AMC PAMPHLET AMCP 706-127

ENGINEERING DESIGN
HANDBOOK

INFRARED MILITARY SYSTEMS

PART ONE

-
HEADQUARTERS, U.S. ARMY M A T E R I E L COMMAND APRIL 197’1
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure No. Title page

2-1 Angle θ in Radians 2-4

2-2 Solid Angle Ω in Steradians 2-4
2-3 Blackbody Curves 2-7
2-4 Geometry of a Lambertian Source 2-10
2-5 The GE Radiation Calculator 2-15
2-6 The Near-infrared Spectra of Solar Irradiation
and of CO, C H , N Ο, 0 , C 0 , and H Ο
4 2 3 2 2 2-19
2-7 Seasonal Variation of the Vertical Distribution
of Ozone 2-20
2-8 Annual Variation of Total Ozone for Each 10°
of N. Latitude 2-21
2-9 Water Vapor Profile in the Atmosphere 2-22
2-10 Lorentz Line Shape 2-24
2-11 The 6.3-micron Band of H Ο 2 2-26
2-12 Experimental Fit of Burch and Williams Data to
Error Function Absorption at 2.7 Microns 2-45
2-13 Variation of Continuum Absorption Coefficient
vs Wavelength 2-46
2-14 Geometrical Relation Between Observer A and
Object Β 2-48
2-15 IR Absorber Content Above a Given Altitude 2-49
2-16 Water Vapor Content Above a Given Altitude 2-50
2-17 Normalized Particle Density As a Function of
Altitude 2-53
2-18 Scintillation vs Telescope Aperture 2-56
2-19 Frequency of Intensity Scintillation 2-57
2-20 Dependence of the Diameter d of the Collecting
a

Optics, Upon Wavelength λ, and Altitude at a

Zenith Angle of 70° for Both Nighttime and
Daytime Conditions 2-57
2-21 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 2-58
2-22 Incident, Refracted, and Reflected Light Beams at
the Interface of Two Media (drawn in the plane
of incidence) 2-64
2-23 Transmission Curves for Representative IR
Optical Materials 2-66
2-24 Comparisons of Material Properties 2-67
2-25 Idealized Background Spectrum 2-69
2-26 Comparison of Calculated Earth Radiance with
Measurements for Downlooking System at
37 km Altitude 2-70
2-27 Radiance of 50° and 15° C Blackbodies 2-72
2-28 Hourly Variation in the 10-micron Radiance of
Various Backgrounds . : 2-73
2-29 Daytime Spectral Radiance of Miscellaneous
Targets 2-74
2-30 Relative Contrast of Deciduous Trees to
Short Grass 2-77

xv i
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont)

Figure No Title Page

2-31 Relative Contrast of Wooden Catwalk Atop a

Dam to the River Upstream from the Dam 2-78
2-32 Relative Contrast of a Small Asphalt-Surfaced
Concrete Bridge to an Asphalt Roadway 2-79
2-33 Reflectivity of Solar Radiation vs Sun Angle
for Various Sea-Surface Roughnesses 2-80
2-34 Reflectance of a Water Surface at 0°, 60°,
and 80° Angle of Incidence 2-81
2-35 Typical 1.2- to 2.5-micron Cirrus Cloud
Spectrum 2-84
2-36 Average Spectrum of Gladys I 2-85
2-37 Cloud Spectrum 2-86
2-38 Probability of Clear Lines-of-sight over Northern
Hemisphere for All Seasons Combined 2-87
2-39 Probability of Clear Lines-of-sight Between
Aircraft at - 3 0 , 0 0 0 ft and the Horizon 2-88
2-40 Probability of Clear Lines-of-sight Between Aircraft
at ~ 3 0 , 0 0 0 ft and Space at an Angle of
30° Above the Horizon 2-89
2-41 Spectral Irradiance of the Brightest Visual and
Red Stars As a Function of Wavelength 2-90
2-42 Major Planet Solar Reflection and Emission 2-91
2-43 Normalized Spectral Irradiance of R. Monocerotis
As a Function of Wavelength 2-93
2-44 Normalized Spectral Irradiance of the Orion Infrared
Star As a Function of Wavelength 2-94
2-45 Spectral Irradiance of the Cygnus Infrared Star As
a Function of Wavelength 2-94
2-46 Stellar Irradiance As a Function of Visual
Magnitude 2-95
2-47 Visual Fraction of Total Blackbody Irradiance As
a Function of Temperature 2-96
2-48 Relative Spectral Distribution of Stellar
Radiation As a Function of Star Class 2-98
2-49 Detector Response Fraction F (T) for Ge:Hg
d

Detectors As a Function of Spectral Band and

Target Temperature 2-99
2-50 Number of Κ and M Stars in the 8- to 14-micron Band
Exceeding a Given Irradiance 2-101
2-51 Lunar Temperature Measured by Surveyor I 2-102
2-52 Solar Spectral Irradiance As a Function of
Wavelength 2-103
2-53 Infrared Map of the Galactic Center 2-104
2-54 Flow Chart for Plume Radiation Calculations 2-106
2-55 Low Altitude Plume Structure 2-109
2-56 Plume Structure As a Function of Altitude 2-110
2-57 Typical Line-of-sight Variations on the
Saturn S-II Stage 2-111

xvii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont)

Figure No. Title Page

2-58 Limiting Particle Streamlines in the

Near Field 2-112
2-59 Trajectories of 0.79-micron Radius Particle
External to the Gas Plume As a Function
of Altitude 2-112
2-60 Near Field Isotherms for 0.79-micron Radius
Particle 2-113
2-61 Far Field Temperature Profile, Vacuum Profile 2-114
2-62 Water Vapor and Carbon Dioxide Regions 2-116
2-63 Emission Spectrum of HF for 0.5 cm-atm at
2640° Κ 2-117
2-64 Theoretical Radiance Spectrum for a Solid
Metallized Propellant Rocket Plume 2-117
2-65 Spectral Radiance of R P l / 0 Rocket Exhaust
2 2-118
2-66 Spectral Radiance of Solid Propellant Rocket 2-119
2-67 Flow Field Around Blunt and Slender Vehicles 2-120
2-68 Typical Radiant Signature of a Jet Aircraft 2-121
2-69 Idealized Reflectance Curve of a Uniform Fabric to
Afford Camouflage Protection Over a Spectral
Range from 0.4 to 1.2 Microns 2-123
2-70 Reflectance from Typical Uniform Cloth 2-123
2-71 Reflectance from Human Skins 2-124
3-1 Functional Relationship of the Major Disciplines
and Associated Design Specialties 3-2
3-2 Refractive Index vs Wavelength for Several
Optical Materials 3-12
3-3 Dispersion vs Wavelength for Several Optical
Materials 3-13
3-4 Effects of Anti-reflection Coatings on
Ge Transmission 3-17
3-5 Basic Lens Forms 3-19
3-6 Basic Mirror Forms 3-20
3-7 Typical Spectrophotometric Filter Curves 3-21
3-8 Prism Configurations and Functions 3-23
3-9 Conventional Geometry in First-order Optics 3-28
3-10 Cardinal Points for Single-surface Element 3-30
3-11 Cardinal Points for Double-surface Thick Lens
Element 3-31
3-12 System Cardinal Points by Ray Tracing 3-32
3-13 Meridian Plane Section of a Refractive Optical
System 3-33
3-14 Meridian Plane Section of a Reflective System 3-33
3-15 Virtual Image Formation by an Optical System 3-34
3-16 Application of Sine Condition 3-35
3-17 IR Optical System Showing Arrangement of
Stops and Baffles 3-36
3-18 Display Pickup System 3-36
3-19 Relationship of Clear Aperture and Effective
Focal Length 3-37

xviii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont)

Figure No. Title Page

3-20 Geometrical Presentation of Refracted and
Reflected Rays 3-38
3-21 Optical Diagram Illustrating Spherical
Aberration 3-39
3-22 Optical Diagram Illustrating Coma Aberration 3-40
3-23 Optical Diagram Illustrating Astigmatism 3-41
3-24 Field Curvature 3-42
3-25 Examples of Pincushion and Barrel Distortion 3-43
3-26 Lens Bending for Minimum Spherical Aberration . . . 3-44
3-27 Elementary Ray Trace Required for Computing
Seidel Aberrations 3-45
3-28 Graphical Ray Trace 3-48
3-29 Graphical Ray Tracing. Surface May Be Convex,
Flat, or Concave 3-49
3-30 Graphical Ray Tracing. Surface May Be Concave,
Flat, or Convex 3-50
3-31 Afocal Systems 3-54
3-32 Optical Relay System 3-55
3-33 Example of Simple IR Radiometer 3-55
3-34 Geometry of an Aplanatic System 3-56
3-35 Symmetrical Relay System 3-57
3-36 Reduction of Spherical Aberration in Series
Lens Combinations 3-58
3-37 Reflective Systems 3-59
3-38 Catadioptric Systems 3-60
3-39 Setup for Determining the Curvature of Concave
Spherical Mirrors 3-67
3-40 Knife-edge Test Setup for Spherical and
Paraboloidal Mirrors 3-68
3-41 Knife-edge Shadow Patterns 3-69
3-42 Knife-edge Test Setup for Complex and
Hyperboloidal Systems 3-71
3-43 Ritchie Setup for Testing a Large Flat Mirror Using
a Highly Accurate Spherical Mirror as
Reference 3-72
3-44 Ronchi Grating for Determining Duration of Rays
from Perfect Focus 3-72
3-45 Resolution Chart 3-74
3-46 Spectral Distribution of Xenon Discharge With
Resolution of 0.1 Micron for Selected
Input Powers 3-79
3-47 Spectral Distribution of 10-kilowatt Xenon Discharge
With Resolution of 0.01 Micron 3-80
3-48 Spectral Radiant Power of Experimental dc Lamp
2
(1.7- atm Xe; amp cm " ) Normalized to Input Power.
Spectral Resolution Equal to 0.01 Micron 3-81
3-49 Diagram of the Experimental 20-kw Lamp 3-82
3-50 Spectral Radiant Energy of FZ-47A Flashtube
Normalized to Input Power. Spectral Resolution
Equal to 0.01 Micron 3-83

xix
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont)

Figure No. Title Page

3-51 Simplified Laser Energy-level Diagram 3-87
3-52 Outline of Solid-state Laser 3-91
3-53 Injection Laser 3-95
3-54 Frustrated-internal-reflection Modulator 3-96
3-55 Electro-optical Modulator 3-96
3-56 Digital Deflector 3-99
3-57 Schematic Diagram Showing Basic Types
of Detectors 3-110
3-58 Electron Excited Into Vacuum by IR Radiation
Impinging on Photocathode 3-111
3-59 Semiconductor Energy Levels at Absolute Zero 3-112
3-60 Semiconductor With Thermally Excited Electrons . . . 3-112
3-61 Electron Excited by a Photon 3-113
3-62 Semiconductor (Intrinsic Detector) With
Electric Field 1 3-113
3-63 Semiconductor (N-type Extrinsic Detector)
With Donors 3-114
3-64 Semiconductor (P-type Extrinsic Detector)
With Acceptors 3-114
3-65 P-n Junction (Photovoltaic Detector) 3-115
3-66 Photo-induced Hall Effect
(Photoelectromagnetic Detector) 3-116
3-67 Spectral Range and Sensitivity of IR
Photographic Material 3-118
3-68 Density vs Exposure for Various IR
Film Sheets 3-122
3-69 Density vs Exposure for Various Types of
35-mm IR Film 3-123
3-70 Density vs Exposure for Various Types of
High-speed IR Film 3-124
3-71 Block Diagram of D* Measurement Apparatus 3-127
3-72 Modulation Factor for Sine and Square
Wave Chopping 3-129
3-73 Idealized Spectral Response of Photon and
Thermal Detectors 3-130
3-74 Detectivity of Long-wavelength Detectors 3-131
3-75 Detectivity of Short-wavelength Detectors 3-132
3-76 Equivalent Circuit Illustrating Detector-
associated Capacitance 3-134
3-77 Typical Noise Voltage Spectrum and Signal
Response of a Photoconductor 3-136
3-78 Detector Performance vs Temperature 3-142
3-79 Liquid Cryogen Cooling System 3-143
3-80 Vapor Pressure of Liquid Cryogens 3-145
3-81 Solid Cryogen Cooling System 3-146
3-82 Vapor Pressure of Solid Cryogens 3-147
3-83 Closed Cycle Joule-Thomson System 3-149
3-84 Joule-Thomson Closed Cycle System
Temperature-entropy Diagram 5-150
3-85 Closed Cycle Stirling System 3-151

xx
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont)

Figure No. Title Page

3-86 Refrigeration Efficiency vs Temperature 3-152
3-87 Closed Cycle Claude (Reversed Brayton)
System 3-153
3-88 Closed Cycle Solvay (Gifford-McMahon)
System 3-154
3-89 Vuilleumier Cycle Cooling System 3-155
3-90 Point Spread Function and Modulation Transfer
Function of a Rectangular Slit 3-164
3-91 Spatial Filter Amplitude Response of
Rectangular Detector 3-167
3-92 Spatial Frequency Amplitude Response (R) of a
Plus-minus Detector Spaced One Detector Width
Apart (c = 2a) 3-168
3-93 Spatial Amplitude Response of Circular
Detector 3-170
3-94 Characterization of Thermal Noise from (A) Voltage
Source, and (B) Current Source 3-171
3-95 Characterization of Shot-noise from (A) Current
Source, and (B) Voltage Source 3-172
3-96 Classic Conventional Transistor Noise-equivalent
Circuit 3-173
3-97 Low-frequency (1/f) Noise Characteristics 3-175
3-98 FET Noise Equivalent Circuit 3-176
3-99 ê_ Jn Noise Equivalent Circuit
n 3-177
3-100 e ,i
n n Approach Noise Figure Computational Model . 3-178
3-101 Noise Figure As a Function of Frequency from
(A) Transistor, and (B) FET 3-179
3-102 Gross Comparison of Transistor and FET Noise
Figures vs Source Resistance 3-179
3-103 Transconductance and Drain Current As a
Function of Temperature 3-181
3-104 Junction FET Noise As a Function of Temperature . . 3-182
3-105 FET Noise As a Function of Frequency 3-183
3-106 Model of Filter Relating Output Response e (t) to
a

Input e (t) and output Noise n

t 0

to Input Noise nt 3-185

3-107 Rectangular Pulse Input and Simple RC Filter 3-186
3-108 Peak S/N for Various Filters, Compared With
Matched Filter (Rectangular Pulse Input) 3-186
3-109 Input Sinusoidal Pulse Train and
Second-order Filter 3-187
3-110 Signal-to-noise Performance for a Single Tuned
Circuit of · Quality Q-filtering a Train
of η-sinusoidal Pulses 3-187
3-111 Detector Output for One Frame 3-189
3-112 Standard Luminosity Curve for the Average
Human Eye 3-193
3-113 Two Basic Types of Cathode Ray Tubes 3-194

xxi
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont)

Figure No. Title Page

3-114 Change in Spot Size With Vg , Spot Size vs Vg ;
2 t

Anode Voltage V = 7000 V

B 3-195
3-115 Spot Size for Several Beam Currents 3-196
3-116 Variation of Luminous Intensity With
Anode Potential 3-197
3-117 Variation of Luminous Intensity With Electron
Beam Current Density 3-198
3-118 Efficiency of (A) Aluminized, and (B) Unaluminized
Screens 3-198
3-119 Display Storage Tube 3-202
3-120 Typical Scan-conversion Tube 3-204
3-121 Matricon Tube 3-205
3-122 Monoscope Tube 3-206
3-123 Shaped-beam Tube 3-207
3-124 Typical Image-converter Tube in Use 3-210
3-125 Screen Luminous Efficiency 3-210
3-126 Photocathode Sensitivities 3-211
3-127 Image Quality of Image Converter Tube in
Terms of Distortion 3-212
3-128 Spectral Sensitivity of Various Types
of Film 3-214
3-129 Typical Characteristic Curve of a Photographic
Emulsion 3-215
3-130 Typical Variation of Gamma With
Development Time 3-216
3-131 Typical Arrangement for Making Holograms 3-219
3-132 Reconstruction of a Hologram 3-220
3-133 Projection CRT Characteristics 3-221
3-134 Exploded View of All-glass EL Readout Panel and
Sectional View of Metal-glass Unit 3-223
3-135 Example of Electroluminescent (EL) Panel 3-224
3-136 Brightness vs Voltage With 60% Transmission Glass
for Both Metal-glass and All-glass EL Readout
Panels at 115 and 250 V rms, Respectively 3-225
3-137 Voltage-current Curve for Nonlinear Resistor 3-226
3-138 CdSe Hysteresis Curve 3-227
3-139 Illuminating Panel Consisting of GaAs
Photo-emitter Diode Array 3-228
3-140 Spectral Line Width for GaAsP Emitter Diode 3-229
3-141 Characteristic Curve for Typical GaAsP Emitter
Diode 3-230
3-142 Forward Current vs Forward Bias Voltage of a
Typical GaAsP Emitter Diode 3-231
3-143 Spatial Distribution of Radiation Emitted by
GaAsP Diode 3-232
3-144 Beam-deviating Mirror Schematic Diagram 3-237
3-145 Lambertian Radiation 3-239
3-146 Density of Saturated Water Vapor (100% Relative
Humidity) at 1 atm, 760 mm Hg 3-240

xxii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont)

