NCCN - Cancer Prostata

NCCN Guidelines Index
Prostate Table of Contents

Discussion
NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (NCCN Guidelines®)
Prostate Cancer
Version 2.2018 — March 8, 2018
NCCN.org
NCCN Guidelines for Patients® available at www.nccn.org/patients
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NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

Table of Contents
Prostate Cancer Discussion
James L. Mohler, MD/Chair ω Michael Hurwitz, MD, PhD † Stan Rosenfeld ‡

Roswell Park Cancer Institute Yale Cancer Center/Smilow Cancer Hospital University of California San Francisco
Patient Services Committee Chair
Richard J. Lee, MD, PhD/Vice-Chair † Joseph E. Ippolito, MD, PhD
Dana-Farber/Brigham and Women’s Siteman Cancer Center at Barnes- Edward Schaeffer, MD, PhD ω
Cancer Center | Massachusetts General Hospital Jewish Hospital and Washington Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer
Cancer Center University School of Medicine Center of Northwestern University
Emmanuel S. Antonarakis, MD † Christopher J. Kane, MD ω Ahmad Shabsigh, MS

The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive UC San Diego Moores Cancer Center The Ohio State University Comprehensive
Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins Cancer Center - James Cancer Hospital
Michael Kuettel, MD, MBA, PhD § and Solove Research Institute
Andrew J. Armstrong, MD † Roswell Park Cancer Institute
Duke Cancer Institute Ted A. Skolarus, MD ω
Joshua M. Lang, MD † University of Michigan
Anthony Victor D’Amico, MD, PhD § University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center Comprehensive Cancer Center
Dana-Farber/Brigham and Women’s
Cancer Center | Massachusetts General George Netto, MD Eric J. Small, MD †
Hospital Cancer Center University of Alabama at Birmingham UCSF Helen Diller Family
Comprehensive Cancer Center Comprehensive Cancer Center
Brian J. Davis, MD, PhD §
Mayo Clinic Cancer Center David F. Penson, MD, MPH ω Sandy Srinivas, MD †
Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center Stanford Cancer Institute
Tanya Dorff, MD †
City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center Elizabeth R. Plimack, MD, MS † Þ Jonathan Tward, MD, PhD §
Fox Chase Cancer Center Huntsman Cancer Institute
James A. Eastham, MD ω at the University of Utah
Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center Julio M. Pow-Sang, MD ω
Moffitt Cancer Center Przemyslaw Twardowski, MD † ‡
Rodney Ellis, MD § City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center
Case Comprehensive Cancer Center/ Thomas J. Pugh, MD §
University Hospitals Seidman Cancer Center and University of Colorado Cancer Center
Cleveland Clinic Taussig Cancer Institute
Sylvia Richey, MD †
Charles A. Enke, MD § St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital/
Fred & Pamela Buffett Cancer Center University of Tennessee Health Science Center NCCN
Deborah Freedman-Cass, PhD
Dorothy A. Shead, MS
Thomas A. Farrington ‡ Mack Roach, III, MD §
Prostate Health Education Network (PHEN) UCSF Helen Diller Family
Comprehensive Cancer Center
Celestia S. Higano, MD † ω Þ Internal medicine
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center/ Seattle † Medical oncology
Cancer Care Alliance Continue ‡ Patient advocate
§ Radiotherapy/Radiation oncology
ω Urology
Eric Mark Horwitz, MD § * Discussion Section Writing Committee
Fox Chase Cancer Center
NCCN Guidelines Panel Disclosures

Table of Contents
NCCN Prostate Cancer Panel Members

Clinical Trials: NCCN believes that
Summary of Guidelines Updates
the best management for any patient
Initial Prostate Cancer Diagnosis (PROS-1) with cancer is in a clinical trial.
Risk Stratification and Staging Workup (PROS-2) Participation in clinical trials is
Very Low Risk Group (PROS-4) especially encouraged.
Low Risk Group (PROS-5) To find clinical trials online at NCCN
Favorable Intermediate Risk Group (PROS-6) Member Institutions, click here:
Unfavorable Intermediate Risk Group (PROS-7) nccn.org/clinical_trials/physician.html.
High or Very High Risk Group (PROS-8) NCCN Categories of Evidence and
Regional Risk Group (PROS-9) Consensus: All recommendations
Monitoring (PROS-10) are category 2A unless otherwise
Radical Prostatectomy PSA Persistence/Recurrence (PROS-11) indicated.
Radiation Therapy Recurrence (PROS-12) See NCCN Categories of Evidence
Systemic Therapy for Castration-Naive Disease (PROS-13) and Consensus.
Systemic Therapy for M0 Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer (CRPC) (PROS-14)
Systemic Therapy for M1 CRPC (PROS-15)
Subsequent Systemic Therapy for M1 CRPC: No Visceral Metastases (PROS-16)
Systemic Therapy for M1 CRPC: Visceral Metastases (PROS-17)
Principles of Life Expectancy Estimation (PROS-A)
Principles of Imaging (PROS-B)
Principles of Active Surveillance and Observation (PROS-C)
Principles of Radiation Therapy (PROS-D)
Principles of Surgery (PROS-E)
Principles of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (PROS-F)
Principles of Immunotherapy and Chemotherapy (PROS-G)
Staging (ST-1)
The NCCN Guidelines® are a statement of evidence and consensus of the authors regarding their views of currently accepted approaches to treatment.
Any clinician seeking to apply or consult the NCCN Guidelines is expected to use independent medical judgment in the context of individual clinical
circumstances to determine any patient’s care or treatment. The National Comprehensive Cancer Network® (NCCN®) makes no representations or
warranties of any kind regarding their content, use or application and disclaims any responsibility for their application or use in any way. The NCCN
Guidelines are copyrighted by National Comprehensive Cancer Network®. All rights reserved. The NCCN Guidelines and the illustrations herein may not
be reproduced in any form without the express written permission of NCCN. ©2018.

Table of Contents
Updates in Version 2.2018 of the NCCN Guidelines for Prostate Cancer from Version 1.2018 include:
PROS-14
• Removed: Clinical trial (preferred).
• Changed: Observation especially if PSADT > 10 mo to Observation especially if PSADT >10 mo.
• Added a new option: Apalutamide especially if PSADT <10 mo (category 1).
• Changed: Other secondary hormone therapy especially if PSADT < 10 mo to Other secondary hormone therapy especially if PSADT <10 mo.
PROS-F (1 of 4)
• Modified: Orchiectomy (for M1)
• Secondary hormone therapy for M0 or M1 CRPC:
Added: Apalutamide (for M0) to the list of second-generation antiandrogens.
• Footnote 1 is new: Abiraterone plus prednisone should not be coadministered with an antiandrogen.
• Footnote 2 is new: Abiraterone is not an option for use in combination with docetaxel.
PROS-F (3 of 4)
• Modified the following bullet: In the setting in which patients have no or minimal symptoms, administration of secondary hormonal therapy
including addition of, or switching to, a different anti-androgen (flutamide, bicalutamide, nilutamide, enzalutamide [M1 only], apalutamide
[M0 only]), addition of adrenal/paracrine androgen synthesis inhibitors (ketoconazole with or without hydrocortisone or abiraterone with
prednisone [M1 only]), or use of an estrogen, such as DES, can be considered. Ketoconazole ± hydrocortisone should not be used if the
disease progressed on abiraterone.
• Added a new bullet: A phase 3 study of patients with M0 CRPC and a PSADT <10 mo showed apalutamide (240 mg/day) improved the
primary endpoint of metastasis-free survival over placebo (40.5 mo vs. 16.2 mo). No significant difference was seen in overall survival.
Adverse events included rash (24% vs 5.5%), fracture (11% vs. 6.5%), and hypothyroidism (8% vs. 2%). Patients with M0 CRPC can be offered
apalutamide after a discussion of the risks and benefits. Bone support should be used in patients receiving apalutamide.
Continued
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PROS-1 PROS-6
• This page has been reformatted. • Divided intermediate-risk group into 2 pages, "Favorable intermediate
• Initial prostate cancer diagnosis, added a footnote linking to the NCCN risk group" and "Unfavorable intermediate risk group" (PROS-7).
Guidelines for Prostate Cancer Early Detection. • Changed PSA failure to "PSA persistence/recurrence" throughout the
• Initial prostate cancer diagnosis, added "Life expectancy estimation." guidelines.
• Life expectancy ≤5 y and asymptomatic, divided the pathway based on risk • Favorable intermediate, expected patient survival ≥ 10 y, initial therapy:
groups. Added "Active surveillance:
• High or very high risk groups, added "Observation or ADT or EBRT." ◊◊PSA no more often than every 6 mo unless clinically indicated
• Life expectancy >5 y or symptomatic, added a link to Risk Stratification and ◊◊DRE no more often than every 12 mo unless clinically indicated
Staging Workup (See PROS-2). ◊◊Repeat prostate biopsy no more often than every 12 mo unless
• Footnote "c" changed "The following should be considered" to "A strong clinically indicated
family history consists of: brother or father or multiple family members ◊◊Consider mpMRI if anterior and/or aggressive cancer is suspected
diagnosed with prostate cancer at less than 60 years of age; known germline when PSA increases and systematic prostate biopsies are negative."
DNA repair gene abnormalities, especially BRCA2 mutation or Lynch Removed options for EBRT + ADT, EBRT + brachytherapy, and EBRT +
syndrome (germline mutations in MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, or PMS2); and/or more ADT + brachytherapy.
than one relative with strong family history for breast, ovarian, or pancreatic • Favorable intermediate: expected patient survival < 10 y, initial therapy:
cancer (suggests possibility of BRCA2 mutation) or colorectal, endometrial, Removed options for EBRT + ADT, EBRT + brachytherapy, and EBRT +
gastric, ovarian, pancreatic, small bowel, urothelial, kidney, or bile duct cancer ADT + brachytherapy.
(suggests possibility of Lynch syndrome). • New footnote (applies to several pages): "PSA nadir is the lowest value
PROS-2 reached."
• This is a new page, Risk Stratification and Staging Workup with associated • New footnote (applies to several pages): "PSA persistence/recurrence
footnotes (PROS-3). after RP is defined as failure of PSA to fall to undetectable levels (PSA
PROS-3 persistence) or undetectable PSA after RP with a subsequent detectable
• Modified existing footnotes and added new ones as needed to correspond with PSA that increases on 2 or more determinations (PSA recurrence)."
new Risk Stratification and Staging Workup on PROS-2. PROS-7
PROS-4 • Unfavorable intermediate risk group, expected patient survival ≥ 10 y and
• Expected patient survival ≥ 20 y, removed "The panel remains concerned <10 y: removed options for EBRT alone and brachytherapy alone.
about the problems of over-treatment related to the increased diagnosis of early PROS-8
prostate cancer from PSA testing. See NCCN Guidelines for Prostate Cancer Early • Combined high and very high risk groups.
Detection. Active surveillance is recommended for these subsets of patients." • Added "Expected patient survival > 5 y."
• Modified the link to "See Monitoring for Initial Definitive Therapy (PROS-10)." • ADT and observation were removed as options for patients with very
• Estimated patient survival <10 y, observation added a link to See Monitoring high risk disease.
(PROS-10). • Changed "EBRT + brachytherapy ± ADT (2-3 y)" to "EBRT +
PROS-5 brachytherapy + ADT (1-3 y; category 1)."
• Expected patient survival ≥ 10 y, removed "The panel remains concerned PROS-9
about the problems of over-treatment related to the increased diagnosis of early • Added "Expected patient survival > 5 y.
prostate cancer from PSA testing. See NCCN Guidelines for Prostate Cancer Early • Initial therapy, added "± abiraterone and prednisone" to EBRT and ADT
Detection. Active surveillance is recommended for these subsets of patients." recommendations.
• Estimated patient survival <10 y, observation added: See Monitoring (PROS- • Options for metastatic disease were removed from this page. Continued
10). UPDATES

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PROS-10 • M1, ADT and docetaxel, removed "with or without prednisone" and added
• Changed "bone scan" to "bone imaging" throughout the guidelines. "(category 1)."
• Removed "or pathology" from heading. • M1, added "ADT and abiraterone with prednisone (category 1)."
• N1 or M1 on ADT, removed "or M1" and added "or localized on observation." • Added "Physical exam + PSA every 3-6 mo."
• New footnote "Treatment for patients who progressed on observation of • Added "Bone imaging for symptoms and as often as every 6-12 mo."
localized disease is ADT." • Moved branch for "Small cell" to page PROS-17.
• Modified footnote to progression (applies to several pages): "Workup for PROS-14
progression should include chest x-ray or chest CT, bone imaging, and • Changed "PSA rising" to "PSA increasing."
abdominal/pelvic CT or MRI with and without contrast. Consider C-11choline • Removed the following from the page: (included on PROS-F)
PET/CT or PET/MRI or F-18 fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI for further soft Antiandrogen
tissue evaluation or F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT for further bone evaluation. Antiandrogen withdrawal
See Principles of Imaging (PROS-B) and Discussion. Ketoconazole ± hydrocortisone
• New footnote defining CRPC (also applies to PROS-15): "Castration Corticosteroid
resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is prostate cancer that progresses DES or other estrogen
clinically, radiographically, or biochemically despite castrate levels of serum PROS-15
testosterone (<50 ng/dL). Scher HI, Halabi S, Tannock I, et al. Design and • Added "Consider tumor testing for MSI-high (MSI-H) or dMMR."
end points of clinical trials for patients with progressive prostate cancer and • Added "Consider genetic counseling and germline testing for
castrate levels of testosterone: recommendations of the Prostate Cancer homologous recombination gene mutations."
Clinical Trials Working Group. J Clin Oncol 008;26:1148-1159." • Added footnote "DNA analysis for MSI and IHC for MMR are different
PROS-11 assays measuring the same biological effect. If MSI-H or dMMR is
• Changed page title from "Radical Prostatectomy Biochemical Failure" to found, refer to genetic counseling to assess for the possibility of Lynch
"Radical Prostatectomy PSA Persistence/Recurrence." syndrome. MSI-H or dMMR indicate eligibility for pembrolizumab in later
• Consider chest x-ray, added "or chest CT." lines of treatment for CRPC (see PROS-16 and PROS-17)."
• Changed "Consider bone scan" to "Consider bone imaging." • Added footnote "Consider testing for mutation in these genes (germline
• Changed "Consider C-11 choline PET/CT" to "Consider C-11 choline or F-18 and somatic): BRCA1, BRCA2, ATM, PALB2, FANCA; refer to genetic
fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI." counseling if mutation is found. At present, this information may be used
• New footnote (also applies to PROS-12): "F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT can be for genetic counseling, early use of platinum chemotherapy, or eligibility
considered after bone scan for further evaluation when clinical suspicion of for clinical trials (e.g., PARP inhibitors)."
bone metastases is high." • Changed "Maintain castrate levels..." to "Continue ADT to maintain
• New footnote (also applies to PROS-12): "Histologic confirmation is castrate levels of serum testosterone (<50 ng/dL)."
recommended whenever feasible due to significant rates of false positivity." • Added a new bullet "Consider additional treatment options:"
• Added: "Consider Decipher molecular assay (category 2B)". Bone antiresorptive therapy with denosumab or zoledronic acid (both
PROS-12 category 1) if bone metastases present.
• Chest x-ray, added "or chest CT." Immunotherapy with sipuleucel-T (category 1), removed the following
• Removed "consider" from "TRUS biopsy." from the page (included on See PROS-G) "if asymptomatic or minimally
• Changed "Consider C-11 choline PET/CT" to "Consider C-11 choline or F-18 symptomatic, no liver metastases, life expectancy >6 mo, ECOG
fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI." performance status 0–1."
PROS-13 • Added a new footnote defining visceral metastases. "Visceral metastases
• Changed page heading to "Systemic therapy for castration-naive disease." Continued
Version 2.2018 , 03/08//18 © National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Inc. 2018, All rights reserved. The NCCN Guidelines® and this illustration may not be reproduced in any form without the express written permission of NCCN .
® UPDATES

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refers to liver, lung, adrenal, peritoneal, and brain metastases. Soft tissue/ PET/CT scan or hybrid imaging bone scan can be used as a diagnostic
lymph node sites are not considered visceral." staging study. These tests appear to have greater sensitivity than bone
• No visceral metastases, removed "with prednisone" from docetaxel. scan. However, there is controversy about how the results of F-18 NaF
• Added "other" to secondary hormone therapy. PET/CT bone scan should be acted upon since all phase 3 clinical trials to
PROS-16 date have used progression criteria on bone scans.
• Prior therapy abiraterone/enzalutamide: • Removed "T1 disease and PSA ≥20, T2 disease and PSA ≥10, Gleason
Removed "with prednisone" from docetaxel. score ≥8, or T3/T4 disease" and "Any stage disease with symptoms
Added "Pembrolizumab for MSI-H or dMMR (category 2B)" (also applies to suggestive of osseous metastatic disease."
PROS-17) • Replaced with "Bone scan is indicated in the initial evaluation of patients
Added a bullet "If not previously received" before sipuleucel-T. at high risk for skeletal metastases. (PROS-2).
• Prior therapy docetaxel: PROS-B (2 of 3)
Removed "with prednisone" from cabazitaxel. • Added the following bullets:
Added "Pembrolizumab for MSI-H or dMMR (category 2B)." PET/CT for detection of bone metastatic disease M0 CRPC
Added a bullet "If not previously received" before abiraterone with ◊◊F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT may be used to detect bone metastatic
prednisone, enzalutamide, or sipuleucel-T. disease with greater sensitivity but less specificity than standard bone
Added "consider" to docetaxel rechallenge. scan imaging.
Removed "alternative chemotherapy" before mitoxantrone with prednisone. ◊◊Plain films, CT, MRI, or F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT may be used after
• Added a new column "at progression" listing options "If not previously bone scan for further evaluation of equivocal findings.
received." ◊◊Early detection of bone metastatic disease may result in earlier use
• New footnote: "Patients who received docetaxel with ADT in the metastatic of newer and more expensive therapies, which may not improve
castration-naive setting can be considered for docetaxel rechallenge in the oncologic outcome or overall survival.
CRPC setting." • Computed tomography, replaced the following bullets with a new bullet:
• New footnote: "Mitoxantrone with prednisone is for palliation in symptomatic CT is used for initial staging in select patients (PROS-2)
patients who cannot tolerate other therapies." ◊◊T3 or T4 disease
PROS-17 ◊◊Patients with T1 or T2 disease and nomogram-indicated probability of
• Removed "subsequent" from the title, "Systemic therapy for M1 CRPC." lymph node involvement >10% may be candidates for pelvic imaging,
• Added a new heading "Subsequent therapy." but the level of evidence is low.
• Added branch for "Small cell" previously on (PROS-15) CT may be considered in patients after RP when PSA fails to fall to
• Added "consider brain MRI with and without contrast" for small cell undetectable levels or when an undetectable PSA becomes detectable
• Added "Consider biopsy." and increases on 2 or more subsequent determinations, or after RT for
• New footnote: "Histologic evidence of both adenocarcinoma and small rising PSA or positive DRE if the patient is a candidate for additional
cell carcinoma may be present, in which case treatment can follow either local therapy or systemic therapy.
pathway. Treat as adenocarcinoma if biopsy is not feasible or not performed." Added "CT can be used for examination of the pelvis and/or abdomen for
• Added a branch for "adenocarcinoma." initial evaluation (see PROS-2) and as part of workup for recurrence or
• New footnote: "Patients treated with first-line systemic therapy for non- progression (see PROS-11 through PROS-17)."
visceral metastases (see PROS-15) should proceed to a different systemic • Magnetic resonance imaging, replaced the following bullets with a new
therapy." bullet:
PROS-B (1 of 3) Standard MRI techniques can be considered for initial evaluation of
• Bone imaging, removed "Newer technology using F-18 as the tracer for a highrisk patients. Continued

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◊◊T3 or T4 disease Cabazitaxel with concurrent steroid , + prednisone (category 1;category
◊◊Patients with T1 or T2 disease and nomogram-indicated probability of 2A for rechallenge)
lymph node involvement >10% may be candidates for pelvic imaging, but –– Added, "Concurrent steroids may include: daily prednisone or
the level of evidence is low. dexamethasone on the day of chemotherapy."
• Added "Standard MRI techniques can be used for examination of the pelvis Sipuleucel-T (category 1)
and/or abdomen for initial evaluation (see PROS-2) and as part of workup for Pembrolizumab (for MSI-H or dMMR)
recurrence or progression (see PROS-11 through PROS-17)." ◊◊Only as subsequent systemic therapy for patients who have progressed
PROS-B (3 of 3) through at least one line of systemic therapy for M1 CRPC.
• Updated previous section for positron emission tomorgraphy/computed STAGING
tomography (PET/CT). • The staging tables were updated based on the AJCC Eighth Edition.
• Added a bullet defining Will Rogers effect.
PROS-C (2 of 2)
• Added mpMRI to "Period follow-up mpMRI and prostate biopsies may be
necessary."
PROS-D (1 of 3)
• The Principles of Radiation Therapy was extensively revised. A new table of
regimens was added.
PROS-F (1 of 4)
• Hormonal therapy options were revised for the following settings:
ADT for regional disease, adjuvant treatment of lymph node metastases, or
patients on observation who require treatment.
Neoadjuvant, concurrent, and/or adjuvant ADT as part of radiation therapy
for clinically localized disease.
ADT for M0 or M1 castration-naive disease.
Secondary hormone therapy for M0 or M1 CRPC.
• Added a new footnote: "Ketoconazole ± hydrocortisone should not be used if
disease progressed on abiraterone with prednisone."
• Secondary Hormone Therapy for M0 or M1 CRPC, added "abiraterone +
prednisone" to the list of options. (was previously on PROS-F, 3 of 4)
PROS-F (4 of 4)
• Updated screening and treatment for osteoporosis according to guidelines
for the general population from the National Osteoporosis Foundation.
PROS-G (1 of 3)
• Systemic therapy for M1 CPRC:
Chemotherapy
◊◊Docetaxel with concurrent steroid, + prednisone (category 1; category 2A
for rechallenge)
–– Added, "Concurrent steroids may include: daily prednisone or
dexamethasone on the day of chemotherapy."

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INITIAL PROSTATE INITIAL CLINICAL

CANCER ASSESSMENT
DIAGNOSISa
Very low, low, or No further workup or
intermediate risk groups treatment until symptomatic
See Risk Observation

Life expectancy
Stratification and or
≤5 y and High or very
Staging Workup ADTd,f
asymptomatic high risk groups
(PROS-2) or
EBRTd,e
• DRE Imaging as per
• PSA High or very risk stratification
• Prostate biopsy high risk groups and staging
• Life expectancy workup (PROS-2)
estimationb Observation
• Family historyc Regional or
or
metastatic
ADTf
Life expectancy See Risk Stratification and Staging Workup

>5 y or (PROS-2)
symptomatic
aSee NCCN Guidelines for Prostate Cancer Early Detection.

bSee Principles of Life Expectancy Estimation (PROS-A).
cA strong family history consists of: brother or father or multiplefamily members diagnosed with dAndrogen deprivation therapy (ADT) or radiation therapy (RT) may be
prostate cancer at less than 60 years of age; known germline DNA repair gene abnormalities, considered in selected patients with high- or very-high-risk disease, where
especially BRCA2 mutation or Lynch syndrome (germline mutations in MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, complications, such as hydronephrosis or metastasis, can be expected
or PMS2); and/or more than one relative with breast, ovarian, or pancreatic cancer (suggests within 5 y.
possibility of BRCA2 mutation) or colorectal, endometrial, gastric, ovarian, pancreatic, small eSee Principles of Radiation Therapy (PROS-D).
bowel, urothelial, kidney, or bile duct cancer (suggests possibility of Lynch syndrome). fSee Principles of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (PROS-F).
Note: All recommendations are category 2A unless otherwise indicated.

Clinical Trials: NCCN believes that the best management of any patient with cancer is in a clinical trial. Participation in clinical trials is especially encouraged.
Version 2.2018 , 03/08//18 © National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Inc. 2018, All rights reserved. The NCCN Guidelines® and this illustration may not be reproduced in any form without the express written permission of NCCN®. PROS-1

Table of Contents
RISK STRATIFICATION AND STAGING WORKUP

Molecular testing
Risk group Clinical/pathologic features Imagingi,j Germline testing Initial therapyp
of tumor
• T1c AND
• Gleason score ≤6/grade group 1 AND
• PSA <10 ng/mL AND Consider if strong
Very lowg • Fewer than 3 prostate biopsy fragments/cores positive, Not indicated Not indicated
family history
c See PROS-4
h
≤50% cancer in each fragment/core AND
• PSA density <0.15 ng/mL/g
• T1-T2a AND Consider if life Consider if strong

Lowg • Gleason score ≤6/grade group 1 AND Not indicated l
family history
c See PROS-5
• PSA <10 ng/mL expectancy ≥10y
• T2b-T2c OR • Bone imagingk: not recommended for staging

Favorable • Gleason score 3+4=7/grade group 2 OR Consider if life Consider if strong
• PSA 10–20 ng/mL • Pelvic ± abdominal imaging: recommended if nomogram See PROS-6
intermediateg AND predicts >10% probability of pelvic lymph node expectancy ≥10yl family historyc
• Percentage of positive biopsy cores <50% involvement
• T2b-T2c OR • Bone imagingk: recommended if T2 and PSA >10 ng/mL

Unfavorableg • Gleason score 3+4=7/grade group 2 or Gleason score • Pelvic ± abdominal imaging: recommended if nomogram Consider if strong
intermediate 4+3=7/grade group 3 OR
Not routinely recommended
family historyc
See PROS-7
predicts >10% probability of pelvic lymph node
• PSA 10–20 ng/mL involvement
• T3a OR • Bone imagingk: recommended

• Gleason score 8/grade group 4 or Gleason score • Pelvic ± abdominal imaging: recommended if nomogram
High 4+5=9/grade group 5 OR
Not routinely recommended Considero See PROS-8p
• PSA >20 ng/mL involvement
• T3b-T4 OR • Bone imagingk: recommended

• Primary Gleason pattern 5 OR • Pelvic ± abdominal imaging: recommended if nomogram
Very high • >4 cores with Gleason score 8–10/ grade group 4 or 5
Not routinely recommended Considero See PROS-8p
involvement
Consider tumor testing for
homologous recombination
gene mutations and for
Regional Any T, N1, M0 Already performed Considero See PROS-9
microsatellite instability
(MSI) or mismatch repair
deficiency (dMMR)m,n
Consider tumor testing for
homologous recombination
Metastatic Any T, Any N, M1 Already performed Considero See PROS-13
gene mutations and for MSI
or dMMR m,n
See footnotes on next page


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RISK STRATIFICATION AND STAGING WORKUP FOOTNOTES

cStrong family history consists of: brother or father or multiple family members diagnosed with prostate cancer at less than 60 years of age; known germline DNA repair
gene abnormalities, especially BRCA2 mutation or Lynch syndrome (germline mutations in MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, or PMS2); and/or more than one relative with breast,
ovarian, or pancreatic cancer (suggests possibility of BRCA2 mutation) or colorectal, endometrial, gastric, ovarian, pancreatic, small bowel, urothelial, kidney, or bile
duct cancer (suggests possibility of Lynch syndrome).
gFor asymptomatic patients with life expectancy ≤5years, no further workup or treatment is indicated until the patient becomes symptomatic.
hPatients with a MRI lesion that is biopsied and demonstrates grade group 1 cancer (regardless of percentage core involvement or number of cores involved) who
otherwise qualify for very low risk should be considered very low risk.
iSee Principles of Imaging (PROS-B).
jBone imaging should be performed for any patient with symptoms consistent with bone metastases.
kPlain films, CT, MRI, or F-18 NaF PET/CT can be considered for equivocal results on initial bone scan. See PROS-B.
lMen with low or favorable intermediate risk disease may consider the use of the following tumor-based molecular assays: Decipher, Oncotype DX Prostate, Prolaris,
Promark. Retrospective studies have shown that molecular assays performed on prostate biopsy or radical prostatectomy specimens provide prognostic information
independent of NCCN risk groups. These include, but are not limited to, likelihood of death with conservative management, likelihood of biochemical progression after
radical prostatectomy or external beam therapy, and likelihood of developing metastasis after radical prostatectomy or salvage radiotherapy. See Discussion.
mDNA analysis for MSI and IHC for MMR are different assays measuring the same biological effect. If MSI-H or dMMR is found, refer to genetic counseling to assess for
the possibility of Lynch syndrome. MSI or dMMR indicate eligibility for pembrolizumab in later lines of treatment for CRPC (see PROS-16 and PROS-17).
nConsider testing for mutation in these genes (germline and somatic): BRCA1, BRCA2, ATM, PALB2, FANCA; refer to genetic counseling if positive. At present, this
information may be used for genetic counseling, early use of platinum chemotherapy, or eligibility for clinical trials (e.g., PARP inhibitors).
oThe prevalence of inherited homologous recombination gene mutations in men with metastatic or localized high risk was found to be 11.8% and 6.0%, respectively.
Therefore, germline genetic testing and genetic counseling should be considered in all men with high risk, very high risk, regional, or metastatic prostate cancer.
Pritchard CC, Mateo J, Walsh MF, et al. Inherited DNA-repair gene mutations in men with metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2016;375:443-453.
pFor asymptomatic patients with life expectancy ≤5 years, See PROS-1.


Table of Contents
VERY LOW RISK GROUP

EXPECTED INITIAL THERAPY ADJUVANT THERAPY
PATIENT
Active surveillancer
SURVIVALb • PSA no more often than every 6 mo unless clinically indicated Progressive diseasev
• DRE no more often than every 12 mo unless clinically indicated
See Initial Clinical
• Repeat prostate biopsy no more often than every 12 mo unless clinically indicated
• Consider mpMRI if anterior and/or aggressive cancer is suspected when PSA increases and Assessment (PROS-1)
systematic prostate biopsies are negative
EBRTe or brachytherapye
Adverse feature(s) and no lymph node metastases:u
≥20 y
EBRT e
or
See Monitoring for
Observation t
Radical prostatectomy (RP)s Initial Definitive
± pelvic lymph node dissection (PLND) Therapy (PROS-10)
No adverse features or lymph node metastases
if predicted probability of lymph node
metastasis ≥2% Lymph node metastasis:
ADTf (category 1) ± EBRT e (category 2B)
or
Observation t
• PSA no more often than every 6 mo unless clinically indicated Progressive diseasev
10–20 yq See Initial Clinical
See Monitoring
<10 y Observation t
(PROS-10)
eSee Principles of Radiation Therapy (PROS-D). sSee Principles of Surgery (PROS-E).
fSee Principles of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (PROS-F). tObservation involves monitoring the course
of disease with the expectation to deliver
qThe panel remains concerned about the problems of over-treatment related to palliative therapy for the development of symptoms or a change in exam or PSA that
the increased diagnosis of early prostate cancer from PSA testing. See NCCN suggests symptoms are imminent. See Principles of Active Surveillance and Observation
Guidelines for Prostate Cancer Early Detection. Active surveillance is recommended for these (PROS-C).
subsets of patients. uAdverse laboratory/pathologic features include: positive margin(s), seminal vesicle
rActive surveillance involves actively monitoring the course of disease with the expectation to invasion, extracapsular extension, or detectable PSA.
intervene with potentially curative therapy if the cancer progresses. See Principles of Active vCriteria for progression are not well defined and require physician judgment; however, a
Surveillance and Observation (PROS-C). change in risk group strongly implies disease progression. See Discussion.


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LOW RISK GROUP

PATIENT
See Initial Clinical
≥10 y EBRTe or brachytherapye

Adverse feature(s) and no lymph node metastases:u
EBRT e
or See Monitoring for
Observation t Initial Definitive
RPs ± PLND if predicted probability Therapy (PROS-10)
No adverse features or lymph node metastases
of lymph node metastasis ≥2%
Lymph node metastasis:
ADTf (category 1) ± EBRT e (category 2B)
or
Observation t
See Monitoring
<10 y Observation t (PROS-10)
sSee Principles of Surgery (PROS-E).

tObservation involves monitoring the course of disease with the expectation to deliver palliative
bSee Principles of Life Expectancy Estimation (PROS-A). therapy for the development of symptoms or a change in exam or PSA that suggests
eSee Principles of Radiation Therapy (PROS-D). symptoms are imminent. See Principles of Active Surveillance and Observation (PROS-C).
fSee Principles of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (PROS-F). uAdverse laboratory/pathologic features include: positive margin(s), seminal vesicle invasion,
rActive surveillance involves actively monitoring the course of disease with the extracapsular extension, or detectable PSA.
expectation to intervene with potentially curative therapy if the cancer progresses. vCriteria for progression are not well defined and require physician judgment; however, a
See Principles of Active Surveillance and Observation (PROS-C). change in risk group strongly implies disease progression. See Discussion.


