COMPUTER NETWORK LABORATORY

Batch : _____________________ Section : _______________

1. Students should come with thorough preparation for the experiment to be

3. Practical record should be neatly maintained.

6. Ask lab technician for assistance if you have any problem.

7. Save your class work, assignments in system .

8. Do not download or install software without the assistance of the laboratory

9. Do not alter the configuration of the system.

10. Turnoff the systems after use.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Basic Architecture of NS2

Dept. of CSE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 1

Initialization and Termination of TCL Script in NS-2

set ns [new Simulator]

Dept. of CSE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 2

$ns trace-all $tracefile1

#Open the NAM trace file

$ns namtrace-all $namfile

global ns tracefile1 namfile

Exec nam out.nam &

Dept. of CSE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 3

Definition of a network of links and nodes

set n0 [$ns node]

$ns queue-limit $n0 $n2 20

Agents and Applications

FTP over TCP

set tcp [new Agent/TCP]

#Setup a UDP connection

set null [new Agent/Null]

$udp set fid_2

Dept. of CSE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 5

#setup a CBR over UDP connection

$cbr attach-agent $udp

$cbr set packetsize_ 100

$cbr set rate_ 0.01Mb

$cbr set random_ false

Above shows the definition of a CBR application using a UDP agent

CBR over UDP

$cbr set interval_ 0.005

The packet size can be set to some value using

$cbr set packetSize_ <packet size>

Dept. of CSE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 6

$ns at 1.0 “ $ftp start”

$ns at 124.0 “$ftp stop”

$ns at 124.5 “$cbr stop”

Structure of Trace Files

Dept. of CSE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 7

9. This is the source address given in the form of ―node.port‖.

Dept. of CSE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 8

Options are listed here

Dept. of CSE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 9

Awk is a programmable, pattern-matching, and processing tool available in UNIX. It

THE –f OPTION: STORING awk PROGRAMS IN A FILE

Awk –F”|” –f empawk.awk empn.lst

Dept. of CSE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 10

THE BEGIN AND END SECTIONS

Dept. of CSE, CIT, Gubbi Page no 11

Batch : _______ Section : _