Figure No. Title Page

3-147 Section of Knife-edge Recording Characteristic

Curve 3-244
3-148 Typical Knife-edge Record for Different Focus
Positions 3-245
3-149 Conceptual Layout of Two-axis Gimbal Assembly . . . 3-251
3-150 Conceptual Layout of Three-axis Gimbal
Assembly 3-252
3-151 Relationship of Gimbal and Target Coordinates 3-253
3-152 Servo Loop for Search or Measurement System 3-254
3-153 Servo Loop for Rate Search 3-255
3-154 Servo Loop for Tracker 3-255
3-155 Servo Loop Diagram 3-256
3-156 Error Constants and Responses of Type 0 , 1 , and
II Servos 3-257
3-157 Servo Response of ω2 to Unit Step
2
« + 2ξω η s+ ωΐ
Input for Various Damping Factors 3-258
3-158 Overshoot vs Damping Factor for Second-
order System 3-260
3-159 Block Diagram of dc Torque Motor 3-262
3-160 Equivalent Circuit of Tachometer Generator 3-263
3-161 Block Diagram of Tachometer Generator 3-263
3-162 Block Diagram of System in Example Problem 3-264
3-163 Root Locus for Inner (Rate) Loop 3-266
3-164 Output Rate and Torque Response for Step-
function Input to Rate Loop 3-268
3-165 Root Locus for Outer Loop 3-270
3-166 Output Angle and Torque Response for Step-
function Input t o Position Loop 3-272
3-167 Thermocouple Circuit Schematic 3-276
3-168 Resistance Thermometer Circuit 3-276
3-169 Block Diagram of Voltage and Current Monitors 3-278
3-170 Diagrams of Typical IR Calibration Systems 3-279
3-171 Mechanical Sun Shutter 3-280
3-172 Electrical Sun Shutter 3-282
3-173 Window-shade Type Protection for Focal Plane
Shutter Camera 3-283
3-174 Hood-type Sun Shutter 3-284
3-175 Four-leaf Clover Sun Shutter 3-285
3-176 Rotary Damper Sun-shutter Mechanism 3-285
3-177 Classic Schmidt Sun-shutter System 3-286
3-178 Blocking Mechanism in Schmidt System 3-286
3-179 Schematic Illustrating Electromagnetic
Coupling Parameters 3-288
4-1 Typical Imaging System Block Diagram 4-8
4-2 End of Scan Distortion 4-17

xxiii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont)

Figure No. Title Page

4-3 Typical Search System Block Diagram 4-20

4-4 Typical Tracker Block Diagram 4-23
4-5 Reticles 4-25
4-6 LWIR Radiometer 4-30
4-7 Typical Laser Rangefinder Block Diagram 4-34
5-1 Infrared Missile Seeker Block Diagram 5-12
5-2 Spectral Characteristics of Aircraft vs
Viewing Aspect 5-13
5-3 Typical Sunlit Cloud Radiances vs Wavelength 5-15
5-4 Relative Target Energy and Transmission vs
Wavelength for Plume Emission 5-16
5-5 Estimate of Probability of Cloud-free Line-
of-sight from (or to) Surface Level
(Washington, D. C.—Summer) 5-17
5-6 Example Spectral Background and Target
Radiant Intensity 5-19
5-7 Sample Spectral Signature of Target
and Background 5-20
5-8 Spectral Transmission Curves 5-20
5-9 Apparent Target and Background Signatures 5-21
5-10 Target and Background Cumulative Irradiance
vs Upper Wavelength Cutoff 5-21
5-11 Signal-to-background Plus Noise Ratio for
Various Upper and Lower Wavelength Cutoffs . . . . 5-22
5-12 Cumulative Signal-to-noise Ratios for
Two Detector Types 5-23
5-13 Optical Diagram 5-26
5-14 Constraints on System Aperture Selection 5-27
5-15 Sensitivity of Detectors and Number Required
vs Detector Aspect Ratio 5-29
5-16 Detector Overlap 5-30
5-17 Basic Scan Modes 5-31
5-18 Line Scanning Technique . . . . ' 5-32
5-19 Scanning Image System 5-32
5-20 Typical Missile Guidance Geometries 5-34
5-21 Seeker Servo Block Diagram 5-36
5-22 Apparent Target Intensity 5-37
5-23 Tracker Signal Processing 5-43
5-24 System Geometry 5-44
5-25 System Block Diagram 5-47
5-26 Relation Among Brightness Contrast,
Brightness of Background, Exposure Time,
and Visual Acuity 5-50
5-27 Critical Flicker Frequency As a
Function of Brightness 5-51
5-28 Performance on a Visual, Auditory, and
Combined Visual-auditory Vigilance Task 5-52

xx iv
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page

2-1 Standard Symbols 2-2

2-2 Basic Radiometric Terms 2-3
2-3 Physical Constants 2-5
2-4 Experimental Values of Emissivity 2-6
2-5 Absorber Concentrations in the Atmosphere 2-23
2-6 Band Parameters S/d and 2ny /d for C 0
0 2 2-27
2-7 Band Model Parameters S/d and S/(2ny )
0

forH 0
2 2-32
2-8 Summary of Band-model Methods for Computing
Atmospheric Absorption 2-39
2-9 Summary of Laboratory Measurements of
Homogeneous-path Absorption Spectra 2-41
2-10 Wide-band Absorption of Carbon Dioxide 2-43
2-11 Wide-band Absorption of Water Vapor 2-44
2-12 Conversion Table of Physical Quantities 2-60
2-13 Reflectance ρ and Emissivity e of Common
Terrain Features 2-75
2-14 Total Emissivity of Snow and Ice Particles 2-76
2-15 Cloud Types and Characteristics 2-82
2-16 0.5- to 0.7-micron Albedos for Various
Cloud Types 2-83
2-17 Calculated Thick Cloud Emissivities 2-83
2-18 Visual Magnitudes and Effective Temperatures of
Planets and the Brightest Visual and
Red Stars 2-92
2-19 Estimated Number of Stars Brighter Than a
Given Magnitude 2-97
2-20 Calculations of Irradiance of Κ and M
Spectral Class Stars 2-100
2-21 Number of Stars Per Square Degree Brighter Than
Photographic Magnitude M, As a Function of
Galactic Latitudes 2-105
2-22 Combustion Products for a Selection of Liquid
Propellants 2-107
2-23 LOX/RP-1 Combustion Products in Mole Percent
Calculated at Chamber Pressure 1000 psia,
Exit Pressure 14.696 psia With
Shifting Equilibrium 2-108
2-24 Combustion Products for Metallized Solid
Propellant Polyurethane +13% Al 2-108
2-25 Major Emission Bands for Common Molecular
Combustion Products 2-115
3-1 Salient Characteristics of Optical IR Materials 3-4
3-2 Mirror Materials 3-14
3-3 Reflectivity Characteristics of Common
Mirror Coatings 3-15
3-4 Standard Symbols for Par. 3-3 3-75

XXV
 LIST OF TABLES (Cont)

Table No. Title Page

3-5 Spectral Emissivity of Tungsten at

Temperatures Between 1600° and 2800°Κ .... 3-78
3-6 Selected Solid Lasers 3-92
3-7 Commonly Used Gas Lasers 3-93
3-8 IR Detector Terminology for Par. 3-4 3-105
3-9 Filters for Infrared Photography 3-119
3-10 Exposures of Infrared Photography Assuming Open
Landscape, Summer Sun, Closeups, and
Bright Sun 3-121
3-11 Comparative Performance of Infrared Detectors . . . . 3-139
3-12 Standard Symbols for Par. 3-5 3-144
3-13 Comparison of Cooling Techniques 3-156
3-14 Standard Symbols for Par. 3-7 3-191
3-15 Phosphor Data 3-197
3-16 Phosphor Screen Chart 3-199
3-17 Multi-gun Tubes 3-222
3-18 Standard Symbols for Par. 3-8 3-234
3-19 Window Regions in the Infrared 3-242
3-20 Methods of Protecting IR Detectors, Mirrors, and
Lenses from Direct Solar Illumination 3-281
4-1 Infrared System Definitions 4-1
4-2 Comparison of 23-in. Xenon Arc, 30-in.
Carbon Arc, and 30-in. Xenon Arc
Searchlights 4-33
5-1 List of Symbols 5-2

xxvi
 PREFACE
This publication is one of a group of handbooks prepared for the U. S.
Army Materiel Command under the auspices of the Engineering Handbook
Office, Duke University, as part of the Engineering Design Handbook Series.
Presented in this Handbook are the basic information and fundamental
principles essential to the design and development of infrared systems for
military applications.
A great deal of information has already been published describing
time-proven IR systems and technology; whereas, little or no information
has appeared in open literature, such as this, describing the significant recent
advances in IR technology and systems development. Therefore, the
approach to this topic departs from the time-honored treatment of the
subject of infrared technology. N o attempt is made to present a complete
exposition of the overall infrared discipline, but rather, most of the material
is devoted to the significant technological advances of recent years.
Recent requirements for tactical nighttime surveillance and detection
capabilities have introduced new challenges. The result has been the
successful development and application of multi-element arrays of IR
detectors for reconnaissance and surveillance. This approach has considera­
bly increased the effectiveness of IR systems in the field of combat as well as
in global defense systems. Noteworthy advances have been made in the areas
of low-light-level television and long-wavelength infrared. The implemen­
tation of IR searchlight and laser sources has further improved the range
capability of IR systems, and has added a new capability to infrared
technology—direct measurement of range or distance. It is in the light of
these advances that the bulk of this book has been prepared. This handbook,
therefore, is intended to complement the previously-published IR literature
by bridging the gap between the historically-proven, well-documented
technology and the advancing state of the art.
The material is presented in a form which will be most useful to the
graduate engineer who must become informed about the technology and
operational performance of present-day IR systems and who appreciates
their attendant advantages and limitations. This handbook is also intended to
aid the professional engineer concerned with the design and development of
new systems.
The information contained in this handbook consists of contributions
from many infrared specialists engaged in the design and development of IR
systems and associated hardware at the Electronics Division of Aerojet-
General Corporation, Azusa, California. Mr. I. M. Maine was the Program
Director and Dr. K. Seyrafi, Technical Editor.
The material is organized in a logical structure which will result in
maximum usefulness of the information. The reader is introduced to the
fundamental elements of IR radiation, the basic laws governing the nature of
infrared radiation and transmission. The target and background infrared
signatures are then outlined, and the techniques for signal detection and
background discrimination are described. Each discrete element of the
conventional IR system is discussed including optics, detectors, signal-
processirig electronics, and associated support systems. Passive as well as
active IR systems presently in existence are described. Design considerations
and optimization techniques are presented.
 The essential equations which describe systems operation are drawn from
sound and proven sources, and are presented without proof. References are
included at the end of each chapter. A selected additional Bibliography is
presented at the end of this handbook.

Chapter 1 gives a short history of infrared technology and the significant

military applications.

Chapter 2 introduces basic infrared terminology and describes the sources

of IR radiation, laws governing this radiation, atmospheric transmission and
absorption, radiation from targets of military interest, and background
radiation.

Chapter 3 describes the basic tools needed for the transmission and
detection of infrared signals. The optical elements are analyzed as are their
characteristics and basic design parameters, thermal as well as mechanical.
Sources of target illumination, including lasers and their applications, are
noted. The characteristics of IR receiving systems, including various infrared
detectors, are studied in terms of fabrication techniques, cooling require­
ments and, finally, performance. Signal-processing techniques (including
spatial filtering, scanning aperture, temporal filtering, and display) are also
discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 4 describes the operation of the most commonly-used passive and

active infrared systems. The discussion includes the principles of imaging
systems (including scanners), image tubes, viewers, and sights. Search
equipment discussed includes trackers, radiometers, interferometers, spec­
trometers and hybrid systems. Active systems include illuminators, viewers
and sights, rangefinders, communication, data transmission, and weapon
applications.

Chapter 5 discusses system design approaches and operational require­

ments. System analyses entail target and background definition, baseline
design concepts, and trade-off techniques. The design of a sample infrared
system is analyzed at the end of this chapter.

A separate publication, AMCP 706-128, has been prepared in order to

present classified information dealing with target signatures of military
interest, IR technology, and classified military systems.

The Handbooks are readily available to all elements of AMC, including

personnel and contractors having a need and/or requirement. The Army
Materiel Command policy is to release these Engineering Design Handbooks
to other DOD activities and their contractors and to other Government
agencies in accordance with current Army Regulation 70-31, dated 9
September 1966. Procedures for acquiring these Handbooks follow:

a. Activities within AMC and other DOD agencies order direct on an

official form from:
Commanding Officer
Letterkenny Army Depot
ATTN: AMXLE-ATD
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 17201

xxviii
 b. Contractors who have Department of Defense contracts should submit
their requests through their contracting officer with proper justification to:
Commanding Officer
Letterkenny Army Depot
ATTN: AMXLE-ATD
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 17201
c. Government agencies other than DOD having need for the Handbooks
may submit their request directly to:
Commanding Officer
Letterkenny Army Depot
ATTN: AMXLE-ATD
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 17201
or
Commanding General
U. S. Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMC AM-ABS
Washington, D. C. 20315
d. Industries not having Government contracts (this includes colleges and
Universities) must forward their requests to:
Commanding General
U. S. Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMCRD-TV
Washington, D. C. 20315
e. All foreign requests must be submitted through the Washington, D. C.
Embassy to:
Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence
Foreign Liaison Office
Department of the Army
Washington, D. C. 20310
f. All requests, other than those originating within DOD, must be
accompanied by a valid justification.
Comments are invited and should be addressed to Commanding Officer,
U. S. Army Research Office-Durham, Box CM, Duke Station, Durham,
North Carolina 27706.
 HEADQUARTERS
UNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20315
AMC PAMPHLET 21 A p r i l 1971
No. 706-127

ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK

INFRARED MILITARY SYSTEMS
PART ONE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraph

List of Illustrations xvi

List of Tables xxv
Preface xxvii

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1-1 Definition of Infrared Spectrum 1-1

1-2 Milestones in the Development
of Infrared Technology 1-1
1-3 Military Application 1-2
1-3.1 IRImaging Systems 1-3
1-3.2 Infrared Missiles 1-3
1-3.3 Infrared Fire Controls 1-3
1-3.4 Tail-warning Systems 1-4
1-3.5 Space Applications 1-4
1-3.6 Spectroscopy 1-4
1-4 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Infrared Systems 1-4
References 1-5

CHAPTER 2
INFRARED PHYSICS

2-1 Basic IR Symbols and Definitions 2-1

2-2 Radiation Laws 2-1
2-2.1 Kirchhoff's Law . : 2-1
2-2.2 Planck's Law 2-5
2-2.3 Rayleigh-Jeans Law 2-5
2-2.4 Wien's Law 2-8
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont)

Paragraph Page

2-2.5 Stefan-Boltzmann Law 2-8

2-2.6 Wien's Displacement Law 2-8
2-3 Radiant Energy Transmission 2-8
2-3.1 Radiant Intensity from a Point Source 2-8
2-3.1.1 Isotropic Point Source 2-8
2-3.1.2 Lambertian Point Source 2-8
2-3.2 Radiant Energy Density 2-9
2-3.2.1 Energy Density for Collimated Irradiance 2-9
2-3.2.2 Energy Density Within an Isothermal Enclosure . . . . 2-9
2-3.3 Transfer of Radiant Power 2-9
2-3.3.1 An Object in Space 2-9
2-3.3.2 Transfer Between Two Infinite Planes 2-11
2-3.4 Irradiance As a Function of Range 2-12
2-3.4.1 Point Source 2-12
2-3.4.2 Extended Source 2-12
2-3.5 Calculation Aids 2-13
2-3.5.1 Use of GE Radiation Calculator 2-14
2-3.5.2 Sample Calculations 2-16
2-4 Atmospheric Transmission 2-17
2-4.1 Extinction Coefficient 2-17
2-4.2 Molecular Absorption 2-18
2-4.2.1 Absorption Coefficient 2-18
2-4.2.2 Absorber Constituents 2-20
2-4.2.3 Absorption Models 2-23
2-4.2.3.1 Absorption Due to a Single Line 2-23
2-4.2.3.2 Absorption Due to an Assembly
of Independent Lines 2-25
2-4.2.3.3 The Elsasser Band Model 2-25
2-4.2.3.4 The Goody Model 2-29
2-4.2.3.5 Other Less Frequently Used Models 2-30
2-4.2.3.6 Selective Absorption of Plume Radiation 2-30
2-4.2.4 Absorption Calculation 2-30
2-4.2.4.1 Narrow-band Absorption Data 2-31
2-4.2.4.2 Wide-band Absorption Data 2-31
2-4.2.4.3 Atmospheric Windows 2-31
2-4.2.4.4 Equivalent Sea-level Path 2-47
2-4.2.4.4.1 Equivalent-path Absorption Calculations 2-47
2-4.2.4.4.2 Equivalent-path Absorber Contents 2-47
2-4.2.4.5 Examples of Atmospheric
Transmission Calculations 2-51
2-4.3 Scattering 2-51
2-4.3.1 Scattering Coefficient 2-52
2-4.3.2 Meteorological Range 2-55
2-4.3.3 Atmospheric Scintillation 2-55
2-5 Transmission of Infrared Radiation
Through Optical Materials 2-58
2-5.1 Maxwell's Equations 2-59
2-5.2 Units 2-59

ii
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p e
Paragraph <*g

2-5.3 Boundary Relations 2-60

2-5.4 Plane Waves 2-61
2-5.5 Poynting Vector 2-61
2-5.6 Refractive Index 2-61
2-5.7 Snell's Law 2-62
2-5.8 Reflection Coefficient 2-62
2-5.9 Brewster's Angle 2-63
2-5.10 Polarization 2-63
2-5.11 Anti-reflection Coatings 2-64
2-5.12 Dielectric Waveguides and Cavities 2-65
2-5.13 Spectral Transmission of Optical Materials 2-65
2-6 Sources of Natural Radiation 2-68
2-6.1 Background Radiation 2-68
2-6.1.1 Terrain 2-71
2-6.1.2 Sea 2-79
2-6.1.3 Clouds 2-81
2-6.1.4 Celestial Background 2-90
2-6.2 Target Radiation 2-106
2-6.2.1 Rockets and Missiles 2-107
2-6.2.2 Plume Radiation 2-107
2-6.2.2.1 Chemical Composition 2-107
2-6.2.2.2 Plume Structure 2-108
2-6.2.2.3 Infrared Emission 2-115
2-6.2.3 Re-entry Vehicles 2-119
2-6.2.4 Aircraft 2-121
2-6.2.5 Clear Air Turbulence 2-122
2-6.2.6 Ground Targets 2-122
References 2-125