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FAVORABLE INTERMEDIATE RISK GROUP

PATIENT Active surveillance r
• DRE no more often than every 12 mo unless clinically indicated See Initial Clinical
• Repeat prostate biopsy no more often than every 12 mo unless clinically indicated Assessment (PROS-1)
• Consider mpMRI if anterior and/or aggressive cancer is suspected when PSA increases and
≥10 y EBRTeor brachytherapy alonee

Adverse feature(s) and no
lymph node metastases:u See Monitoring for
Undetectable PSA after RP
EBRT e Initial Definitive
or PSA nadirw after RT
or Therapy (PROS-10)
Observation t
RPs ± PLND if predicted See Radical
No adverse features or
probability of lymph Prostatectomy
lymph node metastases
node metastasis ≥2% PSA Persistence/
Lymph node metastasis: Recurrence (PROS-11)
ADTf (category 1) PSA persistence/recurrencex,y
± EBRT e (category 2B)
or See Radiation Therapy
Observation t Recurrence (PROS-12)
EBRTe or brachytherapy alonee
<10 y
See Monitoring
Observation t
bSee Principles of Life Expectancy Estimation (PROS-A). (PROS-10)
eSee Principles of Radiation Therapy (PROS-D). wPSA nadir is the lowest value reached.
fSee Principles of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (PROS-F). xPSA persistence/recurrence after RP is defined as failure of PSA to fall to undetectable levels
rActive surveillance involves actively monitoring the course of disease with the expectation to intervene with (PSA persistence) or undetectable PSA after RP with a subsequent detectable PSA that
potentially curative therapy if the cancer progresses. See Principles of Active Surveillance and Observation increases on 2 or more determinations (PSA recurrence).
yRTOG-ASTRO (Radiation Therapy Oncology Group - American Society for Therapeutic
(PROS-C).
sSee Principles of Surgery (PROS-E). Radiology and Oncology) Phoenix Consensus: 1) PSA increase by 2 ng/mL or more above the
tObservation involves monitoring the course of disease with the expectation to deliver palliative therapy for nadir PSA is the standard definition for PSA persistence/recurrence after EBRT with or without
the development of symptoms or a change in exam or PSA that suggests symptoms are imminent. See HT; and 2) A recurrence evaluation should be considered when PSA has been confirmed to
Principles of Active Surveillance and Observation (PROS-C). be increasing after radiation even if the increase above nadir is not yet 2 ng/mL, especially in
uAdverse laboratory/pathologic features include: positive margin(s), seminal vesicle invasion, extracapsular candidates for salvage local therapy who are young and healthy. Retaining a strict version of
extension, or detectable PSA. the ASTRO definition allows comparison with a large existing body of literature. Rapid increase
vCriteria for progression are not well defined and require physician judgment; however, a change in risk group of PSA may warrant evaluation (prostate biopsy) prior to meeting the Phoenix definition,
strongly implies disease progression. See Discussion. especially in younger or healthier men.


Table of Contents
UNFAVORABLE INTERMEDIATE RISK GROUP

PATIENT
SURVIVALb Adverse feature(s) and no
lymph node metastases:u
EBRT e
or See Monitoring for
Undetectable PSA after RP
Observation t Initial Definitive
RPs ± PLND if predicted or PSA nadirw after RT
No adverse features or Therapy (PROS-10)
probability of lymph
lymph node metastases
node metastasis ≥2%
Lymph node metastasis: See Radical
ADTf (category 1) Prostatectomy
± EBRT e (category 2B) PSA Persistence/
≥10 yz
or Recurrence (PROS-11)
Observation t PSA persistence/recurrencex,y
See Radiation Therapy
EBRTe + ADTf (4-6 mo) Recurrence (PROS-12)
or
EBRTe + brachytherapye± ADTf (4-6 mo)
<10 y
See Monitoring
Observation t
(PROS-10)
eSee Principles of Radiation Therapy (PROS-D).
fSee Principles of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (PROS-F).
yRTOG-ASTRO
(Radiation Therapy Oncology Group - American Society for Therapeutic
sSee Principles of Surgery (PROS-E).
tObservation involves monitoring the course of disease with the Radiology and Oncology) Phoenix Consensus: 1) PSA increase by 2 ng/mL or more above the
expectation to deliver palliative therapy nadir PSA is the standard definition for PSA persistence/recurrence after EBRT with or without
for the development of symptoms or a change in exam or PSA that suggests symptoms are imminent. HT; and 2) A recurrence evaluation should be considered when PSA has been confirmed to
See Principles of Active Surveillance and Observation (PROS-C). be increasing after radiation even if the increase above nadir is not yet 2 ng/mL, especially in
uAdverse laboratory/pathologic features include: positive margin(s), seminal vesicle invasion,
candidates for salvage local therapy who are young and healthy. Retaining a strict version of
extracapsular extension, or detectable PSA. the ASTRO definition allows comparison with a large existing body of literature. Rapid increase
wPSA nadir is the lowest value reached.
of PSA may warrant evaluation (prostate biopsy) prior to meeting the Phoenix definition,
xPSA persistence/recurrence after RP is defined as failure of PSA to fall to undetectable levels (PSA especially in younger or healthier men.
persistence) or undetectable PSA after RP with a subsequent detectable PSA that increases on 2 or zActive surveillance of unfavorable intermediate and high risk clinically localized cancers is not
more determinations (PSA recurrence). recommended in patients with a life expectancy >10 years (category 1).


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HIGH or VERY HIGH RISK GROUP

PATIENT
SURVIVALb
EBRTe + ADTf (2–3 y; category 1)aa
Undetectable PSA See Monitoring for

after RP or PSA Initial Definitive
EBRTe + brachytherapye + ADTf (1–3 y; category 1) Therapy (PROS-10)
nadirw after RT
>5 y Adverse feature(s) and no lymph node metastases:u

EBRT e See Radical Prostatectomy
or PSA Persistence/
Observation t Recurrence (PROS-11)
PSA persistence/
RPs + PLNDbb No adverse features or lymph node metastases
recurrencex,y
Lymph node metastasis:
ADTf (category 1) ± EBRT e (category 2B) See Radiation Therapy
or Recurrence (PROS-12)
Observation t
eSee Principles of Radiation Therapy (PROS-D). yRTOG-ASTRO (Radiation Therapy Oncology Group - American Society for
fSee Principles of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (PROS-F). Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology) Phoenix Consensus: 1) PSA increase by 2
sSee Principles of Surgery (PROS-E). ng/mL or more above the nadir PSA is the standard definition for PSA persistence/
tObservation involves monitoring the course of disease with the recurrence after EBRT with or without HT; and 2) A recurrence evaluation should
expectation to deliver be considered when PSA has been confirmed to be increasing after radiation even
palliative therapy for the development of symptoms or a change in exam or PSA if the increase above nadir is not yet 2 ng/mL, especially in candidates for salvage
that suggests symptoms are imminent. See Principles of Active Surveillance and local therapy who are young and healthy. Retaining a strict version of the ASTRO
Observation (PROS-C). definition allows comparison with a large existing body of literature. Rapid increase of
uAdverse laboratory/pathologic features include: positive margin(s), seminal vesicle PSA may warrant evaluation (prostate biopsy) prior to meeting the Phoenix definition,
invasion, extracapsular extension, or detectable PSA. especially in younger or healthier men.
wPSA nadir is the lowest value reached. aaSix cycles of docetaxel every 3 weeks with concurrent steroid may be administered
xPSA persistence/recurrence after RP is defined as failure of PSA to fall to undetectable after completion of radiation in selected patients who are fit for chemotherapy.
levels (PSA persistence) or undetectable PSA after RP with a subsequent detectable bbRP + PLND can be considered in younger, healthier patients without tumor fixation
PSA that increases on 2 or more determinations (PSA recurrence). to the pelvic side-wall.


Table of Contents
REGIONAL RISK GROUP

EXPECTED INITIAL THERAPY
PATIENT
SURVIVALb
EBRTe + ADTf (2–3 y; category 1) ± abiraterone and prednisone
>5 y See Monitoring (PROS-10)
ADTf ± abiraterone and prednisone


Table of Contents
INITIAL MANAGEMENT MONITORING RECURRENCE

See Radical
PSA persistence/ Prostatectomy PSA
Post-RP
recurrencex Persistence/Recurrence
(PROS-11)
PSA
• PSA every 6–12 mo for 5 y,cc persistence/ See Radiation
Initial definitive then every year Post-EBRT recurrencey Therapy Recurrence
therapy • DRE every year, but may be or (PROS-12)
omitted if PSA undetectable Positive DRE
Progressiondd to metastatic See Systemic Therapy

disease without PSA persistence/ for Castration-Naive
recurrence Disease (PROS-13)ff
Systemic Therapy for

N1 on ADT • Physical exam + PSA every N1M0
M0 CRPC (PROS-14)gg
or 3–6 mo
Progressiondd,ee
Localized on • Bone imagingi for symptoms
See Systemic Therapy for
observation and as often as every 6–12 mo M1
M1 CRPC (PROS-15)gg
iSee Principles of Imaging (PROS-B). ddWorkup for progression should include chest x-ray or chest CT, bone imaging, and
xPSA persistence/recurrence after RP is defined as failure of PSA to fall to undetectable abdominal/pelvic CT or MRI with and without contrast. Consider C-11 choline PET/CT or
levels (PSA persistence) or undetectable PSA after RP with a subsequent detectable PSA PET/MRI or F-18 fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI for further soft tissue evaluation or F-18
that increases on 2 or more determinations (PSA recurrence). sodium fluoride PET/CT for further bone evaluation.See Principles of Imaging (PROS-B) and
yRTOG-ASTRO (Radiation Therapy Oncology Group - American Society for Therapeutic Discussion.
Radiology and Oncology) Phoenix Consensus: 1) PSA increase by 2 ng/mL or more eeTreatment for patients who progressed on observation of localized disease is ADT.
above the nadir PSA is the standard definition for PSA persistence/recurrence after EBRT ffThe term "castration-naive" is used to define patients who are not on ADT at the time of
with or without HT; and 2) A recurrence evaluation should be considered when PSA has progression. The NCCN Prostate Cancer Panel uses the term "castration-naive" even when
been confirmed to be increasing after radiation even if the increase above nadir is not yet patients have had neoadjuvant, concurrent, or adjuvant ADT as part of radiation therapy
2 ng/mL, especially in candidates for salvage local therapy who are young and healthy. provided they have recovered testicular function.
Retaining a strict version of the ASTRO definition allows comparison with a large existing ggCastration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is prostate cancer that progresses clinically,
body of literature. Rapid increase of PSA may warrant evaluation (prostate biopsy) prior to radiographically, or biochemically despite castrate levels of serum testosterone (<50 ng/dL).
meeting the Phoenix definition, especially in younger or healthier men. Scher HI, Halabi S, Tannock I, et al. Design and end points of clinical trials for patients with
ccPSA as frequently as every 3 mo may be necessary to clarify disease status, especially in
progressive prostate cancer and castrate levels of testosterone: recommendations of the
high-risk men. Prostate Cancer Clinical Trials Working Group. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:1148-1159.


Table of Contents
RADICAL PROSTATECTOMY PSA PERSISTENCE/RECURRENCE

• PSADT Castration-Naive Disease
Studies
• Consider: EBRTe ± ADTf (PROS-13)ff
Chest x-ray or chest CTi negative for
or Progressiondd or
Bone imagingi,hh distant
Observationt See Systemic Therapy for
Abdominal/pelvic CT or metastases M0 CRPC (PROS-14)gg
MRI and/or TRUSi
C-11 choline or F-18
PSA persistence/
fluciclovine PET/CT or
recurrencex
PET/MRIi, ii See Systemic Therapy for
Decipher molecular Observationt Progressiondd Castration-Naive Disease
assay (category 2B) (PROS-13)ff
Studies
Prostate bed biopsy
positive for
(especially if imaging
distant
suggests local
metastases
recurrence) ADTf ± EBRTe to
site of metastases,
if in weight- Progressiondd
M1 CRPC (PROS-15) gg
bearing bones, or
symptomatic
ffThe term "castration-naive" is used to define patients who are not on ADT
iSee Principles of Imaging (PROS-B).
fSee Principles of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (PROS-F). at the time of progression. The NCCN Prostate Cancer Panel uses the term
tObservation involves monitoring the course of disease with the expectation to deliver "castration-naive" even when patients have had neoadjuvant, concurrent,
or adjuvant ADT as part of radiation therapy provided they have recovered
palliative therapy for the development of symptoms or a change in exam or PSA that
suggests symptoms are imminent. See Principles of Active Surveillance and Observation testicular function.
ggCastration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is prostate cancer that progresses
(PROS-C).. clinically, radiographically, or biochemically despite castrate levels of serum
xPSA persistence/recurrence after RP is defined as failure of PSA to fall to undetectable testosterone (<50 ng/dL). Scher HI, Halabi S, Tannock I, et al. Design and end points
levels (PSA persistence) or undetectable PSA after RP with a subsequent detectable of clinical trials for patients with progressive prostate cancer and castrate levels of
PSA that increases on 2 or more determinations (PSA recurrence). testosterone: recommendations of the Prostate Cancer Clinical Trials Working Group.
ddWorkup for progression should include chest x-ray or chest CT, bone imaging, and
J Clin Oncol 2008;26:1148-1159.
abdominal/pelvic CT or MRI with and without contrast. Consider C-11 choline PET/CT hhF-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT can be considered after bone scan for further
or PET/MRI or F-18 fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI for further soft tissue evaluation evaluation when clinical suspicion of bone metastases is high.
or F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT for further bone evaluation. See Principles of Imaging iiHistologic confirmation is recommended whenever feasible due to significant
(PROS-B) and Discussion. rates of false positivity.


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Observation t
RADIATION THERAPY RECURRENCE or See Systemic
TRUS biopsy RP + PLNDs Therapy for
positive, or
Cryosurgery Castration-
studies
or Naive Disease
negative
• PSADT High-intensity (PROS-13)ff
for distant Progressiondd
• Chest x-ray or focused ultrasound or
metastases
chest CTi or
See Systemic
• Bone imagingi,hh Brachytherapye
TRUS biopsy Therapy for
Candidate for local • Prostate MRIi negative, Observationt M0 CRPC
therapy: • TRUS biopsy or
studies negative (PROS-14)gg
• Original clinical stage • Consider: for distant ADTf
T1-T2, NX or N0 Abdominal/pelvic metastases or
• Life expectancy >10 y CT/MRIi Clinical trial
PSA • PSA now <10 ng/mL C-11 choline or Studies positive See Systemic Therapy for
persistence/ F-18 fluciclovine for distant Castration-Naive Disease
recurrencey PET/CT or PET/ metastases (PROS-13)ff or
or MRIi, ii See Systemic Therapy for M0
ADTf (especially if
Positive DRE Not a candidate CRPC (PROS-14)gg or
bone scan positive)
for local therapy Bone imagingi,hh Progressiondd See Systemic Therapy for M1
or
eSee Principles of Radiation Therapy (PROS-D). CRPC (PROS-15)gg
Observationt
jSee Principles of Imaging (PROS-B). F-18 fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI for further soft tissue evaluation or F-18 sodium
sSee Principles of Surgery (PROS-E). fluoride PET/CT for further bone evaluation. See Principles of Imaging (PROS-B) and
tObservation involves monitoring the course of disease with the expectation to deliver palliative Discussion.
ffThe term "castration-naive" is used to define patients who are not on ADT at the time of
therapy for the development of symptoms or a change in exam or PSA that suggests symptoms
are imminent. See Principles of Active Surveillance and Observation (PROS-C). progression. The NCCN Prostate Cancer Panel uses the term "castration-naive" even
yRTOG-ASTRO (Radiation Therapy Oncology Group - American Society for Therapeutic when patients have had neoadjuvant, concurrent, or adjuvant ADT as part of radiation
Radiology and Oncology) Phoenix Consensus: 1) PSA increase by 2 ng/mL or more above the therapy provided they have recovered testicular function.
nadir PSA is the standard definition for PSA persistence/recurrence after EBRT with or without
clinically, radiographically, or biochemically despite castrate levels of serum
HT; and 2) A recurrence evaluation should be considered when PSA has been confirmed to
testosterone (<50 ng/dL). Scher HI, Halabi S, Tannock I, et al. Design and end points
be increasing after radiation even if the increase above nadir is not yet 2 ng/mL, especially in
of clinical trials for patients with progressive prostate cancer and castrate levels of
candidates for salvage local therapy who are young and healthy. Retaining a strict version of testosterone: recommendations of the Prostate Cancer Clinical Trials Working Group. J
the ASTRO definition allows comparison with a large existing body of literature. Rapid increase Clin Oncol 2008;26:1148-1159.
of PSA may warrant evaluation (prostate biopsy) prior to meeting the Phoenix definition, hhF-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT can be considered after bone scan for further evaluation
especially in younger or healthier men. when clinical suspicion of bone metastases is high.
ddWorkup for progression should include chest x-ray or chest CT, bone imaging, and abdominal/
iiHistologic confirmation is recommended whenever feasible due to significant rates of
pelvic CT or MRI with and without contrast. Consider C-11 choline PET/CT or PET/MRI or false positivity.


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SYSTEMIC THERAPY FOR CASTRATION-NAIVE DISEASEff

Orchiectomy
or
LHRH agonist ± antiandrogenf,jj
M0 or
LHRH antagonistf,jj
or
Observationt
Studies negative for See Systemic Therapy for
Orchiectomy distant metastases M0 CRPC (PROS-14) gg
• Physical exam +
or
PSA every 3–6 mo
LHRH agonist ± antiandrogenf,jj
• Bone imagingi for Progressiondd,ll
≥7 days to prevent testosterone
symptoms and
flare
as often as every
or
6–12 mo
LHRH agonist + antiandrogenf,jj Studies positive for See Systemic Therapy for
or distant metastases M1 CRPC (PROS-15)gg
M1 LHRH antagonistf,jj
or
ADTf and docetaxel 75 mg/m2 for ffThe
term "castration-naive" is used to define patients who are not on ADT at the time
6 cycleskk (category 1) of progression. The NCCN Prostate Cancer Panel uses the term "castration-naive"
or even when patients have had neoadjuvant, concurrent, or adjuvant ADT as part of
ADTf and abirateronef with radiation therapy provided they have recovered testicular function.
prednisone (category 1) clinically, radiographically, or biochemically despite castrate levels of serum
iSee Principles of Imaging (PROS-B). testosterone (<50 ng/dL). Scher HI, Halabi S, Tannock I, et al. Design and end
tObservation involves monitoring the course of disease with the expectation to deliver points of clinical trials for patients with progressive prostate cancer and castrate
palliative therapy for the development of symptoms or a change in exam or PSA
levels of testosterone: recommendations of the Prostate Cancer Clinical Trials
that suggests symptoms are imminent. See Principles of Active Surveillance and Working Group. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:1148-1159.
jjIntermittent ADT can be considered for men with M0 or M1 disease to reduce toxicity.
Observation (PROS-C).
ddWorkup for progression should include chest x-ray or chest CT, bone imaging, See Principles of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (PROS-F)
kkHigh-volume disease is differentiated from low-volume disease by visceral
and abdominal/pelvic CT or MRI with and without contrast. Consider C-11
metastases and/or 4 or more bone metastases, with at least one metastasis beyond
choline PET/CT or PET/MRI or F-18 fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI for the pelvis vertebral column. Patients with low-volume disease have less certain
further soft tissue evaluation or F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT for further bone benefit from early treatment with docetaxel combined with ADT.
evaluation.See Principles of Imaging (PROS-B) and Discussion. llAssure castrate level of testosterone.


Table of Contents
SYSTEMIC THERAPY FOR M0 CASTRATION–RESISTANT PROSTATE CANCER (CRPC)gg
Change or
maintain current
No metastases
treatment
(M0)
and continue
monitoring
Yes Imagingdd
Continue ADT • Observationt especially if
to maintain PSADT >10 mo
Studies See Systemic
castrate • Apalutamidef especially if
negative PSA Metastases (M1) Therapy for M1
serum PSADT <10 mo (category 1)
for distant increasing CRPC (PROS-15)
levels of • Other secondary hormone
metastases
testosterone therapyf especially if Maintain current
(<50 ng/dL) PSADT <10 mo No treatment and
continue monitoring

tObservation involves monitoring the course of disease with the expectation to deliver
palliative therapy for the development of symptoms or a change in exam or PSA
that suggests symptoms are imminent. See Principles of Active Surveillance and
Observation (PROS-C). ggCastration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is prostate cancer that
ddWorkup for progression should include chest x-ray or chest CT, bone imaging, progresses clinically, radiographically, or biochemically despite castrate levels
and abdominal/pelvic CT or MRI with and without contrast. Consider C-11 choline of serum testosterone (<50 ng/dL). Scher HI, Halabi S, Tannock I, et al. Design
PET/CT or PET/MRI or F-18 fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI for further soft and end points of clinical trials for patients with progressive prostate cancer
tissue evaluation or F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT for further bone evaluation. See and castrate levels of testosterone: recommendations of the Prostate Cancer
Principles of Imaging (PROS-B) and Discussion. Clinical Trials Working Group. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:1148-1159.


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SYSTEMIC THERAPY FOR M1 CRPC At progressiondd:

• Abirateronef with Re-stage
• Continue ADT to maintain prednisone (category 1) and
castrate levels of serum • Docetaxelmm,pp (category See Subsequent
testosterone (<50 ng/dL) 1) Therapy for M1
• Consider • Enzalutamidef (category 1)
• Additional treatment CRPC: No Visceral
tumor testing No • Radium-223e for
options: Metastases
for MSI-H or symptomatic bone
Bone antiresorptive (PROS-16)
dMMRm metastases (category 1)qq
therapy with or
CRPCgg, • Consider • Clinical trial
denosumab or • Other secondary hormone See Systemic
studies genetic
zoledronic acid (both Visceral therapyf Therapy for M1
positive counseling
category 1) if bone metastasesoo CRPC: Visceral
for and germline
metastases present Metastases
metastases testing for
Immunotherapy with (PROS-17)
homologous
sipuleucel-T (category 1)
recombination See Systemic
(See PROS-G)mm,nn
gene Therapy for M1
Palliative RTe
mutationsn Yes CRPC: Visceral
for painful bone
metastases Metastases
Best supportive care (PROS-17)
mDNA analysis for MSI and IHC for MMR are different assays measuring the same biological ggCastration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is prostate cancer that progresses
effect. If MSI-H or dMMR is found, refer to genetic counseling to assess for the possibility of clinically, radiographically, or biochemically despite castrate levels of serum
Lynch syndrome. MSI-H or dMMR indicate eligibility for pembrolizumab in later lines of treatment testosterone (<50 ng/dL). Scher HI, Halabi S, Tannock I, et al. Design and end points
for CRPC (see PROS-16 and PROS-17). of clinical trials for patients with progressive prostate cancer and castrate levels of
nConsider testing for mutation in these genes (germline and somatic): BRCA1, BRCA2, ATM, testosterone: recommendations of the Prostate Cancer Clinical Trials Working Group.
PALB2, FANCA; refer to genetic counseling if positive. At present, this information may be used J Clin Oncol 2008;26:1148-1159.
mmSee Principles of Immunotherapy and Chemotherapy (PROS-G).
for genetic counseling, early use of platinum chemotherapy, or eligibility for clinical trials (e.g.,
nnSipuleucel-T has not been studied in patients with visceral metastases.
PARP inhibitors) ddWorkup for progression should include chest x-ray or chest CT, bone imaging,
and abdominal/pelvic CT or MRI with and without contrast. Consider C-11 choline PET/CT or ooVisceral metastases refers to liver, lung, adrenal, peritoneal, and brain metastases.
PET/MRI or F-18 fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI for further soft tissue evaluation or F-18 Soft tissue/lymph node sites are not considered visceral metastases.
sodium fluoride PET/CT for further bone evaluation. See Principles of Imaging (PROS-B) and ppAlthough most patients without symptoms are not treated with chemotherapy, the
Discussion. survival benefit reported for docetaxel applies to those with or without symptoms.
ddWorkup for progression should include chest x-ray or chest CT, bone imaging, and abdominal/ Docetaxel may be considered for patients with signs of rapid progression or visceral
pelvic CT or MRI with and without contrast. Consider C-11 choline PET/CT or PET/MRI or F-18 metastases despite lack of symptoms.
fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI for further soft tissue evaluation or F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT qqRadium-223 is not approved for use in combination with docetaxel or any other
for further bone evaluation.See Principles of Imaging (PROS-B) and Discussion. chemotherapy. See Principles of Radiation Therapy (PROS-D, page 2 of 3).


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SUBSEQUENT SYSTEMIC THERAPY FOR M1 CRPCrr

• Docetaxelmm (category 1)
• Radium-223 for symptomatic bone metastases (category 1)qq
• Pembrolizumab for MSI-H or dMMR (category 2B) At progressiondd:
• If not previously received: • If not previously received:
Prior therapy Abirateronef with prednisone
Abirateronef with prednisone
abiraterone/
Enzalutamidef (category 1)
enzalutamidess
Sipuleucel-Tmm,nn Enzalutamidef (category 1)
• Clinical trial Cabazitaxelmm (category 1)
• Other secondary hormone therapyf Radium-223e,qq for
• Best supportive care symptomatic bone metastases
(category 1)
No visceral
• Abirateronef with prednisone (category 1) Mitoxantrone with
metastases
• Cabazitaxel (category 1)mm prednisonemm,uu
• Enzalutamide (category 1)f Pembrolizumab for MSI-H or
• Radium-223e for symptomatic bone metastases (category 1)qq dMMR (category 2B)
• Pembrolizumab for MSI-H or dMMR (category 2B) • Clinical trial
• If not previously received: • Docetaxel rechallengemm,tt
Prior therapy Sipuleucel-Tmm,nn • Other secondary hormone
docetaxel • Clinical trial therapyf
• Consider docetaxel rechallengemm,tt
• Best supportive care
• Mitoxantrone with prednisonemm,uu
• Other secondary hormone therapyf
• Best supportive care
qqRadium-223 is not approved for use in combination with docetaxel or any other
chemotherapy. See Principles of Radiation Therapy (PROS-D, page 2 of 3).
fSee Principles of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (PROS-F). rrPatients can continue through all treatment options listed. Best supportive care is
ddWorkup for progression should include chest x-ray or chest CT, bone imaging, and always an appropriate option.
abdominal/pelvic CT or MRI with and without contrast. Consider C-11 choline PET/CT or ssLimited data suggest a possible role for AR-V7 testing to help guide selection of
PET/MRI or F-18 fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI for further soft tissue evaluation or F-18 therapy (See Discussion).
sodium fluoride PET/CT for further bone evaluation. See Principles of Imaging (PROS-B) ttPatients who received docetaxel with ADT in the metastastic castration-naive
and Discussion. setting can be considered for docetaxel rechallenge in the CRPC setting.
mmSee Principles of Immunotherapy and Chemotherapy (PROS-G). uuMitoxantrone with prednisone is for palliation in symptomatic patients who
nnSipuleucel-T has not been studied in patients with visceral metastases.
cannot tolerate other therapies.


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SYSTEMIC THERAPY FOR M1 CRPCrr SUBSEQUENT THERAPY

• Chemotherapy
Consider brain MRI with Cisplatin/etoposidemm,xx
Small cell and without contrast Carboplatin/etoposidemm,xx
Docetaxel/carboplatinmm,xx
• Clinical trial
• Docetaxelmm (category 1)
• If not previously received:
Abirateronef with prednisone
Visceral Consider Prior therapy Enzalutamidef
metastases biopsyvv enzalutamide/ • Pembrolizumab for MSI-H or dMMR
• Docetaxelmm abirateroness (category 2B)
(category 1) • Clinical trial
• Enzalutamidef • Other secondary hormone therapyf
(category 1) • Best supportive care
• Abirateronef with
Adenocarcinomaww prednisone Progressiondd • Abirateronef with prednisone
• Clinical trial (category 1)
• Mitoxantrone with • Enzalutamidef (category 1)
prednisonemm,uu • Cabazitaxelmm (category 1)
• Other secondary • Pembrolizumab for MSI-H or dMMR
Prior therapy
hormone therapyf (category 2B)
docetaxel
• Clinical trial
• Docetaxel rechallenge
• Mitoxantrone with prednisonemm,uu
• Other secondary hormone therapyf
fSee Principles of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (PROS-F). • Best supportive care
ddWorkup for progression should include chest x-ray or chest CT, bone imaging, and abdominal/
pelvic CT or MRI with and without contrast. Consider C-11 choline PET/CT or PET/MRI or F-18 uuMitoxantrone with prednisone is for palliation in symptomatic patients who cannot
fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI for further soft tissue evaluation or F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT tolerate other therapies.
for further bone evaluation. See Principles of Imaging (PROS-B) and Discussion. vvHistologic evidence of both adenocarcinoma and small cell carcinoma may be
mmSee Principles of Immunotherapy and Chemotherapy (PROS-G).
present, in which case treatment can follow either pathway. Treat as adenocarcinoma
rrPatients can continue through all treatment options listed. Best supportivecare is always an if biopsy is not feasible or not performed.
appropriate option. wwPatients treated with first-line systemic therapy for non-visceral metastases
ssLimited data suggest a possible role for AR-V7 testing to help guide selection of therapy
(see PROS-15) should proceed to a different systemic therapy.
(See Discussion). xxSee NCCN Guidelines for Small Cell Lung Cancer.


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PRINCIPLES OF LIFE EXPECTANCY ESTIMATION

• Life expectancy estimation is critical to informed decision-making in prostate cancer early detection and treatment.
• Estimation of life expectancy is possible for groups of men but challenging for individuals.
• Life expectancy can be estimated using the Social Security Administration tables (www.ssa.gov/OACT/STATS/table4c6.html) or the WHO’s
Life Tables by country (http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.60000?lang=en).
• Life expectancy can then be adjusted using the clinician’s assessment of overall health as follows:
Best quartile of health - add 50%
Worst quartile of health - subtract 50%
Middle two quartiles of health - no adjustment
• Example of 5-year increments of age are reproduced in the NCCN Guidelines for Older Adult Oncology for life expectancy estimation.

Version 2.2018 , 03/08//18 © National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Inc. 2018, All rights reserved. The NCCN Guidelines® and this illustration may not be reproduced in any form without the express written permission of NCCN®. PROS-A

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PRINCIPLES OF IMAGING
Goals of Imaging • Endorectal ultrasound can be considered for patients with suspected
• Imaging is performed for the detection and characterization of disease to select recurrence after RP.
treatment or guide change in management. • Advanced ultrasound techniques for imaging of the prostate and for
• Imaging studies should be performed based on the best available clinical evidence differentiation between prostate cancer and prostatitis are under evaluation.
and not influenced by business or personal interests of the care provider.
• Imaging techniques can evaluate anatomic or functional parameters. Bone Imaging
Anatomic imaging techniques include plain film radiographs, ultrasound, CT, and • The use of the term “bone scan” refers to the conventional technetium-99m-
MRI. MDP bone scan in which technetium is taken up by bone that is turning over
Functional imaging techniques include radionuclide bone scan, PET/CT, and and imaged with a gamma camera using planar imaging or 3-D imaging with
advanced MRI techniques, such as spectroscopy and spect (DWI). single-photon emission CT (SPECT).
Sites of increased uptake imply accelerated bone turnover and may indicate
Efficacy of Imaging metastatic disease.
• The utility of imaging for men with early PSA persistence/recurrence after RP Osseous metastatic disease may be diagnosed based on the overall pattern
depends on risk group prior to operation, pathologic Gleason grade and stage, of activity, or in conjunction with anatomic imaging.
PSA, and PSA doubling time (PSADT) after recurrence. Low- and intermediate-risk • Bone scan is indicated in the initial evaluation of patients at high risk for
groups with low serum PSAs postoperatively have a very low risk of positive bone skeletal metastases.
scans or CT scans. • Bone scan can be considered for the evaluation of the post-prostatectomy
• Frequency of imaging should be based on individual risk, age, PSADT, Gleason patient when there is failure of PSA to fall to undetectable levels, or when
score, and overall health. there is undetectable PSA after RP with a subsequent detectable PSA that
• Conventional bone scans are rarely positive in asymptomatic men with PSA <10 increases on 2 or more subsequent determinations.
ng/mL. The relative risk for bone metastasis or death increases as PSADT falls. • Bone scan can be considered for the evaluation of patients with an
Bone imaging should be performed more frequently when PSADT ≤8 mo, where increasing PSA or positive DRE after RT if the patient is a candidate for
there appears to be an inflection point. additional local therapy or systemic therapy.
Plain Radiography
• Plain radiography can be used to evaluate symptomatic regions in the skeleton.
However, conventional plain x-rays will not detect a bone lesion until nearly 50% of
the mineral content of the bone is lost or gained.
• CT or MRI may be more useful to assess fracture risk as these modalities permit
more accurate assessment of cortical involvement than plain films where
osteoblastic lesions may obscure cortical involvement.
Ultrasound
• Ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to image small regions of the body.
Standard ultrasound imaging provides anatomic information.
Vascular flow can be assessed using Doppler ultrasound techniques.
• Endorectal ultrasound is used to guide transrectal biopsies of the prostate.