CHAPTER 3
IR SYSTEM COMPONENTS

3-1 Introduction 3-1

3-2 Optics 3-3
3-2.1 Optical Materials 3-3
3-2.1.1 Material Types 3-3
3-2.1.1.1 Refractive Materials 3-3
3-2.1.1.2 Reflective Materials 3-3
3-2.1.2 Material Properties 3-16
3-2.1.3 Anti-reflection Coatings 3-16
3-2.2 Optical Components 3-18
3-2.2.1 Types of Lenses and Principal Characteristics 3-18
3-2.2.2 Types of Mirrors 3-18
3-2.2 3 Filters 3-18
3-2.2.4 Prisms 3-22
3-2.3 Optical Design 3-27
3-2.3.1 Definition, Notations, and Sign Conventions 3-27
3-2.3.1.1 Optical Systems 3-27

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont)

Paragraph Page

3-2.3.1.2 Object 3-27

3-2.3.1.3 Image 3-27
3-2.3.1.4 Object and Image Space 3-27
3-2.3.1.5 Point Image 3-27
3-2.3.1.6 Extended Image 3-27
3-2.3.1.7 First-order (Gaussian) Optical
Theory—Paraxial Region 3-27
3-2.3.1.8 Ray-Slope of a Ray 3-28
3-2.3.1.9 Sign Conventions 3-28
3-2.3.1.10 Nomenclature 3-29
3-2.3.2 First-order Theory—Formulations 3-29
3-2.3.2.1 Cardinal Points of Optical Elements 3-29
3-2.3.2.2 Multiple Element Systems 3-31
3-2.3.2.3 Image Position, Magnification, and
Virtual Image 3-32
3-2.3.2.4 Sine Condition—Lagrange Law of Invariance 3-34
3-2.3.3 Limitation of Rays 3-35
3-2.3.3.1 Entrance Pupil—Exit Pupil 3-35
3-2.3.3.2 Relative Aperture Speed, f/no., and
Numerical Aperture 3-35
3-2.3.4 Aberrations in Third-order Optics 3-38
3-2.3.4.1 Third-order Theory 3-38
3-2.3.4.2 Monochromatic Aberrations 3-39
3-2.3.4.3 Chromatic Aberration 3-43
3-2.3.4.4 Correction of Aberrations 3-43
3-2.3.4.5 Relation of Aberrations to Optical
System Parameters 3-44
3-2.3.5 Ray Tracing 3-47
3-2.3.5.1 Use of Computers for Ray Tracing 3-47
3-2.3.5.2 Graphical Ray Tracing 3-47
3-2.3.6 Image Quality in Terms of Resolution,
Spot Size, and Energy Distribution 3-51
3-2.3.6.1 The Diffraction Effect-Airy Disc 3-51
3-2.3.6.2 Geometrical Effects—Image Blur 3-51
3-2.3.6.3 Overall Effect 3-51
3-2.3.6.4 Resolution 3-51
3-2.3.6.5 Geometrical Energy Distribution—Spot Diagrams . . . 3-52
3-2.3.6.6 Energy Distribution—Spread Function 3-52
3-2.3.6.7 Frequency Response 3-52
3-2.3.6.8 Image Evaluation 3-52
3-2.3.6.9 Depth of Focus 3-52
3-2.4 Optical System Descriptions and Engineering 3-53
3-2.4.1 Afocal Systems 3-53
3-2.4.2 Relay and Field Lenses 3-53
3-2.4.3 Aplanatic Systems 3-53
3-2.4.4 Symmetrical Combinations 3-53
3-2.4.5 Multiple-element Systems 3-57
3-2.4.6 Reflective IR Optical Systems 3-57

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont)

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3-2.4.6.1 Simple Mirror 3-57

3-2.4.6.2 Folded Systems 3-58
3-2.4.6.3 Off-axis Configuration 3-60
3-2.4.6.4 Compound Reflectors 3-60
3-2.4.6.5 Paired Conies 3-60
3-2.4.7 Catadioptric Systems 3-60
3-2.4.7.1 Mangin Mirror 3-61
3-2.4.7.2 Schmidt System 3-61
3-2.4.7.3 Maksutov—Bouwers System 3-61
3-2.4.7.4 Hybrid Configurations 3-61
3-2.4.8 Rapid Estimation of Blur Size 3-61
3-2.4.8.1 Spherical Mirror, On-axis 3-61
3-2.4.8.2 Spherical Mirror, Off-axis 3-62
3-2.4.8.3 Paraboloidal Mirror 3-62
3-2.4.8.4 Off-axis Paraboloidal Mirror 3-62
3-2.4.8.5 Schmidt System 3-62
3-2.4.8.6 Bouwers Concentric Design 3-62
3-2.4.8.7 Single Refractive Element 3-62
3-2.4.9 Mechanical Stability of Large Optical Systems . . . . 3-63
3-2.4.10 Thermal Stability 3-63
3-2.4.11 Establishing Optical Tolerances 3-63
3-2.4.11.1 Surface Quality 3-63
3-2.4.11.2 Thickness and Spacing 3-64
3-2.4.11.3 Optomechanical Centering 3-64
3-2.4.11.4 Prism Angles and Dimensions 3-64
3-2.4.11.5 Materials 3-64
3-2.4.11.5.1 Index of Refraction 3-65
3-2.4.11.5.2 Annealing 3-65
3-2.4.11.5.3 Transmission Range 3-65
3-2.4.11.5.4 Imperfections 3-65
3-2.4.11.6 Summation of Tolerances 3-65
3-2.5 Testing of Optical Systems 3-65
3-2.5.1 Material Inspection Tests 3-65
3-2.5.1.1 Index of Refraction 3-65
3-2.5.1.2 Stresses and Strains · 3-66
3-2.5.1.3 Imperfections 3-66
3-2.5.2 Calibration 3-66
3-2.5.2.1 Focal Length Calibration 3-66
3-2.5.2.2 Curvature Measurements 3-66
3-2.5.2.3 Reflectance and Transmittance 3-67
3-2.5.3 Image Quality Measurements 3-67
3-2.5.3.1 Knife-edge Autocollimation 3-67
3-2.5.3.2 Knife-edge Testing of Complex System 3-70
3-2.5.3.3 Knife-edge Testing of Hyperbola 3-70
3-2.5.3.4 Knife-edge Testing of Large, Flat Mirrors 3-70
3-2.5.3.5 Ronchi Grating 3-70
3-2.5.4 Resolution Targets 3-73
3-3 Emitters and Illuminators 3-73

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Paragraph 8

3-3.1 Sources of Illumination 3-73

3-3.1.1 Flares 3-73
3-3.1.2 Lamps 3-76
3-3.1.2.1 Tungsten Filament 3-76
3-3.1.2.2 Carbon Arc 3-77
3-3.1.2.3 Gaseous Arc 3-77
3-3.1.2.4 Flashlamps 3-83
3-3.1.3 Lasers 3-84
3-3.1.3.1 Introduction 3-84
3-3.1.3.2 Laser Theory 3-84
3-3.1.3.2.1 Pumping 3-86
3-3.1.3.2.2 Optical Cavities 3-87
3-3.1.3.2.3 Condition for Threshold of Oscillation 3-89
3-3.1.3.2.4 Heat Dissipation 3-89
3-3.1.3.2.5 Cavity Q and Width of Resonance 3-89
3-3.1.3.2.6 Q-switching 3-90
3-3.1.3.3 Laser Types 3-90
3-3.1.3.3.1 Solid-state Lasers 3-90
3-3.1.3.3.1.1 Ruby Lasers 3-91
3-3.1.3.3.1.2 Neodymium Ion Lasers 3-91
3-3.1.3.3.1.3 Other Ions and Hosts 3-92
3-3.1.3.3.2 Gas Lasers 3-92
3-3.1.3.3.2.1 Neutral Atom Laser (He-Ne) 3-93
3-3.1.3.3.2.2 Ion Laser (Ionized Argon) 3-93
3-3.1.3.3.2.3 Molecular Laser (Carbon Dioxide) 3-94
3-3.1.3.3.3 Injection Lasers 3-94
3-3.1.3.4 Beam Control Devices 3-95
3-3.1.3.4.1 Modulators 3-95
3-3.1.3.4.1.1 Mechanical Modulator 3-95
3-3.1.3.4.1.2 Frustrated-internal-reflection Modulator 3-95
3-3.1.3.4.1.3 Acoustic Modulator 3-96
3-3.1.3.4.1.4 Electro-optical Modulator 3-97
3-3.1.3.4.1.5 Magneto-optical Modulator 3-97
3-3.1.3.4.1.6 Cavity Length Modulator 3-97
3-3.1.3.4.2 Q-switches 3-97
3-3.1.3.4.2.1 Mechanical Shutter Q-switch 3-97
3-3.1.3.4.2.2 Rotating Reflector Q-switch 3-97
3-3.1.3.4.2.3 Electro-optical and Magneto-optical
Shutter Q-switch 3-97
3-3.1.3.4.2.4 Passive Q-switching 3-98
3-3.1.3.4.3 Beam Deflection 3-98
3-3.1.3.5 Nonlinear Optics 3-100
3-3.1.3.5.1 Harmonic Conversion 3-100
3-3.1.3.5.2 Raman Conversion 3-100
3-3.2 Design Considerations 3-100
3-3.2.1 Coherence 3-100
3-3.2.2 Optical Design for Incoherent and
Coherent Sources 3-103

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3-4 Detectors 3-104

3-4.1 Detector Terminology 3-104
3-4.2 Detector Classifications 3-109
3-4.2.1 Quantum Detectors 3-109
3-4.2.1.1 Photoemissive Detectors 3-109
3-4.2.1.2 Photoconductive Detectors 3-109
3-4.2.1.3 Photovoltaic Detectors 3-115
3-4.2.1.4 Photoelectromagnetic Detectors 3-116
3-4.2.2 Thermal Detectors 3-116
3-4.2.2.1 Liquid Thermometer 3-116
3-4.2.2.2 GolayCell 3-116
3-4.2.2.3 Calorimeter 3-117
3-4.2.2.4 Thermocouple 3-117
3-4.2.2.5 Thermopile 3-117
3-4.2.2.6 Bolometer 3-117
3-4.2.3 Imaging Devices 3-118
3-4.2.3.1 Photographic Film 3-118
3-4.2.3.2 IRVidicon 3-125
3-4.2.3.3 Image Converter 3-125
3-4.3 Detector Performance and Test Procedures 3-125
3-4.3.1 Detector Figures of Merit 3-125
3-4.3.1.1 Noise Equivalent Power (NEP) 3-125
3-4.3.1.2 Detectivity (D) 3-125
3-4.3.1.3 Specific Detectivity {D* ) 3-125
3-4.3.2 Theoretical Background Limited Detectors 3-126
3-4.3.3 Measurement of D* 3-127
3-4.3.4 Spectral Responsivity 3-129
3-4.3.5 Inpukoutput Relationship 3-133
3-4.3.5.1 Frequency Response 3-133
3-4.3.5.2 Time Response 3-133
3-4.3.6 Detector Noise 3-135
3-4.3.6.1 Johnson Noise (also Nyquist or Thermal) 3-135
3-4.3.6.2 Temperature Noise 3-135
3-4.3.6.3 Generation-recombination Noise 3-135
3-4.3.6.4 Shot Noise 3-135
3-4.3.6.5 Current Noise 3-137
3-4.4 Detector Fabrication 3-137
3-4.4.1 General 3-137
3-4.4.2 Photon Detectors 3-137
3-4.4.3 Thermal Detectors 3-137
3-4.5 Comparative Performance of Infrared Detectors . . . 3-138
3-5 Cooling Systems 3-141
3-5.1 Requirements 3-141
3-5.1.1 Detector Cooling 3-141
3-5.1.2 Cooling of IR Optics 3-141
3-5.2 Types of Cooling Systems 3-141
3-5.2.1 Direct Contact 3-141
3-5.2.1.1 Liquid Coolant Systems 3-141

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3-5.2.1.2 Solid Coolant Systems 3-146

3-5.2.1.3 Passive Cooling 3-148
3-5.2.2 Joule-Thomson 3-148
3-5.2.2.1 Closed Cycle 3-148
3-5.2.2.2 Open Cycle 3-150
3-5.2.3 Expansion Engine 3-150
3-5.2.3.1 Stirling Cycle 3-150
3-5.2.3.2 Claude Cycle (Reversed Brayton) 3-150
3-5.2.3.3 Solvay Cycle (Gifford-McMahoh) 3-150
3-5.2.3.4 Vuilleumier Cycle 3-154
3-5.2.4 Thermoelectric 3-155
3-5.2.5 Other Cooling Systems 3-155
3-5.2.5.1 Pulse Tube 3-155
3-5.2.5.2 Vortex Tube 3-157
3-5.2.5.3 Adsorption 3-157
3-5.2.6 Comparison of Cooling Systems 3-157
3-5.3 Cooling System Selection 3-157
3-5.3.1 Design Criteria 3-160
3-5.3.1.1 Weight 3-160
3-5.3.1.2 Volume 3-160
3-5.3.1.3 Durability 3-160
3-5.3.1.4 Logistics 3-160
3-5.3.2 Reliability 3-160
3-5.3.2.1 Mechanical Design 3-160
3-5.3.2.2 Structural 3-161
3-5.3.2.3 Vibrational 3-161
3-5.4 Insulation 3-161
3-5.4.1 Vacuum Insulation 3-161
3-5.4.2 Radiation Shields 3-161
3-5.4.3 Superinsulation Materials 3-161
3-5.4.4 Support of Insulating Materials 3-161
3-6 Signal Processing 3-162
3-6.1 Introduction 3-162
3-6.2 Spatial Filtering 3-162
3-6.2.1 Optical Transfer Function (OTF) 3-163
3-6.2.1.1 Point Spread Function (PSF) 3-163
3-6.2.1.1.1 Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) 3-163
3-6.2.1.1.2 One-dimensional Image Analysis 3-165
3-6.2.1.2 Line Spread Function (LSF) 3-165
3-6.2.1.3 Resolution Criteria and MTF 3-165
3-6.2.2 Detector Spatial Filtering 3-165
3-6.2.2.1 Analyses 3-165
3-6.2.2.2 Analysis in the Time Domain 3-165
3-6.2.2.3 Analysis in the Frequency Domain 3-166
3-6.2.2.4 Spatial Filtering Neglecting the Time-effect 3-166
3-6.2.2.5 Spatial Filter of a Detector Scanning
in One Dimension Only 3-167
3-6.2.2.6 Rectangular Detector of Width a and Length b ... 3-167

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3-6.2.2.7 Plus-minus Detectors 3-169

3-6.2.2.8 Circular Detectors 3-169
3-6.3 Electronic Signal Processing 3-170
3-6.3.1 Low-noise Amplification 3-170
3-6.3.1.1 Thermal Noise 3-171
3-6.3.1.2 Shot Noise 3-171
3-6.3.1.3 1/f Noise 3-173
3-6.3.1.4 Performance Characterization 3-173
3-6.3.1.4.1 Classic Approach for Conventional Transistors . . . . 3-173
3-6.3.1.4.2 Classic Approach for Field-effect Transistors 3-175
3-6.3.1.4.3 ênJn Approach for Conventional Transistors 3-176
3-6.3.1.5 IR Application Problems 3-178
3-6.3.1.5.1 Field-effect vs Conventional
Transistor Characteristics 3-178
3-6.3.1.5.2 True Noise-figure 3-180
3-6.3.1.6 Cryogenic Amplifiers 3-180
3-6.3.2 Electronic Filtering 3-184
3-6.3.2.1 Application and Response Analysis 3-184
3-6.3.2.2 Detection Filters 3-185
3-6.3.3 Electronic Multiplexers 3-188
3-7 Data Display and Recording 3-189
3-7.1 Introduction 3-189
3-7.2 Terminology 3-189
3-7.3 Types of Displays 3-193
3-7.3.1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) 3-193
3-7.3.1.1 Resolution 3-195
3-7.3.1.2 Brightness 3-196
3-7.3.1.3 Contrast 3-200
3-7.3.1.4 Deflections 3-200
3-7.3.1.5 Focus 3-201
3-7.3.1.6 Bandwidth 3-201
3-7.3.2 Storage Type Cathode Ray Tubes 3-201
3-7.3.3 Electrical-readout Storage Tubes 3-203
3-7.3.4 Character Generation Tubes 3-204
3-7.3.4.1 Matricon 3-204
3-7.3.4.2 Monoscope 3-205
3-7.3.4.3 Shaped-beam Tube 3-206
3-7.3.4.4 Stroke Technique 3-207
3-7.3.4.5 Lissajous Techniques 3-207
3-7.3.4.6 Alphanumeric Indicator Tubes 3-208
3-7.3.4.7 Comparison of Character Generating Devices 3-208
3-7.3.5 Image-converter Tubes 3-208
3-7.3.6 Tape Recording 3-212
3-7.3.6.1 Magnetic Tape 3-212
3-7.3.6.2 Thermoplastic Film 3-213
3-7.3.7 Photography 3-213
3-7.3.8 Holography 3-217
3-7.3.9 Special Purpose Displays 3-220

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3-7.3.9.1 Projection CRT 3-220

3-7.3.9.2 Multi-gun CRT 3-222
3-7.3.9.3 Electroluminescent (EL) Panels 3-224
3-7.3.9.4 Photo-emitter Diodes 3-227
3-7.4 Display Equipment Design Parameters 3-232
3-8 Testing IR and Associated Equipment 3-233
3-8.1 Test Categories 3-235
3-8.2 Laboratory Instruments and Techniques 3-235
3-8.2.1 IR Collimator 3-235
3-8.2.2 Blackbody 3-238
3-8.2.3 Chopper-modulator 3-241
3-8.2.4 Blackbody Usage 3-241
3-8.2.5 Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
Measurements 3-243
3-8.2.5.1 Method 1 3-244
3-8.2.5.2 Method 2 3-246
3-8.2.5.3 Method 3 3-246
3-8.3 On-board Calibration 3-247
3-8.3.1 Radiometric Source 3-247
3-8.3.1.1 Quantitative Calibration 3-247
3-8.3.1.2 Qualitative Calibration 3-247
3-8.3.2 Simulated Electronic Signal 3-247
3-8.3.3 Type of BITS 3-248
3-8.3.3.1 Lamps 3-248
3-8.3.3.2 Emitters 3-248
3-8.3.3.3 Blackbody Sources 3-249
3-8.3.3.4 Modulation of Blackbody Radiation 3-249
3-8.3.4 Calibration of BITS 3-250
3-9 Ancillary IR Components and EMI
Rejection Techniques 3-251
3-9.1 Gimbals 3-252
3-9.1.1 Coordinate System 3-254
3-9.1.2 Servo Loop 3-254
3-9.1.3 Specifications 3-256
3-9.1.3.1 Steady-state Errors 3-256
3-9.1.3.2 Transient Response 3-259
3-9.1.4 Design Considerations 3-260
3-9.1.4.1 Example Design Problem 3-261
3-9.1.4.1.1 Moment of Inertia 3-261
3-9.1.4.1.2 Acceleration 3-261
3-9.1.4.1.3 Component Selection 3-261
3-9.1.4.1.4 Analysis 3-264
3-9.1.4.1.4.1 Rate Loop 3-264
3-9.1.4.1.4.2 Position Loop 3-267
3-9.1.4.1.4.3 Response to Torque Disturbance 3-269
3-9.1.5 Components 3-273
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont)