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Bone Imaging (continued) Computed Tomography
• Bone scans are helpful to monitor metastatic prostate cancer to determine • CT provides a high level of anatomic detail, and may detect gross
the clinical benefit of systemic therapy. However, new lesions seen on an extracapsular disease, nodal metastatic disease, and/or visceral metastatic
initial post-treatment bone scan, compared to the pre-treatment baseline disease.
scan, may not indicate disease progression. CT is generally not sufficient to evaluate the prostate gland.
• New lesions in the setting of a falling PSA or soft tissue response and in • CT may be performed with and without oral and intravenous contrast, and
the absence of pain progression at that site may indicate bone scan flare CT technique should be optimized to maximize diagnostic utility while
or an osteoblastic healing reaction. For this reason, a confirmatory bone minimizing radiation dose.
scan 8–12 weeks later is warranted to determine true progression from • CT can be used for examination of the pelvis and/or abdomen for initial
flare reaction. Additional new lesions favor progression. Stable scans evaluation (PROS-2) and as part of workup for recurrence or progression
make continuation of treatment reasonable. Bone scan flare is common, (see PROS-11 through PROS-17).
particularly on initiation of new hormonal therapy, and may be observed
in nearly half of patients treated with the newer agents, enzalutamide Magnetic Resonance Imaging
and abiraterone. Similar flare phenomena may exist with other imaging • The strengths of MRI include high soft tissue contrast and characterization,
modalities, such as CT or PET/CT imaging. multiparametric image acquisition, multiplanar imaging capability, and
• Bone scans and soft tissue imaging (CT or MRI) in men with metastatic advanced computational methods to assess function.
prostate cancer or non-metastatic progressive prostate cancer may be MRI can be performed with and without the administration of intravenous
obtained regularly during systemic therapy to assess clinical benefit. contrast material.
• Bone scans should be performed for symptoms and as often as every 6–12 Resolution of MRI images in the pelvis can be augmented using an
mo to monitor ADT. The need for soft tissue images remains unclear. In endorectal coil.
CRPC, 8- to 12-week imaging intervals appear reasonable. • Standard MRI techniques can be used for examination of the pelvis and/
• PET/CT for detection of bone metastatic disease M0 CRPC or abdomen for initial evaluation (see PROS-2) and as part of workup for
F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT may be used to detect bone metastatic recurrence or progression (see PROS-11 through PROS-17).
disease with greater sensitivity but less specificity than standard bone
scan imaging.
Plain films, CT, MRI, or F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT may be used after
bone scan for further evaluation of equivocal findings.
Early detection of bone metastatic disease may result in earlier use of
newer and more expensive therapies, which may not improve oncologic
outcome or overall survival.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging Histologic confirmation is recommended whenever feasible due to
• MRI may be considered in patients after RP when PSA fails to fall to significant rates of false positivity.
undetectable levels or when an undetectable PSA becomes detectable High variability among PET/CT or PET/MRI equipment, protocols,
and increases on 2 or more subsequent determinations, or after RT for interpretation and institutions provides challenges for application and
rising PSA or positive DRE if the patient is a candidate for additional local interpretation of the utility of PET/CT or PET/MRI.
therapy. MRI-US fusion biopsy may improve the detection of higher grade Table 2 (see Discussion) provides a summary of the main PET/CT or PET/
(Gleason score >7) cancers. MRI imaging tracers utilized for study in prostate cancer recurrence after
• Multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) can be used in the staging and operation or radiation.
characterization of prostate cancer. mpMRI images are defined as images PET/CT or PET/MRI results may change treatment but may not change
acquired with at least one more sequence in addition to the anatomical oncologic outcome.
T2-weighted images, such as DWI or dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) ◊◊When the worst prognosis patients from one risk group move to
images. the higher risk group, the average outcome of both risk groups will
• mpMRI may be used to better risk stratify men who are considering active improve even if treatment has no impact on disease. This phenomenon
surveillance. Additionally, mpMRI may detect large and poorly differentiated is known as the Will Rogers effect, in which the improved outcomes of
prostate cancer (ie, Gleason score >7) and detect extracapsular extension both groups could be falsely attributed to improvement in treatment,
(T staging). mpMRI has been shown to be equivalent to CT scan for pelvic but would be due only to improved risk group assignment. As an
lymph node evaluation. example, F-18 sodium fluoride PET/CT may categorize some patients
as M1b who would have been categorized previously as M0 using a
Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography (PET/CT) bone scan (stage migration). Absent any change in the effectiveness
• F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) PET/CT should not be used routinely for of therapy, the overall survival of both M1b and M0 groups would
staging prostate cancer since data are limited in patients with prostate improve. The definition of M0 and M1 disease for randomized clinical
cancer. trials that added docetaxel or abiraterone to ADT was based on CT and
• The use of PET/CT or PET/MRI imaging using tracers other than F-18 FDG conventional radionuclide bone scans. Results suggest that overall
for staging of small volume recurrent or metastatic prostate cancer is a survival of M1 disease is improved whereas progression-free but not
rapidly developing field wherein most of the data are derived from single overall survival of M0 disease is improved. Therefore, a subset of
institution series or registry studies. FDA clearance and reimbursement for patients now diagnosed with M1 disease using F-18 sodium fluoride
some tests makes unlikely the conduct of clinical trials to evaluate their PET/CT might not benefit from the more intensive therapy used in
utility and impact upon oncologic outcome. these trials and could achieve equivalent overall survival from less
• PET/CT or PET/MRI for detection of biochemically recurrent disease. intensive therapy aimed at M0 disease. Carefully designed clinical
C-11 choline or F-18 fluciclovine PET/CT or PET/MRI may be used to trials using proper staging will be necessary to prove therapeutic
detect small volume disease in soft tissues. benefit, rather than making assumptions compromised by stage
Performance is generally poor at low PSA where pre-test probability of migration.
disease is low (PSA <2.0 ng/ml) and where salvage treatment is most
likely to be beneficial.

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PRINCIPLES OF ACTIVE SURVEILLANCE AND OBSERVATION

• The NCCN Prostate Cancer Panel and the NCCN Prostate Cancer • Observation involves monitoring the course of disease with the
Early Detection Panel (See NCCN Guidelines for Prostate Cancer expectation to deliver palliative therapy for the development of
Early Detection) remain concerned about over-diagnosis and symptoms or change in exam or PSA levels that suggest symptoms
over-treatment of prostate cancer. The panel recommends that are imminent.
patients and their physicians (ie, urologist, radiation oncologist, • Patients with clinically localized prostate cancers who are candidates
medical oncologist, primary care physician) consider active for definitive treatment and choose active surveillance should have
surveillance based on careful consideration of the patient’s regular follow-up. Follow-up should be more rigorous in younger men
prostate cancer risk profile, age, and health. than in older men. Follow-up should include:
• The NCCN Guidelines for Prostate Cancer distinguish between PSA no more often than every 6 mo unless clinically indicated
active surveillance and observation. Both involve no more often DRE no more often than every 12 mo unless clinically indicated
than every-6-month monitoring but active surveillance may Needle biopsy of the prostate should be repeated within 6 mo of
involve surveillance prostate biopsies. Evidence of progression diagnosis if initial biopsy was <10 cores or assessment discordant
will prompt conversion to potentially curative treatment in (eg, palpable tumor contralateral to side of positive biopsy)
active surveillance patients, whereas monitoring continues MRI-US fusion biopsy may improve the detection of higher grade
until symptoms develop or are eminent (ie, PSA >100 ng/mL) in (Gleason score >7) cancers.
observation patients, who will then begin palliative ADT. A repeat prostate biopsy should be considered if prostate exam
• Active surveillance is preferred for men with very-low-risk changes, MRI suggests more aggressive disease, or PSA increases,
prostate cancer and life expectancy ≤20 y. Observation is but no parameter is very reliable for detecting prostate cancer
preferred for men with low-risk prostate cancer with life progression.
expectancy <10 y. See Risk Group Criteria (PROS-2). A repeat prostate biopsy should be considered as often as annually
• Patients with favorable intermediate-risk prostate cancer to assess for disease progression, because PSA kinetics may not
(predominant Gleason grade 3 [ie, Gleason score 3 + 4 = 7], and be as reliable as monitoring parameters to determine progression of
percentage of positive biopsy cores <50 percent, and no more disease.
than one NCCN intermediate risk factor) may be considered for Repeat prostate biopsies are not indicated when life expectancy is
active surveillance. See Discussion section. Active surveillance less than 10 y or appropriate when men are on observation.
involves actively monitoring the course of disease with the PSADT appears unreliable for identification of progressive disease
expectation to intervene with curative intent if the cancer that remains curable. Although mpMRI is not recommended for
progresses. routine use, it may be considered if PSA rises and systematic
• Cancer progression may have occurred if: prostate biopsy is negative to exclude the presence of an anterior
Gleason grade 4 or 5 cancer is found upon repeat prostate cancer.
biopsy
Prostate cancer is found in a greater number of prostate
biopsies or occupies a greater extent of prostate biopsy.
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PRINCIPLES OF ACTIVE SURVEILLANCE AND OBSERVATION

• Advantages of active surveillance: • Advantages of observation:
About 2/3 of men eligible for active surveillance will avoid Avoidance of possible side effects of unnecessary definitive
treatment therapy and early initiation and/or continuous ADT
Avoidance of possible side effects of definitive therapy that may
be unnecessary • Disadvantages of observation:
Quality of life/normal activities potentially less affected Risk of urinary retention or pathologic fracture without prior
Risk of unnecessary treatment of small, indolent cancers reduced symptoms or concerning PSA level
• Disadvantages of active surveillance:

Chance of missed opportunity for cure although very low
About 1/3 of men will require treatment, although treatment delays
do not seem to impact cure rate.
Periodic follow-up mpMRI and prostate biopsies may be
necessary.

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PRINCIPLES OF RADIATION THERAPY

Definitive Radiation Therapy General Principles Definitive Radiation Therapy by Risk Group
• Highly conformal RT techniques should be used to treat localized prostate • Very low risk
cancer. Men with NCCN very low risk prostate cancer are encouraged to pursue
• Photon or proton beam radiation are both effective at achieving highly active surveillance.
conformal radiotherapy with acceptable and similar biochemical control and • Low Risk
long-term side effect profiles (See Discussion). Prophylactic lymph node radiation should NOT be performed routinely.
• Brachytherapy boost, when added to EBRT plus ADT in men with NCCN ADT or antiandrogen therapy should NOT be used routinely
intermediate and high/very high risk prostate cancer, has demonstrated • Favorable Intermediate Risk
improved biochemical control over EBRT plus ADT alone in randomized Prophylactic lymph node radiation is not performed routinely, and ADT
trials, but with higher toxicity. or antiandrogen therapy is not used routinely. Prophylactic lymph node
• Ideally, the accuracy of treatment should be verified by daily prostate radiation and/or ADT use is reasonable if additional risk assessments
localization, with any of the following: techniques of IGRT using CT, suggest aggressive tumor behavior.
ultrasound, implanted fiducials, or electromagnetic targeting/tracking. • Unfavorable Intermediate Risk
Endorectal balloons may be used to improve prostate immobilization. Prophylactic nodal radiation can be considered if additional risk
Perirectal spacer materials may be employed when the previously mentioned assessments suggest aggressive tumor behavior. ADT should be used
techniques are insufficient to improve oncologic cure rates and/or reduce unless additional risk assessments suggest less-aggressive tumor
side effects due to anatomic geometry or other patient related factors, such behavior or if medically contraindicated. The duration of ADT can be
as medication usage and/or comorbid conditions. Patients with obvious reduced when combined with EBRT and brachytherapy. Brachytherapy
rectal invasion or visible T3 and posterior extension should not undergo combined with ADT (without EBRT), or SBRT combined with ADT can
perirectal spacer implantation. be considered when delivering longer courses of EBRT would present
• Various fractionation and dose regimens can be considered depending on the medical or social hardship.
clinical scenario (See Table 1). Dose escalation has been proven to achieve • High Risk
the best biochemical control in men with intermediate and high risk disease. Prophylactic nodal radiation can be considered. ADT is required unless
• SBRT is acceptable in practices with appropriate technology, physics and medically contraindicated. The duration of ADT may be reduced when
clinical expertise. EBRT is combined with brachytherapy. Brachytherapy combined with
• Biologically effective dose (BED) modeling with the linear-quadratic equation ADT (without EBRT), or SBRT combined with ADT, can be considered
may not be accurate for extremely hypofractionated (SBRT/SABR) radiation. when delivering longer courses of EBRT would present a medical or
• For brachytherapy: social hardship.
Patients with a very large prostate or very small prostate, symptoms of • Very High Risk
bladder outlet obstruction (high IPSS), or a previous TURP are more difficult Prophylactic nodal radiation should be considered. ADT is required
to implant and may suffer increased risk of side effects. Neoadjuvant unless medically contraindicated.
ADT may be used to shrink the prostate to an acceptable size; however, • Regional Disease
increased toxicity would be expected from ADT and prostate size may not Nodal radiation should be performed. Clinically positive nodes should
decline in some men despite neoadjuvant ADT. Potential toxicity of ADT be dose-escalated as Dose-Volume Histogram parameters allow. ADT
must be balanced against the potential benefit of target reduction. is required unless medically contraindicated, and the addition of
Post-implant dosimetry must be performed to document the quality of the abiraterone and prednisone to ADT can be considered.
low dose-rate implant.
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Table 1: Regimens that have shown acceptable efficacy and toxicity. The optimal regimen for an individual patient warrants evaluation of comorbid conditions, voiding
symptoms, and toxicity of therapy. Additional fractionation schemes may be used as long as sound oncologic principles and appropriate estimate of BED are considered.
NCCN Risk Group
( indicates an appropriate regimen option if radiation therapy is given)
Regimen for Definitive Therapy Favorable Unfavorable,
or good or poor High and Very-
Very-Low1 Low1 Node Positive
prognostic2 prognostic2, High3
intermediate intermediate
Beam Therapies
72 Gy to 80 Gy at 2 Gy per fraction     with 4-6 mo ADT  with 2-3 y ADT  with 2-3 y ADT
75.6 Gy to 81.0 Gy at 1.8 Gy per fraction     with 4-6 mo ADT  with 2-3 y ADT  with 2-3 y ADT
70.2 Gy at 2.7 Gy per fraction     with 4-6 mo ADT  with 2-3 y ADT  with 2-3 y ADT
70 Gy at 2.5 Gy per fraction     with 4-6 mo ADT  with 2-3 y ADT  with 2-3 y ADT
60 Gy at 3 Gy per fraction     with 4-6 mo ADT  with 2-3 y ADT  with 2-3 y ADT
51.6 Gy at 4.3 Gy per fraction   
37 Gy at 7.4 Gy per fraction   
40 Gy at 8 Gy per fraction   
36.25 Gy at 7.25 Gy per fraction   
Brachytherapy Monotherapy
Iodine 125 implant at 145 Gy   
Palladium 103 implant at 125 Gy   
Cesium implant at 115 Gy   
HDR 27 Gy at 13.5 Gy in 2 implants   
HDR 38 Gy at 9.5 Gy BID in 2 implants   
Combined EBRT and Brachytherapy (EBRT 45–50.4 Gy at 1.8–2.0 Gy/fx, unless otherwise noted)
Iodine 125 implant at 110-115 Gy  ± 4 mo ADT  with 1-3 y ADT  with 1-3 y ADT
Palladium 103 implant at 90-100 Gy  ± 4 mo ADT  with 1-3 y ADT  with 1-3 y ADT
Cesium implant at 85 Gy  ± 4 mo ADT  with 1-3 y ADT  with 1-3 y ADT
HDR 21.5 Gy at 10.75 Gy x 2  ± 4 mo ADT  with 1-3 y ADT  with 1-3 y ADT
EBRT 37.5 Gy at 2.5 Gy + 12-15 Gy single HDR  ± 4 mo ADT  with 1-3 y ADT  with 1-3 y ADT
1
Active surveillance should be strongly considered
2
"Good" or "Poor" prognostic is not strictly defined. Predictive nomograms and/or molecular testing can be used to prognosticate PSA persistence/recurrence, prostate cancer specific mortality and metastasis
free survival after definitive external beam radiation therapy. Although the prognostic value has been established, the predictive value of these tests remains unknown.
3
Prophylactic nodal radiation may be considered if estimate of nodal metastasis is high.

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Salvage Brachytherapy
• Permanent LDR or temporary HDR brachytherapy is a treatment option for Oligometastatic and Palliative Radiotherapy
pathologically confirmed local recurrence after EBRT or brachytherapy. Subjects • 8 Gy as a single dose is as effective for pain palliation at any bony site as longer
should have restaging imaging according to the NCCN high-risk stratification courses of radiation, but re-treatment rates are higher.
group to rule out regional nodal or metastatic disease. Patients should be • Widespread bone metastases can be palliated using strontium-89 or
counselled that salvage brachytherapy significantly increases the probability samarium-153 with or without focal external beam radiation.
of urologic, sexual, and bowel toxicity compared to brachytherapy, as primary • SBRT can be considered, and enrollment on clinical trials is encouraged for
treatment previously. oligometastatic disease where durable local control is desirable,.
• Treatment of the primary site in men with metastatic disease can be used to
Post-Prostatectomy Radiation Therapy palliate obstructive symptoms due to tumor. Definitive external beam dosing
• The panel recommends use of nomograms and consideration of age and regimens, or traditional palliative regimens (e.g. 30Gy/10fx or 37.5 Gy/15 fx), can
comorbidities, clinical and pathologic information, PSA levels, and PSADT to be used depending on clinical scenario.
individualize treatment discussion. The panel recommends consultation with
the American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology (ASTRO) AUA Radiopharmaceutical Therapy
Guidelines. Evidence supports offering adjuvant/salvage RT in most men with • Radium-223 is an alpha-emitting radiopharmaceutical that has been shown to
adverse pathologic features or detectable PSA and no evidence of disseminated extend survival in men who have castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC)
disease. with symptomatic bone metastases, but no visceral metastases. Radium-223
• Indications for adjuvant RT include pT3 disease, positive margin(s), or seminal alone has not been shown to extend survival in men with visceral metastases
vesicle involvement. Adjuvant RT is usually given within 1 year after RP and after or bulky nodal disease (>3 to 4 cm). Radium-223 differs from beta emitting
operative side effects have improved/ stabilized. Patients with positive surgical agents, such as samarium 153 and strontium 89, which are palliative and have
margins may benefit the most. no survival advantage. Radium-223 causes double-strand DNA breaks and has
• Indications for salvage RT include an undetectable PSA that becomes a short radius of activity. Grade 3–4 hematologic toxicity (2% neutropenia, 3%
subsequently detectable and increases on 2 measurements or a PSA that remain thrombocytopenia, 6% anemia) occurs at low frequency.
persistently detectable after RP. Treatment is more effective when pre-treatment • Radium-223 is administered intravenously once a month for 6 months by an
PSA is low and PSADT is long. appropriately licensed facility, usually in nuclear medicine or RT departments.
• The recommended prescribed doses for adjuvant/salvage post-prostatectomy • Prior to the initial dose, patients must have absolute neutrophil count
RT are 64–72 Gy in standard fractionation. Biopsy-proven gross recurrence may ≥1.5 x 109/L, platelet count ≥100 x 109/L, and hemoglobin ≥10g/dL.
require higher doses. • Prior to subsequent doses, patients must have absolute neutrophil count
• Two years of anti-androgen therapy with 150 mg/daily of bicalutamide (RTOG ≥1 x 109/L and platelet count ≥50 x 109/L (per label, although this may be too low
9601) or 6 months of ADT (GETUG-16) have both demonstrated improved overall in practice). Radium-223 should be discontinued if a delay of 6-8 weeks does
and metastasis-free survival on prospective randomized trials versus radiation not result in the return of blood counts to these levels.
alone in the salvage setting. • Non-hematologic side effects are generally mild, and include nausea, diarrhea,
• Nuclear medicine advanced imaging techniques can be useful for localizing and vomiting. These symptoms may occur because radium-223 is eliminated
disease with PSA levels as low as 0.5 ng/ml (see Discussion) predominantly by fecal excretion.
• Nomograms, and tumor based molecular assays, can be used to prognosticate • Radium-223 is not intended to be used in combination with chemotherapy due to
risk of metastasis and prostate cancer-specific mortality in men with adverse risk the potential for additive myelosuppression, except on a clinical trial.
features after RP. • Concomitant use of denosumab or zoledronic acid does not interfere with the
• Target volumes include the prostate bed and may include the whole pelvis beneficial effects of radium-223 on survival.
according to physician discretion.

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PRINCIPLES OF SURGERY
Pelvic Lymph Node Dissection:
• An extended PLND will discover metastases approximately twice as often as a limited PLND. Extended PLND provides more complete
staging and may cure some men with microscopic metastases; therefore, an extended PLND is preferred when PLND is performed.
• An extended PLND includes removal of all node-bearing tissue from an area bound by the external iliac vein anteriorly, the pelvic sidewall
laterally, the bladder wall medially, the floor of the pelvis posteriorly, Cooper's ligament distally, and the internal iliac artery proximally.
• A PLND can be excluded in patients with <2% predicated probability of nodal metastases by nomograms, although some patients with lymph
node metastases will be missed.
• PLND can be performed using an open, laparoscopic, or robotic technique.
Radical Prostatectomy:
• RP is an appropriate therapy for any patient with clinically localized prostate cancer that can be completely excised surgically, who has a life
expectancy of ≥10 years, and has no serious comorbid conditions that would contraindicate an elective operation.
• High-volume surgeons in high-volume centers generally provide better outcomes.
• Laparoscopic and robot-assisted RP are used commonly. In experienced hands, the results of these approaches appear comparable to open
surgical approaches.
• Blood loss can be substantial with RP, but can be reduced by careful control of the dorsal vein complex and periprostatic vessels.
• Urinary incontinence can be reduced by preservation of urethral length beyond the apex of the prostate and avoiding damage to the distal
sphincter mechanism. Bladder neck preservation may decrease the risk of incontinence. Anastomotic strictures increase the risk of long-
term incontinence.
• Recovery of erectile function is directly related to age at RP, preoperative erectile function, and the degree of preservation of the cavernous
nerves. Replacement of resected nerves with nerve grafts has not been shown to be beneficial. Early restoration of erections may improve
late recovery.
• Salvage RP is an option for highly selected patients with local recurrence after EBRT, brachytherapy, or cryotherapy in the absence of
metastases, but the morbidity (ie, incontinence, loss of erection, anastomotic stricture) is high and the operation should be performed by
surgeons who are experienced with salvage RP.

Version 2.2018 , 03/08//18 © National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Inc. 2018, All rights reserved. The NCCN Guidelines® and this illustration may not be reproduced in any form without the express written permission of NCCN®. PROS-E

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PRINCIPLES OF ANDROGEN DEPRIVATION THERAPY (ADT)1,2

ADT for regional disease, adjuvant treatment of lymph node ADT for M0 or M1 castration-naive disease:
metastases, or patients on observation who require treatment • Orchiectomy
• Orchiectomy • LHRH agonist alone (first-generation antiandrogen must be given
• LHRH agonist alone for ≥ 7 days to prevent testosterone flare if metastases are present in
Goserelin, histrelin, leuprolide, or triptorelin weight-bearing bone)
Goserelin, histrelin, leuprolide, or triptorelin
Neoadjuvant, concurrent, and/or adjuvant ADT as part of radiation • LHRH agonist (as above) plus first-generation antiandrogen
therapy for clinically localized disease Nilutamide, flutamide, or bicalutamide
• LHRH agonist alone • LHRH antagonist
Goserelin, histrelin, leuprolide, or triptorelin Degarelix
• LHRH agonist (as above) plus first-generation antiandrogen • Orchiectomy, LHRH agonist, or LHRH antagonist (as above) plus
Nilutamide, flutamide, or bicalutamide abiraterone plus prednisone (for M1)
Secondary Hormone Therapy for M0 or M1 CRPC

• Continue LHRH agonist or antagonist to maintain castrate serum levels
of testosterone (<50 ng/dL) and add:
• Second-generation antiandrogen )
Apalutamide (for M0)
Enzalutamide (for M1)
• Androgen metabolism inhibitor (for M1)
Abiraterone + prednisone
• First-generation antiandrogen
Nilutamide, flutamide, or bicalutamide
• Ketoconazole3
• Ketoconazole plus hydrocortisone3
• Corticosteroids (hydrocortisone, prednisone, dexamethasone)
• DES or other estrogen
1Abiraterone plus prednisone should not be coadministered with an antiandrogen.

2Abiraterone is not an option for use in combination with docetaxel.
3Ketoconazole ± hydrocortisone should not be used if disease progressed on abiraterone with prednisone.

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PRINCIPLES OF ANDROGEN DEPRIVATION THERAPY

ADT for Clinically Localized Disease • Some patients are candidates for salvage after PSA persistence/
• Neoadjuvant ADT for RP is strongly discouraged outside of a clinical trial. recurrence, which may include radiation after failed operation or RP
• ADT should not be used as monotherapy in clinically localized prostate or cryosurgery after failed radiation.
cancer. • Men with prolonged PSADTs (>12 mo) and who are older are
• Giving ADT before, during, and/or after radiation prolongs survival in candidates for observation.
selected radiation-managed patients. • Men who choose ADT should consider intermittent ADT. A phase
• Studies of short-term (4–6 mo) and long-term (2–3 y) neoadjuvant ADT 3 trial that compared intermittent to continuous ADT showed that
all have used complete androgen blockade. Whether the addition of an intermittent ADT was not inferior to continuous ADT with respect
antiandrogen is necessary requires further study. to survival, and quality of life was better for the intermittent ADT
• In the largest randomized trial to date using the antiandrogen arm. The 7% increase in prostate cancer deaths in the intermittent
bicalutamide alone at high dose (150 mg), there were indications of a ADT arm was balanced by more non-prostate cancer deaths in the
delay in recurrence of disease but no improvement in survival. Longer continuous ADT arm. An unplanned subset analysis showed that
follow-up is needed. men with Gleason sum 8–10 prostate cancer in the continuous arm
• In one randomized trial, immediate and continuous use of ADT in men had a median overall survival that was 14 mo longer (8 y) than those
with positive nodes following RP resulted in significantly improved in the intermittent arm (6.8 y).
overall survival compared to men who received delayed ADT. Therefore,
such patients should be considered for immediate ADT. ADT for Metastatic Disease
• Many of the side effects of continuous ADT are cumulative over time on • ADT is the gold standard for men with metastatic prostate cancer.
ADT. • A phase 3 trial compared continuous ADT to intermittent ADT,
but the study could not demonstrate non-inferiority for survival.
ADT for PSA Without Metastases However, quality-of-life measures for erectile function and mental
• The timing of ADT for patients whose only evidence of cancer is a rising health were better in the intermittent ADT arm after 3 months of ADT
PSA is influenced by PSA velocity, patient anxiety, the short- and long- compared to the continuous ADT arm.
term side effects of ADT, and the underlying comorbidities of the patient. • In addition, three meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials
• Most patients will have a good 15-year prognosis, but their prognosis is failed to show a difference in survival between intermittent and
best approximated by the absolute level of PSA, the rate of change in the continuous ADT.
PSA level (PSADT), and the initial stage, grade, and PSA level at the time • Close monitoring of PSA and testosterone levels and possibly
of definitive therapy. imaging is required when using intermittent ADT, especially
• Earlier ADT may be better than delayed ADT, although the definitions of during off-treatment periods, and patients may need to switch to
early and late (what level of PSA) are controversial. Since the benefit of continuous ADT upon signs of disease progression.
early ADT is not clear, treatment should be individualized until definitive
studies are done. Patients with a shorter PSADT (or a rapid PSA velocity)
and an otherwise long life expectancy should be encouraged to consider
ADT earlier.

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Optimal ADT nilutamide, enzalutamide [M1 only], apalutamide [M0 only]), addition
• LHRH agonist or antagonist (medical castration) and bilateral of adrenal/paracrine androgen synthesis inhibitors (ketoconazole with
orchiectomy (surgical castration) are equally effective. or without hydrocortisone or abiraterone with prednisone [M1 only]),
• Combined androgen blockade (medical or surgical castration combined or use of an estrogen, such as DES, can be considered. Ketoconazole
with an antiandrogen) provides modest to no benefit over castration ± hydrocortisone should not be used if the disease progressed on
alone in patients with metastatic disease. abiraterone.
• Antiandrogen therapy should precede or be co-administered with • DES has cardiovascular and thromboembolic side effects at any dose
LHRH agonist and be continued in combination for at least 7 days for but frequency is dose and agent dependent. DES should be initiated
patients with overt metastases who are at risk of developing symptoms at 1 mg/d and increased, if necessary, to achieve castrate levels of
associated with the flare in testosterone with initial LHRH agonist alone. serum testosterone (<50 ng/dL). Other estrogens delivered topically or
• Antiandrogen monotherapy appears to be less effective than medical or parenterally may have less frequent side effects but data are limited.
surgical castration and is not recommended. • In a randomized controlled trial in the setting of M1 CRPC prior to
• No clinical data support the use of finasteride or dutasteride with docetaxel chemotherapy, abiraterone (1000 mg daily on an empty
combined androgen blockade. stomach) and low-dose prednisone (5 mg BID) compared to prednisone
• Patients who do not achieve adequate suppression of serum alone improved radiographic progression-free survival (rPFS), time
testosterone (less than 50 ng/dL) with medical or surgical castration can to initiation of chemotherapy, time to onset or worsening of pain, and
be considered for additional hormonal manipulations (with estrogen, time to deterioration of performance status. An improvement in overall
antiandrogens, LHRH antagonists, or steroids), although the clinical survival was demonstrated. Use of abiraterone and prednisone in this
benefit remains uncertain. The optimal level of serum testosterone to setting is a category 1 recommendation. The side effects of abiraterone
effect “castration” has yet to be determined. that require ongoing monitoring include hypertension, hypokalemia,
peripheral edema, atrial fibrillation, congestive heart failure, liver injury,
Secondary Hormone Therapy and fatigue, as well as the known side effects of ADT and long-term
• Androgen receptor activation and autocrine/paracrine androgen corticosteroid use.
synthesis are potential mechanisms of recurrence of prostate cancer • A phase 3 study of patients with M0 CRPC and a PSADT <10 mo showed
during ADT (CRPC). Thus, castrate levels of testosterone should be apalutamide (240 mg/day) improved the primary endpoint of metastasis-
maintained while additional therapies are applied. free survival over placebo (40.5 mo vs. 16.2 mo). No significant
• Once the tumor becomes resistant to initial ADT, there are a variety of difference was seen in overall survival. Adverse events included rash
options that may afford clinical benefit. The available options are based (24% vs 5.5%), fracture (11% vs. 6.5%), and hypothyroidism (8% vs. 2%).
on whether the patient has evidence of metastases by imaging, M0 Patients with M0 CRPC can be offered apalutamide after a discussion
CRPC (non-metastatic) vs. M1 CRPC (metastatic), and whether or not the of the risks and benefits. Bone support should be used in patients
patient is symptomatic. receiving apalutamide.
• In the setting in which patients have no or minimal symptoms, • A phase 3 study of docetaxel-naive men showed that enzalutamide
administration of secondary hormonal therapy including addition of, (160 mg daily) resulted in significant improvement in rPFS and overall
or switching to, a different anti-androgen (flutamide, bicalutamide, survival. The use of enzalutamide in this setting is category 1. The side

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effects of enzalutamide that require long-term monitoring include fatigue, treatment for men age ≥ 50y with low bone mass (T-score between
diarrhea, hot flashes, headache, and seizures (reported in 0.9% of men on -1.0 and -2.5, osteopenia) at the femoral neck, total hip, or lumbar
enzalutamide). spine by DEXA and a 10-y probability of hip fracture ≥3% or a 10-y
• Both randomized trials of abiraterone and enzalutamide in the pre-docetaxel probability of a major osteoporosis-related fracture ≥20%. Fracture
setting were conducted in men who had no or minimal symptoms due to risk can be assessed using FRAX®, the algorithm recently released
M1 CRPC. How these agents compare to docetaxel for pain palliation in this by WHO. ADT should be considered “secondary osteoporosis”
population of patients is not clear. Both drugs have palliative effects in the when using the FRAX® algorithm. Treatment options to increase
post-docetaxel setting. Both abiraterone and enzalutamide are approved in bone density, a surrogate for fracture risk in men without
this setting and have category 1 recommendations. Both drugs are suitable metastases, include denosumab (60 mg SQ every 6 mo), zoledronic
options for men who are not good candidates to receive docetaxel. acid (5 mg IV annually), and alendronate (70 mg PO weekly).
• In the post-docetaxel CRPC population, enzalutamide and abiraterone plus • A baseline DEXA scan should be obtained before starting therapy
prednisone have been shown to extend survival in randomized controlled in men at increased risk for fracture based on FRAX® screening.
trials. Therefore, each agent has a category 1 recommendation. A follow-up DEXA scan after 1 year of therapy is recommended
• Two randomized clinical trials (STRIVE and TERRAIN) showed that 160 mg/d by the International Society for Clinical Densitometry, although
enzalutamide improved progression-free survival compared with 50 mg/d there is no consensus on the optimal approach to monitoring the
bicalutamide in men with treatment-naïve CRPC and, therefore, enzalutamide effectiveness of drug therapy. Use of biochemical markers of bone
may be the preferred option in this setting. However, bicalutamide can still turnover to monitor response to therapy is not recommended.
be considered in some patients, given the different side-effect profiles of the The serum level of 25-hydroxy vitamin D and average daily dietary
agents and the increased cost of enzalutamide. intake of vitamin D will assist the nutritionist in making a patient-
• Evidence-based guidance on the sequencing of these agents in either pre- or specific recommendation for vitamin D supplementation. There are
post-docetaxel remains unavailable. currently no guidelines on how often to monitor vitamin D levels.
However, for those who require monitoring with DEXA scans, it
Monitor/Surveillance makes sense to check the serum vitamin D level at the same time.
• ADT has a variety of adverse effects including hot flashes, loss of libido and • Denosumab (60 mg SQ every 6 mo), zoledronic acid (5 mg IV
erectile dysfunction, shrinkage of penis and testicles, loss of muscle mass annually), and alendronate (70 mg PO weekly) increase bone
and strength, fatigue, depression, hair loss, osteoporosis, greater incidence mineral density, a surrogate for fracture risk, during ADT for
of clinical fractures, obesity, insulin resistance, alterations in lipids, and prostate cancer. Treatment with either denosumab, zoledronic acid,
greater risk for diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Patients and their or alendronate sodium is recommended when the absolute fracture
medical providers should be advised about these risks prior to treatment. risk warrants drug therapy.
• Screening and treatment for osteoporosis are advised according to • Screening for and intervention to prevent/treat diabetes and
guidelines for the general population from the National Osteoporosis cardiovascular disease are recommended in men receiving ADT.
Foundation (www.nof.org). The National Osteoporosis Foundation guidelines These medical conditions are common in older men and it remains
include recommendations for: 1) calcium (1000-1200 mg daily from food uncertain whether strategies for screening, prevention, and
and supplements) and vitamin D3 (400–1000 IU daily); and 2) additional treatment of diabetes and cardiovascular disease in men receiving
ADT should differ from the general population.
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PRINCIPLES OF IMMUNOTHERAPY AND CHEMOTHERAPY

Systemic Therapy for M1 CRPC metastatic prostate cancer or to men with low-volume metastatic
• Chemotherapy prostate cancer, since this subgroup was not shown to have
Docetaxel with concurrent steroid improved survival in either the ECOG study or a similar European
◊◊Concurrent steroids may include: daily prednisone or (GETUG-AFU 15) trial.
dexamethasone on the day of chemotherapy. • Men with asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic mCRPC may
Cabazitaxel with concurrent steroid consider immunotherapy.
◊◊Concurrent steroids may include: daily prednisone or Sipuleucel-T has been shown in a phase 3 clinical trial to extend
dexamethasone on the day of chemotherapy. mean survival from 21.7 mo in the control arm to 25.8 mo in the
• Immunotherapy treatment arm, which constitutes a 22% reduction in mortality risk.
Sipuleucel-T Sipuleucel-T is well tolerated; common complications include chills,
◊◊Only for asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic, no liver pyrexia, and headache.
metastases, life expectancy >6 mo, ECOG performance status 0-1 Sipuleucel-T may be considered for men with CRPC who meet the
Pembrolizumab (for MSI-H or dMMR) following:
◊◊Only as subsequent systemic therapy for patients who have ◊◊Good performance status (ECOG 0-1)
progressed through at least one line of systemic therapy for M1 ◊◊Estimated life expectancy >6 mo
CRPC ◊◊No hepatic metastases
• Men with advanced prostate cancer should be encouraged to ◊◊No or minimal symptoms
participate in clinical trials and referred early to a medical oncologist. • Every-3-week docetaxel with concurrent steroid is the preferred
• Men with high-volume, ADT-naïve, metastatic disease should be first-line chemotherapy treatment based on phase 3 clinical trial data
considered for ADT and docetaxel based on the results of the ECOG for men with symptomatic mCRPC. Radium-223 has been studied in
3805 (CHAARTED) trial. In this study, 790 men were randomized to 6 symptomatic patients who are not candidates for docetaxel-based
cycles of docetaxel at 75 mg/m2 every 3 weeks with dexamethasone regimens and resulted in improved overall survival. Abiraterone and
with ADT vs. ADT alone. In the majority subset of patients with high- enzalutamide have been shown to extend survival in patients who
volume disease, defined as 4 or more bone metastases including progressed on docetaxel. (See PROS-F, 3 of 4). Mitoxantrone and
one extra-axial bone lesion or visceral metastases, a 17-month prednisone may provide palliation but have not been shown to extend
improvement in overall survival was observed (HR 0.60; P = .0006). survival.
Improvements in PSA response, time to clinical progression, and • Only regimens utilizing docetaxel on an every-3-week schedule
time to recurrence were observed with use of docetaxel. Toxicities demonstrated beneficial impact on survival. The duration of therapy
of 6 cycles of docetaxel included fatigue, neuropathy, stomatitis, should be based on the assessment of benefit and toxicities. In the
diarrhea, and neutropenia with or without fever. The use of white pivotal trials establishing survival advantage of docetaxel-based
cell growth factors should follow NCCN Guidelines based on risk of chemotherapy, patients received up to 10 cycles of treatment if no
neutropenic fever. Docetaxel should not be offered to men without progression and no prohibitive toxicities were noted.

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• Patients who are not candidates for docetaxel or who are intolerant had a significantly lower PSA response rate but non-significantly
of docetaxel should be considered for cabazitaxel with concurrent lower radiographic response rate and non-significantly shorter
steroid, based on recent results that suggest clinical activity of progression-free and overall survival (13.4 vs 14.5 mo) compared
cabazitaxel in mCRPC. Cabazitaxel was associated with lower rates to 25 mg/m². Cabazitaxel starting dose can be either 20 mg/m² or
of peripheral neuropathy than docetaxel, particularly at 20 mg/m2 25 mg/m² for men with mCRPC who have progressed despite prior
(12% vs. 25%) and may be appropriate in patients with pre-existing docetaxel chemotherapy. Cabazitaxel 25 mg/m² with concurrent
mild peripheral neuropathy. Current data do not support greater steroid may be considered for healthy men who wish to be more
efficacy of cabazitaxel over docetaxel. aggressive.
• Rising PSA should not be used as the sole criteria for progression. • Docetaxel retreatment can be attempted in men who have
Assessment of response should incorporate clinical and not demonstrated definitive evidence of progression on prior
radiographic criteria. docetaxel therapy.
• Men with mCRPC that has progressed following docetaxel-based • No chemotherapy regimen to date has demonstrated improved
chemotherapy should be encouraged to participate in clinical trials. survival or quality of life after cabazitaxel, and trial participation
However, cabazitaxel with concurrent steroid has been shown in a should be encouraged. Several systemic agents have shown
randomized phase 3 study to prolong overall survival, progression- palliative and radiographic response benefits in clinical trials.
free survival, and PSA and radiologic responses when compared • Treatment decisions around off-label chemotherapy use in the
with mitoxantrone and prednisone and is FDA approved in the post- treatment-refractory CRPC should be individualized based on
docetaxel second-line setting. Selection of patients without severe comorbidities and functional status and after informed consent.
neuropathy and adequate liver, kidney, and bone marrow function is • No benefits of combination approaches over sequential single-
necessary, given the high risk of neutropenia and other side effects agent therapies have been demonstrated, and toxicity is higher
in this population, with consideration of prophylactic granulocyte with combination regimens.
growth factor injections. • See NCCN Guidelines for Myeloid Growth Factors for
• Cabazitaxel at 20 mg/m² every 3 weeks with concurrent steroid is recommendations on growth factor support.
the standard of care in the post-docetaxel setting, with or without • In men with CRPC who have bone metastases, denosumab and
growth factor support. A recent trial, PROSELICA, compared zoledronic acid have been shown to prevent disease-related
cabazitaxel 25 mg/m² every 3 weeks to 20 mg/m² every 3 weeks. skeletal complications, which include fracture, spinal cord
Cabazitaxel 20 mg/m² had less toxicity; febrile neutropenia, compression, or the need for surgery or RT to bone.
diarrhea, and fatigue were less frequent. Cabazitaxel at 20 mg/m² When compared to zoledronic acid, denosumab was shown to be
superior in prevention of skeletal-related events.

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Choice of agent may depend on underlying comorbidities, whether
the patient has been treated with zoledronic acid previously,
logistics, and/or cost considerations.
◊◊Zoledronic acid is given intravenously every 3 to 4 weeks. The
dose is based on the serum creatinine obtained just prior to each
dose and must be adjusted for impaired renal function. Zoledronic
acid is not recommended for creatinine clearance <30 mL/min.
◊◊Denosumab is given subcutaneously every 4 weeks. Although
renal monitoring is not required, denosumab is not recommended
in patients with creatinine clearance <30 mL/min. When creatinine
clearance is <60 mL/min, the risk for severe hypocalcemia
increases. Even in patients with normal renal function,
hypocalcemia is seen twice as often with denosumab than
zoledronic acid and all patients on denosumab should be treated
with vitamin D and calcium with periodic monitoring of serum
calcium levels.
Osteonecrosis of the jaw is seen with both agents; risk is increased
in patients who have tooth extractions, poor dental hygiene, or a
dental appliance. Patients should be referred for dental evaluation
before starting either zoledronic acid or denosumab. If invasive
dental procedures are required, bone-targeted therapy should
be withheld until the dentist indicates that the patient has healed
completely from all dental procedure(s).
The optimal duration of therapy for either denosumab or zoledronic
acid remains uncertain.
The toxicity profile of denosumab when denosumab is used in
patients who have been treated with zoledronic acid remains
uncertain.
Clinical trials are in progress that assess a role for zoledronic acid
or denosumab in men beginning ADT for bone metastases.

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Table 1
American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) Pathological T (pT)*,**
TNM Staging System For Prostate Cancer (8th ed., 2017) T2 Organ confined
Definition of Primary Tumor (T) T3 Extraprostatic extension
Clinical T (cT) T3a Extraprostatic extension (unilateral or bilateral) or
TX Primary tumor cannot be assessed microscopic invasion of the bladder neck
T0 No evidence of primary tumor T3b Tumor invades seminal vesicle(s)
T1 Clinically inapparent tumor that is not palpable T4 Tumor is fixed or invades adjacent structures other than
T1a Tumor incidental histologic finding in 5% or less of seminal vesicles such as external sphincter, rectum,
tissue resected bladder, levator muscles, and/or pelvic wall
T1b Tumor incidental histologic finding in more than 5% *Note: There is no pathologic T1 classification.
of tissue resected **Note: Positive surgical margin should be indicated by an R1 descriptor, indicating
T1c Tumor identified by needle biopsy found in one or both residual microscopic disease.
sides, but not palpable
T2 Tumor is palpable and confined within prostate Definition of Regional Lymph Node (N)
T2a Tumor involves one-half of one side or less NX Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed
T2b Tumor involves more than one-half of one side but N0 No positive regional nodes
not both sides N1 Metastases in regional node(s)
T2c Tumor involves both sides
T3 Extraprostatic tumor that is not fixed or does not invade
adjacent structures Definition of Distant Metastasis (M)*
T3a Extraprostatic extension (unilateral or bilateral) M0 No distant metastasis
T3b Tumor invades seminal vesicle(s) M1 Distant metastasis
T4 Tumor is fixed or invades adjacent structures other M1a Non-regional lymph node(s)
than seminal vesicles such as external sphincter, rectum, M1b Bone(s)
bladder, levator muscles, and/or pelvic wall. M1c Other site(s) with or without bone disease
*Note: When more than one site of metastasis is present, the most advanced category is
used. M1c is most advanced.
Used with permission of the American College of Surgeons, Chicago, Illinois. The original source for this information is the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, Eighth Edition (2017)
published by Springer International Publishing.
Version 2.2018 , 03/08//18 © National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Inc. 2018, All rights reserved. The NCCN Guidelines® and this illustration may not be reproduced in any form without the express written permission of NCCN®. ST-1

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AJCC PROGNOSTIC STAGE GROUPS*
Group T N M PSA Grade Group Histopathologic Type

(ng/mL) This classification applies to adenocarcinomas and squamous carcinomas,
I cT1a-c N0 M0 PSA <10 1 but not to sarcoma or transitional cell (urothelial) carcinoma of the prostate.
Adjectives used to describe histologic variants of adenocarcinomas of the
cT2a N0 M0 PSA <10 1
prostate include mucinous, signet ring cell, ductal, and neuroendocrine,
pT2 N0 M0 PSA <10 1 including small cell carcinoma. There should be histologic confirmation of the
IIA cT1a-c N0 M0 PSA ≥10 <20 1 disease.
cT2a N0 M0 PSA ≥10 <20 1
pT2 N0 M0 PSA ≥10 <20 1 Definition of Histologic Grade Group (G)
Recently, the Gleason system has been compressed into so-called Grade
cT2b N0 M0 PSA <20 1 Groups.
cT2c N0 M0 PSA <20 1
IIB T1-2 N0 M0 PSA <20 2 Grade Group Gleason Score Gleason Pattern
IIC T1-2 N0 M0 PSA <20 3 1 ≤6 ≤3+3
T1-2 N0 M0 PSA <20 4 2 7 3+4
IIIA T1-2 N0 M0 PSA ≥20 1-4 3 7 4+3
IIIB T3-4 N0 M0 Any PSA 1-4 4 8 4+4, 3+5, 5+3
IIIC Any T N0 M0 Any PSA 5 5 9 or 10 4+5, 5+4, 5+5
IVA Any T N1 M0 Any PSA Any
IVB Any T Any N M1 Any PSA Any
*Note: When either PSA or Grade Group is not available, grouping should be
determined by T category and/or either PSA or Grade Group as available.
Used with permission of the American College of Surgeons, Chicago, Illinois. The original source for this information is the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, Eighth Edition (2017)
published by Springer International Publishing.
Version 2.2018 , 03/08//18 © National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Inc. 2018, All rights reserved. The NCCN Guidelines® and this illustration may not be reproduced in any form without the express written permission of NCCN®. ST-2

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This discussion is being updated to correspond with the Brachytherapy ................................................................................... MS-17
Discussion newly updated algorithm. Last updated 02/21/17 Proton Therapy .................................................................................. MS-19
Radiation for Distant Metastases ....................................................... MS-20
NCCN Categories of Evidence and Consensus Other Local Therapies ........................................................................... MS-21
Androgen Deprivation Therapy .............................................................. MS-22
Category 1: Based upon high-level evidence, there is uniform Types of ADT .................................................................................... MS-22
ADT for Patients with Low-Risk Disease ........................................... MS-23
NCCN consensus that the intervention is appropriate. ADT for Patients with Intermediate-Risk Disease .............................. MS-23
ADT for Patients with High-Risk or Very-High-Risk Disease.............. MS-24
Category 2A: Based upon lower-level evidence, there is uniform
Adjuvant ADT after Radical Prostatectomy ........................................ MS-24
NCCN consensus that the intervention is appropriate. ADT for Biochemical Recurrence ...................................................... MS-25
ADT for Nodal or Metastatic Disease................................................. MS-26
Category 2B: Based upon lower-level evidence, there is NCCN Adverse Effects of Traditional ADT .................................................... MS-27
consensus that the intervention is appropriate. Hormone Therapy for CRPC ............................................................. MS-29
Chemotherapy and Immunotherapy ...................................................... MS-31
Category 3: Based upon any level of evidence, there is major Docetaxel .......................................................................................... MS-31
NCCN disagreement that the intervention is appropriate. Cabazitaxel........................................................................................ MS-32
Sipuleucel-T ...................................................................................... MS-32
All recommendations are category 2A unless otherwise noted. Agents Related to Bone Health in CRPC ........................................... MS-33
NCCN Recommendations ..................................................................... MS-33
Table of Contents Initial Prostate Cancer Diagnosis....................................................... MS-33
Initial Clinical Assessment and Staging Evaluation ........................... MS-34
Overview ................................................................................................. MS-2
Very Low Risk ................................................................................... MS-34
Literature Search Criteria and Guidelines Update Methodology .............. MS-2
Low Risk ............................................................................................ MS-34
Estimates of Life Expectancy .................................................................. MS-2
Intermediate Risk .............................................................................. MS-35
Risk Stratification..................................................................................... MS-3
High Risk ........................................................................................... MS-35
Nomograms ......................................................................................... MS-4
Very High Risk ................................................................................... MS-36
Molecular Testing ................................................................................ MS-4
Nodal and Metastatic Disease ........................................................... MS-36
Family History and DNA Repair Mutations ........................................... MS-5
Disease Monitoring ............................................................................ MS-36
Imaging ................................................................................................... MS-6
Adjuvant or Salvage Therapy after Radical Prostatectomy ................ MS-37
Risks of Imaging .................................................................................. MS-7
Post-Irradiation Recurrence ............................................................... MS-39
Observation ............................................................................................. MS-8
Progressive Castration-Naïve Disease .............................................. MS-40
Active Surveillance .................................................................................. MS-9
Progression to CRPC ........................................................................ MS-41
Rationale ............................................................................................. MS-9
CRPC without Signs of Metastasis .................................................... MS-41
Application ......................................................................................... MS-10
Small Cell Carcinoma of the Prostate ................................................ MS-41
Surveillance Program and Reclassification Criteria ........................... MS-11
Metastatic CRPC ............................................................................... MS-42
Radical Prostatectomy ........................................................................... MS-13
Summary ............................................................................................... MS-46
Operative Techniques and Adverse Effects ....................................... MS-13
Table 1. Available Tissue-Based Tests for Prostate Cancer Prognosis . MS-47
Pelvic Lymph Node Dissection .......................................................... MS-14
Table 2. Selected Active Surveillance Experiences in North America ... MS-48
Radiation Therapy ................................................................................. MS-15
References ............................................................................................ MS-49
External Beam Radiation Therapy ..................................................... MS-15
Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy ........................................................ MS-16
Version 2.2018, 03/08/18 © National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Inc. 2018, All rights reserved. The NCCN Guidelines® and this illustration may not be reproduced in any form without the express written permission of NCCN®. MS-1

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Overview The search results were narrowed by selecting studies in humans

An estimated 161,360 new cases of prostate cancer will be diagnosed published in English. Results were confined to the following article
in 2017, accounting for 19% of new cancer cases in men.1 The types: Clinical Trial, Phase III; Clinical Trial, Phase IV; Guideline;
age-adjusted death rates from prostate cancer have declined 51% from Randomized Controlled Trial; Meta-Analysis; Systematic Reviews; and
1993 to 2014. Researchers have estimated prostate cancer to account Validation Studies.
for 26,730 deaths in 2017, which represent 8% of male cancer deaths.1
The PubMed search resulted in 301 citations and their potential
The decreasing and comparatively low death rate suggests that
relevance was examined. The data from key PubMed articles and
increased public awareness with earlier detection and treatment has
articles from additional sources deemed relevant to these guidelines
affected mortality from this prevalent cancer. The alternative hypothesis
and discussed by the panel have been included in this updated
is that prostate cancer is becoming biologically less aggressive, but
Discussion section. Recommendations for which high-level evidence
evidence is lacking. Early detection can lead to overtreatment of
was lacking were based on panel review of lower-level evidence and
prostate cancers that do not threaten life expectancy, which results in
expert opinion.
unnecessary side effects that impair quality of life and increase health
care expenditures. Over the past several years, the incidence of The complete details of the Development and Update of the NCCN
prostate cancer has declined, likely in part a result of decreased rates of Guidelines are available at www.NCCN.org.
prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening.2-4 Better use of PSA for early
detection of potentially fatal prostate cancer (see the NCCN Guidelines Estimates of Life Expectancy
for Prostate Cancer Early Detection, available at www.NCCN.org) Estimates of life expectancy have emerged as a key determinant of
should decrease the risk of over-detection and over-treatment AND primary treatment, particularly when considering active surveillance or
preserve the decrease in prostate cancer mortality. observation. Life expectancy can be estimated for groups of men, but it
is difficult to extrapolate these estimates to an individual patient. Life
Literature Search Criteria and Guidelines Update expectancy can be estimated using the Minnesota Metropolitan Life
Methodology
Insurance Tables, the Social Security Administration Life Insurance
An electronic search of the PubMed database was performed to obtain Tables,6 or the WHO’s Life Tables by Country,7 and adjusted for
key literature in prostate cancer published between September 15, 2015 individual patients by adding or subtracting 50% based on whether one
and September 15, 2016, which used the search term prostate cancer, believes the patient is in the healthiest quartile or the unhealthiest
prior to the update of this version of the NCCN Guidelines® for Prostate quartile, respectively.8 As an example, the Social Security
Cancer. The PubMed database was chosen because it remains the Administration Life Expectancy for a 65-year-old American man is 17.7
most widely used resource for medical literature and indexes only peer- years. If judged to be in the upper quartile of health, a life expectancy of
reviewed biomedical literature.5 26.5 years is assigned. If judged to be in the lower quartile of health, a
life expectancy of 8.8 years is assigned. Thus, treatment

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recommendations could change dramatically using the NCCN understand their true risk level and thereby limit overtreatment. The new
Guidelines if a 65-year-old man was judged to be in either poor or Gleason grade group system was validated in 2 separate cohorts, one
excellent health. of >26,000 men and one of 5880 men, treated for prostate cancer with
either radical prostatectomy or radiation.13,14 Both studies found that
Risk Stratification Gleason grade group predicted the risk of recurrence after primary
Optimal treatment of prostate cancer requires assessment of risk: how treatment. For instance, in the larger study, the 5-year biochemical
likely is a given cancer to be confined to the prostate or spread to the recurrence-free progression probabilities after radical prostatectomy for
regional lymph nodes? How likely is the cancer to progress or Gleason grade groups 1 through 5 were 96% (95% CI, 95–96), 88%
metastasize after treatment? How likely is adjuvant or salvage radiation (95% CI, 85–89), 63% (95% CI, 61–65), 48% (95%CI, 44–52), and 26%
to control cancer after an unsuccessful radical prostatectomy? Prostate (95% CI, 23–30), respectively. The separation between Gleason grade
cancers are best characterized by the digital rectal exam (DRE) and groups was less pronounced in the radiation therapy cohort, likely
radiographically determined clinical T stage, Gleason score and extent because of increased use of neoadjuvant/concurrent/adjuvant androgen
of cancer in the biopsy specimen, and serum PSA level. Imaging deprivation therapy (ADT) in the higher risk groups. In another study of
studies (ultrasound, MRI) have been investigated intensively but have the new Gleason grade group system, all-cause mortality and prostate-
yet to be accepted as essential adjuncts to staging. cancer specific mortality were higher in men in Gleason grade group 5
than in those in Gleason grade group 4.15 Additional studies have
The NCCN Guidelines have, for many years, incorporated a risk supported the validity of this new system.16-18 The NCCN panel has
stratification scheme that uses a minimum of stage, grade, and PSA to accepted the new Gleason grade group system to inform better
assign patients to risk groups. These risk groups are used to select the treatment discussions compared to those using Gleason score. Patients
appropriate options that should be considered and to predict the remain divided into very-low-, low-, intermediate-, high-, and very-high-
probability of biochemical failure after definitive local therapy.9 Risk risk groups.
group stratification has been published widely and validated, and
provides a better basis for treatment recommendations than clinical The NCCN Guidelines Panel recognized that heterogeneity exists within
stage alone.10,11 each risk group. For example, an analysis of 12,821 patients showed
that men assigned to the intermediate-risk group by clinical stage (T2b–
A new prostate cancer grading system was developed during the 2014 T2c) had a lower risk of recurrence than men categorized according to
International Society of Urological Pathology (ISUP) Consensus Gleason score (7) or PSA level (10–20 ng/mL).19 A similar trend of
Conference.12 Several changes were made to the assignment of superior recurrence-free survival was observed in men placed in the
Gleason pattern based on pathology (see Gleason Grade Group high-risk group by clinical stage (T3a) compared to those assigned by
Definitions in the algorithm). The new system assigns Gleason grade Gleason score (8–10) or PSA level (>20 ng/mL), although it did not
groups from 1 to 5, derived from the Gleason score. Many experts reach statistical significance. Other studies have reported differences in
believe that Gleason grade groups will enable patients to better

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outcomes in the high-risk group depending on risk factors.20 Evidence pelvic lymph node dissection (PLND) during radical prostatectomy,36,37
also shows heterogeneity in the low-risk group, with PSA levels and brachytherapy,29,38-40 or external beam radiation therapy (EBRT).29,41
percent positive cores affecting pathologic findings after radical Biochemical progression-free survival can be reassessed
prostatectomy.21,22 postoperatively using age, diagnostic serum PSA, and pathologic grade
and stage.29,42-44 Potential success of adjuvant or salvage radiation
In a retrospective study, 1024 patients with intermediate-risk prostate therapy (RT) after unsuccessful radical prostatectomy can also be
cancer were treated with radiation with or without neoadjuvant and assessed using a nomogram.29,45
concurrent ADT.23 Multivariate analysis revealed that primary Gleason
pattern 4, percentage of positive biopsy cores ≥50, and presence of >1 None of the current models predicts with perfect accuracy, and only
intermediate-risk factors (ie, T2b-c, PSA 10-20 ng/mL, Gleason score 7) some of these models predict metastasis28,29,42,46,47 and cancer-specific
were significant predictors of increased incidence of distant metastasis. death.30,32,48,49 Given the competing causes of mortality, many men who
The authors used these factors to separate the patients into sustain PSA failure will not live long enough either to develop clinical
unfavorable and favorable intermediate-risk groups and determined that evidence of distant metastases or to die from prostate cancer. Those
the unfavorable intermediate-risk group had worse PSA recurrence-free with a short PSA doubling time are at greatest risk of death. Not all PSA
survival and higher rates of distant metastasis and prostate cancer- failures are clinically relevant; thus, PSA doubling time may be a more
specific mortality than the favorable intermediate-risk group. useful measure of risk of death.50 Patients with a PSA nadir >0.5 ng/mL
after radiation and ADT have adjusted hazard ratio (HR) for all-cause
Nomograms mortality of 1.72 (95% CI, 1.17–2.52; P = .01).51 The NCCN Guidelines
The more clinically relevant information that is used in the calculation of Panel recommends that NCCN risk groups be used to begin the
time to PSA failure, the more accurate the result. A nomogram is a discussion of options for the treatment of clinically localized prostate
predictive instrument that takes a set of input data (variables) and cancer and that nomograms be used to provide additional and more
makes predictions about an outcome. Nomograms predict more individualized information.
accurately for the individual patient than risk groups, because they
combine the relevant prognostic variables, regardless of value. The Molecular Testing
Partin tables24-26 were the first to achieve widespread use for counseling Personalized or precision medicine is a goal for many translational and
men with clinically localized prostate cancer. The tables give the clinical investigators. The National Academy of Medicine has described
probability (95% confidence intervals [CIs]) that a patient with a certain several lessons that should accelerate the development of useful
clinical stage, Gleason score, and PSA will have a cancer of each biomarkers52 to inform men and their physicians about proper choices
pathologic stage. Nomograms can be used to inform treatment for treatment of clinically localized prostate cancer. Dr. Hayes has
decision-making for men contemplating active surveillance,27,28 radical warned us that a “bad tumor marker is as bad as a bad drug.”53,54 The
prostatectomy,29-32 neurovascular bundle preservation33-35 or omission of NCCN Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel takes pride in its leadership

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regarding the need for life expectancy estimation, use of nomograms, are under development, and the use of these assays is likely to
and recommendations for active surveillance as the only option for men increase in the coming years.
with low-risk prostate cancer and life expectancy less than 10 years or
very-low-risk prostate cancer and life expectancy less than 20 years. Table 1 lists these tests in alphabetical order and provides an overview
Although risk groups, life expectancy estimates, and nomograms help of each test, populations where each test independently predicts
inform decisions, uncertainty about the risk of disease progression outcome, and supporting references. These molecular biomarker tests
persists. American men continue to under-select active surveillance and listed have been developed with extensive industry support, guidance,
their physicians may under-recommend it, likely as a result of this and involvement, and have been marketed under the less rigorous FDA
uncertainty.55 In 2013, <20% of men with low-risk prostate cancer were regulatory pathway for biomarkers. Although full assessment of their
managed with active surveillance.56 However, active surveillance has clinical utility requires prospective randomized clinical trials, which are
become more common in some areas, such as Michigan, where its unlikely to be done, the panel believes that men with clinically localized
frequency has been measured and educational efforts have begun.57,58 disease may consider the use of tumor-based molecular assays at this
time. Future comparative effectiveness research may allow these tests
Several tissue-based molecular assays have been developed in an and others like them to gain additional evidence regarding their utility for
effort to improve decision-making in newly diagnosed men considering better risk stratification of men with prostate cancer.
active surveillance and in treated men considering adjuvant therapy or
treatment for recurrence. Uncertainty about the risk of disease Family History and DNA Repair Mutations
progression can be reduced if such molecular assays can provide Recent data indicate that men with prostate cancer may have germline
accurate and reproducible prognostic or predictive information beyond mutations in 1 of 16 DNA repair genes: BRCA2 (5%), ATM (2%),
NCCN risk group assignment and currently available life expectancy CHEK2 (2%), BRCA1 (1%), RAD51D (0.4%), PALB2 (0.4%), ATR
tables and nomograms. Retrospective case cohort studies have shown (0.3%), and NBN, PMS2, GEN1, MSH2, MSH6, RAD51C, MRE11A,
that these assays provide prognostic information independent of NCCN BRIP1, or FAM175A.66 The overall prevalence of DNA repair gene
risk groups, which include likelihood of death with conservative mutations in men with metastatic or localized high-risk or low-to-
management, likelihood of biochemical recurrence after radical intermediate-risk prostate cancer was found to be 11.8%, 6%, or 2%,
prostatectomy or radiotherapy, and likelihood of developing metastasis respectively.66 The newfound appreciation of the frequency of DNA
after operation or salvage radiotherapy.59-65 No randomized controlled repair gene mutations has implications for family genetic counseling,
trials have studied the utility of these tests. Several of these assays are consideration for cancer risk syndromes, and better assessment of
available, and 3 have received positive reviews by the Molecular personal risk for second cancers. Some families of patients with
Diagnostic Services Program (MolDX) and are likely to be covered by prostate cancer may be at increased risk of breast and ovarian cancer,
CMS (Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services). Several other tests melanoma, pancreatic cancer (BRCA1 and BRCA2), colorectal cancers
(Lynch syndrome), and other cancer types.