Paragraph Page

3-9.1.5.1 Bearings 3-273

3-9.1.5.2 Motors 3-273
3-9.1.5.3 Gears 3-274
3-9.1.5.4 Amplifiers 3-274
3-9.1.6 Gimbal Associated Measurements 3-274
3-9.1.6.1 Angle Measurement 3-274
3-9.1.6.2 Rate Measurement 3-275
3-9.2 IR System Monitors 3-275
3-9.2.1 Requirements for Monitor Devices 3-275
3-9.2.2 Thermocouples 3-275
3-9.2.3 Thermistors and Resistance Thermometers 3-277
3-9.2.4 Voltage and Current Monitors 3-277
3-9.2.5 Calibration of IR Sensors 3-277
3-9.3 Sun Shutters 3-278
3-9.4 Electromagnetic Interference 3-287
3-9.4.1 Sources of Electromagnetic Radiation 3-287
3-9.4.2 Elimination and Rejection 3-287
3-9.4.2.1 Methods 3-288
3-9.4.2.1.1 Bonding 3-288
3-9.4.2.1.2 Grounding 3-288
3-9.4.2.1.3 Shielding 3-289
References 3-290

CHAPTER 4
IR SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION

4-1 Passive Systems 4-7

4-1.1 Imaging Systems 4-7
4-1.1.1 Mechanical Scanners 4-9
4-1.1.1.1 Scanner Parameters 4-9
4-1.1.1.1.1 Noise Equivalent Temperature (Sensitivity) 4-9
4-1.1.1.1.2 Optical Gain and Resolution 4-13
4-1.1.1.1.3 Scan Rate and Bandwidth 4-13
4-1.1.1.1.4 Performance Requirements and
Instrumentation Parameters 4-14
4-1.1.1.2 Thermographs 4-16
4-1.1.1.3 Down-looking Line Scanners 4-16
4-1.1.1.4 Forward-looking Infrared Systems 4-18
4-1.1.2 Image Tubes 4-18
4-1.2 Search Equipment 4-19
4-1.2.1 Spectral Filtering 4-21
4-1.2.2 Spatial Filtering 4-21
4-1.2.3 Temporal Filtering 4-21
4-1.3 Trackers 4-22
4-1.3.1 The IR Scanner As an Optical Angle Transducer . . . 4-24
4-1.3.1.1 Small Instantaneous Field-of-view Scanning 4-24

xi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont)

a e
Paragraph ?ë

4-1.3.1.2 Large Instantaneous Field-of-view

Reticle Scanning 4-26
4-1.3.2 Tracking Scanner Sensitivity 4-27
4-1.3.3 Tracking Loop Servo Parameters 4-28
4-1.4 Radiometers 4-29
4-1.5 Spectrometers 4-30
4-1.6 Interferometers 4-31
4-1.7 Hybrid Systems 4-31
4-1.7.1 Track-while-scan 4-31
4-1.7.2 Scanning Radiometer/Spectrometers 4-31
4-2 Active Systems 4-32
4-2.1 Illuminators 4-32
4-2.1.1 Searchlights 4-32
4-2.1.2 Lasers 4-32
4-2.2 Rangefinders 4-33
4-2.3 Communications and Data Transmission 4-35
References 4-37

CHAPTER 5
IR SYSTEM DESIGN

5-1 System Approach to Infrared Design 5-1

5-2 Requirements 5-1
5-2.1 System Analysis 5-2
5-2.1.1 Operational Environment 5-2
5-2.1.2 Functions 5-8
5-2.1.3 Requirement Analysis 5-8
5-2.1.4 Block Diagrams 5-12
5-2.2 Target Definition 5-13
5-2.2.1 Spectral Radiant Intensity Bounds 5-13
5-2.2.2 Radiance Gradients 5-14
5-2.3 Background Definition 5-14
5-2.3.1 Terrain, Sea 5-14
5-2.3.2 Clouds 5-14
5-2.3.3 Stellar Backgrounds 5-15
5-2.4 Transmission 5-15
5-2.4.1 Absorption 5-15
5-2.4.2 Obscuration 5-16
5-2.5 Countermeasures 5-17
5-2.5.1 Passive Countermeasures 5-17
5-2.5.2 Active Countermeasures 5-17
5-3 Baseline Design Concept 5-18
5-3.1 Spectral Optimization 5-18
5-3.1.1 Trade-offs 5-18
5-3.1.2 Detector Selection 5-22
5-3.2 Frame-time Optimization 5-24

xii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont)

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5-3.3 Parametric Design 5-25

5-3.3.1 Collecting Aperture Diameter 5-25
5-3.3.2 Number of Detectors 5-27
5-3.3.3 Cooling Requirements 5-30
5-3.3.4 Scanning Systems 5-31
5-4 Sample IR System Designs 5-32
5-4.1 Missile Seeker 5-32
5-4.1.1 Missile Seeker Requirements 5-33
5-4.1.1.1 Operational Environment 5-33
5-4.1.1.2 Seeker Functions 5-33
5-4.1.1.3 Functional Description 5-35
5-4.1.1.4 Apparent Radiant Intensity of Targets
and Backgrounds 5-35
5-4.1.2 Baseline Design Concept 5-35
5-4.1.3 Seeker Design 5-39
5-4.1.3.1 Optical and Mechanical 5-39
5-4.1.3.2 Detector 5-40
5-4.1.3.3 Acquisition-mode Programmer 5-40
5-4.1.3.4 Track-loop-mode Servo 5-40
5-4.1.3.5 Sensitivity 5-41
5-4.1.3.6 Signal Processing 5-42
5-4.2 Active Imaging Systems 5-42
5-4.2.1 Sample Design of Active IR Imaging Systems 5-42
5-4.2.1.1 Spatial Resolution and Field of View 5-42
5-4.2.1.2 Data Rate and System Bandwidth 5-44
5-4.2.1.3 Laser Power and Signal-to-noise
Characteristics 5-45
5-5 Trade-off Analyses 5-46
5-5.1 General Principles 5-46
5-5.2 Use of Advanced Components and Concepts 5-47
5-5.3 Cost, Space, Weight, and Power Trade-offs 5-47
5-5.4 Human Factors 5-48
5-5.4.1 Visible Spectrum 5-48
5-5.4.2 Visual Acuity 5-48
5-5.4.3 Other Factors Affecting Acuity 5-49
5-5.4.4. Flicker 5-49
5-5.4.5 Supplementary Auditory Displays 5-50
5-5.4.6 Human Reaction Time 5-50
5-5.4.7 Human Engineering 5-52
5-5.5 Reliability 5-53
5-5.5.1 The Importance of Reliability 5-53
5-5.5.2 Reliability Program 5-53
5-5.5.3 Definitions 5-53
5-5.5.4 Reliability Prediction 5-53
5-5.5.5 What the IR Design Engineer
Should Know About Reliability 5-54
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont)

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5-5.5.6 Design Practices for Achieving

High Reliab٧ity 5-54
5-5.5.6.1 Borrowing and Buying 5-54
5-5.5.6.2 Simplification 5-54
5-5.5.6.3 Selection of Reliable Part Types 5-54
5-5.5.6.4 Derating 5-55
5-5.5.6.5 Redundancy 5-55
5-5.5.6.6 Providing for Satisfactory
Heat-transfer Properties 5-55
5-5.5.6.7 Mechanical Strength and Stability 5-56
5-5.5.6.8 Formulating Alternative Designs 5-56
5-5.5.&.9 Miscellaneous Considerations 5-56
5-5.6 Maintainability 5-57
5-5.6.1 The Importance of Maintainability 5-57
5-5.6.2 Maintainability Program 5-57
5-5.6.3 Definitions 5-58
5-5.6.4 Maintainability Predictions 5-58
5-5.6.5 What the IR Design Engineer Should Know
About Maintainability 5-58
5-5.7 Producibility 5-59
5-5.7.1 Definition and Importance 5-59
5-5.7.2 Producibility Program 5-60
5-5.7.3 What the IR Design Engineer Should Know
About Producibility 5-60
5-5.8 Mobility 5-61
5-5.8.1 Definitions and Importance 5-61
5-5.8.2 Transportability Design Program 5-61
5-5.8.3 What the IR Design Engineer Should Know
About Mobility 5-61
5-5.9 Integrated Logistic Support 5-62
5-5.10 Ground Support Equipment 5-63
5-5.10.1 The Importance of Ground Support Equipment . . . 5-63
5-5.10.2 Ground Support Equipment Functions 5-63
5-5.10.3 Ground Support Equipment Design Factors 5-63
5-5.10.4 Selection of Aerospace Ground Equipment 5-63
5-5.10.5 Applicability of Government Equipment 5-64
5-5.10.6 Multi-function Concept 5-64
5-5.10.6.1 General 5-64
5-5.10.6.2 Advantages 5-64
5-5.10.6.3 Disadvantages 5-64
5-5.10.6.4 Unitized Multi-purpose Equipment 5-64
5-5.10.7 Quality 5-65
5-5.10.7.1 Criteria 5-65
5-5.10.7.2 Evaluation Factors 5-65
5-5.10.8 Commercial Counterparts 5-65
5-5.10.9 System Safety 5-65

xiv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont)

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5-5.10.10 General Military Documents 5-66

5-5.10.11 What the IR Engineer Should Know About
Ground Support Equipment 5-66
5-6 Test Requirements 5-67
5-6.1 Quality Control and Inspection 5-67
5-6.2 Inspection and Testing 5-67
5-6.2.1 Test and Inspection Planning 5-68
5-6.2.2 Inspection and Testing of Infrared
Components and Systems 5-68
5-6.2.2.1 Optical Elements, Lenses, Prisms,
and Mirrors 5-68
5-6.2.2.2 Optical Materials 5-68
5-6.2.2.3 Optical Coatings and Filters 5-69
References 5-70
Appendix 5-72
Bibliography B-l

xv
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION*

1-1 DEFINITION OF INFRARED Herschel’s discovery opened a new frontier in

SPECTRUM optical science. It did not lead to any further
The infrared (IR) region of electromagnetic advancement for almost twenty years, however,
radiation consists of that portion of the spec- due primarily to the lack of detectors more
trum located between the longest visible wave- sensitive than the thermometer. Although prog-
lengths and the shortest microwave wavelengths. ress during the nineteenth and early twentieth
The IR spectral band is many times as broad as centuries was not dramatic, significant advance-
the visible optical spectrum which ranges from ment has been made during the past 30 years.
about 0.3 to 0.72 micron. The IR band is, In 1830, L. Nobili developed the thermo-
therefore, divided somewhat arbitrarily into the couple which detects IR radiation with a higher
following three regions for convenience: degree of sensitivity than does the thermometer.
1. The near IR between 0.72 - 1.2 microns Within five years, M. Melloni developed an even
2. The intermediate IR between 1.2 - 7.0 mi- more sensitive sensor by integrating a large
number of thermocouples and called it a “ther-
crons
mopile”. The development of the thermocouple
3. The far IR between 7.0 - 1000 microns
and thermopile are considered to be the first
Recently, many IR systems have been developed important steps in the advancement of IR
for operation in the 8- to 30-micron region. This technology.
region, which is a subclass of the far IR region, is
During 1830-1840, Sir John Herschel, the son
conventionally referred to as the Long-
wavelength (LWL) Infrared Region. of Sir William Herschel, continued his father’s
work and supported his father’s conclusion
regarding the nature of IR radiation. He main-
1-2 MILESTONES IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF INFRARED TECHNOLOGY tained that IR radiation and visible light are
similar in many basic respects. This opinion was
This chapter contains a cursory survey of the the cause of considerable controversy until 1847
significant milestones in the advancement of when Fizeau, Foucault, and Knoblauch illus-
infrared technology and its application. A more trated that IR radiation exhibits interference
detailed account of the development and appli- effects in exactly the same way as does visible
cations of IR technology is given by Smith, light.
Jones, and Chasmer’ t and by Arnquist2.
In 1843, E. Becquerel discovered the photo-
The actual discovery of infrared radiation was graphic and phosphorescent effects of IR radia-
the result of Sir William Herschel’s pioneering tion. In 1880, S. P. Langley invented the first
experiments in 1800’. While investigating the bolometer which is considerably more sensitive
distribution of thermal energy among various than the thermopile. A bolometer consists of a
colors of solar radiation, Herschel found that thin wire whose ohmic resistance changes as the
thermal energy increased toward the red end of result of the heat generated by the incident
the visible spectrum and continued beyond the radiation.
visible region. He concluded that radiant energy In 1920, T. W. Case3 developed the photo-
exists beyond the visible region. He called this conductive “Thalofide Cell” detector which is
radiation “invisible radiation”. Further experi- more sensitive and has faster response character-
ments by Herschel indicated that IR radiation istics than thermocouples and bolometers. Al-
obeys the same laws as does visible light. though the principles of photoconductihty were
discovered by Willoughby Smith4 in 1873 using
selenium, Case should be credited for actually
* Written by K. Se rafi. developing and implementing the photocon-
t Superscript numi$rs refer to References at the end of
each chapter. ductor detector for use as an active IR infrared

1-1
transmitter and receiver system having an opera- In 1959,Lawsonlo described the first pseudo-
ting range of over 18 miles’. His device stimu- binary detector (mercury-cadmium telluride) as
lated widespread interest in IR in this country having a spectral response that could be ex-
and abroad. tended to 40 microns. This detector, in contrast
In 1876, Adams and Day discovered the to other LWLIR detectors, required cooling only
photovoltaic detector (selenium) and in 1934, to about 77°K (liquid nitrogen).
Kikoin and Noskov developed the first photo- Today, because of the availability of highly-
electromagnetic detector (cuprous oxide). sensitive detectors in the range of about 0.7 to
40 microns, the most useful part of the IR
In 1904,Bose* discovered the photosensitive
spectrum can be detected with almost the same
property of lead sulfide (galena). Later on, in
sensitivity as visible light.
1917, during a routine investigation of 162
materials, Case’ reported the photoconductor 1-3 MILITARY APPLICATION
properties of lead sulfide (PbS).
Although IR has been part of the scientific
In 1944, Cashman developed the first practi- world for over 150 years, its application for
cal PbS detectors in this country6. Lead sulfide military purposes has only taken place within
detectors had been previously developed by the last 40 years. Secure signaling, detection of
Gudden’ in Germany during the 1930’s and objects in the dark, and detectim of and homing
were used in some of their IR systems during on military targets by their natural IR radiation
World War 11. Cashman’s development marked are a few of the many military applications of
the beginning of a rapid expansion in IR IRLsystems. During World War I, the Americans,
technology and systems application in this coun- British, and Germans produced IR devices which
try. were, for the most part, experimental.
Later on during the late 1940’s and early In 1920, S. Hoffman” described a passive
1950’s, Cashman, McFee, and Levinstein ex- imaging system which utilized a thermopile and
tended PbS technology into lead selenide galvanometer. This system could detect a man at
(PbSe), lead telluride (PbTe), and indium anti- 600 feet and an airplane at nearly 1 mile.
monide (InSb) detectors.
During the 1930’s, IR systems found their
Another significant technological advance was way slowly into the military arsenals. The
the development of a pneumatic IR detector by advent of World War 11, however, accelerated the
Marcel Golay in 1946.The Golay detector is still tempo of activity in this area. During 1940-
considered the best detector for long-wavelength 1941,the Optics and Camouflage Branch of the
IR applications because of its uniform spectral National Defense Research Committee and
sensitivity. Office of Scientific Research and Development
During the late 19403, the first extrinsic was assigned the responsibility for developing
photoconductor detectors were discovered by the military potential of optics and IR systems.
Burstein’. The spectral response of detectors
such as gold-doped germanium iGe:Au), zinc- During 1947-1955,the growing military de-
doped germanium (Ge: Zn), and copper-doped mand for IR systems necessitated close technical
germanium (Ge:Cu) was found to extend to coordination between the military and contract
about 40 microns. Later on, the discovery of a groups of the rapidly developing Southern Cali-
mercurydoped germanium detector (Ge:Hg), fornia infrared community. Consequently the
having a high-sensitivity response up to 14 Office of Naval Research (ONR)Branch Office,
microns, was reported by Borrello and Levin- Pasadena, California, sponsored a series of
stein’. Most of these detectors required cooling meetings under the leadership of W. N. Am-
to temperatures ranging from 4’ to 40°K. q u i d 2 . Initially these gatherings were called
“The Conference on IR Instrumentation”, and
then, as the emphasis shifted to systems, the
* Patent,,- 755 840. “Detector For Electrical Disturb- “Guided Missile Infrared Conference”. An effec-
ances, Jagadis C. Bow, Calcutta, India, assignor of tive information exchange and discussion forum
one-half to Sara Cha man Bull, Cambridge Mass.,filed
Sept. 30, 1901, Seris No. 77,028 (No model). were thus provided for the relatively new work-