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DNA repair gene mutations may occur at even higher frequencies (up to ultrasound, CT, and MRI. Functional techniques include radionuclide
25%) in metastatic castration-recurrent prostate cancer (CRPC).67 Early bone scan (conventional Tc EDTMP scan), PET/CT, and advanced
studies suggest such mutations may be predictive of the clinical benefit MRI, such as spectroscopy and diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI). More
of poly-ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitors.68,69 In particular, details on each technique are outlined under Principles of Imaging.
preliminary data suggest that one PARP inhibitor, olaparib, has clinical
activity in such patients, and trials of this agent and other PARP The guidelines recommend CT or MRI imaging as part of staging
inhibitors are ongoing to assess the overall net clinical benefit of such workup for men with longer life expectancies and T3 or T4 disease or
therapy for men with CRPC, particularly in those men with either nomogram-predicted probability of lymph node involvement >10%.
germline or somatically acquired DNA repair enzyme mutations.69 DNA Multivariate analysis of retrospective data on 643 men with newly
repair defects have been reported to be predictive for sensitivity to diagnosed prostate cancer who underwent staging CT found that PSA,
platinum agents in other cancers.70 Platinum agents have shown some Gleason score, and clinical T stage were associated independently with
activity in patients with CRPC without molecular selection.71 Studies of a positive finding (P < .05 for all).75 Bone scans are recommended as
platinum agents in patients with CRPC that have DNA repair gene part of staging for patients with longer life expectancies and higher
mutations are needed. The panel recommends clinical trial enrollment Gleason grade, higher T stage, or higher PSA values as delineated in
for men with prostate cancer and DNA repair gene mutations. the algorithm. Retrospective evidence suggests that Gleason score and
PSA levels are associated with positive bone scan findings.76
The panel recommends inquiring about family and personal history of
cancer, with referral to genetic counseling if a familial cancer syndrome Transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS) is the most common technique for
is suspected. In addition, due to the high prevalence of germline anatomic visualization of the prostate. TRUS is used to guide
mutations, the panel recommends consideration of germline testing for transrectal biopsies, and can be considered for patients with
all men with metastatic and high-/very-high-risk clinically localized biochemical recurrence after operation or radiation.
prostate cancer; genetic counseling before and after such testing is
The utility of imaging for men with an early biochemical recurrence after
essential.
radical prostatectomy depends on disease risk before operation and
Data also suggest that patients with prostate cancer who have pathologic stage, Gleason grade, PSA, and PSA doubling time after
BRCA1/2 germline mutations have increased risk of progression on recurrence. Patients with low- and intermediate-risk disease and low
local therapy and decreased OS.72-74 This information should be postoperative serum PSA levels have a very low risk of positive bone
discussed with such men if they are considering active surveillance. scans or CT scans.77,78 In a series of 414 bone scans performed in 230
men with biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy, the rate of
Imaging a positive bone scan for men with PSA >10 ng/mL was only 4%.79 Serial
Imaging techniques are useful for detecting metastases and tumor PSA measurements can be helpful for stratifying men at highest risk of
recurrence. Anatomic imaging techniques include radiographs, progression and metastases. Some men have detectable PSA after

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radical prostatectomy due to benign prostate tissue in the prostate 88%, respectively.93 C-11 choline PET/CT may be useful to detect
fossa. They have low stable PSAs and a very low risk of prostate distant metastases in these patients.
cancer progression.80,81
Risks of Imaging
The use of multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) in the staging and As with any medical procedure, imaging is not without risk. Some of
characterization of prostate cancer has increased in the last few years. these risks are concrete and tangible, while others are less clear. Risks
To be considered “multi-parametric,” MRI images must be acquired with associated with imaging include exposure to ionizing radiation, adverse
at least one more sequence apart from the anatomical T2-weighted reaction to contrast media, false-positive scans, and over-detection.
one, such as DWIs or dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) images.
Furthermore, a high-quality mpMRI requires a 3.0 T magnet; the need Deterministic and stochastic are two types of effects from exposure to
for an endorectal coil remains controversial. ionizing radiation by x-ray, CT, or PET/CT. Deterministic effects are
those that occur at a certain dose level, and include events such as
Evidence supports the implementation of mpMRI in several aspects of cataracts and radiation burns. No effect is seen below the dose
prostate cancer management. First, mpMRI helps detect large and threshold. Medical imaging is always performed almost below the
poorly differentiated cancers (ie, Gleason score ≥7/Gleason grade threshold for deterministic effects. Stochastic effects tend to occur late,
group ≥2).82 MpMRI has been incorporated into MRI-TRUS fusion- increase in likelihood as dose increases, and have no known lower
targeted biopsy protocols, which has led to an increase in the diagnosis “safe” limit. The major stochastic effect of concern in medical imaging is
of high-grade cancers with fewer biopsy cores, while reducing detection radiation-induced malignancy. Unfortunately, no direct measurements
of low-grade and insignificant cancers.83-85 Second, mpMRI aids in the are available to determine risk of cancer arising from one or more
detection of extracapsular extension (T staging), with high negative medical imaging events, so risks are calculated using other models
predictive values in low-risk men.86 MpMRI results may inform decision- (such as from atomic bomb survivors). The literature is conflicting with
making regarding nerve-sparing operation.87 Third, mpMRI has been regards to the precise risk of secondary malignancies in patients
shown to be equivalent to CT scan for staging of pelvic lymph nodes.88,89 undergoing medical imaging procedures. There is a small but finite risk
Finally, mpMRI out-performs bone scan and targeted x-rays for of developing secondary malignancies as a result of medical imaging
detection of bone metastases, with a sensitivity of 98% to 100% and procedures, and the risk is greatest in young patients. However, the
specificity of 98% to 100% (vs. sensitivity of 86% and specificity of absolute risk of fatal malignancy arising from a medical imaging
98%–100% for bone scan plus targeted x-rays).90 procedure is very low, and is difficult to detect given the prevalence of
cancer in the population and the multiple factors that contribute to
C-11 choline PET/CT has been used to detect and differentiate prostate
oncogenesis.94 Efforts should be made to minimize dose from these
cancer from benign tissue.91,92 The sensitivity and specificity of the
procedures, which begin with judicious use of imaging only when
technique in restaging patients with biochemical failure were 85% and

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justified by the clinical situation. Harm may arise from not imaging a addressed through direct communication, either physician-to-physician
patient, through disease non-detection or erroneous staging. or in a multidisciplinary tumor board setting.
Many imaging studies make use of contrast material delivered by oral, Medical imaging is a critical tool in the evaluation and management of
intravenous, or rectal routes. The use of contrast material may improve patients with malignancy. However, as with any medical procedure,
study performance, but reactions to contrast material may occur and imaging is not without risks to patients. Inappropriate use of imaging
they should be used only when warranted. Some patients develop also has been identified as a significant contributor to health care costs
adverse reactions to iodinated intravenous contrast material. Most in the United States and worldwide. Therefore, imaging should be
reactions are mild cutaneous reactions (eg, hives, itching) but performed only when medically appropriate, and in a manner that
occasionally severe reactions can be life-threatening (bronchospasm or reduces risk (eg, minimizing radiation dose). An algorithmic approach to
anaphylactoid). The risk of severe reaction is low with non-ionic contrast the use of imaging, such as by NCCN and the Appropriateness Criteria
materials and may be about 1:170,000 injections.95 Both iodinated CT developed by the American College of Radiology,96 can assist medical
contrast material and gadolinium-based MR contrast materials can decision-making.
affect renal function, particularly when renal function is impaired. MR
contrast materials also have been associated with systemic Observation
nephrogenic sclerosis in patients with impaired renal function. Centers Observation involves monitoring the course of prostate cancer with the
performing imaging studies with contrast materials should have policies expectation to deliver palliative therapy for development of symptoms or
in place to address the use of contrast in these patients. change in exam or PSA that suggests symptoms are imminent.
Observation thus differs from active surveillance. The goal of
Every imaging test has limitations for sensitivity, specificity, and observation is to maintain quality of life by avoiding noncurative
accuracy, which are modulated further by the expertise of the treatment when prostate cancer is unlikely to cause mortality or
interpreting physician. Harm can arise from failure to detect a tumor or significant morbidity. The main advantage of observation is avoidance
tumor recurrence (ie, false negative), but harm to the patient and added of possible side effects of unnecessary definitive therapy or ADT.
expense to the medical system also can result from false-positive However, patients may develop urinary retention or pathologic fracture
scans. Improper interpretation of a benign finding as malignant can lead without prior symptoms or increasing PSA level.
to significant patient anxiety, additional and unnecessary imaging, and
invasive procedures that carry their own risks for adverse outcomes. Observation is applicable to elderly or frail men with comorbidity that will
likely out-compete prostate cancer. Johansson and colleagues97
Accurate and medically relevant interpretation of imaging studies observed that only 13% of men developed metastases 15 years after
requires familiarity and expertise in the imaging modality, attention to diagnosis of T0-T2 disease and only 11% had died from prostate
detail in image review, knowledge of tumor biology, and familiarity with cancer. Since prostate cancer will not be treated for cure for patients
treatment options and algorithms. Challenging cases are best with shorter life expectancies, observation for as long as possible is a

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reasonable option based on physician’s discretion. Monitoring should overall comparison). However, higher rates of disease progression and
include PSA and DRE no more often than every 6 months, but will not metastases were seen in the active surveillance group. Approximately
involve surveillance biopsies. When symptoms develop or are imminent, 23% of participants had Gleason scores 7–10, and 5 of 8 deaths in the
patients can begin palliative ADT. active surveillance group were in this subset. Patient-reported outcomes
were compared among the three groups.105 The operation group
Active Surveillance experienced the greatest negative effect on sexual function and urinary
Active surveillance (also referred to as watchful waiting, expectant continence, whereas bowel function was worst in the radiation group.
management, or deferred treatment) involves actively monitoring the
course of the disease with the expectation to deliver curative therapy if In addition, studies have shown that active surveillance does not
the cancer progresses. Unlike observation, active surveillance is mainly adversely impact psychologic well-being or quality of life.105-110 Possible
applicable to younger men with seemingly indolent cancer with the goal disadvantages of active surveillance are listed in the Principles section
to defer treatment and its potential side effects. Because these patients of these guidelines and include the possible necessity of follow-up
have a longer life expectancy, they should be followed closely and prostate biopsies.
treatment should start promptly should the cancer progress so as not to
Rationale
miss the chance for cure.
The NCCN Guidelines Panel remains concerned about the problems of
In one study, approximately two thirds of eligible men avoided over-treatment related to the increased frequency of diagnosis of
treatment, and thus the possible associated side effects of treatment, prostate cancer from widespread use of PSA for early detection or
after 5 years of active surveillance.98 In another study, 55% of the screening (see NCCN Guidelines for Prostate Cancer Early Detection).
population remained untreated at 15 years.99 Although a proportion of
men will eventually undergo treatment, the delay does not appear to The debate about the need to diagnose and treat every man who has
impact cure rates, and several studies have shown active surveillance is prostate cancer is fueled by the high prevalence of prostate cancer
safe.98-102 In fact, a 2015 meta-analysis of 26 active surveillance cohort upon autopsy of the prostate111; the high frequency of positive prostate
studies that included 7627 men identified only 8 prostate cancer deaths biopsies in men with normal DREs and serum PSA values112; the
and 5 cases of metastasis.103 Further, the ProtecT study, which contrast between the incidence and mortality rates of prostate cancer;
randomized 1643 men with localized prostate cancer to active and the need to treat an estimated 37 men with screen-detected
surveillance, radical prostatectomy, or radiation therapy, found no prostate cancer113,114 or 100 men with low-risk prostate cancer115 to
significant difference in the primary outcome of prostate cancer mortality prevent one death from the disease. The controversy regarding over-
at a median of 10 years follow-up.104 Of 17 prostate cancer deaths (1% treatment of prostate cancer and the value of prostate cancer early
of study participants), 8 were in the active surveillance group, 5 were in detection113-119 has been informed further by publication of the Goteborg
the operation group, and 4 were in the radiation group (P = .48 for the study, a subset of the European Randomized Study of Screening for
Prostate Cancer (ERSPC).120,121 Many believe that this study best

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approximates proper use of PSA for early detection since it was Application
population-based and involved a 1:1 randomization of 20,000 men who Epstein and colleagues125 introduced clinical criteria to predict
received PSA every 2 years and used thresholds for prostate biopsy of pathologically “insignificant” prostate cancer. Insignificant prostate
PSA >3, and >2.5 since 2005. The follow-up of 14 years is longer than cancer is identified by: clinical stage T1c, biopsy Gleason score
the European study as a whole (9 years) and Prostate, Lung, ≤6/Gleason grade group I, the presence of disease in fewer than 3
Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) (11.5 years). Prostate cancer was biopsy cores, ≤50% prostate cancer involvement in any core, and PSA
diagnosed in 12.7% of the screened group compared to 8.2% of the density <0.15 ng/mL/g. Despite the usefulness of these criteria,
control group. Prostate cancer mortality was 0.5% in the screened physicians are cautioned against using these as the sole decision
group and 0.9% in the control group, which gave a 40% absolute maker. Studies have shown that as many as 8% of cancers that
cumulative risk reduction of prostate cancer death (compared to qualified as insignificant using the Epstein criteria were not organ-
ERSPC 20% and PLCO 0%).120 Most impressively, 40% of the patients confined based on postoperative findings.126,127 A new nomogram may
were managed initially using active surveillance and 28% were still on be better.128 Although many variations upon this definition have been
active surveillance at the time these results were analyzed. To prevent proposed (reviewed by Bastian and colleagues129), a consensus of the
a prostate cancer death, 12 men would need to be diagnosed and NCCN Guidelines Panel was reached that insignificant prostate cancer,
treated as opposed to the ERSPC as a whole where 37 men needed to especially when detected early using serum PSA, poses little threat to
be treated. Thus, early detection, when applied properly, should reduce men with life expectancy less than 20 years. The confidence that
prostate cancer mortality. However, that reduction comes at the Americans with very-low-risk prostate cancer have a very small risk of
expense of over-treatment that may occur in as many as 50% of men prostate cancer death is enhanced by lead time bias introduced by PSA
treated for PSA-detected prostate cancer.122 early detection that ranges from an estimated 12.3 years in a 55-year-
old man to 6 years in a 75-year-old man.124
The best models of prostate cancer detection and progression estimate
that 23% to 42% of all U.S. screen-detected cancers were The role for active surveillance should increase with the shift towards
overtreated123 and that PSA detection was responsible for up to 12.3 earlier-stage diagnosis attributed to PSA testing. However, results from
years of lead-time bias.124 The NCCN Guidelines Panel responded to randomized or cohort studies comparing this deferral strategy with
these evolving data with careful consideration of which men should be immediate treatment are mixed, partly due to heterogeneity of the
recommended active surveillance. However, the NCCN Guidelines patient populations (reviewed by Sanda and Kaplan130). Ultimately, a
Panel recognizes the uncertainty associated with the estimation of recommendation for active surveillance must be based on careful
chance of competing causes of death, the definition of very-low- or low- individualized weighing of a number of factors: life expectancy, general
risk prostate cancer, the ability to detect disease progression without health condition, disease characteristics, potential side effects of
compromising chance of cure, and the chance and consequences of treatment, and patient preference.
treatment side effects.

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Race is emerging as another important factor to consider, particularly Surveillance Program and Reclassification Criteria
for African-American men. From 2010 to 2012, African-American men Each of the major active surveillance series has used different criteria
had a higher lifetime risk of developing (18.2% vs. 13.3%) and dying for reclassification.99,101,145-149 Reclassification criteria were met by 23%
from (4.4% vs 2.4%) prostate cancer compared with Caucasian- of men with a median follow-up of 7 years in the Toronto experience,147
American men.131 Multiple studies have shown that African Americans 36% of men with a median follow-up of 5 years in the Johns Hopkins
with very-low-risk prostate cancer may harbor high-grade (Gleason sum experience,101 and 16% of men with a median follow-up of 3.5 years in
≥7) cancer that is not detected by pre-treatment biopsies. Compared to the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) experience146 (Table
Caucasian Americans matched on clinical parameters, African 2). Uncertainty regarding reclassification criteria and the desire to avoid
Americans have been reported to have 1.7- to 2.3-fold higher change of missing an opportunity for cure have driven several reports in the past
pathologic upgrading.132,133 Several studies have reported that, among year that have dealt with the validity of commonly used reclassification
men with low-risk prostate cancer who are enrolled in active criteria. The Toronto group demonstrated that a PSA trigger point of
surveillance programs, African Americans have higher risk of disease PSA doubling time <3 years could not be improved upon by using a
progression to higher Gleason grade or volume cancer than Caucasian PSA threshold of 10 or 20, PSA doubling time calculated in various
Americans.134-136 African Americans in the low- to intermediate-risk ways, or PSA velocity >2 ng/mL/y.150 The Johns Hopkins group used
categories also appear to suffer from an increased risk of biochemical biopsy-demonstrated reclassification to Gleason pattern 4 or 5 or
recurrence after treatment.137 In addition, African American men with increased tumor volume on biopsy as their criteria for reclassification.
low-risk or favorable intermediate-risk prostate cancer have an increase Of 290 men on an annual prostate biopsy program, 35% demonstrated
in all-cause mortality after treatment, mainly due to cardiovascular reclassification at a median follow-up of 2.9 years.151 Neither PSA
complications after ADT.138 Reasons for these clinical disparities are doubling time (area under the curve [AUC], 0.59) nor PSA velocity (AUC
under investigation and may include difference in tumor location within 0.61) was associated with prostate biopsy reclassification. Both groups
the prostate that may reflect different prostate cancer subtypes related have concluded that PSA kinetics cannot replace regular prostate
to differences in gene expression.139-142 In addition, access to health biopsy, although treatment of most men who demonstrate
care may play a significant role, because in a retrospective study of 895 reclassification on prostate biopsy prevents evaluation of biopsy
men in the SEARCH database, no significant differences were seen in reclassification as a criterion for treatment or reduction of survival.
the rates of pathological upgrading, up-staging, or biochemical
recurrence between African American and Caucasian Americans.143 Early experience supports the utilization of mpMRI in biopsy protocols
Strategies to improve risk-stratification for African Americans to better risk-stratify men under active surveillance.152-154 However, more
considering active surveillance may include mpMRI in concert with recent studies have shown that a significant proportion of high-grade
targeted image-guided biopsies, which has been reported to improve cancers are detected with systematic biopsy and not targeted biopsy in
detection of clinically significant tumors in some men.144 men on active surveillance.155-157

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A repeat prostate biopsy should be considered if prostate exam of 993 (1.5%) patients had died of prostate cancer, an additional 13
changes, if mpMRI (if done) suggests more aggressive disease, or if men (1.3%) had developed metastatic disease, and only 36.5% of the
PSA increases, but no parameter is very reliable for detecting prostate cohort had received treatment by 10 years. In an analysis of 592
cancer progression. Repeat biopsy is useful to determine whether patients enrolled in this cohort who had ≥1 repeat prostate biopsy,
higher Gleason grade elements, which may influence prognosis and 31.3% of cases were upgraded. Fifteen percent of upgraded cases
hence the decision to continue active surveillance or to proceed to were upgraded to Gleason ≥8, and 62% of total upgraded cases
definitive local therapy, are evolving although the risk appears small.158 proceeded to active treatment.159 Another analysis of this cohort
Treatment of all men who developed Gleason pattern 4 on annual revealed that metastatic disease developed in 13 of 133 men with
prostate biopsies has thus far resulted in only 2 prostate cancer deaths Gleason 7 disease (9.8%) and 17 of 847 men with Gleason ≤6 disease
among 1298 men (0.15%) in the Johns Hopkins study.101 However, it (2.0%).160 PSA doubling time and the number of positive scores were
remains uncertain whether treatment of all who progress to Gleason also predictors of increased risk for the development of metastatic
pattern 4 was necessary. Studies remain in progress to identify the best disease.
trigger points when interventions with curative intent may still be
successful. In comparison, among 192 men on active surveillance who underwent
delayed treatment at a median of 2 years after diagnosis in the Johns
The Toronto group published on 3 patients who died of prostate cancer Hopkins experience, 5-year biochemical progression-free survival was
in their experience with 450 men.147 These 3 deaths led them to revise 96% for those who underwent radical prostatectomy and 75% for those
their criteria for offering men active surveillance, because each of these who underwent radiation.149 The two groups were similar by pathologic
3 men probably had metastatic disease at the time of entry on active Gleason grade, pathologic stage, and margin positivity. All men treated
surveillance. In 450 men followed for a median of 6.8 years, overall by radical prostatectomy after progression on active surveillance had
survival was 78.6% and prostate cancer-specific survival was 97.2%.147 freedom from biochemical progression at median follow-up of 37.5
Of the 30% (n = 145) of men who progressed, 8% had an increase in months, compared to 97% of men in the primary radical prostatectomy
Gleason grade, 14% had PSA doubling time <3 years, 1% developed a group at median follow-up of 35.5 months. A later publication from this
prostate nodule, and 3% were treated because of anxiety. One hundred group showed that 23 of 287 men who were treated after active
thirty-five of these 145 men were treated: 35 by radical prostatectomy, surveillance (8%) experienced biochemical recurrence, and the rate
90 by EBRT with or without ADT, and 10 with ADT alone. Follow-up is was independent of the type of treatment.101 Several studies have
available for 110 of these men, and 5-year biochemical progression-free shown that delayed radical prostatectomy does not increase the rates of
survival is 62% for those undergoing radical prostatectomy and 43% for adverse pathology.161-164
those undergoing radiation. Longer-term follow-up of this cohort was
reported in 2015.99 The 10- and 15-year actuarial cause-specific survival The panel believes there is an urgent need for further clinical research
rates for the entire cohort were 98.1% and 94.3 %, respectively. Only 15 regarding the criteria for recommending active surveillance, the criteria
for reclassification on active surveillance, and the schedule for active

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surveillance especially as it pertains to prostate biopsies, which pose an to be treated to avert one death; that number fell to 4 for men younger
increasing burden. One such study is a prospective multiinstitutional than 65 years of age. The results of this trial offer high-quality evidence
cohort study, which has been funded by the NCI.163 Nine hundred and to support radical prostatectomy as a treatment option for clinically
five men, median age 63 and median follow-up 28 months, localized prostate cancer.
demonstrated 19% conversion to therapy. Much should be learned
about the criteria for selection of and progression on active surveillance Some patients at high or very high risk may benefit from radical
as this cohort and research effort mature. Literature suggests that as prostatectomy. In an analysis of 842 men with Gleason scores 8 to 10
many as 7% of men undergoing prostate biopsy will suffer an adverse at biopsy who underwent radical prostatectomy, predictors of
event,117 and those who develop urinary tract infection are often unfavorable outcome included PSA level over 10 ng/mL, clinical stage
fluoroquinolone-resistant.165 Radical prostatectomy may become T2b or higher, Gleason score 9 or 10, higher number of biopsy cores
technically challenging after multiple sets of biopsies, especially as it with high-grade cancer, and over 50% core involvement.169 Patients
pertains to potency preservation.166 without these characteristics showed higher 10-year biochemical-free
and disease-specific survival after radical prostatectomy compared to
Radical Prostatectomy those with unfavorable findings (31% vs. 4% and 75% vs. 52%,
Radical prostatectomy is appropriate for any patient whose cancer respectively). Radical prostatectomy is an option for men with high-risk
appears clinically localized to the prostate. However, because of disease and in select patients with very high-risk disease.
potential perioperative morbidity, radical prostatectomy should be
Radical prostatectomy is a salvage option for patients experiencing
reserved for patients whose life expectancy is 10 years or more.
biochemical recurrence after primary EBRT, but morbidity
Stephenson and colleagues32 reported a low 15-year prostate cancer-
(incontinence, erectile dysfunction, and bladder neck contracture)
specific mortality of 12% in patients who underwent radical
remains significantly higher than when radical prostatectomy is used as
prostatectomy (5% for patients with low-risk disease), although it is
initial therapy.170,171 Overall and cancer-specific 10-year survival ranged
unclear whether the favorable prognosis is due to the effectiveness of
from 54% to 89% and 70% to 83%, respectively.170 Patient selection is
the procedure or the low lethality of cancers detected in the PSA era.
important, and salvage prostatectomy should only be performed by
Radical prostatectomy was compared to watchful waiting in a highly experienced surgeons.
randomized trial of 695 patients with early-stage prostate cancer (mostly
Operative Techniques and Adverse Effects
T2).167,168 With a median follow-up of 12.8 years, those assigned to the
radical prostatectomy group had significant improvements in disease- Long-term cancer control has been achieved in most patients with both
specific survival, overall survival, and risk of metastasis and local the retropubic and the perineal approaches to radical prostatectomy;
progression.167 The reduction in mortality was confirmed at 23 years of high-volume surgeons in high-volume centers generally achieve
follow-up, with an absolute difference of 11%.168 Overall, 8 men needed superior outcomes.172,173 Laparoscopic and robot-assisted radical
prostatectomy are used commonly and are considered comparable to

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conventional approaches in experienced hands.174,175 In a cohort study radical prostatectomy or EBRT.182 At 2 and 5 years, patients who
using U.S. Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) underwent radical prostatectomy reported higher rates of urinary
Medicare-linked data on 8837 patients, minimally invasive compared to incontinence and erectile dysfunction but lower rates of bowel urgency.
open radical prostatectomy was associated with shorter length of However, no significant difference was observed at 15 years. In a large
hospital stay, less need for blood transfusions, and fewer surgical retrospective cohort study involving 32,465 patients, those who received
complications, but rates of incontinence and erectile dysfunction were EBRT had a lower 5-year incidence of urological procedures than those
higher.176 A second large study reported no difference in overall who underwent radical prostatectomy, but higher incidence for hospital
complications, readmission, and additional cancer therapies between admissions, rectal or anal procedures, open surgical procedures, and
open and robot-assisted radical prostatectomy, although the robotic secondary malignancies.183
approach was associated with higher rates of genitourinary
complications and lower rates of blood transfusion.177 Oncologic Return of urinary continence after radical prostatectomy may be
outcome of a robotic versus open approach was similar when assessed improved by preserving the urethra beyond the prostatic apex and by
by use of additional therapies176 or rate of positive surgical margins,178 avoiding damage to the distal sphincter mechanism. Bladder neck
although longer follow-up is necessary. A meta-analysis on 19 preservation may allow more rapid recovery of urinary control.184
observational studies (n = 3893) reported less blood loss and lower Anastomotic strictures that increase the risk of long-term incontinence
transfusion rates with minimally invasive techniques than with open are less frequent with modern surgical techniques. Recovery of erectile
operation.178 Risk of positive surgical margins was the same. Two more function is related directly to the degree of preservation of the
recent meta-analyses showed a statistically significant advantage in cavernous nerves, age at surgery, and preoperative erectile function.
favor of a robotic approach compared to an open approach in 12-month Improvement in urinary function was reported with nerve-sparing
urinary continence179 and potency recovery.180 Early results from a techniques.185 Replacement of resected nerves with nerve grafts does
randomized controlled phase 3 study comparing robot-assisted not appear to be effective for patients undergoing wide resection of the
laparoscopic radical prostatectomy and open radical retropubic neurovascular bundles.186 The ability of mpMRI to detect extracapsular
prostatectomy in 326 men were published in 2016.181 Urinary function extension can aid in decision-making in nerve-sparing surgery.87
and sexual function scores and rates of postoperative complications did
Pelvic Lymph Node Dissection
not differ significantly between the groups. Rates of positive surgical
margins were similar, based on a superiority test (10% in the open The decision to perform PLND should be guided by the probability of
group vs. 15% in the robotic group). Longer follow-up of this trial is nodal metastases. The NCCN Guidelines Panel chose 2% as the cutoff
needed to assess differences in more relevant oncologic outcomes. for PLND since this avoids 47.7% of PLNDs at a cost of missing 12.1%
of positive pelvic lymph nodes.37 A more recent analysis of 26,713
An analysis of the Prostate Cancer Outcomes Study on 1655 men with patients in the SEER database treated with radical prostatectomy and
localized prostate cancer compared long-term functional outcomes after PLND between 2010 and 2013 found that the 2% nomogram threshold

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would avoid 22.3% of PLNDs at a cost of missing 3.0% of positive and rates of salvage therapy compared to 3D-CRT in some but not all
pelvic lymph nodes.187 The panel recommends use of a nomogram studies, although treatment cost is increased.201-204
developed at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center that uses
pretreatment PSA, clinical stage, and Gleason sum to predict the risk of Daily prostate localization using image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT)
pelvic lymph node metastases.37 is essential with either 3D-CRT or IMRT for target margin reduction and
treatment accuracy. Imaging techniques, such as ultrasound, implanted
PLND should be performed using an extended technique.188,189 An fiducials, electromagnetic targeting and tracking, or endorectal balloon,
extended PLND includes removal of all node-bearing tissue from an can improve cure rates and decrease complications.
area bounded by the external iliac vein anteriorly, the pelvic side wall
laterally, the bladder wall medially, the floor of the pelvis posteriorly, These techniques have permitted safer dose escalation, and results of
Cooper’s ligament distally, and the internal iliac artery proximally. randomized trials have suggested that dose escalation is associated
Removal of more lymph nodes using the extended technique has been with improved biochemical outcomes.205-210 Kuban and colleagues208
associated with increased likelihood of finding lymph node metastases, published an analysis of their dose-escalation trial of 301 patients with
thereby providing more complete staging.190-192 A survival advantage stage T1b to T3 prostate cancer. Freedom from biochemical or clinical
with more extensive lymphadenectomy has been suggested by several failure was higher in the group randomized to 78 Gy compared to 70 Gy
studies, possibly due to elimination of microscopic metastases,191,193-195 (78% vs. 59%, P = .004) at a median follow-up of 8.7 years. The
although definitive proof of oncologic benefit is lacking.196 PLND can be difference was even greater among patients with diagnostic PSA >10
performed safely laparoscopically, robotically, or as an open procedure, ng/mL (78% vs. 39%, P = .001). An analysis of the National Cancer
and complication rates should be similar among the three approaches. Data Base found that dose escalation (75.6–90 Gy) resulted in a dose-
dependent improvement in overall survival for men with intermediate- or
Radiation Therapy high-risk prostate cancer.211 In light of these findings, the conventional
External Beam Radiation Therapy 70 Gy dose is no longer considered adequate. A dose of 75.6 to 79.2
Gy in conventional fractions to the prostate (with or without seminal
Over the past several decades, RT techniques have evolved to allow
vesicles) is appropriate for patients with low-risk cancers.
higher doses of radiation to be administered safely. Three-dimensional
Intermediate-risk and high-risk patients should receive doses up to 81.0
(3D) conformal radiation therapy (3D-CRT) uses computer software to
Gy.201,212,213
integrate CT images of the patients’ internal anatomy in the treatment
position, which allows higher cumulative doses to be delivered with Moderately hypofractionated image-guided IMRT regimens (2.4–4 Gy
lower risk of late effects.46,197-199 The second-generation 3D technique, per fraction over 4–6 weeks) have been tested in randomized trials, and
intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), is used increasingly in their efficacy has been similar or non-inferior to conventionally
practice200 because IMRT reduced the risk of gastrointestinal toxicities fractionated IMRT.214-218 Toxicity was similar between moderately
hypofractionated and conventional regimens in many,214,215,217 but not all

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of the trials.218,219 These RT techniques can be considered as an EBRT for Early Disease
alternative to conventionally fractionated regimens when clinically EBRT is one of the principal treatment options for clinically localized
indicated. prostate cancer. The NCCN Guidelines Panel consensus was that
modern EBRT and surgical series show similar progression-free
Data suggested that EBRT and radical prostatectomy were effective for survival in patients with low-risk disease treated with radical
the treatment of localized prostate cancer.220 EBRT of the primary prostatectomy or EBRT. In a study of 3546 patients treated with
prostate cancer shows several distinct advantages over radical brachytherapy plus EBRT, disease-free survival remained steady at
prostatectomy. EBRT avoids complications associated with operation, 73% between 15 and 25 years of follow-up.225
such as bleeding and transfusion-related effects, and risks associated
with anesthesia, such as myocardial infarction and pulmonary embolus. EBRT for Patients with High-Risk or Very-High-Risk Disease
3D-CRT and IMRT techniques are available widely and are possible for EBRT has demonstrated efficacy in patients at high risk and very high
patients over a wide range of ages. EBRT has a low risk of urinary risk. One study randomized 415 patients to EBRT alone or EBRT plus
incontinence and stricture and a good chance of short-term preservation 3-year ADT.226 In another study (RTOG 8531), 977 patients with T3
of erectile function.221 disease treated with EBRT were randomized to adjuvant ADT or ADT at
relapse.227 Two other randomized phase 3 trials evaluated long-term
The disadvantages of EBRT include a treatment course of 8 to 9 weeks. ADT with or without radiation in a population of patients who mostly had
Up to 50% of patients have some temporary bladder or bowel T3 disease.228-231 In all four studies, the combination group showed
symptoms during treatment. There is a low but definite risk of protracted improved disease-specific and overall survival compared to single-
rectal symptoms from radiation proctitis, and the risk of erectile modality treatment.
dysfunction increases over time.221,222 Some new data suggest that
rectal complications may be reduced using biomaterials placed to EBRT for Node-positive Disease
increase the distance between the rectum and the prostate that See Adjuvant or Salvage Therapy after Radical Prostatectomy under
degrade after treatment is complete.223 If the cancer recurs, salvage NCCN Recommendations.
radical prostatectomy is associated with a higher risk of complications
Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy
than primary radical prostatectomy.224 Contraindications to EBRT
include prior pelvic irradiation, active inflammatory disease of the The relatively slow proliferation rate of prostate cancer is reflected in a
rectum, or a permanent indwelling Foley catheter. Relative low α/β ratio,232 most commonly reported between 1 and 4. These
contraindications include very low bladder capacity, chronic moderate or values are similar to that for the rectal mucosa. Since the α/β ratio for
severe diarrhea, bladder outlet obstruction requiring a suprapubic prostate cancer is similar to or lower than the surrounding tissues
catheter, and inactive ulcerative colitis. responsible for most of the toxicity reported with radiation, appropriately
designed radiation treatment fields and schedules using extremely