1-2
ing groups in the area. The attendance at these implementing this latter capability in an opera-
conferences grew at such a rapid rate that by the tional system.
mid-1950’s it was no longer possible to continue In this country, the use of IR in the missile
on such an informal basis. Instead, formal field reached its peak after World War 11. The
meetings, called “Symposiums”, replaced the most successful developments in the 1950’s were
informal conferences within the necessary secu- the Navy SIDEWINDER air-to-air missile and
rity regulations. In November 1955, the name the Air Force FALCON homing missileI4 . The
“Infrared Information Symposium” (IRIS), was SIDEWINDER missile is 5 in. in diameter, 9 f t
formally adopted. IRIS symposiums have been long, and weighs 150 lb. It can be carried by a
convened regularly at least once a year ever
variety of aircraft, including the F84, F-104, and
since. IRIS has provided an effective means for
exchanging information and stimulating new FJ-4.
ideas for the advancement of IR research and The FALCON missile was developed by the
technology. Other activities of ONR that stimu- Air Force to complement a radar-guided missile.
lated developments in IR, especially during These missiles are about 6-1/2 in. in diameter,
1950-55, were Project Metcalf, a comprehensive about 6-1/2 f t long, and weigh slightly more
review of the Navy’s IR program and special than 120 lb. Used in F102A and F-89H inter-
liaison with the British through ONR’s London ceptors, the missile’s tracking capability is such
Branch Office12. that it can be launched many miles from the
Today, various basic types of IR systems are target.
used in conjunction with tactical weapons in Beginning about 1958 and extending to the
military arsenals throughout the world. The early 1960’s, the REDEYE missile was developed
brief summary which follows is a description of for the Army, to provide the foot soldier with a
some of the more notable applications of IR defense against low-flying aircraft. The 20-lb
systems. missile, which is less than 3 in. in diameter and 4
f t long, is aimed and fired from a shoulder-
13.1 IR IMAGING SYSTEMS mounted launch tube.
Development of the RCA infrared image tube
1-3.3 INFRARED FIRE CONTROLS
by Morton, Ramberg, and Zyorykid is consid-
ered to be the most significant IR development The first IR fire control system for search,
in the United States during the 1930’s. The acquisition, and tracking became operational in
device converts IR radiation into visible light. the mid-1950’s. A gunsight was developed at this
time for the F-104 aircraft, and the AAA-4 IR
The first and most notable military appli-
cation of near-IR technology during World War fire control system was developed in the early
I1 involved use of the IR imaging tube mounted 1960’s by the Navy.
on small arms for use by foot soldiers13 . Named An early version of a down-looking (3 to 5
the Sniperscope, it was used successfully during microns) IR reconnaissance system was devel-
night operations. Infrared illuminators and re- oped by the Air Force in the early 1960’s.
ceiving devices were used for night driving and
battlefield surveillance by all the major powers. Recent breakthroughs in the fabricating of
large arrays (consisting of LWIR sensors, cryo-
1-3.2 INFRARED MISSILES genic cooling, and LWL optics) have further
increased the potential capability of IR high-res-
Chronologically, the next step in the advance- olution fire-control systems, unmatched by any
ment of IR occurred as a result of its successful other system at this Forward-looking
application for air-to-air and air-to-surface mis- IR Reconnaissance (FLIR) systems, designed for
sile guidance. The Germans developed an IR mounting on airborne platforms, provide arma-
antiaircraft missile detection system during the ment system operators with IR target detection,
early 1930’s, t o the point where piston-engine acquisition, recognition, and angle information.
bombers could be observed at distances up to The FLIR systems, developed specially for
five km. However, they were not successful in nighttime use, provide real-time display of the

1-3
terrestrial scene within the field of view of the 1-4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
sensors. OF INFRARED SYSTEMS

1-3.4 TAIL-WARNING SYSTEMS

Infrared systems offer a distinct advantage
over other detection devices, such as radar or
Infrared systems are also used for detecting visible optics, by being able to operate in the
missile plumes. An IR search system for use in passive mode. This makes IR systems impervious
the detection of attacking missiles was devel- to detection and countermeasures by methods
oped by the Air Force as a tail-warning system which are effective against active systems such as
for a fighter aircraft and became operational in radar. In addition, the passive IR systems are less
the mid-to-late 1960's. complex by the absence of transmitter hard-
ware. The fact that most natural objects radiate
1-3.5 SPACE APPLICATIONS in the IR region makes IR wavelengths most
attractive for passive systems.
The first spaceborne high-resolution IR tem-
perature mapping system was launched aboard A summary of the advantages of IR systems
the Nimbus 1 satellite into an earth orbit in includes:
1964l'. The Nimbus infrared detector, sensing 1.Small size and lightweight compared to
in the 3.4- to 4.2-micron region, provided the comparable active systems
first nighttime cloud pictures with a ground
resolution of about two nmi. 2. Low cost compared to active systems

Nimbus 1 performed temperature measure- 3. Capable of passive or active operation

ments with a resolution of about 1°K making it 4. Effective against targets camouflaged in
possible to map gradients in ocean currents, ice the visible region of the optical spectrum
caps, land masses, and cloud formations. Fur-
thermore, because of the correlation between 5. Day or night operation
cloud temperature and cloud altitude (a 1°K 6. Greater angular accuracy than radar
temperature change is comparable to a 1000-ft
change in altitude), the 1R picture provided a 7. No minimum range limitation
simple and effective method of determining 8. Minimum requirement for auxiliary
cloud altitude. equipment.
1-3.6 SPECTROSCOPY The performance limitations of IR systems
are imposed mostly by atmospheric conditions.
Infrared spectroscopy plays a key role in
Humid atmosphere, fog, and clouds present
detection systems for military applications. Eval-
serious limitations. The problems can be briefly
uation of targets and background in terms of
summarized as follows:
spectral intensity has provided considerable in-
formation for use in the design of effective 1. Lack of all-weather capability (in opera-
detection and homing systems. It has also tion within the atmosphere)
provided an enormous amount of information
2. Lineof-sight detection capability only
about the sun, planets, and stars. New low-tem-
perature stars have been discovered". Terres- 3. Requirements for cryogenic cooling dur-
trial atmospheric phenomena and the atmos- ing LWL operation.
pheres of other planets are being investigated. Notwithstanding these inherent limitations,
In biology and medicine, infrared techniques IR technology faces an ever-expanding future
are continually finding new uses and applica- made possible by the recent dynamic advances
tions. Spectroscopy has made possible the study in the development of components such as
of plant diseases as well as the characterization solid-state detectors and detector arrays, cooled
and identification of fossils. optics, cryogenic electronics, and IR lasers.

1-4
 REFERENCES

1. R. A. Smith, et al., The Detection and 10. W. D. Lawson, S. Neilson, E. H. Putley, and
Measurement of Infrared Radiation, Ox- A. S. Young, “Preparation and Properties of
ford at the Clarendon Press, 1957. HgTe and Mixed Crystals of Hoe-CdTe”,
J. Phys. Chem. Solids 9,325(1959).
2. W. N. Amquist, “Survey of Early Infrared
Developments”, Proc IRE 47, No. 9, 11. S. D. Hoffman, “The Detection of Invisible
1420-1431(1959). Objects by Heat Radiation”, Phys. Rev. 14,
163-166 (1919).
3. T. W. Case, “Thalofide Cell-A New Photo- 12. W. N. Amquist, Proc. IRIS 1, 5 (June
Electric Substance”, Phys. Rev. 15, 289 1956).
(1920).
13. R. S. Wiseman and M. W. Klein, “Infrared
4. W. Smith, “Effect of Light on Selenium”, Viewing Systems”, Proc. IRE 47, 1617
Nature 7, 303 (1873). (1959).
5. T. W. Case, “Notes on the Change of 14. L. W. Nichols, “Missile Seekers and
Resistance of Certain Substances in Light”, Homers”, Proc. IRE 47, No. 2, 1611-1614
Phys. Rev. 9,305 (1917). (1959).
6. R. J. Cashman, “New Photo-Conductive 15. G. J. Hoover, Fabrication and Statistical
Cells”, J.D.S.A. 36,356 (1946). Evaluation of High Density Ge:Hg Linear
Arrays, presented at 16th National Meeting
7. J. A. Jamieson, et al., Infrared Physics and of IRIS, 1968.
Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New 16. Hodges, et al., System Optimization of
York, 1963. Long- Wavelength Infrared Detection
8. E. Burstein, J. J. Oberly, J. W. Davisson, Systems, Aerojet Report No. 3009,Azusa,
and B. W. Henvis, “The Optical Properties Calif., March 1965.
of Donor and Acceptor Impurities in Sili- 17. TRW Space Log, 4-23-24 (Winter
con”, Phys. Rev. 82,764(1951). 1964-65).
9. S. R. Borrello and H. Levinstein, “Prepara- 18. R. C. Ramsey, “Spectral Irradiance from
tion and Properties of Mercurydoped Ger- Stars and Planets Above the Atmosphere
manium”, J. Appl. Phys. 33, No. 10, from 0.1 to 100 p”, Appl. Opt. 6,No. 4,
(1962). 465 (1962).

1-5
 CHAPTER 2

INFRARED PHYSICS”

2-1 BASIC IR SYMBOLS 2-2 RADIATION LAWS

AND DEFINITIONS
2-2.1 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
During the advance of IR technology, various Kirchhoff’s Law states that, for any tempera-
symbols have evolved as “standard” symbols ture and any wavelength, the emissance of an
while others have been used at the whim of the opaque body in an isothermal enclosure is equal
authors. The system of symbols used in this to its absorptance. Thus
handbook is based on the recommendations of
the Office of Naval Research’. Special care has e (A, T)= a (A, T ) (2-1)
been given to distinguish intrinsic material prop-
erties such as absorptivity 01 from total sample
properties such as absorptance a. Some symbols
occasionally have two functions. For instance, t This law is a consequence of the Conservation
can mean either time or total transmittance. of Energy which requires that the energy emit-
Where confusion might possibly occur, the terms ted by the body be equal to the energy absorbed
are carefully explained in the accompanying by it under isothermal conditions. Thus
text. The standard symbols are given in Table
2-1. Wernitted = wBB = a wBB = Wabsorbed (2-2)
Table 2-2 is a dictionary of the basic radio-
metric terms used in infrared physics. Spectral
radiometric terms are the same as the corre-
sponding radiometric terms but are defined per For a blackbody, e = a = 1 by definition. For
unit wavelength, per unit frequency or per unit real materials emissance depends on the material
wavenumber. They are evaluated at a specific and the finish (see Table 2-4).
wavelength, frequency or wavenumber. Symbols
for spectral radiometric quantities are formed by
adding subscripts A, v, or P, respectively, referring
to where the quantities are to be evaluated. For More generally, the Conservation of Energy
example, H A is the irradiance per unit wave- says that light incident on a surface is either
length evaluated at wavelength A. Typical units reflected, transmitted, or absorbed. Thus
would be w cm-2 p - l . The relation between H
and H A is r+t+a=l (2-3)
aH
H = H A A h or H A = -
ah
where A h is a small wavelength interval about A . For an opaque object, t = 0. Therefore
Table 2-3is a list of the most commonly used
physical constants for infrared physics. The r+a=l (2-4)
standard symbols for the constants is also given.
A complete list and discussion are given in Ref. 2.
Using Kirchhoff’s Law, Eq. 2-1 gives

r=l- e (2-5)
*Written by M. L. Bhaumik and M. A. Levine for an opaque object.

2-1
 TABLE 2-1. STANDARD SYMBOLS

SYMBOL NAME TYPICAL UNITS

a absorptance 5%
A area cm2
BB blackbody -
BG background -
e emissance 5%
E photon energy erg
GB graybody -
H irradiance w cm-’
J radiant intensity w sr-’
N radiance w sr-l cm-2
P power W
r reflectance 5%
S line intensity (absorber content)-’ cm-’
T absolute temperature “K
t transmittance 5%
U energy J
U energy density J cm-3
V volume cm-3
W radiant emittance (flux density) w cm-’ , (J sec-’ cm-’ )
W absorber content “atm-cm”, “pr-cm”
(Y absorbtivity cm-’
E emissivity 5%
x wavelength cm
U frequency Hz,(sec-’ )
-
V wavenumber cm-’
P density g~ r n - ~
7 transmissivity cm-’
sl solid angle sr (steradian)

2-2
 TABLE 2-2. BASIC RADIOMETRIC TERMS

TERM DEFINITION

Absorber content The equivalent pathlength through a gaseous absorber (par. 2-4)
Absorptance The fraction of irradiance that is absorbed by a sample placed
in the path of the incident light
Absorptivity The absorptance per unit pathlength through a material
Blackbody An ideal radiator or absorber with unit emissivity
Emissance The fraction of radiant emittance of a real surface relative to a
blackbody surface
Emissivity The fraction of radiant emittance of an ideal surface (opaque,
optically smooth, flat) relative to a blackbody surface
Energy density The energy per unit volume contained in the electromagnetic
fields
Graybody A radiator or absorber with constant emissivity less than one;
i.e., eGB <1for all X
Irradiance The power per unit area incident upon a surface
Point source A radiating surface both characteristic dimensions of which are
small compared with the source-to-observer distance
Power Energy per unit time
Radian The unit of angular measure, which is the angle for which the
subtended arc length of a circle is equal t o the radius of the
circle (Fig. 2-1)
Radiance Radiant power per unit solid angle per unit area of source
projected normal to the solid angle
Radiant emittance The power per unit area, or the energy per unit time per unit
area, radiated from a surface. Radiant emittance is an energy
flux.
Radiant intensity Radiant power per unit solid angle from a point source
Reflectance The fraction of irradiance that is reflected from a real surface
Reflectivity The fraction of irradiance that is reflected from an ideal surface
(perfectly smooth and flat)
Steradian The unit of solid angular measure, being the subtended surface
area divided by the radius squared for a solid angle at the center
of a sphere (Fig. 2-2)
Transmittance The fraction of irradiance that is transmitted through a sample
placed in the path of the incident light
Wavelength The distance between two successive crests in the electromagnetic
field of light traveling through a vacuum
Wavenumber Reciprocal of wavelength in centimeters. Wavenumbers are pro-
portional t o the photon energy of the light ( E = hcF) where
-
v = l/h.

2-3
 8 =-
S
r (radian )

FIGURE 2-1. Angle 8 in Radians

S
R = 2 (steradian )
r

FIGURE 2-2. Solid Angle ain Steradians

2-4
 TABLE 2-3. PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

Planck's constant 6.6256 X w secZ

Speed of light 2.9979 X 10" cm sec-'
Boltzmann's constant 1.3805 X lodz3w sec O K - '
8.617 X lO-'eV) OK-'
Stefan-Boltzmann 0 5.6697 X w cm-' O K - '
constant 1.354X calsec-' cmP2 O K 4
3.658 X lo-" w in.-' O K 4
Wein's constant a 0.28978 cm OK
Electronic charge e 1.6021 X C
Capacivity of vacuum 8.8543 X lo-'' F m-'
Permeability of vacuum lo-' H m-'
4n X
Electron mass 9.109 x g
Proton mass 1.673 X lodz4g
Avogadro's number 6.023 X loz3 per g mole
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1electron volt -- 1.602 X w sec
Energy of 1°K - 8.617X lo-' eV)
X (1 eV) - 1.24 I.(

2-2.2 PLANCK'S LAW A plot of W h vs A will result in the familiar

The spectral energy flux, or spectral radiant blackbody radiation curves for various tempera-
emittance Wh from a blackbody was derived tures (Fig. 2-3).
empirically by Planck' who had to postulate 2-2.3 RAYLEIGHJEANS LAW
that radiation consisted of discrete quanta of
energy hcA in order t o fit a smooth curve to the For long wavelengths (far IR) at not too low a
experimentally measured spectral distributions temperature,
of radiant emittance from blackbodies. The
expression he derived was hcAkT< 1 (2-7)

L'1 1
Wh = , w cm-3
[WJ (2-6) which permits the exponential to be expanded
in a power series. Thus

The constants are

C1 = 2nc2h = 3.7415 X w cm2

Cz = hc/k = 1.4388 cm OK
c = speed of light
h = Planck's constant which is the Rayleigh-Jeans Law. Notice that it
k = Boltzmann's constant does not depend on h and therefore is not of
X = wavelength, cm quantum mechanical origin.

2-5
 TABLE 2-4. EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF EMISSIVITY"

14p RADN. 293°K RADN. 273°K RADN.

300°K RADN.
ON 2°K
MATERIAL ON 78°K ROOM TEMP.4 ON 90°K ON 77°K
POLISHED
SURFACE3 SURFACE6 SURFACE'
SURFACE'

Al-clean
polished foil 0.02 0.04 0.011 0.055 0.043
Al-plate 0.03
A1-highly
oxidized 0.31
Brass-clean
polished 0.029 0.03 0.018 0.046 0.10
Brass-highly
oxidized 0.6
Cu-clean
polished 0.015-0.019 0.02 0.0062-0.015 0.019-0.035
Cu-highly
oxidized 0.6
Cr-plate 0.08 0.08 4.065 0.084
Au-foil 0.010-0.023 0.02-0.03 0.026
Au-plate 0.026
Monel 0.2 0.11
Ni-polished 0.045
Rh-plate 0.078
Ag-plate 0.008 0.02-0.03 0.023-0.036
Stainless steel 0.048 0.074
Sn-clean foil 0.013 0.06 0.013 0.038
Soft solder 0.03 0.047
Glass 0.9 0.87
Wood's metal 0.16
-
* Note: Reference is made in column heads to references listed at end of Chapter 2.

2-6
 n 50
hl
I

40
W
3
w
30
4
8 H
E:
w 20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
WAVELENGTH (MICRON )
(A) BLACKBODY CURVES, 1000' T O 2000'K

n loo
hl
I

5
P 10-1
w
4

E
I?

3 10-3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
WAVELENGTH (MICRON )
(B) BLACKBODY CURVES, -100' TO lOOO'K

FIGURE 2-3. Blackbody Curves

2 -7
2-2.4 WIEN'S LAW where a is a constant. Eq. 2-15 is Wien's
Displacement Law. Solving the transcendental
equation numerically for hm,T gives a =
For short wavelengths, 0.2898 cm OK.

hcAkT% 1, (2-9)
2-3 RADIANT ENERGY TRANSMISSION
hence Planck's Law reduces ,to
2-3.1 RADIANT INTENSITY FROM A
wA= 7
2ncz exp [ hc/(XkT)] (2-10)
- POINT SOURCE
A point source is a radiator all the dimensions
which is known as Wien's Law. of which are small compared t o the source-to-
observer distance. There are two basic types, the
isotropic point source and the Lambertian point
2-2.5 STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW source.
The radiant emittance from a blackbody W E B
can be obtained by in.tegrating Eq. 2-6 over all 2-3-1-1 isotropic Point Source
wavelengths. Thus The isotropic point source radiates uniformly
in all directions, thus the radiant intensity J is
WEB = JWWhdX = (1527r5h3k4cz)
0
T 4 = uT4 (2-11)
P (2-16)
J=- 3 w Sr-'
4n
which is the Stefan-Boltzmann Law. The Stefan-
Boltzmann constant u for Various units is listed where p is the total power radiated by the
in Table 2-3. source.

2-2.6 WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW Geometrically, the importance of an isotropic

point source is that it presents the same radia-
The rnaxirnum value of W A OCCUm at Some ting area t o the viewer when looked at from any
called hmox . W A in Eq. 2-6 is of the form direction. I t is assumed, of course, that the
source, being small, has a uniform temperature.
WA = h-'f(XT). (2-12)
2-3.1.2 Lambertian Point Source
Setting
A Lambertian "point" source is flat and does
d Wh not present the same area to the viewer from all
dX =O (2-13)
directions. Since the color does not change with
X = hmm
the position of the viewer, he must assume that
gives the radiant emittance is proportional to the
c
apparent, or projected, area of the source. Thus
(2-14)
dP
J=-- - kWA cos 6 (2-17)
IX=X dn
m ax

For a given temperature T, evaluating X at Amax

is equivalent to evaluating at T*Hence where A is the area of the source, 6 is the angle
of the viewer with respect to the normal, and k
5 =a (2-15) is a proportionality constant (Fig. 2-4(A)).
'mar' = Integrating Eq. 2-17 over a hemisphere above
the plane of d A (Fig. 2-4(B)) one gets the total
'mar T radiated power

2-8
 The factor 1 / 2 is because half the energy density
(2-18) is from irradiance and half from emittance as
P = lkWA cos8 di2
J h e m isphere
noted above. Integrating Eq. 2-22 over the hem-
fl
isphere of Fig. 2-4(B) gives
uc
= kWA/o' cos 0 (2n sin 8 do) = (nk)WA W = r (2-23)

Since P = WA, therefore k = n - l . Thus Thus the energy density within an isothermal
enclosure is
WA cos e
J= , w sr-I (2-19) u = -4w
n C (2-24)

This is called Lambert's Law. As an example, consider a 300°K isotherma

enclosure.
2-3.2 RADIANT ENERGY DENSITY
Radiant energy density is the quantity of u = -4W =-4aT4 -- 4 X 5.67 X X (300)4
radiant energy per unit volume. S C 3 x 1010
= 6.1 X J
2-3.2.1 Energy Density for Collimated Irradiance
Collimated irradiance means that the flow of As a second example, consider the energy
radiant energy is neither divergent nor conver- density above the earth's atmosphere due t o the
gent. Hence the energy flow down a tube of sun. The solar irradiance is about 0.13 w cm-*
cross section dA is uniform and the energy and is nearly collimated. Therefore
density is constant. Therefore, for a tube of
length ct, where t is the length of time during
which energy entered the tube, and c is the
speed of light,
2-3.3 TRANSFER OF RADIANT POWER
u = -u
= HtdA - -H
___ (2-20)
V ctdA c 2-3.3.1 An Object in Space
Thus the irradiance on any cross section of the An object in space receives energy from warm
tube is celestial bodies and radiates energy into space.
Space can be considered a perfect absorber with
H = uc (2-21) no emittance, i.e., space is cold. Therefore, for a
uniformly painted metal plate suspended in
This is also the radiant emittance from the same space near the earth and normal to the sun, the
crms section. incident energy is eA X 0.13 w cm-', neglecting
2-3.2.2 Energy Density Within an Isothermal radiation from other sources. The emitted
Enclosure energy is 2eAoT4, where the 2 occurs because
both sides of the plate emit. Thus, at equilib-
The temperature within an isothermal en- rium,
closure is a constant. Therefore the energy flux
uc is a constant regardless of direction. Other- eA X 0.13 = 2eAaT4
wise, there would be a net transfer of energy 0.13 = 2 X 5.67 X lo-'' X T4
along some direction indicating a temperature T = 327°K
difference somewhere. Therefore a calculation
of the energy density next to a wall of the If one side of the plate is black (e = 1) and the
enclosure is sufficient. other is unpainted (e = 0.1) then, with the black
side facing the sun,
The radiant emittance is given by
1 X A X 0.13 = (1 + 0.1) AoT4
0.13 = 1.1 X 5.67 X X T4
(2-22)
T = 380°K

2-9
 W dA cos 0

HEMI SPHERE

FIGURE 24. Geometry of a Lambertian Source

2-10
With the shiny side facing the sun,

0.1 X A X 0.13 = (1+ 0.1) AuT4

0.013 = 1.1X 5.67 X lo-'' X T4
T = 213°K

2-3.3.2 Transfer Between Two Infinite Planes

For two opaque plane-parallel infinite surfaces
with emissances el and e2 and temperatures
Tz > T 1 , one can calculate the net radiant
emittance Wzy;etl from surface 2 to surface 1.
Surface 2 has a radiant emittance e, u T; . Of
that emittance e l e, u T; is absorbed by surface
1 and (1- el )ezUT; is reflected. Then
(1- e, )(1- el )e2uT; is reflected back toward
surface 1. Of that radiant emittance,
el (1- e, )(1- el )ezUT; is absorbed, etc. Thus

I '1
W,+, =uT; e l e z + e l ( l - e 2 ) ( l - e l ) e z + e l ( l - e , ) 2 ( 1 - e l ) Z ez + . . . (2-25)

Summing the series gives

(2-26)

Similarly,

(2-27)

Therefore W,net
-, is given by

(2-28)

A more extensive study of the transfer of

radiant power is given in Ref. 4.
As an example, consider a black plate (el = 1)
at 2" K facing an electropolished copper plate
(e, = 0.01) at 4°K. The net radiant emittance
from the warmer copper plate to the cooler
black plate is

5.67 X 10-12(44- Z4) X 1X 0.01 = 1.36

w2-+1= cm-2
net 1- (0) (0.99)

Note that the commonly accepted formula,

W'y;etl = u(ez T$ - ez Tf), yields
Wz-+tl = - 7.6 X lo-'' w cm-' indicating that
the cooler plate is heating up the warmer one.

2-1 1
2-3.4 IRRADIANCE AS A FUNCTION OF RANGE 2-3.4.2 Extended Source
The concept of radiant intensity cannot be
2-3.4.1 Point Source
usefully applied to an extended source (one
A small receiving area dA is oriented normal that subtends a finite solid angle to the viewer).
to the line of sight at a distance R from a point However, in calculating irradianceH the extended
source. It subtends a solid angle dR =dA/Rz. source is divided into elemental areas dA and an
From the definition of radiant intensity J as the expression is obtained for the radiant intensity
power radiated per unit solid angle from a point of each. Contributions from each elemental
source, the power incident on the receiving area source area to the irradiance are then integrated
is to obtain the total irradiance.

d P = JdR = J ( 3 (2-29) If 0 is the angle between the line of sight and

the normal n, to one of these small areas, and qj
and the power per unit area is the irradiance H is the angle between the line of sight and the
given by normal n2 to the surface at which the irradiance
is being determined, the irradiance is calculated
(2-30) as

As an exam$le, consider the irradiance at

400 cm from a 2 cm radius sphere with emittance WdA cose case
W = 3 w cm-' if the receiving area is slanted 60" H =$$ cos@ =
A A nRZ
to the line-of-sight.
(2-31)
J dA/Rz J cos 0 wAso r c e cos e
H = dA/cosO- RZ -
4nRZ
For example, assume that a plane circular area
Thus, P I of radius a has an emittance W. What is the
1 irradiance at a point located on the axis of the
3 x 4n 22 x 2 circle at a distance b, in the plane Pz parallel to
= 3.75 X w cm-2
= 4~(400)' the source:

2-1 2
Since the receiving surface is parallel to the Using Eq. 2-19 with d = 0 gives
emitting surface, 0 = 9. The elemental area
consisting of an annular ring of diameter x and J
H= - (2-35 )
width dx has an area d A = 2nxdx therefore R2

which is the same as Eq. 2-30 as expected.

H= l “W
-cos2
n
e 2nxdx
x2 + b2 2-3.5 CALCULATION AIDS
Since equations such as Planck’s are difficult

= [Lx~ J (XP:;~) b2
(2-32)
to use directly in actual calculations, several
devices have been specifically devised. These
include, in order of increasing accuracy, nomo-
graphs, radiation slide rules, blackbody tables, or
Let y = x2 + b2 ; then dy = 2xdx. When x = 0, comDuter storage data.
+
I

y = b 2 ; when x = a, y = a’ b 2 . The integral

becomes Nomographs are multi-scaled graphs designed
so that a straight line drawn through a known
point on each of two scales will provide an
a’+ b2 dy WbZ a’+ b 2
unknown’s value on a third scale (Ref. 9, p. 20).
H = W l b2-= -- Nomographs are not used extensively because of
b2 Y2 b2
their inherent inaccuracy.

= W k - b2 ) =w( a2 ) The General Electric Radiation Calculator

(Ref. 1, pp. 11-17) is the most commonly used
of various radiation slide rules. Radiation slide
a2 + b2 a’ + b2 rules are sufficiently accurate for preliminary
(2-33)
design calculations.
In the case where the receiving surface is very
close to the emitting surface ( b < a ) ,H = W which Blackbody data (Ref. 1, p. 2 1 ) are available
simply illustrates that all the radiation emitted for use in calculating more precise vdues than
by unit area of the source passes through unit are possible with slide rules, but these data
area of the receiver. A t the opposite extreme, tables are more difficult to use.
where b %- a
Precise radiometric calculations require the
(2-34) use of highly accurate computerized data and
direct, conventional calculation methods.

2-13
2-3.5.1 Use of GE Radiation Calculator pars. 2-2 and 2-3can be calculated by means of
a special slide rule such as the General Electric
Radiation Calculator shown in Fig. 2-5. At a
Many of the blackbody expressions given in single setting, the following data can be read:

INDEX TEMPERATURE
(1) CENTIGRADE "C
(2) KELVIN " K = " C + 273
(3) FAHRENHEIT " F = ("C + 40) -40
5
(4) RANKINE "R="F+460

RADIANT EMITTANCE
(5) w = WATTS/SQ CM Total emittance, W0-- for various emissivities
(6) WATTS/SQ IN. (emissances) and in various units
(7) BTU/SQ FT/HR

SPECTRAL EMITTANCE
(8) WAma = WATTS/SQ CM/MICRON Spectral emittance at hmax with e = 1.
A h AT MAXIMUM
W.
Multiplying (8) by (9) gives spectral emittance at
X withe = 1.
A
Multiplying (5), (6) or (7) by (10) gives W, d h
0
for any given emissivity used in (5), (6) or (7).
(11) MAX vs h Wavelength hpm at which W, is a maximum.
(Note: This is maximum energy flux per unit
wavelength interval. It is not maximum photon
flux per unit wavelength interval.)
(12) WAVES/CENTIMETER This scale converts A max to F,, = X-Aax .

IRRADIANCE
INCIDENT ENERGY IN WATTS/CMZ Multiply (11) by source area (cm') t o find
FOR 1CMZ SOURCE AT INDEX irradiance H at ranges from 1 meter t o 1000
TEMPERATURE nautical miles.
vs
RANGE (CENTIMETERS)
(NAUTICAL MILES)

TRANSMISSION SPECTRA OF THE Transmission coefficient t vs wavelength h over

ATMOSPHERE 2000 YD (1SEA MILE) 1 nautical mile horizontally at approximately
OF 17 MM PRECIPITABLE WATER 80% relative humidity, 80°F. This graph is inde-
pendent of index temperature setting.

PHOTON EMITTANCE
(15) PHOTONS/SEC/CMZ Total photon flux for a blackbody at index
temperature.
(16) PHOTON ENERGY AT Ama IN E=----.--
hc in electron-volts.
ELECTRON VOLTS ' m a
There is also a C,D scale slide rule for simple calculations.

2-14
FIGURE 2-5. The GE Radiation Calculator

2-15
2-3.5.2 Sam& Calculations Determine the total amount of radiant
energy falling below each wavelength
The following sample problems are stated and by integrating Planck’s equation over
solved by direct calculation or by using the GE the interval A = 0 t o each given wave-
Radiation Calculator, length (A = 2.5 or A = 3.0).The answer is
Example 1 the difference between the two radiant
quantities.
Setup: A blackbody being used for testing is
2.Solution (using the GE Radiation Calcu-
set to a temperature of 1000°C. (A
lator) :
blackbody aperture of 0.6 in. dia
Set the CENTIGRADE pointer of the
(approx. 2/n in. dia) is assumed.)
TEMPERATURE scale to 1000°C posi-
Problem A: Calculate the radiant emittance tion. Observing the W0-h scale which
of the blackbody. WO-..
1. Solution (by direct calculation): indicates the “Percentage increment, of
a. Convert “C to “K: energy falling below any wavelength for
1000°C = 1000 +273 a blackbody at temperature T”, note
= 1273°K that 45 percent falls below 3p and 31.5
b. Using the formula for the Stefan- percent falls below 2.511.
Boltzmann Law:
W = oT4 Since the total energy = 14.9 w cm-’
= 5.67 X lo-’’ X (1273)4 WA = 14.9 X (0.450- 0.315)
Answer: W = 14.9w cm-’ = 14.9 X 0.135
2.Solution (using the GE Radiation Calcu- Answer: Wh = 2.00 w cm-’ (approx.)
lator) :
ProblemD: Determine the wavelength at the
Align CENTIGRADE pointer of TEM- point of peak radiation of the
PERATURE scale with 1000 scale indi- 1000°C source.
cating W = WATTS/SQ CM. Since the
radiation source is a blackbody, read the 1,Solution (by direct. calculation) :
indication at 1on the EMISSIVITY scale. Using Wien’s Displacement Law:
Answer: W = 14.9 w cm-’ - 2897
ProblemB: Calculate the radiant power of
La, --T (OK)
the source. - 2897
--
Solution (by direct calculation): 1273
a. Convert aperture size in inches to area Answer: A, = 2.27~
in cm’ .
A =nr’ 2. Solution (using the radiation calculator):
=n );( Retain TEMPERATURE at the same
setting. Read MAX point on Wo-h scale.
1
A = sq in. wo 4

Since 1sq in. = 6.45 cm’ A, = 2.2711

Example 2
A = 2.05 cmz
Setup: An oxidized steel graybody is heated
b. Using the formula for radiant power as
to 2000°K.
a function of radiant emittance:
Problem: Calculate the radiant emittance of
P = WA (all other factors remain- the object.
ing constant)
= 14.9w cm-’ X 2.05 cmz 1. Solution 1 (by direct calculation):
Answer: P = 30.6 w a. Calculate the blackbody emittance of
Problem C: Calculate the spectral radiant 2000”K using the Stefan-Boltzmann
emittance Wh in the wavelength Law.
interval between 2.5 and 3 p . W = o P
1. Solution (by direct calculation): W = 90.8w cm-’

2-16
 b. Using emissance tables, determine the 24.1 EXTINCTION COEFFlCl ENT
emissance Of Oxidized steel. ( e Of The spectral transmittance t(X) through a
oxidized steel = 0.8).
path x of uniform atmosphere is
c. Transpose the formula for emissance:
t ( h ) = exp [ - K ( h ) x ] (2-36)

= 0.8X 90.8 where K(X)is the extinction coefficient at the

W = 72.6 w cm-' discrete wavelength h. K ( h ) is the sum of the
Solution 2 (using,the radiation calcu- molecular absorption coefficient a ( h ) and the
lator): scattering coefficient P(X). Thus Eq. 2-36 can be
written as
Set the KELVIN pointer to the 2000"
position. The radiant emittance at the
0.8 position of the EMISSIVITY (emis-
0 )= exp { - [ 0 0 )+ P@)l x 1
= exp [ - a ( h ) x ] + exp [- P ( h ) x ]
sance) scale is approximately 72 w cm-'.
(2-37)
Example 3
The scattering and absorption coefficients, and
Setup: The irradiance H at a point 5 f t from a therefore the extinction coefficient, depend on
radiation source is 20 w cm-2. wavelength, atmospheric density, and the atmos-
Problem: Determine the irradiance at a point pheric composition. Care must be used when
20 f t from the source (disregarding applying Eqs. 2-36 or 2-37 since the properties
atmosr>hericattenuation). of the atmosphere, and hence its absorption,
may change over the path x . To account for
Solution (using the Inverse Square Law): these changes, Eq. 2-36 can be written in inte-
gral form as

= 2 0 M
If a finite wavelength interval, A h = Xz - h , is
considered, then the average transmittance t in
Hz = 1 . 2 5 cm-'
~ the interval A h is

2 4 ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION
(2-39)
In passing through the atmosphere, infrared
energy is attenuated before it is detected and
measured. The two main causes of attenuation
are molecular absorption by several minor con- Eq. 2-39 implicitly contains Eq. 2-38 and is hard
stituents of the atmosphere and scattering due to evaluate exactly. Therefore, various approxi-
to the presence of particles of matter in the mations to Eq. 2-39 are used, depending on the
atmosphere (aerosols). Molecular absorption wavelength region and attenuating medium con-
occurs mainly in several more or less narrow sidered. In certain cases, either scattering or
absorption bands, and is due to the ability of molecular absorption is negligible, and one need
certain molecules to go from one state of only consider one attenuation process. Since the
vibration-rotation to another, thereby absorbing transmittance due to scattering is a slowly
(or emitting) a photon. In addition, scattering varying function of wavelength, it will often be
causes attenuation of an incident beam of justified to take that part of the transmittance
radiation because in the scattering process the due to scattering out of the integral and replace
energy is redistributed into all directions of it by an average value, especially if the interval
propagation and lost to the observer. A , - Xz is small.