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hypofractionated regimens should result in similar cancer control rates However, increasing evidence suggests that technical advancements in
without increased risk of late toxicity. brachytherapy may provide a role for contemporary brachytherapy in
high-risk localized and locally advanced prostate cancer.244,245
Stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) is a technique that delivers Brachytherapy involves placing radioactive sources into the prostate
highly conformal, high-dose radiation in 5 or fewer treatment fractions, tissue. There are currently two methods for prostate brachytherapy: low
which are safe to administer only with precise, image-guided delivery.233 dose-rate (LDR) and high dose-rate (HDR).
Single institution series with median follow-up as long as 6 years report
excellent biochemical progression-free survival and similar early toxicity LDR Brachytherapy
(bladder, rectal, and quality of life) compared to standard radiation LDR brachytherapy consists of placement of permanent seed implants
techniques.232-238 According to a pooled analysis of phase 2 trials, the 5- in the prostate. The short range of the radiation emitted from these
year biochemical relapse-free survival is 95%, 84%, and 81% for low-energy sources allows delivery of adequate dose levels to the
patients with low-, intermediate-, and high-risk disease, respectively.239 cancer within the prostate, with excessive irradiation of the bladder and
rectum avoided. Current brachytherapy techniques attempt to improve
SBRT may be associated with more toxicity than moderately the radioactive seed placement and radiation dose distribution.
fractionated IMRT. One retrospective study of 4005 patients reported
higher genitourinary toxicity at 24 months after SBRT than IMRT (44% The advantage of brachytherapy is that the treatment is completed in 1
vs. 36%; P = .001).240 Another phase 2 trial found increased toxicity with day with little time lost from normal activities. In appropriate patients, the
doses >47.5 Gy delivered in five fractions.241 An analysis using the cancer-control rates appear comparable to radical prostatectomy (over
SEER database also reported that SBRT was more toxic than IMRT.242 90%) for low-risk prostate cancer with medium-term follow-up.246 In
addition, the risk of incontinence is minimal in patients without a
SBRT/extremely hypofractionated image-guided IMRT regimens (6.5 previous transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP), and erectile
Gy per fraction or greater) can be considered as an alternative to function is preserved in the short term.222 Disadvantages of
conventionally fractionated regimens at clinics with appropriate brachytherapy include the requirement for general anesthesia and the
technology, physics, and clinical expertise. Longer follow-up and risk of acute urinary retention. Irritative voiding symptoms may persist
prospective multiinstitutional data are required to evaluate longer-term for as long as 1 year after implantation. The risk of incontinence is
results, especially since late toxicity theoretically could be worse in greater after TURP because of acute retention and bladder neck
hypofractionated regimens compared to conventional fractionation (1.8– contractures, and many patients develop progressive erectile
2.0 Gy per fraction). dysfunction over several years. IMRT causes less acute and late
genitourinary toxicity and similar freedom from biochemical failure
Brachytherapy
compared with iodine-125 or palladium-103 permanent seed
Brachytherapy is used traditionally for low-risk cases since earlier implants.247,248
studies found it less effective than EBRT for high-risk disease.11,243

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Permanent brachytherapy as monotherapy is indicated for patients with disease-specific mortality compared to EBRT alone.259 Common boost
low-risk cancers (cT1c–T2a, Gleason grade 2–6, PSA <10 ng/mL) and doses include 13 to 15 Gy x 1 fraction, 8 to 11.5 Gy x 2 fractions, 5.5 to
selected patients with low-volume intermediate-risk cancers. 6.5 Gy x 3 fractions, or 4.0 to 6.0 Gy x 4 fractions. Commonly used
Brachytherapy may be combined with EBRT (45 Gy) with or without regimens for HDR treatment alone include 19 Gy x 1 fraction, 13.5 Gy x
neoadjuvant ADT for intermediate-risk cancers, but the complication 2 fractions, 10.5 Gy x 3 fractions, and 9.5 Gy x 4 fractions.
rate increases.249,250 Patients with high-risk cancers are generally
considered poor candidates for permanent brachytherapy alone. Addition of ADT (2 or 3 years) to brachytherapy and EBRT is common
for patients at high risk of recurrence. The outcome of trimodality
Patients with very large or very small prostates, symptoms of bladder treatment is excellent, with 9-year progression-free survival and
outlet obstruction (high International Prostate Symptom Score), or a disease-specific survival reaching 87% and 91%, respectively.260,261
previous TURP are not ideal candidates for brachytherapy. For these However, it remains unclear whether the ADT component contributes to
patients, implantation may be more difficult and there is an increased outcome improvement. D’Amico and colleagues studied a cohort of
risk of side effects. Neoadjuvant ADT may be used to shrink the 1342 patients with PSA over 20 ng/mL and clinical T3/T4 and/or
prostate to an acceptable size; however, prostate size may not decline Gleason score 8 to 10 disease.262 Addition of either EBRT or ADT to
in some men and the risks of potentially increased toxicity of ADT must brachytherapy did not confer an advantage over brachytherapy alone.
be weighed against the possible benefit of target reduction. The use of all three modalities reduced prostate cancer-specific
mortality compared to brachytherapy alone (adjusted HR, 0.32; 95% CI,
Post-implant dosimetry should be performed to document the quality of 0.14–0.73). Other analyses did not find an improvement in failure rate
the implant.251 The recommended prescribed doses for monotherapy when ADT was added to brachytherapy and EBRT.263,264
are 145 Gy for iodine-125 and 125 Gy for palladium-103.
Two groups have observed a lower risk of urinary frequency, urgency,
HDR Brachytherapy
and rectal pain with HDR brachytherapy compared with LDR
HDR brachytherapy, which involves temporary insertion of a radiation brachytherapy (permanent seed implant).265,266 Vargas and colleagues267
source, is a newer approach that provides a “boost” dose in addition to reported that HDR brachytherapy results in a lower risk of erectile
EBRT for patients at high risk of recurrence. Combining EBRT (40–50 dysfunction than LDR brachytherapy.
Gy) and HDR brachytherapy allows dose escalation while minimizing
acute or late toxicity in patients with high-risk localized or locally Salvage Brachytherapy
advanced cancer.252-255 Studies have demonstrated reduced risk of Brachytherapy can be considered in men with biochemical recurrence
recurrence with the addition of brachytherapy to EBRT.256-258 An analysis after EBRT. In a retrospective study of 24 men who had EBRT as
of a cohort of 12,745 patients with high-risk disease found that primary therapy and permanent brachytherapy after biochemical failure,
treatment with brachytherapy (HR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.49–0.86) or the cancer-free and biochemical relapse-free survival rates were 96%
brachytherapy plus EBRT (HR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.66–0.90) lowered and 88%, respectively, after a median follow-up of 30 months.268

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Results of a phase 2 study of salvage HDR brachytherapy after EBRT that receives radiobiologically high doses of radiation near the
included relapse-free survival, distant metastases-free survival, and prescription radiation dose accounts for the likelihood of long-term
cause-specific survival rates of 68.5%, 81.5%, and 90.3%, respectively, treatment morbidity, as opposed to higher volume, lower dose
at 5 years.269 Toxicities were mostly grade 1 and 2 and included exposures. Numerous dosimetric studies have been performed trying to
gastrointestinal toxicity and urethral strictures, and one case of Grade 3 compare x-ray-based IMRT plans to proton therapy plans to illustrate
urinary incontinence. how one or the other type of treatment can be used to spare the bladder
or rectum from higher dose parts of the exposure. These studies suffer
Data on the use of brachytherapy after permanent brachytherapy are from the biases and talents of the investigators who plan and create
limited, but the panel agrees that it can be considered for carefully computer models of dose deposition for one therapy or the other.270
selected patients. Decisions regarding the use of brachytherapy in the Although dosimetric studies in-silico can suggest that the right treatment
recurrent-disease setting should consider comorbidities, extent of planning can make an IMRT plan beat a proton therapy plan and vice-
disease, and potential complications. Brachytherapy in this setting is versa, they do not predict accurately clinically meaningful endpoints.
best performed at high-volume centers.
Comparative effectiveness studies have been published in an attempt to
Proton Therapy compare toxicity and oncologic outcomes between proton and photon
Proton beam RT has been used to treat patients with cancer since the therapies. Two comparisons between men treated with proton therapy
1950s. Proponents of proton therapy argue that this form of RT could or EBRT report similar early toxicity rates.271,272 A prospective quality-of-
have advantages over x-ray (photon)-based radiation in certain clinical life comparison of patient-reported outcomes using the EPIC instrument
circumstances. Proton therapy and x-ray-based therapies like IMRT can between IMRT (204 patients) and proton therapy (1234 patients)
deliver highly conformal doses to the prostate. Proton-based therapies concluded that “No differences were observed in summary score
will deliver less radiation dose to some of the surrounding normal changes for bowel, urinary incontinence, urinary irritative/obstructive,
tissues like muscle, bone, vessels, and fat not immediately adjacent to and sexual domains between the 2 cohorts” after up to 2 years of
the prostate. These tissues do not routinely contribute to the morbidity follow-up.273 A Medicare analysis of 421 men treated with proton
of prostate radiation and are relatively resilient to radiation injury; therapy and a matched cohort of 842 men treated with IMRT showed
therefore, the benefit of decreased dose to these types of normal, non- less genitourinary toxicity at 6 months for protons, although the
critical tissues has not been apparent. The critical normal structures difference disappeared after 1 year.272 No other significant differences
adjacent to the prostate that can create prostate cancer treatment were seen between the groups. In contrast, a single-center report of
morbidity include the bladder, rectum, neurovascular bundles, and prospectively collected quality-of-life data revealed significant problems
occasionally small bowel. with incontinence, bowel dysfunction, and impotence at 3 months, 12
months, and >2 years after treatment with proton therapy.271 In that
The weight of the current evidence about prostate cancer treatment report, only 28% of men with normal erectile function maintained it after
morbidity supports the notion that the volume of the rectum and bladder

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therapy. The largest retrospective comparative effectiveness analysis to the role of proton therapy for prostate cancer, especially insofar as it is
date comparing IMRT to proton therapy was performed using SEER- important to understand how the effectiveness of proton therapy
Medicare claims data for the following long-term endpoints: compares to other radiation therapy modalities such as IMRT and
gastrointestinal morbidity, urinary incontinence, non-incontinence brachytherapy.”275,276
urinary morbidity, sexual dysfunction, and hip fractures.274 With follow-
up as mature as 80 months and using both propensity scoring and An ongoing prospective randomized trial is accruing patients to
instrumental variable analysis, the authors concluded that men compare prostate proton therapy and prostate IMRT. The NCCN panel
receiving IMRT therapy had statistically significantly lower believes no clear evidence supports a benefit or decrement to proton
gastrointestinal morbidity than patients receiving proton therapy, therapy over IMRT for either treatment efficacy or long-term toxicity.
whereas rates of urinary incontinence, non-incontinence urinary Conventionally fractionated prostate proton therapy can be considered
morbidity, sexual dysfunction, hip fractures, and additional cancer a reasonable alternative to x-ray-based regimens at clinics with
therapies were statistically indistinguishable between the cohorts. appropriate technology, physics, and clinical expertise.
However, firm conclusions regarding differences in toxicity or
Radiation for Distant Metastases
effectiveness of proton and photon therapy cannot be drawn because of
the limitations inherent in retrospective/observational studies. Radiation is an effective means of palliating bone metastases from
prostate cancer. Isolated symptomatic bone metastases can be
The costs associated with proton beam facility construction and proton managed with EBRT. Recent studies have confirmed the common
beam treatment are high compared to the expense of building and practice in Canada and Europe of managing prostate cancer with bone
using the more common photon linear accelerator-based practice.272 metastases with a short course of radiation. A short course of 8 Gy x 1
The American Society for Radiation Oncology (ASTRO) has evaluated is as effective as, and less costly than, 30 Gy in 10 fractions.277 In a
proton therapy and created a model policy to support the society’s randomized trial of 898 patients with bone metastases, grade 2–4 acute
position on payment coverage for proton therapy: “At the present time, toxicity was observed less often in the 8-Gy arm (10%) than the 30-Gy
ASTRO believes the comparative efficacy evidence of proton beam arm (17%) (P = .002); however, the retreatment rate was higher in the
therapy with other prostate cancer treatments is still being developed, 8-Gy group (18%) than in the 30-Gy group (9%) (P < .001).278 In another
and thus the role of proton beam therapy for localized prostate cancer study of 425 patients with painful bone metastases, a single dose of 8
within the current availability of treatment options remains unclear. Gy was non-inferior to 20 Gy in multiple fractions in terms of overall pain
While proton beam therapy is not a new technology, its use in the response to treatment.279 Most patients should be managed with a
treatment of prostate cancer is evolving. ASTRO strongly supports single fraction of 8 Gy for non-vertebral metastases based on
allowing for coverage with evidence development for patients treated on therapeutic guidelines from the American College of Radiology.280
clinical trials or within prospective registries. ASTRO believes that
collecting data in these settings is essential to informing consensus on In May 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved
radium-223 dichloride, an alpha particle-emitting radioactive agent. This

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first-in-class radiopharmaceutical was approved for treatment of many patients have multifocal bone pain, systemic targeted treatment of
metastatic CRPC in patients with symptomatic bone metastases and no skeletal metastases offers the potential of pain relief with minimal side
known visceral metastatic disease. Approval was based on clinical data effects. Unlike the alpha-emitting agent radium-223, beta-emitters
from a multicenter, phase 3, randomized trial (ALSYMPCA) that confer no survival advantage and are palliative. Radiopharmaceuticals
included 921 men with symptomatic CRPC, 2 or more bone developed for the treatment of painful bone metastases most commonly
metastases, and no known visceral disease.281 Fifty-seven percent of used for prostate cancer include strontium-89 (89Sr) or samarium-153
the patients received prior docetaxel and all patients received best (153Sm).286
supportive care. Patients were randomized in a 2:1 ratio to 6 monthly
radium-223 intravenous injections or placebo. Compared to placebo, Other Local Therapies
radium-223 significantly improved overall survival (median 14.9 months Local therapies have been investigated for the treatment of localized
vs. 11.3 months; HR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.058–0.83; P < .001) and prostate cancer in the initial disease and recurrent settings, with the
prolonged time to first skeletal-related event (SRE) (median 15.6 goals of reducing side effects and matching the cancer control of other
months vs. 9.8 months). Preplanned subset analyses showed that the therapies. At this time, the panel recommends only cryosurgery and
survival benefit of radium-223 was maintained regardless of prior high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) as options for radiation therapy
docetaxel use.282 Intention-to-treat analyses from ALSYMPCA showed recurrence in the absence of metastatic disease.
that radium-223 also may reduce the risk of symptomatic SREs.283
Grade 3/4 hematologic toxicity was low (3% neutropenia, 6% Cryosurgery, also known as cryotherapy or cryoablation, is an evolving
thrombocytopenia, and 13% anemia), likely due to the short range of minimally invasive therapy that damages tumor tissue through local
radioactivity.281 Fecal elimination of the agent led to generally mild non- freezing. In the initial disease setting, the reported 5-year biochemical
hematologic side effects, which included nausea, diarrhea, and disease-free rate after cryotherapy ranged from 65% to 92% in patients
vomiting. Radium-223 was associated with improved or slower decline with low-risk disease using different definitions of biochemical failure.287
of quality of life in ALSYMPCA.284 A report suggests that cryotherapy and radical prostatectomy give
similar oncologic results for unilateral prostate cancer.288 A study by
An international, open-label, single-arm phase 3b trial of radium-223 in Donnelly and colleagues289 randomly assigned 244 men with T2 or T3
symptomatic and asymptomatic patients treated in an early access disease to either cryotherapy or EBRT. All patients received
program showed that radium-223 can be combined safely with neoadjuvant ADT. There was no difference in 3-year overall or disease-
abiraterone or enzalutamide and suggested that it can be administered free survival. Patients who received cryotherapy reported poorer sexual
safely to asymptomatic patients.285 function.290 For patients with locally advanced cancer, cryoablation was
associated with lower 8-year biochemical progression-free rate
Beta-emitting radiopharmaceuticals are an effective and appropriate compared to EBRT in a small trial of 62 patients, although disease-
option for patients with wide-spread metastatic disease, particularly if specific and overall survival were similar.291
they are no longer candidates for effective chemotherapy.280 Since

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Cryosurgery has been assessed in patients with recurrent disease after more prevalent in the VTP group (49% vs. 14%; adjusted RR, 3.67;
radiation therapy.292-294 In one registry-based study of 91 patients, the 95% CI, 2.53–5.33; P < .0001). The most common serious adverse
biochemical DFS rates at 1, 3, and 5 years were 95.3%, 72.4%, and event in the VTP group was urinary retention (3 of 206 patients), which
46.5%, respectively. Adverse events included urinary retention (6.6%), resolved within 2 months in all cases.
incontinence (5.5%), and rectourethral fistula (3.3%).294
Androgen Deprivation Therapy
HIFU has been studied for initial disease295,296 and radiation ADT is administered as primary systemic therapy in advanced disease
recurrence.297-302 A prospective multiinstitutional study used HIFU in 111 or as neoadjuvant/concomitant/adjuvant therapy in combination with
patients with localized prostate cancer.295 The radical treatment-free radiation in localized or locally advanced prostate cancers. Castrate
survival rate was 89% at 2 years, and continence and erectile functions levels of serum testosterone (<50 ng/dL; <1.7 nmol/L) should be
were preserved in 97% and 78% of patients, respectively, at 12 months. achieved, because low nadir serum testosterone levels were shown to
Morbidity was acceptable, with a grade III complication rate of 13%. be associated with improved cause-specific survival in the PR-7
Analysis of a prospective registry showed that 48% of men had avoided study.307
ADT at a median follow-up of 64 months.303
Types of ADT
HIFU has been studied for treatment of radiation recurrence.297-300
ADT can be accomplished using bilateral orchiectomy (surgical
Analysis of a prospective registry of men treated with HIFU for radiation
castration) or a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH, also
recurrence revealed median biochemical recurrence-free survival 63
known as gonadotropin-releasing hormone or GnRH) agonist or
months, 5-year OS 88%, and cancer-specific survival 94%.304 Morbidity
antagonist (medical castration), which appear equally effective.308 In
was acceptable, with grade III/IVa complication rate 3.6%. Analysis of a
patients with overt metastases who are at risk of developing symptoms
separate prospective registry showed that 48% of men were able to
associated with the flare in testosterone with initial LHRH agonist alone,
avoid ADT at a median follow-up of 64 months.303
anti-androgen therapy should precede or be coadministered with LHRH
Other emerging local therapies, such as vascular-targeted agonist for at least 7 days to diminish ligand binding to the androgen
photodynamic (VTP) therapy, warrant further study.305 The multicenter, receptor.309,310 LHRH antagonists rapidly and directly inhibit the release
open-label, phase 3, randomized controlled CLIN1001 PCM301 trial of androgens, unlike LHRH agonists that initially stimulate LHRH
compared VTP therapy (IV padeliporfin, optical fibres inserted into the receptors prior to hypogonadism. Therefore, no initial flare is associated
prostate, and subsequent laser activation) to active surveillance in 413 with these agents and no coadministration of anti-androgen is
men with low-risk prostate cancer.306 After a median follow-up of 24 necessary.
months, 28% of participants in the VTP arm had disease progression
Recent evidence suggests that orchiectomy may be safer than LHRH
compared with 58% in the active surveillance arm (adjusted HR, 0.34;
agonist. Four hundred twenty-nine men with metastatic prostate cancer
95% CI, 0.24–0.46; P < .0001). Negative prostate biopsy results were

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who underwent orchiectomy were compared to 2866 men who received testosterone, PSA response, and side effects in 85 men treated with
LHRH agonist between 1995 and 2009. Orchiectomy was associated LHRH agonist and 168 men treated with 100 mcg/24 hours estrogen
with lower risk of fracture, peripheral arterial disease, and cardiac- patches twice weekly.320 Quality-of-life outcomes and the experience of
related complications although risk was similar for diabetes, deep vein vasomotor symptoms were better at 6 months in the transdermal group
thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and cognitive disorders.311 The heart compared with the agonist group, but rates of significant gynecomastia
and T lymphocytes have receptors for LHRH. Therefore, LHRH agonists were higher in the transdermal group (37% vs. 5%).321 The PATCH trial
may affect cardiac contractility, vascular plaque stability, and continues enrollment in order to assess survival (NCT00303784).
inflammation.312
ADT for Patients with Low-Risk Disease
Medical or surgical castration combined with an anti-androgen is known In the community, ADT has been used commonly as primary therapy for
as combined androgen blockade. No prospective randomized studies early-stage, low-risk disease, especially in the elderly. This practice has
have demonstrated a survival advantage with combined androgen been challenged by a large cohort study of 66,717 elderly men with T1-
blockade over the serial use of an LHRH agonist and an anti- T2 tumors.322 No 15-year survival benefit was found in patients receiving
androgen.313 Meta-analysis data suggest that bicalutamide may provide ADT compared to observation alone. Similarly, another cohort study of
an incremental relative improvement in overall survival by 5% to 20% 15,170 men diagnosed with clinically localized prostate cancer who
over LHRH agonist monotherapy, but a clinical trial is necessary to test were not treated with curative intent therapy reported no survival benefit
this hypothesis.314,315 More complete disruption of the androgen axis from primary ADT after adjusting for demographic and clinical
(finasteride or dutasteride or anti-androgen, in addition to medical or variables.323 Placing patients with early prostate cancer on ADT should
surgical castration) provides little if any benefit over castration not be routine practice.
alone.316,317 Anti-androgen monotherapy appears to be less effective
than medical or surgical castration and is not recommended for primary ADT for Patients with Intermediate-Risk Disease
ADT. The addition of short-term ADT to radiation improved overall and
cancer-specific survival in three randomized trials containing 20% to
Diethylstilbestrol (DES) can produce safe chemical castration in many
60% of men with intermediate-risk prostate cancer (Trans Tasman
men. Gynecomastia and cardiovascular side effects occur with
Radiation Oncology Group [TROG] 9601, Dana Farber Cancer Institute
increasing frequency with increasing dose. Side effects are rare, and
[DFCI] 95096, and Radiation Therapy Oncology Group [RTOG]
survival appears equivalent to that of other means of ADT at a 1-mg
9408).324-327 Only a cancer-specific survival benefit was noted in a fourth
daily dose. The mechanism of action of DES remains uncertain
trial that recruited mostly high-risk men (RTOG 8610).328 Results of the
because a 1-mg dose does not render some men castrate, and DES
EORTC 22991 trial showed that the addition of 6 months of ADT
produces responses when used in CRPC.318 Transdermal estradiol may
significantly improved biochemical DFS compared with radiation alone
provide similar cancer control with fewer side effects.319 The ongoing
in intermediate-risk (75% of study population) and high-risk men.329
PATCH clinical trial demonstrated similar rates of castrate levels of

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RTOG 9910 and RTOG 9902 reinforced two important principles improved disease-specific and overall survival compared to single-
concerning the optimal duration of ADT and use of systemic modality treatment in randomized phase 3 studies.226,227,229,230
chemotherapy in conjunction with EBRT.330,331 RTOG 9910 is a phase 3
randomized trial targeting men with intermediate-risk prostate cancer Increasing evidence favors long-term over short-term
that compared 4 months to 9 months of ADT. RTOG 9408 had neoadjuvant/concurrent/adjuvant ADT for patients with high- and very-
previously shown that 4 months of ADT combined with EBRT improved high-risk disease. The RTOG 9202 trial included 1521 patients with
survival in men with intermediate-risk disease compared to EBRT T2c-T4 prostate cancer who received 4 months of ADT before and
alone.326 Consistent with earlier studies, RTOG 9910 demonstrated that during EBRT.335 They were randomized to no further treatment or an
there is no reason to extend ADT beyond 4 months when given in additional 2 years of ADT. At 10 years, the long-term group was
conjunction with EBRT in men with intermediate-risk disease. RTOG superior for all endpoints except overall survival. A subgroup analysis of
9902 compared long-term ADT and EBRT with and without paclitaxel, patients with a Gleason score of 8 to 10 found an advantage in overall
estramustine, and etoposide (TEE) chemotherapy in men with locally survival for long-term ADT (32% vs. 45%, P = .0061). The European
advanced, high-risk prostate cancer. This trial demonstrated the Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) 22961
importance of performing large phase 3 trials. In a randomized cohort of trial also showed superior survival when 2.5 years of ADT were added
397 patients with a median follow-up of 9.2 years, results demonstrated to EBRT given with 6 months of ADT in 970 patients, most of whom had
no significant difference in ADT+EBRT versus ADT+EBRT+TEE in T2c-T3, N0 disease.336 The DART01/05 GICOR trial also reported
overall survival (65% vs. 63%; P = .81), biochemical failure (58% vs. similar results in men with high-risk disease.337 In a secondary analysis
54%; P = .82), distant metastases (16% vs. 14%; P = .42), or disease- of RTOG 8531 that mandated lifelong ADT, those who adhered to the
free survival (22% vs. 26%; P = .61), but a substantial increase in protocol had better survival than those who discontinued ADT within 5
toxicity (3.9% vs. 0% treatment-related deaths), which resulted in early years.338
closure of the trial.332 Thus, the fact that 6 months of ADT improved
Adjuvant ADT after Radical Prostatectomy
survival compared to EBRT alone does not mean it is better than 4
months of ADT, and the fact that systemic chemotherapy is effective in The role of adjuvant ADT after radical prostatectomy is restricted to
one setting (high-volume metastatic disease or CRPC) should not lead cases where positive pelvic lymph nodes are found, although reports in
to the assumption that it will be beneficial in other settings (eg, high-risk this area reveal mixed findings. Messing and colleagues randomly
localized disease).333,334 assigned patients who were found to have positive lymph nodes at the
time of radical prostatectomy to immediate ADT or observation.339 At a
ADT for Patients with High-Risk or Very-High-Risk Disease median follow-up of 11.9 years, those receiving immediate ADT had a
ADT combined with EBRT is an effective primary treatment for patients significant improvement in overall survival (HR, 1.84; 95% CI, 1.01–
at high risk or very high risk, as discussed in the Radiation Therapy 3.35). However, a meta-analysis resulted in a recommendation against
section. Combination therapy was associated consistently with ADT for pathologic lymph node metastatic prostate cancer in the ASCO

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guidelines.313 A cohort analysis of 731 men with positive nodes failed to and an otherwise long life expectancy should be encouraged to
demonstrate a survival benefit of ADT initiated within 4 months of consider ADT earlier.
radical prostatectomy compared to observation.340
Intermittent Versus Continuous ADT (Non-Metastatic)
Anti-androgen monotherapy (bicalutamide) after completion of primary ADT is associated with substantial side effects, which generally
treatment was investigated as an adjuvant therapy in patients with increase with the duration of treatment. Intermittent ADT is an approach
localized or locally advanced prostate cancer, but results did not based on the premise that cycles of androgen deprivation followed by
support its use in this setting.341,342 re-exposure may delay “androgen independence,” reduce treatment
morbidity, and improve quality of life.344,345
ADT for Biochemical Recurrence
Patients with an increasing PSA level and with no symptomatic or The Canadian-led PR.7 trial was a phase 3 trial of intermittent versus
clinical evidence of cancer after definitive treatment present a continuous ADT in patients with non-metastatic prostate cancer who
therapeutic dilemma regarding the role of ADT. Some of these patients experienced biochemical failure after radical prostatectomy.346 One
will ultimately die of their cancer. Timing of ADT for patients whose only thousand three hundred eighty-six patients with PSA >3 ng/mL after RT
evidence of cancer is increasing PSA is influenced by PSA velocity, were randomly assigned to intermittent ADT or continuous ADT. At a
patient and physician anxiety, the short-term and long-term side effects median follow-up of 6.9 years, the intermittent approach was non-
of ADT, and underlying comorbidities of the patient. Early ADT is inferior to continuous ADT with respect to overall survival (8.8 vs. 9.1
acceptable, but an alternative is close observation until progression of years, respectively; HR, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.86–1.21). More patients died
cancer, at which time appropriate therapeutic options may be from prostate cancer in the intermittent ADT arm (120 of 690 patients)
considered. Earlier ADT may be better than delayed therapy, although than the continuous ADT arm (94 of 696 patients), but this was
the definitions of early and late (ie, what level of PSA) remain balanced by more non-prostate cancer deaths in the continuous ADT
controversial. The multicenter phase 3 TROG 03.06/VCOG PR 01-03 arm. Physical function, fatigue, urinary problems, hot flashes, libido, and
[TOAD] trial randomized 293 men with PSA relapse after operation or erectile dysfunction showed modest improvement in the intermittent
radiation (n = 261) or who were not considered for curative treatment (n ADT group. The test population was heterogenous, so it remains
= 32) to immediate ADT or ADT delayed by a recommended interval of unclear which of these asymptomatic patients benefitted from treatment.
≥2 years.343 Five-year OS was improved in the immediate therapy arm It is possible that many of these patients could have delayed ADT
compared with the delayed therapy arm (91.2% vs. 86.4%; log-rank P = without harm. The test population had a low disease burden and 59% of
.047). The panel believes that the benefit of early ADT is uncertain and deaths in the trial were not related to prostate cancer. Follow-up longer
must be balanced against the risk of ADT side effects. Patients with an than 6.9 years may be required for disease-specific deaths to out-
elevated PSA and/or a shorter PSA doubling time (rapid PSA velocity) balance deaths by other causes.

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An unplanned Cox regression analysis of the trial showed that men with or observation. In the immediate ADT arm of 47 patients, 30 remained
Gleason sum >7 in the continuous ADT arm had a median survival (8 alive, 29 of whom were prostate-cancer-recurrence-free and 26 of
years) that was 14 months longer than those with the same Gleason whom were PSA-failure-free after a median follow-up of 11.9 years
sum in the intermittent ADT arm (6.8 years).346 In this situation, patients (range, 9.7–14.5 years for survivors).339,350 However, these results differ
should be given the option to weigh the effects of ADT on quality of life from a SEER Medicare, population-based test of ADT published
against a possible impact on survival, although pathology was not subsequently.340 The SEER Medicare-based study of men who
centrally reviewed and the study was not powered to detect small underwent radical prostatectomy and had positive lymph nodes used
differences in survival based on Gleason sum.347 propensity matching to compare men who received ADT within 120
days to those who were observed. The groups had similar median and
The multinational European ICELAND trial randomized 702 participants range of follow-up for survivors, but overall survival and prostate
with locally advanced or biochemically recurrent prostate cancer to cancer-specific survival were similar. The Messing study occurred prior
continuous or intermittent ADT.348 Clinical outcomes, which included to the PSA era, but the studies are similar in almost all other respects.
time to PSA progression, PSA progression-free survival, overall The Messing study done in 98 men showed almost unbelievable
survival, mean PSA levels over time, quality of life, and adverse events, benefit, and the population-based study of 731 men showed no benefit.
were similar between the arms. A 2015 meta-analysis identified 6
randomized controlled trials comparing continuous with intermittent ADT The EORTC 30846 trial randomized 234 treatment-naïve patients with
in men with locally advanced prostate cancer and found no difference in node-positive prostate cancer to immediate versus delayed ADT.351 At
mortality and progression and an advantage of the intermittent 13 years, the authors report similar survival between the two arms,
approach in terms of quality of life and adverse effects.349 although the study was not powered to show non-inferiority. Hence, the
preponderance of the evidence supports a more measured approach to
ADT for Nodal or Metastatic Disease the use of ADT for lymph node-metastatic prostate cancer.
Controversy remains about the timing and duration of ADT when local
therapy has failed. Most believe that early ADT is best, but early ADT is ADT is the gold standard of initial treatment for patients with metastatic
associated with increased side effects and development of the disease at presentation.313 A PSA value of 4 ng/mL or less after 7
metabolic syndrome. A review of the older literature from both clinical months of ADT is associated with improved survival of patients newly
practice and preclinical models provides little evidence that the timing of diagnosed with metastatic prostate cancer.352
ADT matters. The average time from lymph node metastasis to bone
Intermittent versus Continuous ADT (Metastatic)
metastasis is 3 years and survival is approximately 3 more years with
Hussain and colleagues353 conducted the SWOG (Southwest Oncology
ADT and perhaps 5 more years with ADT and new agents. In Dr.
Group) 9346 trial to compare intermittent and continuous ADT in
Messing’s ECOG trial, 98 men found to have lymph node metastases at
patients with metastatic disease. After 7 months of induction ADT, 1535
radical prostatectomy were randomized to immediate continuous ADT
patients whose PSA dropped to 4 ng/mL or below (thereby

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demonstrating androgen sensitivity) were randomized to intermittent or A more personalized approach could treat all patients with metastatic
continuous ADT. At a median follow-up of 9.8 years, median survival disease with ADT. After 7 months of ADT, patients can be assigned a
was 5.1 years for the intermittent ADT arm and 5.8 years for the risk category based on the PSA value at that time point352: low risk is
continuous ADT arm. The HR for death with intermittent ADT was 1.10 defined by a PSA less than 0.2 ng/mL (median survival of 75 months);
with a 90% CI between 0.99 and 1.23, which exceeded the pre- intermediate risk is defined by a PSA between 0.2 and 4.0 ng/mL
specified upper boundary of 1.20 for non-inferiority. The authors stated (median survival of 44 months), and high risk is defined by a PSA
that the survival results were inconclusive, and that a 20% greater higher than 4.0 ng/mL (median survival of 13 months). Those patients
mortality risk with the intermittent approach cannot be ruled out. The who have few or no symptoms related to ADT after 7 months of therapy
study demonstrated better erectile function and mental health in will not benefit from intermittent ADT in terms of quality of life, and
patients receiving intermittent ADT at 3 months, but the difference therefore continuous therapy makes sense because it is easier to
became insignificant thereafter, most likely due to contamination of administer.347 However, for those patients with significant side effects
assessments of those on the intermittent arm who may have returned to impacting quality of life, intermittent ADT should be considered for those
ADT at the pre-specified time points. with low or intermediate risk after a discussion about the impact on
survival. A final consideration is based on a subgroup analysis of S9346
In a post-hoc stratification analysis of the trial, patients with minimal that suggested that those who present initially with pain have better
disease had a median survival of 5.4 years when receiving intermittent survival on continuous therapy than intermittent therapy.
ADT versus 6.9 years when receiving continuous ADT (HR, 1.19; 95%
CI, 0.98–1.43).353 The median survival was 4.9 years in the intermittent Adverse Effects of Traditional ADT
ADT arm compared to 4.4 years in the continuous ADT arm for patients ADT has a variety of adverse effects including hot flashes, vasomotor
with extensive disease (HR, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.85–1.22). These subgroup instability, osteoporosis, greater incidence of clinical fractures, obesity,
analyses are hypothesis-generating. insulin resistance, alterations in lipids, and greater risk for diabetes,
acute kidney injury, and cardiovascular disease.358-360 Recent evidence
Several meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials reported no
suggests that a link between ADT and cognitive decline or future
difference in survival between intermittent ADT and continuous ADT.354-
356 Alzheimer’s disease may exist, although data are inconsistent, the risk
Another recent analysis concluded that the non-inferiority of
is low, and the link remains to be proven.361-363 In general, the side
intermittent to continuous ADT in terms of survival has not been
effects of continuous ADT increase with the duration of treatment.
demonstrated clearly.357 Still, the intermittent approach leads to marked
Patients and their medical providers should be advised about these
improvement in quality of life compared to the continuous approach in
risks prior to treatment.
most studies, and the panel believes that intermittent ADT should be
strongly considered. Bone Health During ADT
ADT is associated with greater risk for clinical fractures. In large
population-based studies, for example, ADT was associated with a 21%

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to 54% relative increase in fracture risk.364-366 Longer treatment duration randomized 1468 patients with non-metastatic prostate cancer
conferred greater fracture risk. Age and comorbidity also were undergoing ADT to either biannual denosumab or placebo. At 24
associated with higher fracture incidence. In a population-based cohort months, denosumab increased bone mineral density by 6.7% and
of 3295 patients, surgical castration was associated with a significantly reduced fractures (1.5% vs. 3.9%) compared to placebo.377 Denosumab
lower risk of fractures than medical castration using a GnRH agonist also was approved for prevention of SREs in patients with bone
(HR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.62–0.94; P = .01).312 ADT increases bone turnover metastasis (see Chemotherapy and Immunotherapy).
and decreases bone mineral density,367-370 a surrogate for fracture risk in
patients with non-metastatic disease. Bone mineral density of the hip Currently, treatment with denosumab (60 mg every 6 months),
and spine decreases by approximately 2% to 3% per year during initial zoledronic acid (5 mg IV annually), or alendronate (70 mg PO weekly) is
therapy. Most studies have reported that bone mineral density recommended when the absolute fracture risk warrants drug therapy. A
continues to decline steadily during long-term therapy. ADT significantly baseline dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan before start of
decreases muscle mass,371 and treatment-related sarcopenia appears therapy and a follow-up DEXA scan after one year of therapy is
to contribute to frailty and increased risk of falls in older men. recommended by the International Society for Clinical Densitometry to
monitor response. Use of biochemical markers of bone turnover is not
The NCCN Guidelines Panel recommends screening and treatment for recommended. There are no existing guidelines on the optimal
osteoporosis according to guidelines for the general population from the frequency of vitamin D testing, but vitamin D levels can be measured
National Osteoporosis Foundation.372 The National Osteoporosis when DEXA scans are obtained.
Foundation guidelines include: 1) supplemental calcium (1200 mg daily)
Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease
and vitamin D3 (800–1000 IU daily) for all men older than age 50 years;
and 2) additional treatment for men when the 10-year probability of hip In a landmark population-based study, ADT was associated with higher
fracture is ≥3% or the 10-year probability of a major osteoporosis- incidence of diabetes and cardiovascular disease.378 After controlling for
related fracture is ≥20%. Fracture risk can be assessed using the other variables, which included age and comorbidity, ADT with a GnRH
algorithm FRAX®, recently released by WHO.373 ADT should be agonist was associated with increased risk for new diabetes (HR, 1.44;
considered “secondary osteoporosis” using the FRAX® algorithm. P < .001), coronary artery disease (HR, 1.16; P < .001), and myocardial
infarction (HR, 1.11; P = .03). Studies that evaluated the potential
Earlier randomized controlled trials demonstrated that bisphosphonates relationship between ADT and cardiovascular mortality have produced
increase bone mineral density, a surrogate for fracture risk, during mixed results.328,378-384 In a Danish cohort of 31,571 patients with
ADT.374-376 In 2011, the FDA approved denosumab as a treatment to prostate cancer, medical castration was associated with an increased
prevent bone loss and fractures during ADT. Denosumab binds to and risk for myocardial infarction (HR, 1.31; 95% CI, 1.16–1.49) and stroke
inhibits the receptor activator of NF-B ligand (RANKL) to blunt (HR, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.06–1.35) whereas surgical castration was not.385
osteoclast function and delay generalized bone resorption and local Other population-based studies resulted in similar findings.312,386 Men
bone destruction. Approval was based on a phase 3 study that with recent history of cardiovascular disease appear to have higher

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risk,387 and increased physical activity may decrease the symptoms and Abiraterone Acetate
cardiovascular side effects of men treated with ADT.388 In April 2011, the FDA approved the androgen synthesis inhibitor,
abiraterone acetate (abiraterone), in combination with low-dose
Several mechanisms may contribute to greater risk for diabetes and prednisone, for the treatment of men with metastatic CRPC who have
cardiovascular disease during ADT. ADT increases fat mass and received prior chemotherapy containing docetaxel.
decreases lean body mass.371,389,390 ADT with a GnRH agonist increases
fasting plasma insulin levels391,392 and decreases insulin sensitivity.393 FDA approval in the post-docetaxel setting was based on the results of
ADT also increases serum levels of cholesterol and triglycerides.391,394 a phase 3, randomized, placebo-controlled trial (COU-AA-301) in men
with metastatic CRPC previously treated with docetaxel-containing
Cardiovascular disease and diabetes are leading causes of morbidity regimens.397,398 Patients were randomized to receive either abiraterone
and mortality in the general population. Based on the observed adverse 1000 mg orally once daily (n = 797) or placebo once daily (n = 398), and
metabolic effects of ADT and the association between ADT and higher both arms received daily prednisone. In the final analysis, median
incidence of diabetes and cardiovascular disease, screening for and survival was 15.8 vs. 11.2 months in the abiraterone and placebo arm,
intervention to prevent/treat diabetes and cardiovascular disease are respectively (HR, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.64–0.86; P < .0001).398 Time to
recommended for men receiving ADT. Whether strategies for screening, radiographic progression, PSA decline, and pain palliation also were
prevention, and treatment of diabetes and cardiovascular disease in improved by abiraterone.398,399
men receiving ADT should differ from those of the general population
remains uncertain. FDA approval in the pre-docetaxel setting occurred on December 10,
2012 and was based on the randomized phase 3 COU-AA-302 trial of
Hormone Therapy for CRPC abiraterone and prednisone (n = 546) versus prednisone alone (n =
Most men with advanced disease eventually stop responding to 542) in men with asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic, metastatic
traditional ADT and are categorized as castration-recurrent (also known CRPC.400 Most men in this trial were not taking narcotics for cancer pain
as castration-resistant). Research has shown enhancement of autocrine and none had visceral metastatic disease or prior ketoconazole
and/or paracrine androgen synthesis in the tumor microenvironment of exposure. The coprimary endpoint of radiographic progression-free
men receiving ADT.395,396 Androgen signaling from non-gonadal sources survival was improved by treatment from 8.3 to 16.5 months (HR, 0.53;
in CRPC refutes earlier beliefs that CRPC was resistant to further P < .001). Overall survival was improved at final analysis with a median
hormone therapies. The development of novel hormonal agents follow-up of 49.2 months (34.7 months vs. 30.3 months; HR, 0.81; 95%
demonstrating efficacy in the metastatic CRPC setting dramatically CI, 0.70–0.93; P = .003).401 Key secondary endpoints of time to
changed the paradigm of CRPC treatment. symptomatic deterioration, time to chemotherapy initiation, time to pain
progression, and PSA progression-free survival improved significantly
with abiraterone treatment, and PSA declines (62% vs. 24% with >50%

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decline) and radiographic responses (36% vs. 16% RECIST responses) validated surveys was improved with enzalutamide compared to
were more common. placebo. Adverse events were mild, and included fatigue (34% vs.
29%), diarrhea (21% vs. 18%), hot flushes (20% vs. 10%), headache
The most common adverse reactions with abiraterone/prednisone (12% vs. 6%), and seizures (0.6% vs. 0%). The incidence of cardiac
(>5%) were fatigue (39%); back or joint discomfort (28%–32%); disorders did not differ between the arms. Enzalutamide is dosed at 160
peripheral edema (28%); diarrhea, nausea, or constipation (22%); mg daily. Patients in the AFFIRM study were maintained on GnRH
hypokalemia (17%); hypophosphatemia (24%); atrial fibrillation (4%); agonist/antagonist therapy and could receive bone supportive care
muscle discomfort (14%); hot flushes (22%); urinary tract infection; medications. The seizure risk in the enzalutamide FDA label was 0.9%
cough; hypertension (22%, severe hypertension in 4%); urinary versus 0.6% in the manuscript.402,404
frequency and nocturia; dyspepsia; or upper respiratory tract infection.
The most common adverse drug reactions that resulted in drug Another phase 3 trial studied enzalutamide in the pre-chemotherapy
discontinuation were increased aspartate aminotransferase and/or setting. The PREVAIL study randomly assigned 1717 patients with
alanine aminotransferase (11%–12%), or cardiac disorders (19%, chemotherapy-naïve metastatic prostate cancer to daily enzalutamide
serious in 6%). Thus, monitoring of liver function, potassium and or placebo.405,406 The study was stopped early due to benefits shown in
phosphate levels, and blood pressure readings on a monthly basis, at the treatment arm. Compared to the placebo group, the enzalutamide
least initially is warranted during abiraterone/prednisone therapy. group showed improved median progression-free survival (20.0 months
Symptom-directed assessment for cardiac disease also is warranted, vs. 5.4 months) and median overall survival (35.3 months vs. 31.3
particularly in patients with pre-existing cardiovascular disease. months). Improvements in all secondary endpoints also were observed
(eg, the time until chemotherapy initiation or first SRE).
Enzalutamide
On August 31, 2012, the FDA approved enzalutamide, an anti- Two randomized clinical trials have reported that enzalutamide may be
androgen, for treatment of men with metastatic CRPC who had received superior to bicalutamide for cancer control in metastatic CRPC. The
prior docetaxel chemotherapy. Approval was based on the results of the TERRAIN study randomized 375 men with treatment-naïve, metastatic
randomized, phase 3, placebo-controlled trial (AFFIRM).402,403 AFFIRM CRPC to 160 mg/d enzalutamide or 50 mg/d bicalutamide in a 1:1
randomized 1199 men to enzalutamide or placebo in a 2:1 ratio and the manner.407 The enzalutamide group had significantly better progression-
primary endpoint was overall survival. Median survival was improved free survival (defined as PSA progression, soft tissue progression, or
with enzalutamide from 13.6 to 18.4 months (HR, 0.63; P < .001). development of additional bony metastases) compared to the
Survival was improved in all subgroups analyzed. Secondary endpoints bicalutamide group (median time to progression, 15.7 vs. 5.8 months;
also were improved significantly, which included the proportion of men HR, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.34–0.57).
with >50% PSA decline (54% vs. 2%), radiographic response (29% vs.
4%), radiographic progression-free survival (8.3 vs. 2.9 months), and The STRIVE trial randomized 396 men with M0 or M1 treatment-naïve
time to first SRE (16.7 vs. 13.3 months). Quality of life measured using CRPC to 160 mg/d enzalutamide or 50 mg/d bicalutamide in a 1:1

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manner.408 The primary endpoint in this study was progression-free of 50 mg/m2. This regimen is based on a large randomized phase 2 trial
survival, defined as either PSA progression, radiographic progression of of 346 men with metastatic CRPC randomized to either every-2-week
disease, or death from any cause. Enzalutamide reduced the risk of docetaxel or every-3-week docetaxel, each with maintenance of ADT
progression or death by 76% compared to bicalutamide (HR, 0.24; 95% and prednisone.411 Men treated with the every-2-week regimen survived
CI, 0.18–0.32). These studies demonstrated that enzalutamide an average of 19.5 months compared to 17.0 months with the every-3-
extended progression-free survival better than bicalutamide in men week regimen (P = .015). Time-to-progression and PSA decline rate
choosing an anti-androgen for secondary hormonal therapy treatment of favored every-2-week therapy. Tolerability was improved with every-2-
CRPC. Bicalutamide can still be considered in some patients, given the week docetaxel; febrile neutropenia rate was 4% versus 14% and other
different side-effect profiles of the agents and the increased cost of toxicities and overall quality of life were similar.
enzalutamide.
Docetaxel is included as an upfront option for men with progressive
Thus, enzalutamide represents a treatment option for men in both the androgen-stimulated prostate cancer and distant metastases based on
pre-docetaxel and post-docetaxel metastatic CRPC setting and is a results from 2 phase 3 trials (ECOG 3805/CHAARTED and
reasonable choice for men who are not candidates for chemotherapy. STAMPEDE).412,413 CHAARTED randomized 790 men with metastatic,
androgen-stimulated prostate cancer to docetaxel plus ADT or ADT
Chemotherapy and Immunotherapy alone.413 The patients in the combination arm experienced a longer OS
Recent research has expanded the therapeutic options for patients with than those in the ADT arm (57.6 months vs. 44.0 months; HR, 0.61;
metastatic CRPC depending on the presence or absence of symptoms. 95% CI, 0.47–0.80; P < .001). Subgroup analysis showed that the
survival benefit was more pronounced in the 65% of participants with
Docetaxel high-volume disease (HR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.45–0.81; P < .001). Men with
Two randomized phase 3 studies evaluated docetaxel-based regimens low-volume disease in CHAARTED may have derived a survival benefit
in symptomatic or rapidly progressive disease (TAX 327 and SWOG from the inclusion of docetaxel (HR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.32–1.13; P = .11),
9916).334,409,410 TAX 327 compared docetaxel (every 3 weeks or weekly) although median overall survival was not reached for either arm, and
plus prednisone to mitoxantrone plus prednisone in 1006 men.409 Every- the number of patients was low.
3-week docetaxel resulted in higher median overall survival than
mitoxantrone (18.9 vs. 16.5 months; P = .009). This survival benefit was The STAMPEDE trial, a multi-arm, multistage phase 3 trial, included
maintained at extended follow-up.410 The SWOG 9916 study also patients with both M0 and M1 androgen-stimulated prostate cancer.412
showed improved survival with docetaxel when combined with The results in the M1 population essentially confirmed the survival
estramustine compared to mitoxantrone plus prednisone.334 Docetaxel advantage of adding docetaxel to ADT seen in the CHAARTED trial. In
is FDA-approved for metastatic CRPC. The standard regimen is every 3 STAMPEDE, extent of disease was not evaluated in the 1087 men with
weeks. An alternative to every-3-week docetaxel is a biweekly regimen metastatic disease, but the median overall survival for all patients with
M1 disease was 5.4 years in the ADT-plus-docetaxel arm versus 3.6

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years in the ADT-only arm (a difference of 1.8 years between groups which indicated the need for vigilance and treatment or prophylaxis in
compared with a 1.1-year difference in CHAARTED). The results of the this setting to prevent febrile neutropenia. The survival benefit was
STAMPEDE trial seem to confirm the results of the CHAARTED trial. sustained at an updated analysis with a median follow-up of 25.5
months.417
The panel added the use of docetaxel in combination with ADT and
EBRT in fit men with high- and very-high-risk localized disease in the The phase 3 open-label, multinational, non-inferiority PROSELICA
2016 version of these guidelines. This recommendation is supported by study compared 20 mg/m2 cabazitaxel with 25 mg/m2 cabazitaxel in
results of the GETUG 12 trial, which randomized 413 men with high- or 1200 patients with mCRPC who progressed on docetaxel.418 The lower
very-high risk prostate cancer to IMRT and ADT or ADT, docetaxel, and dose was found to be noninferior to the higher dose for median overall
estramustine.414 After median follow-up 8.8 years, 8-year relapse-free survival (13.4 mo [95% CI, 12.19–14.88] vs. 14.5 mo [95% CI, 13.47–
survival was 62% in the combination therapy arm and 50% in the ADT- 15.28]), and grade 3/4 adverse events were decreased (39.7% vs.
only arm (adjusted HR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.54–0.94; P = .017). 54.5%). In particular, grade 4 neutropenia rates were 21.3% and 48.6%
Estramustine has been shown to increase side effects without for the lower and higher dose groups, respectively. Cabazitaxel at 25
enhancing efficiency when added to docetaxel and is not mg/m2 every 3 weeks, with or without growth factor support remains
recommended.415 standard of care for fit patients. However, in frail patients, cabazitaxel at
20 mg/m2 every 3 weeks, with or without growth factor support, can be
Cabazitaxel considered.
In June 2010, the FDA approved cabazitaxel, a semi-synthetic taxane
derivative, for men with metastatic CRPC previously treated with a Recent results from the phase 3 FIRSTANA study suggested that
docetaxel-containing regimen. An international randomized phase 3 trial cabazitaxel has clinical activity in patients with chemotherapy-naïve
(TROPIC) randomized 755 men with progressive metastatic CRPC to mCRPC.419 Median overall survival, the primary endpoint, was similar
receive cabazitaxel 25 mg/m2 or mitoxantrone 12 mg/m2, each with daily between 20 mg/m2 cabazitaxel, 25 mg/m2 cabazitaxel, and 75 mg/m2
prednisone.416 A 2.4 month improvement in overall survival was docetaxel (24.5 mo, 25.2 mo, and 24.3 mo, respectively). Cabazitaxel
demonstrated with cabazitaxel compared to mitoxantrone (HR, 0.72; P was associated with lower rates of peripheral neuropathy than
< .0001). The improvement in survival was balanced against a higher docetaxel, particularly at 20 mg/m2 (12% vs. 25%). Therefore, patients
toxic death rate with cabazitaxel (4.9% vs. 1.9%), which was due, in who are not candidates for docetaxel, who are intolerant of docetaxel,
large part, to differences in rates of sepsis and renal failure. Febrile or who have pre-existing mild peripheral neuropathy should be
neutropenia was observed in 7.5% of cabazitaxel-treated men vs. 1.3% considered for cabazitaxel.
of mitoxantrone-treated men. The incidences of severe diarrhea (6%),
Sipuleucel-T
fatigue (5%), nausea/vomiting (2%), anemia (11%), and
thrombocytopenia (4%) also were higher in cabazitaxel-treated men, In April 2010, sipuleucel-T became the first in a new class of cancer
immunotherapeutic agents to be approved by the FDA. This autologous

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cancer “vaccine” involves collection of the white blood cell fraction were similar to zoledronic acid and included spinal cord compression
containing antigen-presenting cells from each patient, exposure of the (3% vs. 4%), need for radiation (19% vs. 21%), and pathologic fracture
cells to the prostatic acid phosphatase-granulocyte macrophage colony- (14% vs. 15%).
stimulating factor (PAP-GM-CSF recombinant fusion protein), and
subsequent reinfusion of the cells. The pivotal study was a phase 3, Treatment-related toxicities reported for zoledronic acid and denosumab
multicenter, randomized, double-blind trial (D9902B).420 Five hundred were similar and included hypocalcemia (more common with
twelve patients with minimally symptomatic or asymptomatic metastatic denosumab 13% vs. 6%), arthralgias, and osteonecrosis of the jaw
CRPC were randomized 2:1 to receive sipuleucel-T or placebo. Median (ONJ, 1%–2% incidence). Most, but not all, patients who develop ONJ
survival in the vaccine arm was 25.8 months compared to 21.7 months have preexisting dental problems.424
in the control arm. Sipuleucel-T treatment resulted in 22% reduction in
NCCN Recommendations
mortality risk (HR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.61–0.98; P = .03). Common
complications included mild to moderate chills (54.1%), pyrexia (29.3%), Initial Prostate Cancer Diagnosis
and headache (16.0%), which usually were transient. Initial suspicion of prostate cancer is based on an abnormal DRE or an
elevated PSA level. A separate NCCN Guidelines Panel has written
Agents Related to Bone Health in CRPC guidelines for prostate cancer early detection (see NCCN Guidelines for
In a multicenter study, 643 men with CRPC and asymptomatic or Prostate Cancer Early Detection). Definitive diagnosis requires biopsies
minimally symptomatic bone metastases were randomized to of the prostate, usually performed by a urologist using a needle under
intravenous zoledronic acid every 3 weeks or placebo.421 At 15 months, TRUS guidance. A pathologist assigns a Gleason primary and
fewer men in the zoledronic acid 4-mg group than men in the placebo secondary grade to the biopsy specimen. Clinical staging is based on
group had SREs (33% vs. 44%; P = .02). An update at 24 months also the TNM 2010 classification from the AJCC Staging Manual, 7th
revealed an increase in the median time to first SRE (488 days vs. 321 edition.425 However, NCCN treatment recommendations are based on
days; P = .01).422 No significant differences were found in overall risk stratification rather than AJCC prognostic grouping.
survival. Other bisphosphonates have not been shown to be effective
for prevention of disease-related skeletal complications. Pathology synoptic reports (protocols) are useful for reporting results
from examinations of surgical specimens; these reports assist
Denosumab was compared to zoledronic acid in a randomized, double- pathologists in providing clinically useful and relevant information. The
blind, placebo-controlled study in men with CRPC.423 The absolute NCCN Guidelines Panel favors pathology synoptic reports from the
incidence of SREs was similar in the 2 groups; however, the median College of American Pathologists (CAP) that comply with the
time to first SRE was delayed by 3.6 months by denosumab compared Commission on Cancer requirements.426
to zoledronic acid (20.7 vs. 17.1 months; P = .0002 for non-inferiority, P
= .008 for superiority). The rates of important SREs with denosumab

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Initial Clinical Assessment and Staging Evaluation NCCN panelists voiced concern about inappropriate use of PET
For patients with a life expectancy of 5 years or less and without clinical imaging. FDG or fluoride PET is not recommended for initial
symptoms, further workup or treatment should be delayed until assessment.
symptoms develop. ADT or EBRT may be considered for selected
The staging workup is used to categorize patients according to their risk
patients with high- or very-high-risk disease, where complications, such
of recurrence or disease progression/recurrence into those with
as hydronephrosis or metastases, are likely within 5 years. Patients with
clinically localized disease at very low, low, intermediate, or high risk, or
advanced cancer may be candidates for observation if the risks and
those with locally advanced at very high risk, or those with metastatic
complications of therapy are judged to be greater than the benefit in
disease.
terms of prolonged life or improved quality of life.
Very Low Risk
For symptomatic patients and/or those with a life expectancy of greater
than 5 years, a bone scan is appropriate for patients with any of the Men with all of the following tumor characteristics are categorized in the
following: 1) T1 disease with PSA over 20 ng/mL or T2 disease with very-low-risk group: clinical stage T1c, biopsy Gleason score
PSA over 10 ng/mL427; 2) Gleason score 8 or higher/Gleason grade ≤6/Gleason grade group 1, PSA <10 ng/mL, presence of disease in
group 4-5; 3) T3 to T4 disease; or 4) symptomatic disease. Pelvic CT or fewer than 3 biopsy cores, ≤50% prostate cancer involvement in any
MRI scanning is recommended for T3 or T4 disease, or T1 or T2 core, and PSA density <0.15 ng/mL/g. Given the potential side effects
disease when a nomogram indicates a greater than 10% chance of of definitive therapy, men in this group who have an estimated life
lymph node involvement, although staging studies may not be cost expectancy of less than 10 years should undergo observation
effective until the chance of lymph node positivity reaches 45%.428 (monitoring no more often than every 6 months). Unlike active
Alternative approaches to imaging based on the likelihood of a positive surveillance, observation schedules do not involve biopsies. Men with
study rather than by risk group alone have been proposed based on very low risk and a life expectancy of 10 to 20 years should undergo
data from a quality improvement collaborative in the state of Michigan.75 active surveillance. For patients who meet the very-low-risk criteria but
For pelvic CT, the following criteria would identify almost all men with a who have a life expectancy of 20 years or above, the NCCN Panel
positive study and reduce the number of negative studies: 1) PSA level agreed that active surveillance, EBRT or brachytherapy, or radical
>20 ng/mL, or 2) Gleason score ≥8/Gleason grade group 4-5, or 3) prostatectomy are all viable options and should be discussed
clinical stage ≥T3. For bone scan, the recommended criteria include: 1) thoroughly.
PSA level >20 ng/mL, or 2) Gleason score ≥8/Gleason grade group 4-
Low Risk
5.76 Use of these criteria may reduce the number of negative study
results without missing a significant number of positive studies. Biopsy The NCCN Guidelines define the low-risk group as patients with clinical
should be considered for further evaluation of suspicious nodal findings. stage T1 to T2a, Gleason score 6/Gleason grade group 1, and serum
For all other patients, no additional imaging is required for staging. PSA level <10 ng/mL. Observation is recommended for men with
low-risk prostate cancer and a life expectancy of less than 10 years. If

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the patient’s life expectancy is 10 years or more, initial treatment patients with a life expectancy >10 years (category 1) if they fall in the
options include: 1) active surveillance; 2) EBRT or brachytherapy; or 3) unfavorable subset of intermediate risk.
radical prostatectomy with or without a PLND if the predicted probability
of pelvic lymph node involvement is ≥2%. ADT as a primary treatment The literature on outcomes of active surveillance in men with
for localized prostate cancer does not improve survival and is not intermediate-risk prostate cancer is limited. In the PIVOT trial, men with
recommended by the NCCN Guidelines Panel. clinically localized prostate cancer and life expectancy ≥10 years were
randomized to radical prostatectomy or observation.429 Of the 120
Cryotherapy or other local therapies are not recommended as routine participants with intermediate-risk disease who were randomized to
primary therapy for localized prostate cancer due to lack of long-term observation, only 13 died from prostate cancer, a non-significant
data comparing these treatments to radiation or radical prostatectomy. difference compared with 6 prostate-cancer deaths in 129 participants
with intermediate-risk disease in the radical prostatectomy arm (HR,
Intermediate Risk 0.50; 95% CI, 0.21–1.21; P = .12). The median 10-year follow-up and
The NCCN Guidelines define the intermediate-risk group as patients less-than-average health of men in the PIVOT study suggest that men
with clinical stage T2b to T2c, Gleason score 7/Gleason grade group 2- with competing risks may safely be offered active surveillance. Other
3, or PSA value of 10 ng/mL to 20 ng/mL. Patients with multiple adverse prospective studies of active surveillance that included men with
factors may be shifted to the high-risk group. intermediate-risk prostate cancer resulted in prostate cancer-specific
survival rates of 94% to 100% for the full cohorts.99,100,102 The panel
Options for patients with life expectancy less than 10 years include: 1) interpreted these data to show that a subset of men with intermediate-
observation; 2) EBRT with or without ADT (4–6 months), and with or risk prostate cancer may be considered for active surveillance, although
without brachytherapy; and 3) brachytherapy alone for selected patients longer-term follow-up is needed in these and others studies to increase
with low-volume disease. confidence about the risks and benefits of active surveillance in this
population.
Initial treatment options for patients with an expected survival of ≥10
years include: 1) radical prostatectomy and PLND if the predicted The panel believes that active surveillance may be considered for men
probability of lymph node metastasis is ≥2%; 2) EBRT with or without 4 with favorable intermediate-risk prostate cancer, but should be
to 6 months of ADT, and with or without brachytherapy; and 3) approached with caution, include informed decision-making, and use
brachytherapy alone for selected patients with low-volume disease. In close monitoring for progression.
addition, the panel defines a favorable subset of men with intermediate-
risk prostate cancer for whom active surveillance may be considered High Risk
(ie, predominant Gleason grade 3 [ie, Gleason score 3 + 4 = 7/Gleason Men with prostate cancer that is clinical stage T3a, Gleason score 8 to
grade group 2], percentage of positive biopsy cores <50, and ≤1 NCCN 10/Gleason grade group 4-5, or PSA level greater than 20 ng/mL are
intermediate risk factor).23 Active surveillance is not recommended for categorized by the panel as high risk. Patients with multiple adverse

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factors may be shifted to the very high-risk category. The preferred diagnosed with N1 disease on presentation. Positive nodal disease
treatment is EBRT in conjunction with 2 to 3 years of identified during radical prostatectomy is addressed under Adjuvant or
neoadjuvant/concurrent/adjuvant ADT (category 1); ADT alone is Salvage Therapy after Radical Prostatectomy. Analysis of data from the
insufficient. In particular, patients with low-volume, high-grade tumor control arm of STAMPEDE supports the use of EBRT with ADT in men
warrant aggressive local radiation combined with typically 2 or 3 years with node-positive, non-metastatic disease.431 Two-year failure-free
of neoadjuvant/concurrent/adjuvant ADT. Fit men in the high-risk group survival was improved with the planned use of radiation in this subset of
can consider 6 cycles of docetaxel without prednisone after EBRT is trial participants (53% vs. 81%; HR, 0.48; 95% CI, 0.29–0.79).
completed and while continuing ADT. The combination of EBRT and
brachytherapy, with or without neoadjuvant/concurrent/adjuvant ADT, is ADT is recommended for patients with M1 cancer.
another primary treatment option. However, the optimal duration of ADT
Disease Monitoring
in this setting remains unclear.
Patients on Active Surveillance
Radical prostatectomy with PLND remains an option because a subset For patients who choose active surveillance, an appropriate active
of younger and healthier men in the high-risk group may benefit from surveillance schedule includes PSA measurement no more often than
operation. every 6 months unless clinically indicated, DRE no more often than
every 12 months unless clinically indicated, and repeat prostate biopsy
Very High Risk no more often than every 12 months unless clinically indicated. A repeat
Patients at very high risk (locally advanced) are defined by the NCCN prostate biopsy within 6 months of diagnosis is indicated if the initial
Guidelines as men with clinical stage T3b to T4, primary Gleason biopsy was less than 10 cores or if assessment results show
pattern 5, or more than 4 biopsy cores with Gleason score 8 to discordance.
10/Gleason grade group 4-5.430 The options for this group include: 1)
EBRT and long-term ADT (category 1); 2) EBRT plus brachytherapy Reliable parameters of prostate cancer progression await the results of
with or without long-term ADT; 3) radical prostatectomy plus PLND in ongoing clinical trials. Change in prostate exam or increase in PSA level
younger, healthier patients with no tumor fixation to the pelvic side wall; may prompt consideration for repeat biopsy at the discretion of the
or 4) ADT or observation for patients not candidates for definitive physician. Repeat biopsy can be considered as often as annually to
therapy. Fit men in the high-risk group can consider 6 cycles of assess for disease progression. Repeat biopsies are not indicated when
docetaxel without prednisone after EBRT is completed and while life expectancy is less than 10 years or when men are on observation.
continuing ADT. mpMRI may be considered to exclude the presence of anterior cancer if
the PSA level rises and systematic prostate biopsy remains negative.432
Nodal and Metastatic Disease PSA doubling time is not considered reliable enough to be used alone
ADT or EBRT of the primary tumor plus 2 or 3 years of to detect disease progression.433
neoadjuvant/concurrent/adjuvant ADT are options for patients

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If repeat biopsy shows Gleason 4 or 5 disease, or if tumor is found in a considered for these patients. Supplementation is recommended using
greater number of biopsy cores or in a higher percentage of a given calcium (500 mg) and vitamin D (400 IU). Men who are
biopsy core, cancer progression may have occurred. osteopenic/osteoporotic should be considered for denosumab,
zoledronic acid, or alendronate.
Patients after Initial Definitive Therapy
For patients initially treated with intent to cure, serum PSA levels should Patients under Observation
be measured every 6 to 12 months for the first 5 years and then Patients under observation should be monitored for symptom
annually. PSA testing every 3 months may be better for men at high risk development at 6- to 12-month intervals. PSA, renal function, and red
of recurrence. When prostate cancer recurred after radical cell mass may be assessed.
prostatectomy, Pound and colleagues found that 45% of patients
experienced recurrence within the first 2 years, 77% within the first 5 Adjuvant or Salvage Therapy after Radical Prostatectomy
years, and 96% by 10 years.434 Local recurrence may result in Most patients who have undergone radical prostatectomy are cured of
substantial morbidity and can, in rare cases, occur in the absence of a prostate cancer. However, some men will suffer pathologic or
PSA elevation. Therefore, annual DRE is appropriate to monitor for biochemical failure. Selecting men appropriately for adjuvant or salvage
prostate cancer recurrence and to detect colorectal cancer. Similarly, radiation is difficult.
after EBRT, the monitoring of serum PSA levels is recommended every
Adjuvant Therapy
6 months for the first 5 years and then annually and a DRE is
recommended annually. The clinician may opt to omit the DRE if PSA Published trials provide high-level evidence that can be used to counsel
levels remain undetectable. patients more appropriately regarding the use of adjuvant therapy.
Thompson and colleagues reported the results of SWOG 8794, which
Patients with Node-Positive or Metastatic Disease on ADT enrolled 425 men with extraprostatic cancer found at radical
The intensity of clinical monitoring for patients presenting with lymph- prostatectomy. Patients were randomized to receive either adjuvant
node-positive or metastatic disease is determined by the response to EBRT or usual care, and follow-up has reached a median of 12.6
initial ADT, radiotherapy, or both. Follow-up evaluation of these patients years.436 The initial study report revealed that adjuvant EBRT reduced
should include history and physical examination and PSA measurement the risk of PSA relapse and disease recurrence.437 An update reported
every 3 to 6 months based on clinical judgment. The relative risk for improved 10-year biochemical failure-free survival for patients with high-
bone metastasis or death increases as PSA doubling time (PSADT) risk disease (seminal vesicle positive) receiving post-prostatectomy
falls; a major inflection point appears at PSADT of 8 months. Bone adjuvant radiation compared to observation (36% vs. 12%; P = .001).438
imaging should be performed more frequently in these men.435
Another randomized trial conducted by EORTC439 compared post-
Patients treated with either medical or surgical ADT have increased risk prostatectomy observation and adjuvant EBRT in 1005 patients. All
for osteoporosis. A baseline bone mineral density study should be patients had extraprostatic disease and/or positive surgical margins.