2-17
2-4.2 MOLECULAR ABSORPTION

2-4.2.1 Absorption Coefficient

Radiation traveling through the atmosphere
undergoes attenuation, defined here by absorp-
tion coefficient a, which is a function of the
wavenumber ij (or wavelength X = l/q. The
transmittance of a beam of light passing through
a given amount of absorber w in the atmospheric
path is given by

t(q = exp [ - a p ) w ] (2-40)

For gases, the units of a (v)and w are unusual.
The generic term for the units of w is “absorber
content”, a unit of length. The simplest absorber
content unit is the “atmosphere-kilometer”. An
atm-km is one kilometer of pathlength through
the atmosphere at standard temperature and
pressure with the “normal” amount of absorber
presentsuch as 0 3 , C 0 2 , H 2 0 , etc. Since
“normal” is difficult to ascertain, the atm-km is
usually normalized t o the “atmosphere-
centimeter”. The atm-cm is one centimeter of
pathlength at standard temperature and pressure
(STP) through the absorber alone. For example,
“normal” atmospheres contain 3X parts by
volume of C 0 2 . Thus 1 atm-km of air with the
normal amount of C 0 2 is equivalent to 30
atm-cm of C 0 2 alone.
Water vapor is still further normalized to
“precipitable-centimeters”. Water vapor in units
of precipitable centimeters is the thickness in
centimeters of the water along the path if it
were condensed to liquid. Thus

w(pr-cm) = (pathlength in cm) X [ p ( H2 0 vapor) in g ] (2-41)

Water vapor concentration is also found in

units of g(HzO)/kg(air) at STP, called mixing
ratio. The conversion from g/kg to
pr-cm(H2O)/km(pathlength) is

g(H2O) - p ( a t m l [ pr-cm (H2 o)J

35.2 [- (2-42)
kg(air) T( K) km(pathlength
The dimensions of a are (absorber content)4
such as (atm-km)4, (atm-cm)4, (pr-cm)4. Note
that these are actually units of reciprocal length.
The wavenumber dependence of the absorp-
tion coefficient a is extremely complex in the
IR. IR absorption bands consist of many narrow

2-18
absorption lines each corresponding to a partic- lations of exact line positions on a high-speed
ular transition of the absorbing molecule from computer" . Computers are programmed
one vibration-rotation state to another. Trans- to perform high-resolution transmission calcu-
mission calculations will usually rely on band lations which can then be averaged to provide
models which take into account the band transmission curves for lower resolution. A
structure parameters such as line width, spacing detailed discussion of this method is contained
between lines, and line intensities. in Ref. 10. The application of this method to
There are three basic methods of calculating H20 and C02 transmission is described in Refs.
atmospheric absorption values. The first requires 11 and 12. The second method entails esti-
high-resolution spectral data or theoretical calcu- mating, from a theoretical standpoint, the

-
co

100 I I 1 I

cH4
.Inn
IUU
I , I* , , 1

100,
0

100 I I , W I ! I 1 1

0 7 0
c02

100 1 L

I'III I '
I 1 I I I 1 I
I I I
8000 5000 3000 2000 ' 1400 1000 800

WAVENUMBER (crn- '

)
t I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
WAVELENGTH (1)

FIGURE 2-6. The Near-infrared Spectra of Solar Irradiation and of CO, CH4, N20, 03, COz, and H2O

2-19
average transmission in a small wavelength inter- monoxide (CO), and methane (CH4). Fig. 2-6
val containing many absorption lines as a illustrates the IR transmission characteristics of
function of certain band parameter^'^ . The the atmosphere due to these constituents. Be-
numerical values of the band structure param- tween 14 microns and the microwave region of
eters can be determined from experimental the spectrum, water vapor is a strong absorber
observations, and the resultant absorption and practically no transmission would be appar-
effects then determined for any path length. ent in this region. Ref. 14 surveys the measure-
This method is particularly useful for estimating ments of concentration of the minor absorbing
medium-resolution (APX 10 to 50 cm-4) trans- constituents in the atmosphere.
mission curves and provides the envelope of the For most problems of practical interest, at-
absorption bands rather than their fine struc- mospheric concentrations of CH4, CO, N20,
ture. The theory behind this method is discussed and COa are assumed to be constant. Small
in par. 2-4.2.3,while the data and its application variations of a few percent occur for COz,
are considered in par. 2-4.2.4.The third method especially near the groundIs . Concentrations of
involves the use of formulas which are derived NzO, CO, and CH4 are found to be the most
empirically to fit available data. It is applicable variable (deviations ranging from 50 to 100%are
to low resolution systems for which the spectral not unusual). However, because of the relatively
bandpass completely encompasses one or more low density of these minor constituents, the
molecular bands. These formulas, which can be variation does not significantly affect transmis-
used to predict transmissions for a wide range of sion calculations. The concentration of ozone,
conditions, are also presented in par. 2-4.2.4. which is variable, peaks between the altitudes of
20 and 30 km where it is produced through the
2 4 2 . 2 Absorber Constituents
photodissociation of oxygen by ultraviolet
Molecular absorption in the atmosphere is radiation16 . Ozone diffuses and is convected
primarily due to carbon dioxide (COz ), water downward by atmospheric turbulence and
vapor (H20), and ozone ( 0 3 )Other
. minor winds" . Upon reaching the ground, it reacts
constituents which also contribute to the ab- upon organic materials. Ozone can also be
sorption include nitrous oxide (N a 0), carbon created near the ground due to various chemical

Summer - Autumn minimum

Winter when 0 i s r i s i n g
17 3

E
24
v
40 sprin;: maximum
Average ozone
0.282 c m -
1
0.308 c m ---
0.356 cm -
10

2 6 10 14 18 22 26
-1
OZONE x cm km

FIGURE 2-7. Seasonal Variation of the Vertical Distribution of Ozone

2-20
agents. Typical ozone profiles are shown in Fig. content cease to decrease. Good measurements
2-7. Total ozone content depends on latitude of water vapor content above the tropopause are
and season (Fig. 2-8). difficult to make because this content is so
The water vapor concentration is highly vari- small. It therefore is not surprising that the
able, especially near the ground. The water measurements above the tropopause seldom
agree. It is assumed that the volume mixing ratio
vapor profile is closely related to the tempera-
of water vapor above the tropopause is either
ture profile of the atmosphere. These two
constant (dry stratosphere) or increases as the
profiles (temperature and mean H20) for the
temperature rises (wet stratosphere).
Gutnick" standard atmosphere are presented in
Fig. 2-9. The third profile included in Fig. 2-9
corresponds to a saturated atmosphere. The Table 2-5 lists the mean values of absorber
water vapor content decreases rapidly with concentrations in the atmosphere and the ab-
altitude up to the tropopause (= 12 km) above sorber content along a 1 km pathlength at sea
which both the temperature and the water vapor level.

I I I a I a I I a I I L

FIGURE 2-8. Annual Variation of Total Ozone for Each 10' of N. Latitude

2-2 1
 -
z
0
L4
- i!
W
0
co
hl
rl
0 0
I-
hl
Water Vapor Profile in the Atmosphere
0
\o n
hl rl
0
m rl
hl 0
0
\
0
3
hl
0
m
N

\
i-l
--.
0
0
0
N
hl
-. 0
0
rl
hl
0
0 d
hl 0
0
0
0
m 0
2-22
 TABLE 2-5. ABSORBER CONCENTRATIONS I N THE ATMOSPHERE

MOLECULAR MASS, CONCENTRATION, CONTENT IN 1 KM PATH

REF. CONSTITUENT AT SEA LEVEL
G/MOLE % BY VOLUME

15 0 3 48 Variable 1- 5X atm-cm
(10")
44 3.2x lo-' 32 atm-cm
18 Variable 0.1 - 2 pr-cm
(1- 10-3)
14 CH, 16 1.7 x 104 1.6 X lo-' atm-cm
14 co 28 1.2 x 10-5 1.2X atm-cm
15 Nz 0 44 5 x 10-5 5 X atm-cm

2-4.2.3 Absorption Models where

The theoretical models used for the computa- S = line intensity, (absorber units)-' - cm-'
tion of medium resolution transmission (AP = 10 y = half-width at half maximum, cm-'
to 50 cm-') are discussed in the following ijo = position of centerline, cm-'
paragraphs:
The Lorentz line shape is shown in Fig. 2-10.
2-4.2.3.1 - Absorption Due t o a Single Line The integral of ~ ( i j ) Over all wavenumbers is
2-4.2-3.2- Absorption Due to an Assembly equal to the line intensity S. The line half-width
of Independent Lines y depends on the pressure P and the absolute
2-4.2.3.3 - The Elsasser Band Model temperature T as1'
2-4.2.3.4 - The Goody Model
2-4.2.3.5- Other Less Frequently Used
Models
2-4.2.3.6- Selective Absorption of Plume
Y = Yo (g)(.)l'z (2-44)
Radiation

2-4.2-3.1 Absorption Due to a Single Line For most H z O and COz lines at STP, yo ranges
from 0.03 to 0.15 cm-' .
In the lower atmosphere, all lines constituting
an IR band are assumed t o have the Lorentz line
shape for which the absorption coefficient is The Lorentz line shape, arising from molec-
given by ular collisions, is valid only for low altitudes.
Above 30 km, the line shape for COz and H20
become Gaussian'S For COz it is questionable
(2-43) whether the wings of Eq. 2-43are valid even at
low altitudes, i.e., when ( i j - Po)'% y .

2-23
 ABSORPTION COEFF I C IENT
2 -1
(atm-cm )

WAVENUMBER
i3 O+Y

FIGURE 2-10. Lorenn Line Shape

The total absorption aAV in a band A D centered

at o0 a n d due to a single Lorentz line viewed
through a constant temperature, constant pres-
sure pathlength containing an amount w of
absorberis

(2-45)

where OL represents the average absorption over

the interval AP. If AP By, then Eq. 2-45 can be
approximated by

(2-46)

Although Eqs. 2-45 and 2-46 can be evaluated in

terms of Bessel's functions" , it is more usual to
make weak and strong line approximations.

2-24
 n
The weak line approximation corresponds to
pathlengths and line intensities such that the (weak lines)
i = l
exponent at the center line Sw/ny is much less
than one. In that case, the exponential can be ( 2-50)
expanded in a power series. Keeping only the ( .Z
t = l
(SiYiw)l”L (strong lines)
first two terms, the integral then easily yields
If the lines have an average line strength S and
aAP = Sw, cm-’ (2-47) an average spacing d in cm-’, then the average
absorptance is
Thus, for the weak line approximation, the total
absorption depends linearly on pathlength w.
In the strong line approximation S w / n y S 1,the
a =/
(Y- (weak lines)
(2-51)
line saturates for several half-widths about its
center. The absorption is so great that only on ?
()’”, (strong lines)
the wings of the line can any shape be seen.
Since (0-3 ) %y2 before the exponential be- 2-42.3.3 The Elsasser Band Model
comes important, the y’ in the denominator of The Elsasser absorption band model22 is
the exponent can be dropped. Eq. 2-46 is then comprised of a series of regularly spaced, iden-
integrated to give* tical Lorentz lines. It is applicable to the IR
bands of symmetric top molecules23; i.e., CO,
~ A =P2 ( S y ~ ) “cm-’
~, (2-48) COZYN2, CH4. The lines comprising the IR
Thus, for the strong line approximation, the bands of these molecules are evenly spaced.
total absorption depends on the square root of Their intensities, however, vary?’. Hence only
pathlength w. portions of the bands can be represented accu-
rately by the Elsasser model. The absorption
For pressures less than 1 atmosphere, and for coefficient of an Elsasser band is obtained from
most IR absorption bands of interest, the lines Eq. 2-43 by summing over all the lines. The
constituting the bands may be considered as average absorptance in an interval containing
strong under path conditions resulting in any
appreciable absorptance (20% or more). The
noted exception is ozone whose lines cannot be
assumed to be strong even at 25 km altitude
r*
many lines, in the strong line approximation
1)is found” to be

except for very long pathlengths. (2-52)

24.2.3.2 Absorption Due to an Assembly

of independent Lines
where the error function (erf) is defined as
x

If the total absorption of a band is due to the erf(x) = - S e - t 2 d t

sum of the total absorptions of the lines in the 6 ’
band, then the lines are considered
independent” . Thus independent means where d is the spacing between lines. Eq. 2-52 is
n n
r t d is much
valid only if the overlap p a r a m e t e 2ny
CVAP= ,Z (AAP).=,Z a i A P (2-49)
r = l I r = l
smaller than 1. The error function is tabulated in
Summed over all n lines in the band. The many standard mathematical tablesx*”. A fit of
individual lines themselves may be either strong H2 0 transmission measurements to the error
or weak and still may be independent. Thus function is shown in Fig. 2-11. If the argument

~~

* The integration is done by: (1) letting x = 6-v,;

1 is referred to as the overlap parameter because it
( 2 ) changing to y = -; ( 3 ) inserting an integrating fac-
tor in exponent; (435 differentiating with respect to (Y; contains the ratio of the line half width 7 to the
(5.) integrating with res ect to y; and, (6) integrating (average) spacing between lines d and expresses the
with respect to (Y over t i e range 0 to 1. extent of “overlap” between lines.

2-25
of the error function is much smaller than 1, any appreciable absorption (a w 20% or greater
there is little overlap between lines and Eq. 2-52 for most bands at sea level). Therefore, Eq. 2-52
reduces to is valid in most cases of interest. When the con-
,
I \ sw
d syw (2-53) dition - S 1does not apply, the transmittance
d
will be a function of the two parameters- 2nY and
Thus, the absorptance varies proportionately d
with the square root of the path length. The s_d (Ref. 22). Table 2-6 lists these band parameters
condition 2ny Q 1 holds for the IR bands of
d for C 0 2 transmission. The coefficient 7 o that
CO, C02 , N2 0, CH, if the pressure is less than 1 appears in Table 2-6 is defined by Eq. 2-44 and
sw corresponds to a pressure Po= 1 mm of Hg and
atmosphere. The condition - S 1will hold for to a temperature To= 300°K.
ny

I I I I I

PRESSURE -

12 00 1600 2 000

.,
12 00 1600 2 000

WAVENUMBER (cm-l)

FIGURE 2-11. The 6.3-micron Band of HzO

2-26
 TABLE 2-6. BAND PARAMETERS S/d AND Pnydd FOR COz

WAVELENGTH, p S/d 2nyo *

d
2.6434 O.33OOE-03 ** O.4550E-05
2.6504 .1600~-02 -37503-04
2.6674 .37 0 0too ~ -135D-03
2.6724 .5000~too -5OOOE-03
2.6738 .500m+oo - 6 3 0 0-03
~
2.6802 .550OE+oO .1000E-02
2.6831 .8800~+00 -6136E-03
2.6882 .8600~too -32563-03
2.6911 .5400~+00 .3611~-03
2.6940 .8800~ too -29553-03
2.6969 .5200~t00 .625OE-03
2.7027 .7000E N O ,49293-03
2.7086 .7400~+00 - 37843- 03
2 7137 , 6 2 0 0 t00
~ 71773-03
2.7211 .4400E+oO .8864~-O4
2.7322 .1500~too .66673-O4
2 7397 .2 5 0 0-~01 .6000~-03
2 74-73 .7600~-01 -98683-03
2.7548 .3600~too -72223-03
2 7579 .5 500E t00 054553-03
2.7609 .5800~+00 439m-03
2.7663 .5300EtOO -2453E-03
2.7685 .3300E+00 -2455E-03
2 7739 .260m too .923 1E-03
2 7778 .4200E -1-00 .6667~-03
2.7801 .47OOE+OO 57453-03
2.7855 .4400~to0 -37503-03
2 7917 .290OE+OO .2414E-O3
2.7941 .1600~+00 -35OOE-03
2.8027 , 1 3 0 0 too
~ -26923-03
2.8129 .7000~-01 .1200~ -03
2.8153 .3700E -01 -15683- 03
2.8177 .2700E -01 .1444E-O3
2.8241 .1700~-01 -1176E-03
2.8281 .~OOOE-02 .33OOE-O3
2.8345 .3000~-02 .5167~-03
2.8433 -3900E-02 .504D-03
2.8514 .3300E -02 .5000~-03
2 J3555 .2400E -02 .5417E-03
2.8620 .1000E-02 .4500E-03
2.8686 .3000E -04 -32333-02
2.8’752 . OOOOE-tOO .0000E+00
2 8810 . OOOOEto0 . OOOOE to0
4.149~
4.1580
. OOOOE+OO
.26003-03
. OOOOE N O
.1000~-05
4.1670 .5900~-02 -5000E-05
4.1750 .2400E +OO .8000E-04
* The values in this column correspond to a pressure of 1 mm Hg.
For sea level conditions the values in this column should be multiplied by 760.
** 0.33003-03= 0.3300 x 10”.

2-27
 TABLE 2-6 (Continued)

S/d
2nY 0 *
WAVELENGTH, p d
4.1840 0.99403-01 0.1815~-02
4.1930 .98003too .7368E-03
4.2020 .50463+01 .7632E-03
4.2llO .1464~+02 .8026~-03
4.2190 .2728~+02 .1158~-02
4.2280 .3363~+02 .1500~-02
4.2370 .3363Eto2 -15533-02
4.2460 .2562~+02 ~605~-02
4.2550 .1344E+02 .1684E-O2
4.2640 .23163to2 .1576E-O2
4.2740 .259ato2 .14213-02
4.2830 .2472E+02 -1355E-02
4.2920 .20703to2 .121lE-02
4.3010 .1698~to2 .1435E-O2
4.3100 .1219Eto2 .1263~-02
403190 .7300Eto1 .13163-02
4.3290 .50003to1 .1316~-02
4.3380 .29153+01 -14483-02
4.3480 ,20203-to1 .1342E-02
4.3570 .1298E-t01 .14483-02
4.3670 .68603too -12903-02
4.3760 .37623+oo .1302~-02
44860 .4599E+00 -82893-03
4.3960 .60903+00 55273-03
4.4050 .5890~+00 .50003-03
4.4150 .5610~too .4342E-O3
4.4250 .3833Etoo .480OE-03
4.4350 .2496EtoO -685I1-03
4.4440 .18553+00 .9218E-03
4.4540 .8624E-01 .1013~-02

* The values in this column correspond to a pressure of 1 mm Hg.

For sea level conditions the values must be divided by 760.