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The 5-year biochemical progression-free survival significantly improved risk. Retrospective data show that initial observation may be safe in
with EBRT compared to observation for patients with positive surgical some men with N1 disease at radical prostatectomy, because 28% of a
margins (78% vs. 49%), but benefit was not seen for patients with cohort of 369 patients remained free from biochemical recurrence at 10
negative surgical margins. years.446 A third option is the addition of pelvic EBRT to ADT (category
2B). This last recommendation is based on retrospective studies and a
A German study by Wiegel and colleagues reported results on 268 National Cancer Data Base analysis that demonstrated improved
patients.440 All participants had extraprostatic disease and undetectable biochemical recurrence-free survival, cancer-specific survival, and all-
PSA levels after radical prostatectomy. Postoperative radiation cause survival with post-prostatectomy EBRT and ADT compared to
improved 5-year biochemical progression-free survival compared to adjuvant ADT alone in patients with lymph node metastases.447-450
observation alone (72% vs. 54%; HR, 0.53; 95% CI, 0.37–0.79).
Collectively, these trial results suggest that continued follow-up of these Biochemical Recurrence After Radical Prostatectomy
series of patients may show a survival advantage. Several retrospective studies have assessed the prognostic value of
various combinations of pretreatment PSA levels, Gleason scores, PSA
Although observation after radical prostatectomy is appropriate, doubling time, and the presence or absence of positive surgical
adjuvant EBRT after recuperation from operation is likely beneficial in margins.451-455 A large retrospective review of 501 patients who received
men with one or more adverse laboratory or pathologic features, which salvage radiotherapy for detectable and increasing PSA after radical
include positive surgical margin, seminal vesicle invasion, and/or prostatectomy454 showed that the predictors of progression were
extracapsular extension as recommended in the guideline by the Gleason score 8 to 10, pre-EBRT PSA level >2 ng/mL, seminal vesicle
American Urological Association (AUA) and ASTRO.441 Positive surgical invasion, negative surgical margins, and PSA doubling time ≤10
margins are unfavorable, especially if diffuse (>10-mm margin months. However, prediction of systemic disease versus local
involvement or ≥3 sites of positivity) or associated with persistent serum recurrence and hence responsiveness to postoperative radiation has
levels of PSA. The defined target volumes include the prostate bed.442 proven unfeasible for individual patients using clinical and pathologic
The value of whole pelvic irradiation is unclear due to a lack of benefit in criteria.456 Delivery of adjuvant or salvage EBRT becomes both
progression-free survival in 2 trials (RTOG 9413 and GETUG 01)443-445; therapeutic and diagnostic—PSA response indicates local
whole pelvic radiation may be appropriate for selected patients. persistence/recurrence. Delayed biochemical recurrence requires
restaging, and a nomogram29,457 may prove useful to predict response,
Several management options should be considered if positive lymph
but it has not been validated.
nodes are found during or after radical prostatectomy. ADT is a
category 1 option, as discussed above (see Adjuvant ADT after Radical Men who suffer biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy fall
Prostatectomy).339 Another option is observation, which is a category 2A into 3 groups: 1) those whose PSA level fails to fall to undetectable
recommendation for patients with very-low-risk or low-risk prostate levels after radical prostatectomy (persistent disease); 2) those who
cancer but category 2B for patients with intermediate, high, or very high achieve an undetectable PSA after radical prostatectomy with a

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subsequent detectable PSA level that increases on 2 or more mortality reduction for both men with PSA doubling time <6 months and
subsequent laboratory determinations (recurrent disease); or 3) the those with PSA doubling time ≥6 months.460 Most men with prolonged
occasional case with persistent but low PSA levels attributed to slow PSA doubling time may be observed safely.461
PSA metabolism or residual benign tissue. Consensus has not defined
a threshold level of PSA below which PSA is truly “undetectable.”80 Six months of concurrent/adjuvant ADT can be coadministered with
Group 3 does not require further evaluation until PSA increases. Since salvage radiation based on the results of GETUG-16.462 An LHRH
PSA elevation alone does not necessarily lead to clinical failure,458 the agonist should be used. Two years instead of 6 months of ADT can be
workup for 1 and 2 must include an evaluation for distant metastases. considered in addition to radiation for men with persistent PSA after RP
or for PSA levels that exceed 1.0 ng/mL at the time of initiation of
The specific staging tests depend on the clinical history, but usually salvage therapy, based on results of RTOG 9601.327 For 2 years of
include a combination of PSA doubling time assessment, TRUS biopsy, ADT, level 1 evidence support 150 mg bicalutamide daily but an LHRH
bone scan, and prostate MRI. Abdominal/pelvic CT/MRI and C-11 agonist could be considered as an alternative.
choline PET may be useful.
ADT alone becomes the salvage treatment when there is proven or high
Bone scans are appropriate when patients develop symptoms or when suspicion for distant metastases. Radiation alone is not recommended
PSA levels are increasing rapidly. In one study, the probability of a but may be given to the site of metastasis or symptoms in addition to
positive bone scan for a patient not on ADT after radical prostatectomy ADT in specific cases, such as to weight-bearing bone involvement.
was less than 5% unless the PSA increased to 40 to 45 ng/mL.459 A Observation remains acceptable for selected patients, with ADT
TRUS biopsy may be helpful when imaging suggests local recurrence. delayed until symptoms develop or PSA levels suggest that symptoms
are imminent. In all cases, the form of primary or secondary systemic
The patient may be observed or undergo primary salvage EBRT with or therapy should be based on the hormonal status of the patient.
without ADT if distant metastases are not suspected during biochemical
recurrence.441 Large retrospective cohort studies support the use of Post-Irradiation Recurrence
EBRT in this setting, because it is associated with decreased all-cause The 2006 Phoenix definition was revised by ASTRO and the Radiation
and prostate cancer-specific survival.456,460 The recommended post- Therapy Oncology Group in Phoenix:463 1) PSA rise by 2 ng/mL or more
radical prostatectomy EBRT dose is 64 to 72 Gy and may be increased above the nadir PSA is the standard definition for biochemical failure
for gross recurrence that has been proven by biopsy. The target volume after EBRT with or without hormonal therapy; and 2) A recurrence
includes the prostate bed and may include the whole pelvis in selected evaluation should be considered when PSA has been confirmed to be
patients.442 Treatment is most effective when pre-treatment PSA level is increasing after radiation even if the rise above nadir is not yet 2 ng/mL,
below 0.5 ng/mL.457 Paradoxically, salvage EBRT was shown to be especially in candidates for salvage local therapy who are young and
most beneficial when the PSA doubling time was <6 months in a cohort healthy. Retaining a strict version of the ASTRO definition allows
analysis of 635 men,456 although another study of 519 men reported comparison with a large existing body of literature. Rapid rise of PSA

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may warrant evaluation (prostate biopsy) prior to meeting the Phoenix Patients with radiographic evidence of distant metastases or patients
definition, especially in younger or healthier men. who are not initial candidates for local therapy should be treated with
ADT or observed.
Further workup is indicated in patients who are considered candidates
for local therapy. These patients include those with original clinical Progressive Castration-Naïve Disease
stage T1-2, life expectancy >10 years, and current PSA <10 ng/mL.464 The term "castration-naïve" is used to define patients who are not on
Workup typically includes PSA doubling time calculation, bone scan, ADT at the time of progression. The NCCN Prostate Cancer Panel uses
and prostate MRI; additional tests, such as an abdominal/pelvic the term "castration-naïve" even when patients have had neoadjuvant,
CT/MRI, TRUS biopsy, and/or C-11 choline PET can be considered. concurrent, or adjuvant ADT as part of radiation therapy provided they
Local radiation failures are most responsive to salvage therapy when have recovered testicular function. Options for patients with progressive
PSA levels at the time of treatment are low (<5 ng/mL). Biopsy should castration-naïve disease depend on the presence of distant metastases.
be encouraged at the time of radiation biochemical failure if staging Men with M0 disease can undergo orchiectomy or ADT with LHRH
workup does not reveal metastatic disease. Prostate biopsy in the antagonist or combined androgen blockade or they can be observed
setting of suspected local recurrence after radiation should be until symptoms develop or are imminent. Options for men with M1
considered, including biopsy at the junction of the seminal vesicle and disease include: 1) orchiectomy; 2) LHRH agonist with or without anti-
prostate, because this is a common site of treatment failure. androgen for at least 7 days to prevent flare; 3) LHRH antagonist; 4)
combined androgen blockade; or 5) ADT and docetaxel (75 mg/m2) with
Options for primary salvage therapy for those with positive biopsy but
or without prednisone for 6 cycles. The last option of upfront docetaxel
low suspicion of metastases to distant organs include observation or
and ADT is based on results from the phase 3 CHAARTED and
radical prostatectomy with PLND in selected cases by highly
STAMPEDE trials (as discussed under Docetaxel).412,413
experienced surgeons. Other options for localized interventions include
cryotherapy,465 HIFU,297-300,303,304 and brachytherapy (reviewed by Allen Docetaxel should not be offered to men with M0 progressive castration-
and colleagues466 and discussed in Salvage Brachytherapy). Treatment, naïve prostate cancer based on results of a pre-planned subgroup
however, needs to be individualized based on the patient's risk of analysis of the STAMPEDE trial that showed no overall survival benefit
progression, the likelihood of success, and the risks involved with for participants with M0 disease.412 Men with low-volume metastatic
salvage therapy. disease can be offered early treatment with docetaxel combined with
ADT; however they have less certain benefit from treatment than men
Negative TRUS biopsy after post-radiation biochemical recurrence
with higher-volume disease, as this subgroup did not have definitively
poses clinical uncertainties. Observation, ADT, and enrolling on clinical
improved survival outcomes in the ECOG CHAARTED study or a
trials are viable options.
similar European trial (GETUG-AFU 15).413,467,468 Meta-analyses of
randomized controlled trials also concluded that docetaxel provides a

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significant OS benefit in this setting, with no evidence that the benefit A number of options for systemic therapy should be considered based
was dependent on the volume of disease.469,470 on metastasis status, as discussed in the following sections.
In the setting of biochemical relapse after local therapy, one should first CRPC without Signs of Metastasis
determine whether or not the patient is a candidate for salvage therapy. Clinical trial is the preferred choice for patients with CRPC and no signs
Men who opt for ADT should consider the intermittent approach. The of distant metastasis (M0). Observation is another option, especially if
timing of ADT initiation should be individualized according to PSA PSA doubling time is ≥10 months since these patients will have a
velocity, patient anxiety, and potential side effects. Patients with shorter relatively indolent disease history.471 Secondary hormone therapy is an
PSA doubling time or rapid PSA velocity and long life expectancy option mainly for patients with shorter PSA doubling time (<10 months),
should be encouraged to consider early ADT. Men with prolonged PSA because the androgen receptor may remain active. Patients whose
doubling times who are older are excellent candidates for observation. disease progresses on combined androgen blockade should have the
anti-androgen discontinued to exclude an “anti-androgen withdrawal
Patients with metastatic disease should be queried about adverse
response.”472,473 Secondary hormone therapy can be an anti-androgen
effects related to ADT. Intermittent ADT should be used for those who
for patients who initially received medical or surgical castration, anti-
experience significant side effects of ADT. Some men who have no
androgen withdrawal, ketoconazole (adrenal enzyme inhibitor) with or
ADT-related morbidity may find the uncertainty of intermittent ADT not
without hydrocortisone, corticosteroid, diethylstilbestrol (DES), or other
worthwhile. Intermittent ADT requires close monitoring of PSA and
estrogen.474,475 However, none of these strategies has yet been shown
testosterone levels, especially during off-treatment periods, and patients
to prolong survival in randomized clinical trials in men who have not yet
may need to switch to continuous therapy upon signs of disease
received docetaxel-based chemotherapy.
progression.
Small Cell Carcinoma of the Prostate
Combined androgen blockade therapy adds to cost and side effects,
and prospective randomized evidence is lacking that combined Small cell carcinoma of the prostate should be considered in patients
androgen blockade is more efficacious than ADT. who no longer respond to ADT and test positive for metastases. Those
with initial Gleason score 9 or 10/Gleason grade group 5 are especially
Progression to CRPC at risk. These relatively rare tumors are associated with low PSA levels
Patients whose disease progresses to CRPC during primary ADT despite large metastatic burden and visceral disease.476 Biopsy of
should receive a laboratory assessment to assure a castrate level of accessible metastatic lesions should be considered to identify patients
testosterone (<50 ng/dL; <1.7 nmol/L). Imaging tests may be indicated with small cell histomorphologic features.477 These cases may be
to monitor for signs of distant metastases. Factors affecting the managed by cytotoxic chemotherapy (ie, cisplatin/etoposide,
frequency of imaging include individual risk, age, overall patient health, carboplatin/etoposide, docetaxel/carboplatin).478,479 Participation in a
PSA velocity, and Gleason grade. clinical trial is another option. Physicians should consult the NCCN

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Guidelines for Small Cell Lung Cancer since the behavior of small cell and held for creatinine clearance <30 mL/min.481 Denosumab may be
carcinoma of the prostate is similar to that of small cell carcinoma of the administered to men with impaired renal function or even men on
lung. Small cell carcinomas of the prostate differ from neuroendocrine hemodialysis; however, the risk for severe hypocalcemia and
prostate cancers; the latter histology may be more common and should hypophosphatemia is greater, and the dose, schedule, and safety of
not alter treatment. denosumab have not yet been defined. A single study of 55 patients
with creatinine clearance <30 mL/min or on hemodialysis evaluated the
Metastatic CRPC use of 60 mg dose denosumab.482 Hypocalcemia should be corrected
All patients with metastatic CRPC should maintain castrate levels of before starting denosumab, and serum calcium monitoring is required
serum testosterone (<50 ng/dL; <1.7 nmol/L) and receive best for denosumab and recommended for zoledronic acid, with repletion as
supportive care. Treatment options for specific settings are discussed needed.
below.
Clinical research continues on the prevention or delay of disease
Bone Metastases spread to bone. A phase 3 randomized trial of 1432 patients with non-
Zoledronic acid every 3 to 4 weeks or denosumab 120 mg every 4 metastatic CRPC at high risk of bone involvement showed that
weeks is recommended for men with CRPC and bone metastases to denosumab delayed bone metastasis by 4 months compared to
prevent or delay disease-associated SREs (category 1 placebo.483 Overall survival was not improved, and the FDA did not
recommendation). SREs include pathologic fractures, spinal cord approve this indication for denosumab.
compression, operation, or EBRT to bone. The optimal duration of
zoledronic acid or denosumab in men with CRPC and bone metastases Radium-223 is a category 1 option to treat symptomatic bone
remains unclear. metastases without visceral metastases. Hematologic evaluation should
be performed according to the FDA label before treatment initiation and
Oral hygiene, baseline dental evaluation for high-risk individuals, and before each subsequent dose.484 Radium-223 given in combination with
avoidance of invasive dental surgery during therapy are recommended chemotherapy (such as docetaxel) outside of a clinical trial has the
to reduce the risk of ONJ.480 If invasive dental surgery is necessary, potential for additive myelosuppression.484 Radium-223 can be used
therapy should be deferred until the dentist confirms that the patient has with denosumab or zoledronic acid.
healed completely from the dental procedure. Supplemental calcium
and vitamin D are recommended to prevent hypocalcemia in patients The use of systemic radiotherapy with either 89Sr or 153Sm
receiving either denosumab or zoledronic acid. occasionally benefits patients with widely metastatic, painful, skeletal
involvement that is not responding to palliative chemotherapy or
Monitoring of creatinine clearance is required to guide dosing of systemic analgesia and who are not candidates for localized EBRT.286
zoledronic acid. Zoledronic acid should be dose reduced in men with The risk of bone marrow suppression, which might influence the ability
impaired renal function (estimated creatinine clearance 30–60 mL/min),

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to provide additional systemic chemotherapy, should be considered symptoms. Radium-223 is a category 1 option to treat symptomatic
before this therapy is initiated. bone metastases without visceral metastases.
Asymptomatic or Minimally Symptomatic Other options include clinical trial participation and secondary hormone
Based on phase 3 randomized trial evidence, sipuleucel-T is a category therapy (antiandrogen, antiandrogen withdrawal, ketoconazole with or
1 recommendation for patients with metastatic CRPC who are without hydrocortisone, corticosteroid, DES, or other estrogens).
asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic, and have good performance Ketoconazole should not be used if the disease progressed on
level (ECOG 0-1), estimated life expectancy >6 months, and no liver abiraterone; both drugs inhibit CYP17A1.
metastases.420 Sipuleucel-T has not been studied in patients with
visceral metastases. Clinicians and patients should be aware that the Visceral Metastases
usual markers of benefit (decline in PSA and improvement in bone or Every-3-week docetaxel and prednisone is the preferred first-line
CT scans) are not usually seen, and therefore benefit to the individual chemotherapy treatment for symptomatic CRPC with visceral
patient cannot be ascertained using currently available testing. metastases (category 1). PSA rise alone does not define docetaxel
Treatment subsequent to sipuleucel-T treatment should proceed as failure; the patient may benefit from continued chemotherapy if clinical
clinically indicated, particularly if symptoms develop. progression is not apparent. The addition of estramustine to docetaxel
has been shown to increase side effects without enhancing efficiency
No Visceral Metastases and is not recommended.415 Enzalutamide is another category 1
Enzalutamide and abiraterone with prednisone are 2 newer therapies recommendation in this setting. Abiraterone has not been assessed
that received category 1 recommendation as first-line therapy for formally in symptomatic men with CRPC prior to docetaxel. Therefore,
patients with asymptomatic, chemotherapy-naïve, metastatic CRPC. its use in these patients is a category 2A recommendation. Use of
Abiraterone acetate should not be taken with food. Abiraterone acetate abiraterone with prednisone is reasonable for men who are not
should be given with oral prednisone 5 mg twice daily to abrogate signs candidates for docetaxel or who decline chemotherapy.
of mineralocorticoid excess that can result from treatment. These signs
include hypertension, hypokalemia, and peripheral edema. Serum Radium-223 alone has not been shown to extend survival in men with
electrolytes and blood pressure should be monitored closely during visceral metastases or bulky lymph node metastases (>3–4 cm) and is
therapy. Patients receiving enzalutamide have no restrictions for food not recommended in this setting.
intake and concurrent prednisone is permitted but not required.402
Mitoxantrone may provide palliative benefit for symptomatic patients
Docetaxel with prednisone is the traditional mainstay of treatment for who cannot tolerate docetaxel.485,486 Clinical trial and secondary
symptomatic metastases (category 1). Docetaxel is not used commonly hormone therapy are options.
for asymptomatic patients, but may be considered when the patient
shows signs of rapid progression or visceral metastases despite lack of

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Progression After Enzalutamide or Abiraterone These single-center clinical experiences suggest that AR-V7 assays are
Patients with disease progression after enzalutamide or abiraterone promising predictors of abiraterone and enzalutamide resistance, but
have the following options: docetaxel with prednisone (category 1), they have not yet been validated prospectively and externally.
abiraterone with prednisone if previously given enzalutamide therapy, Furthermore, the prevalence of AR-V7 positivity is only 3% in patients
enzalutamide if previously given abiraterone, radium-223 for bone- prior to treatment with enzalutamide, abiraterone, and taxanes,490 so the
predominant disease without visceral metastases (category 1), panel believes AR-V7 detection would not be useful to inform treatment
sipuleucel-T if asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic and without decisions in the naïve setting. On the other hand, the prevalence of AR-
visceral or liver metastases (life expectancy >6 months and ECOG V7 positivity is higher after abiraterone or enzalutamide failure (19%–
score 0–1), clinical trial, or secondary hormone therapy. All patients can 39%488), but data have already shown that abiraterone/enzalutamide
continue through all treatment options and should receive best crossover therapy is rarely effective and taxanes are more effective in
supportive care. this setting. Therefore, the panel does not recommend use of these
tests to determine treatment selection at this time.
No randomized trials that compare taxane chemotherapies versus novel
hormonal therapies in this setting have been reported. One molecular Progression After Docetaxel
biomarker that may aid appropriate selection of therapy is the presence No consensus exists for the best additional therapy for patients with
of androgen receptor splice variant 7 (AR-V7) in circulating tumor cells metastatic CRPC after docetaxel failure. Options include abiraterone
(CTCs).487 Lack of response of men with metastatic CRPC to with prednisone (category 1), enzalutamide (category 1), radium-223 for
abiraterone and enzalutamide was associated with detection of AR-V7 symptomatic bone metastases without visceral metastases (category 1),
mRNA in CTCs using an RNA-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) cabazitaxel with prednisone (category 1), sipuleucel-T if asymptomatic
assay.488 AR-V7 presence did not preclude clinical benefit from taxane or minimally symptomatic and without visceral or liver metastases (life
chemotherapies (docetaxel and cabazitaxel).489 Men with AR-V7– expectancy >6 months and ECOG score 0–1), clinical trial, docetaxel
positive CTCs exhibited superior progression-free survival with taxanes rechallenge, alternative chemotherapy (mitoxantrone), and secondary
compared to novel hormonal therapies (abiraterone and enzalutamide); ADT. All patients can continue through all treatment options and should
the two classes of agents resulted in comparable progression-free receive best supportive care.
survival in men with AR-V7–negative CTCs. A confirmatory study used
a different CTC assay that detected nuclear-localized AR-V7 protein Both abiraterone/prednisone and enzalutamide represent a new
using immunofluorescence. Men with AR-V7–positive CTCs had standard of care after failure of docetaxel chemotherapy for metastatic
superior overall survival with taxanes versus abiraterone or CRPC (category 1), provided these agents were not used before
enzalutamide, whereas overall survival was not different between the docetaxel.
two classes of agents among patients with AR-V7–negative CTCs.490
The NCCN Guidelines Panel included cabazitaxel as an option for
second-line therapy after docetaxel failure for patients with symptomatic

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metastatic CRPC. This recommendation is category 1 based on NCCN panelists agreed that docetaxel rechallenge may be useful in
randomized phase 3 study data; however, extension of survival is some patients (category 2A instead of category 1 in this setting),
relatively short and side effects are relatively high.416 Physicians should especially in those who have not shown definitive evidence of
follow current guidelines for prophylactic white blood cell growth factor progression on prior docetaxel therapy. Some patients with metastatic
use, particularly in this heavily pre-treated, high-risk population. In CRPC may be deemed unsuitable for taxane chemotherapy; such
addition, supportive care should include antiemetics (prophylactic patients could be considered for radium-223 or a second-line hormonal
antihistamines, H2 antagonists, and corticosteroids prophylaxis), and agent. In addition, mitoxantrone remains a palliative treatment option for
symptom-directed antidiarrheal agents. Cabazitaxel has not been tested men who are not candidates for taxane-based therapy based on older
in patients with hepatic dysfunction and therefore should not be used in randomized studies that showed palliative benefit.485,486 No
these patients. Cabazitaxel should be stopped upon clinical disease chemotherapy regimen has demonstrated improved survival or quality
progression or intolerance. of life after cabazitaxel, although several systemic agents other than
mitoxantrone have shown palliative and radiographic response benefits
The decision to initiate therapy in the post-docetaxel CRPC setting in clinical trials (ie, carboplatin, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin,
should be based on the available high-level evidence of safety, efficacy, vinorelbine, carboplatin/etoposide, docetaxel/carboplatin,
and tolerability of these agents and the application of this evidence to gemcitabine/oxaliplatin, paclitaxel/carboplatin496-505). Prednisone or
an individual patient. Prior exposures to these agents should be dexamethasone at low doses may provide palliative benefits in the
considered. No data inform the proper sequence for delivery of these chemotherapy-refractory setting.506 No survival benefit for combination
agents in men with metastatic CRPC, and some data suggest cross- regimens over sequential single-agent regimens has been
resistance between abiraterone and enzalutamide.491-493 No randomized demonstrated, and toxicity is higher with combination regimens.
trials have been reported that compared these agents, and no Treatment with these agents could be considered after an informed
predictive models or biomarkers help to identify patients who are likely discussion between the physician and an individual patient about
to benefit from any of these agents. Choice of therapy is based largely treatment goals and risks/side effects and alternatives, which must
on clinical considerations, which include patient preferences, prior include best supportive care. Participation in a clinical trial is
treatment, presence or absence of visceral disease, symptoms, and encouraged.
potential side effects. NCCN recommends that patients be closely
monitored with radiological imaging (ie, CT, bone scan), PSA tests, and In the phase 3 sipuleucel-T trial, 18.2% of patients had received prior
clinical exams for evidence of progression. Therapy should be chemotherapy, which included docetaxel, since eligibility requirements
continued until clinical progression or intolerability in cases where PSA included no chemotherapy for 3 months and no steroids for 1 month
or bone scan changes may indicate flare rather than true clinical prior to enrollment.420 These men were asymptomatic or minimally
progression.494,495 The sequential use of these agents is reasonable in a symptomatic. In a subset analysis, both those who did and those who
patient who remains a candidate for further systemic therapy.

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did not receive prior chemotherapy benefited from sipuleucel-T many controversial aspects of management and with a dearth of sound
treatment. data to support many treatment recommendations. Several variables
(including adjusted life expectancy, disease characteristics, predicted
Summary outcomes, and patient preferences) must be considered by the patient
The intention of these guidelines is to provide a framework on which to and physician to tailor prostate cancer therapy for the individual patient.
base treatment decisions. Prostate cancer is a complex disease, with

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Table 1. Available Tissue-Based Tests for Prostate Cancer Prognosis

Outcome Reported
Populations Molecular Diagnostic Services Program (MolDX)
Test Platform (Test independently References
Studied Recommendations
predicts)
142,507-518
Decipher Whole-transcriptome Post radical prostatectomy Metastasis Cover post-RP for 1) pT2 with positive margins; 2)
1.4M RNA expression (RP), adverse pathology/high- Prostate cancer-specific any pT3 disease; 3) rising PSA (above nadir)
(44,000 genes) risk features mortality
oligonucleotide Post RP, biochemical Metastasis
microarray optimized for recurrence Biochemical failure
FFPE tissue Post RP, adjuvant or salvage Metastasis
radiotherapy
519-522
Ki-67 IHC Biopsy, intermediate- to high- Metastasis Not recommended
risk treated with EBRT
Biopsy, conservatively Prostate cancer-specific
managed (active surveillance) mortality
63,523
Oncotype Quantitative RT-PCR for Biopsy, low- to intermediate- Non-organ-confined pT3 or Cover post-biopsy for NCCN very-low- and low-risk
DX 12 prostate cancer- risk treated with RP Gleason grade 4 disease on prostate cancer in patients with at least 10 years life
Prostate related genes and 5 RP expectancy who have not received treatment for
housekeeping controls prostate cancer and are candidates for active
surveillance or definitive therapy
59-62,524,525
Prolaris Quantitative RT-PCR for Transurethral resection of the Prostate cancer-specific Cover post-biopsy for NCCN very-low- and low-risk
31 cell cycle-related prostate (TURP), mortality prostate cancer in patients with at least 10 years life
genes and 15 conservatively managed expectancy who have not received treatment for
housekeeping controls (active surveillance) prostate cancer and are candidates for active
Biopsy, conservatively Prostate cancer-specific surveillance or definitive therapy
managed (active surveillance) mortality
Biopsy, localized prostate Biochemical recurrence
cancer Metastasis
Biopsy, intermediate-risk Biochemical failure
treated with EBRT
RP, node-negative localized Biochemical recurrence
prostate cancer
526
ProMark Multiplex Biopsy, Gleason grade 3+3 or Non-organ-confined pT3 or Cover post-biopsy for NCCN very-low- and low-risk
immunofluorescent 3+4 Gleason pattern 4 disease prostate cancer in patients with at least 10 years life
staining of 8 proteins on RP expectancy who have not received treatment for
prostate cancer and are candidates for active
surveillance or definitive therapy.
527-531
PTEN Fluorescent in situ TURP, conservatively Prostate cancer-specific Not recommended
hybridization or IHC managed (active surveillance) mortality
Biopsy, Gleason grade 3+3 Upgrading to Gleason
pattern 4 on RP
RP, high-risk localized disease Biochemical recurrence

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Table 2. Selected Active Surveillance Experiences in North America

Center Toronto99,147,160 Johns UCSF146 UCSF (newer Canary PASS163
Hopkins101,145,148,149 cohort)532
No. patients 993 1298 321 810 905
Median age (y) 68 66 63 62 63
Median follow-up (months) 77 60 43 60 28
Overall survival 80% (10-y) 93% (10-y) 98% (10-y) 98% (5-y) -
Cancer-specific survival 98% (10-y) 99.9% (10-y) 100% (5-y) - -
Conversion to treatment 36.5% (10-y) 50% (10-y) 24% (3-y) 40% (5-y) 19% (28-mo)
Reason for treatment (% of entire cohort)
Gleason grade change 9.5% 15.1% 38% - -
PSA increase 11.7%* - 26%† - -
Positive lymph node - 0.4% - - -
Personal choice -1.6% 8% 8% - -
* PSA doubling time <3 years
† PSA velocity >0.75 ng/mL/year

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9. D'Amico AV, Whittington R, Malkowicz SB, et al. Pretreatment

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NCCN Guidelines Index

Prostate Table of Contents

NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (NCCN Guidelines®)

NCCN Guidelines for Patients® available at www.nccn.org/patients

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

James L. Mohler, MD/Chair ω Michael Hurwitz, MD, PhD † Stan Rosenfeld ‡

Emmanuel S. Antonarakis, MD † Christopher J. Kane, MD ω Ahmad Shabsigh, MS

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

NCCN Prostate Cancer Panel Members

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

INITIAL PROSTATE INITIAL CLINICAL

See Risk Observation

Life expectancy See Risk Stratification and Staging Workup

aSee NCCN Guidelines for Prostate Cancer Early Detection.

Note: All recommendations are category 2A unless otherwise indicated.

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

RISK STRATIFICATION AND STAGING WORKUP

• T1-T2a AND Consider if life Consider if strong

• T2b-T2c OR • Bone imagingk: not recommended for staging

• T2b-T2c OR • Bone imagingk: recommended if T2 and PSA >10 ng/mL

• T3a OR • Bone imagingk: recommended

• T3b-T4 OR • Bone imagingk: recommended

See footnotes on next page

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

RISK STRATIFICATION AND STAGING WORKUP FOOTNOTES

Note: All recommendations are category 2A unless otherwise indicated.

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

VERY LOW RISK GROUP

Note: All recommendations are category 2A unless otherwise indicated.

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

LOW RISK GROUP

≥10 y EBRTe or brachytherapye

sSee Principles of Surgery (PROS-E).

Note: All recommendations are category 2A unless otherwise indicated.

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

FAVORABLE INTERMEDIATE RISK GROUP

≥10 y EBRTeor brachytherapy alonee

Note: All recommendations are category 2A unless otherwise indicated.

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

UNFAVORABLE INTERMEDIATE RISK GROUP

Note: All recommendations are category 2A unless otherwise indicated.

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

HIGH or VERY HIGH RISK GROUP

Undetectable PSA See Monitoring for

>5 y Adverse feature(s) and no lymph node metastases:u

Note: All recommendations are category 2A unless otherwise indicated.

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

REGIONAL RISK GROUP

EBRTe + ADTf (2–3 y; category 1) ± abiraterone and prednisone

>5 y See Monitoring (PROS-10)

ADTf ± abiraterone and prednisone

bSee Principles of Life Expectancy Estimation (PROS-A).

NCCN Guidelines Version 2.2018 NCCN Guidelines Index

INITIAL MANAGEMENT MONITORING RECURRENCE

Progressiondd to metastatic See Systemic Therapy