2-28
 2-4.2.3.4 The Goody Model
The statistical, or Goody, absorption band
modelz6$ *' is best suited for asymmetric top
moleculesz3, such as ozone and water vapor,
whose line positions appear randomly distrib-
uted within a band, and whose line intensities
vary widely. This model assumes that both
absorption line positions and intensities must be
specified by probability functions. The absorp-
tion in an interval A 0 is then calculated by a
statistical averaging process. The selected inter-
val AF must be sufficiently large to give validity
to statistical averaging. However, since the statis-
tical properties of an absorption band will
usually vary from one absorption region of the
band to another, the A F interval selected must
not be too large. It is assumed that there is equal
probability of finding a line centered at any
wavelength inside the interval AP; that all lines
have the same half width 7 ; and that the
normalized probability of a line having intensity
S is p ( S ) .
If the line intensities have an exponential
distribution with average value S o , then p ( S ) =
1
[
- exp - :0] and the average absorptance in
so
the interval A P is found to beab

where d is the average space between lines.

If the line intensities are all equal,

(2-55)

When the lines saturate at their centers, Eqs. 2-54

and 2-55reduce to

&=I-
*- (2-56)

When there is little overlap between lines,

and Eq. 2-56is reduced to Eq. 2-53.

2-29
 The band parameters relevant to the Goody lines. If the emitting gas is the same as one of
the minor constituents of the atmosphere (C02
model Eqs*2-54and 2-56are S and so**These
2rr or H2 0 , for example), the target radiation will
parameters for HzOand O3 are tabulated in Ref. be subjected to selective absorption by the
14.These values for Hz0 are reproduced in Table atmosphere. The result will be higher average
2-7(for sea level conditions). The coefficient y o absorptance for this radiation than for black-
that appears in Table 2-7 is defined by Eq. 2-44 body radiation. If the emitter is sufficiently hot
and corresponds to a pressure Po = lmm Hg and (T > 600°K for C 0 2 and T > 1200°K for H20),
to a temperature To = 300°K. or thick enough so that its emissance approaches
one; then (1) this selective absorption of the
2-4.2.3.5 Other Less Frequently Used Models
atmosphere will be small2*; (2)the emitting gas
Other band models developed are variations may be assumed to radiate as a graybody insofar
of those mentioned above and do not differ as transmission calculations are concerned; and
sufficiently to justify a detailed discussion here. (3)the results of the previous paragraphs may
then be applied.
The random Elsasser model is a model in
which several Elsasser bands with different line 2-4.2.4 Absorption Calculation
spacings and intensities overlap in a given wave-
length interval. In order to apply the theoretical analysis of
par. 2-4.2.3to the actual calculation of molec-
In the doublet model, one considers the ular absorption in the atmosphere, two more
absorption due to two Lorentz lines of the same points need examination: (1)spectral location
intensity which overlap. and bandwidth of detection system, and (2)
The Curtis model is a variation on the Elsasser conversion of actual paths through the atmos-
band model in which the line intensities are not phere to equivalent sea-level paths.
equal. The ideal situation would be that in which the
Another model takes into account occasional spectral resolution of the detection system is the
gaps which may occur between lines in a band same as that of the laboratory data available.
and which have a strong influence on the The direct use of laboratory data is then
transmission behavior of the band for very long possible. But this is rarely the case. In general,
paths. In this model, a gap of varying width one must refer to laboratory data of higher
between two random arrays of lines is consid- resolution than that of the detection system. If
ered and the transmission characteristics are the bandwidth of the system is larger than 50
related to the gap width. cm-' , the band models discussed in par. 2-4.2.3
can be used to calculate the (average) transmit-
The quasi random model is the most compli- tance at each wavenumber inside the bandwidth
cated in that it takes into account the fact that of the detection system and the average trans-
lines are neither uniformly spaced nor com- mittance over the band can be derived by
pletely randomly spaced. A detailed knowledge averaging. If the spectral bandwidth of the
of the band structure is required and the aid of detecting system is so large that it completely
an electronic computer is essential". encompasses one or more absorption bands,
Most of the band models are discussed in Ref. transmission calculations can be simplified by
13. calculating the total absorptions of the bands
2-4.2.3.6 Selective Absorption of Plume Radiation rather than the absorptances at each wavelength.
The previous discussion applies only to the The narrow band absorption data to which
absorption of graybody radiation. In some appli- band models can be applied are discussed in par.
cations, however, the emitter (target) is a hot gas 2-4.2.4.1.The use of wideband absorption data
(i.e., plume or flame radiation), and the emission for the determination of total band absorption is
spectrum is composed of many narrow emission presented in par. 2-4.2.4.2.Justification for the
use of equivalent sea-level paths and their
method of calculation are given in par. 2-4.2.4.4.
*Note that the overlap parameter 9 is the ratio of Some sample problems are worked out in par.
these two parameters. 2-4.2.4.4.

2-30
 Extensive tabulations of C 0 2 , and H2 0 trans- pressed in Table 2-9.) The experimental data on
mittances for various atmospheric paths and COz at 2.7 microns in Fig. 2-12 is fitted to an
absorber contents have been compiled”~’2’29. error function curve.
Ref. 14 contains a description of a computer
program which can be used for calculating
transmissions between 1and 20 microns.
24.2.4.1 Narrow-band Absorption Data
Narrow-band absorption is that for which the
spectral resolution of the measuring instrument
2-4.2.4.2 Wide-band Absorption Data
is 10 to 50 cm-’ . This resolution is sufficiently
narrow such that only a small portion of an Wide-band absorption is that which is meas-
absorption band is measured, but sufficiently ured by an instrument with a spectral bandwidth
wide such that the theoretical considerations of completely encompassing an absorption band.
par. 2-4.2.3 (Absorption Models) apply. A great For example, if all lines of a given band are
amount of laboratory data on absorption by between the wavelength limits of 1.75 and 2.00
COZ2’, H 2 0 3 0 , and by other minor atmos- microns, the wide-band absorption would be
pheric c o n ~ t i t u e n t s ~ ~except
* ~ ’ ozone are avail- measured by an instrument with a spectral
able. Unfortunately, only little laboratory data passband between 1.5 and 2.5 microns. To avoid
on ozone are a ~ a i l a b l e ~.~Other. ~ ~ data for the problems with instrument passband width,
atmosphere as a ~ h o l e 3 ~ are * ~ available
~ for which for the above-mentioned band could
sea-level paths of various lengths. extend in width from 0.25 micron to infinity,
wide-band absorption is measured in absolute
units, microns. An absorption of 0.1 micron
Many attempts have been made since the would mean that the integrated absorption in
publication of laboratory data29*30931to fit the the band would be equivalent to total absorp-
data to the band models discussed here. Tables tion in a 0.1-micron interval. Thus, for the 1.75-
2-8 and 2-9 give a summary of the data and to 2.00-micron band above, total absorption can
references to investigators who reduced the data. range from 0 to 0.25 micron. The wide-band
absorption data for the various bands of carbon
dioxide and water vapor are listed in Tables 2-10
The band parameters derived for C02 and and 2-11. These tables list the effective pressure
Hz 0 from the experiments in Refs. 29 to 31 are p , as total pressure plus the absorber partial
listed in Tables 2-6 and 2-7. From these param- pressure. For atmosphere transmission problems,
eters; it is possible to calculate the coefficients the absorber partial pressure can be neglected.
entering in Eqs. 2-52 (C02 ) and 2-54 (H2 0),and
to compute the transmission at any wavelength
if the amount of absorber w is known.
2-42.4.3 Atmospheric Windows
An example of the data available on the As illustrated in Fig. 2-6, attenuation by the
6.3-micron vapor band, taken from Ref. 30, is atmosphere is weak in the following window
shown in Fig. 2-11. The curves in the figure regions:
represent absorption across the band for a single
water-vapor path-length as a function of total
pressure. Table 2-9 from Ref. 14 lists the
absorption bands and absorption data source Microns
references. 1 - 1.1
1.2 - 1.3
An example of the use of these data for 1.5 - 1.8
finding the transmission curve is given in Fig. 2.1 - 2.4
2-lz3*. (Note that units on the abscissa of Fig. 3.5 - 4
2-12 are expressed in “atmospheric kilometers” 4.5 - 5
rather than “atmospheric centimeters” as ex- 8 - 14

2-31
 TABLE 2-7. BAND MODEL PARAMETERS S/d A N D S/(27~7o1 FOR Hz 0

WAVELENGTH, p S/d W ( 2 n y o )*
2.16000 O.7030E-03** 0.8675E-tOO
2.18000 -9430E-03 .1157~+01
2 .20000 .16803-02 .207&+01
2.24000 75903-03 .9356E+OO
2.28000 .3070E-01 .37913+02
2 43100 -56503-01 ,6790~1-02
2 *33645 .56603-01 .68003+02
2.34192 .79303-01 .821m +02
2 44742 .79803-01 ,7880342
2.35294 .839~-01 .8240~+02
2 a35849 .88203 -01 .8640~+02
2.36407 .
g3lOE-01 .86703 to2
2 936967 .9893-01 .9270E t o 2
2 -37530 .1040E to0 .9910E+02
2 -38095 .lOgOEtO0 .9920E+02
2.38663 .1150~too .1030Eto3
2 -39234 .1210E+00 .1050E to3
2.39808 .1250~too .1050E+03
2.40385 .95803-01 .5260~+02
2.40964 .13 TOE to0 .9790E to2
2.41546 too
.1500~ .1030E+03
2.42131 .1620~+00 .9810~+02
2.42718 .1860~+00 .1060~ to3
2 43309 .2180~+00 .1320E +03
2.4392 .2490E +00 .1690~to3
2.44499 .2910~+00 .1760Eto3
2.45098 .397OE1OO .249EtO3
2.45700 .6460~too .43gOE+03
2.46305 .7490E a 0 .4850E+O3
2.46970 .43803+01 .5110E+05
2.47400 .2 530Eto1 .2320~+05
2.48020 .6650~+01 to5
.2110~
2.48320 .5280~to1 .3920E to5
2.48760 .56303 to1 .3140E+05
2.49380 .lOOOE -1-02 .215OE+05
2.50130 .9860~+01 .1670E +05
2.50500 .1030~+02 50903+05
2.50880 .1590~t02 .3630E+05
2.51180 .13903+02 .30 70E +O 5
2.51890 .26003to2 .2480~+05
2.52400 .34503+02 .1730~+06
2.52840 .5 1 6 0to2
~ .9290E+05
2.53610 .92003+02 .1150~+06
2 53940 .72203 to2 .1030~+06
2.54450 .14ME+03 .1520~+06
2 54970 .9060~+02 .5650~+06
2.55620 .1120E -1-03 .27oo~+o6
* The values in this column correspond to a pressure of 1 mm Hg.
For sea level conditions the values in this column should be multiplied by 760.
** 0.70303-03= 0.7030 x lo".

2-32
 TABLE 2-7 (Continued)
WAVELENGTH, p S/d S/(2nro I*
2.56280 0.1410Et04 0.6690~+07
2.56610 .45703+03 .8500~+06
2 57070 -25903+03 .1310~+06
2.57730 .23203+03 .1150~ +06
2.58400 .8130E+03 .1300~+07
2 58930 .5 980E4-03 .78803+06
2.59200 .1020E+04 .1310E+07
2 59740 .2880~ +03 .1310~to6
2.60210 .4950E+03 .20203+06
2.60890 .2940E+03 .u70~+06
2.61440 .40 TOE 4 3 .1360~+06
2.62190 .2 51OEto3 .17403+06
2.62880 .238OE+03 .6220~+05
2 63370 ,96503+02 .4gOOE 4-05
2.63990 .1260~to3 .5670E+05
2.64340 .1130E to3 .70303+05
2.65040 .1930E+03 .7880E+05
2.66740 .6180~4 3 .1530E+06
2.67240 .4890~+03 . i i g o +06
~
2.67380 .6090~+03 .1850~+06
2.68020 .30503+03 .80403+05
2.68310 .3090E+03 .8640~+05
2.68820 .21503+03 .7070E+05
2.69110 -2590E43 .7980E a 5
2.69400 .3070E+03 .8880~+05
2.69690 .1470E+03 .4340E +O 5
2.70270 410E4 3 .4830E+05
2.70860 .2490E-t03 .3050E+05
2 71370 .2130E+03 .1200~to6
2.72110 57903+03 .3090~+06
2.73220 .1240~+03 .7180E4 5
2 73970 .4950E+03 .2020~ to6
2 74730 9 139034-03 .6 15034-05
2.75480 .2780E+03 .68go~+05
2.75790 .27303+03 .1100~+06
2.76090 .2660~+03 .1520~+06
2.76630 .2940E+03 .66 gOE -to5
2.76850 .25003+03 .6640~+05
2 77390 .1710E+03 .6460E+05
2 77780 . 1900~+03 .7200E -to 5
2.78010 .1800~ +03 .7630E+05
2.78550 .2300E+03 .8460E+O5
2 79170 .1130E+03 .62703 +05
2.79410 .87403+02 .4970E+05
2.80270 .2 5 50E to3 .1320~+06
2.81290 .1ooo~to3 .1150~+06
2.81530 .1050E+03 *917OE+05
2.81770 .1360E 4 3 .92303+05
* The values in this column correspond to a pressure of 1 mm Hg.
For sea level conditions the values must be divided by 760.

2-33
 TABLE 2-7 (Continued)
WAVELENGTH, p Sld Sl(27Vo )*
2.82410 0.81703+02 0.1300~+06
2.82810 .6~0~+02 .9380E +05
2.83450 .1070~+03 .6000~+05
2.84330 .37403+02 .62403+05
2.85140 .6000E+02 .5740E+05
2 085550 .80303+02 ~5
.6 8 8 0+0
2.86200 .3870Eto2 .34goE+05
2.86860 .28303+03 .52OOE+O5
2 .&7520 .1500~+02 .1800E+05
2 87770
9 .14903+02 .1600~+05
2.88100 .1500~+02 .17803+05
2.88600 .15b~+02 .7930E+04
2.89440 .5910E+01 .8930E+04
2.90280 .3890~+02 *5700E+05
2.91040 .8030~4 1 .1130~to5
2.91460 .8730~+05 .1070E+05
2.91630 .8160~+01 .15 50E +05
2.92400 .26003+02 .2480~+05
2.93080 .4140E+01 .49203+04
2.93260 .3 8 1 0to
~1 .97103+04
2 94120 .7170E+01 .66 1OE+04
2.94810 .15603+02 .30203+05
2 95070 .l2103+02 .5430E+O5
2 095510 .1160~+02 .1720E+05
2.96120 .2320~-@1 .247aE+04
2.97180 .1570E+02 .1240E+05
2.97620 .134aE+02 .2 130E+05
2 98950 .2050~+01 ,6270344
2 99400 .81803 +01 .1630E+05
3.00300 .6850~-@1 .30OOE+05
3 -00750 .8010~+01 .8370E -@ 5
3 *Ol3go .4740E+01 .15OOE -1-05
3.02110 .1120E+02 .920E+04
3.02480 .77203+01 .52203+05
3.03030 .8140~+01 .14gaE+05
3 003580 .9810~+01 .66 50E-@4
3 -03950 .84303+01 .24503+05
3 .04410 .1010E+02 -239aE+05
3.04880 .1679~+02 .1770E+O5
3,05340 .7600~+01 .321OE-t05
3.06000 .828~~to1 .19403+05
3 006750 .968OE+01 .1190~+05
.
3 07220 .7190~+01 .4480E+05
.2 lgOE +05
3 -07790 .I280342
3.08360 .7030E+01 .1050E+05
3.08830 .88603+01 .701OE+04
3.09410 .8630~+01 .3130E+05
3 -0989 .62503+01 .4gOOE+04

* The values in this column correspond to a pressure of 1mm Hg.

For sea level conditions the values must be divided by 760.

2-34
 TABLE 2-7 (Continued)
WAVELENGTH, p S/d S/(2W, )*
3 *lo750 0.9860EN5 0.1660~~5
3.11620 .6430E+01 .1150~+06
3.12110 .9780~+01 .14403+05
3.12500 .8120~+01 .9550E+04
3 -12990 .2200E+01 .24803+04
3.13480 .1420E+01 .1470E+04
3 13970
9 .76 70Ei-O1 .9380E+04
3.14470 .7100~+oi .7250E+04
3 914960 .42803+01 .3540E+04
3~ 5 4 6 0 .924O3+00 .8140E+03
3-15960 .4570E+OO .2300E+03
3~ 6 4 6 0 .2700~+00 .1260~+03
3 -16960 .2290~+00 .1020~+03
3.17460 .426OE+OO *33003+03
3 017970 .1300~+01 .l3lOE-t04
3.18470 .1560~+01 .u80~+04
3~ 8 9 8 0 .734OE+01 .80 1OE+04
3 *J-9490 .1130~+02 .1380E+05
3.20000 .l l O O E4 2 .76gOE+04
.80703+04
3 .20510 .1000E+02
3.21030 .1290E+02 .1100E+05
3.21540 .l l l O E + 0 2 .1000E+0 5
3.22060 .1290E+02 .1070E +05
3.22580 .1450~+02 .7960E+04
3.23100 .l l l O E + 0 2 .642OE+04
3.23620 .8 78013+oo .526m+03
3.24150 .48703+01 .8410E+O4
3.24680 .1020E+02 .1400~+05
3.25200 ,647OEi-OO .5070E+03
3 025730 .4350E+O1 .9140E +04
3.26260 .1500~+02 .461OE+O5
3.26800 .3330E +01 .467OE+04
3.27330 .64oo~+00 .415oE+03
3 -27870 .1210E+01 .1070E+04
3.28400 .64703+00 .5820Eto3
3 028950 .1940~+01 .361OE+04
3 29490 .1480E+02 *1590E+05
3 -30030 .8470E+o1 .8880~+04
3 -30580 .5 16o~+01 .464oE-t04
3 -31130 .3830E+01 .bgOE+04
3 31670 .2010E+01 .386aE+04
3 32230 . .1370E+01 .15603+04
3 32780 .1710~+oo .9100~+02
3 33330 .lOgoE+Oo .6100~to2
3 33890 .45603+00 .5050E+03
3 -34450 .1870E+01 .27803+04
3 -35000 .28803+00 .16703+03
3 035570 .5690~+00 .505OE-t03
* The values in this column correspond to a pressure of 1 mm Hg.
For sea level conditions the values must be divided by 760.

2-35
 TABLE 2-7 (Continued)
WAVELENGTH, p S/d S/(21rf0 I*
3 36130 0.5300E+01 0.9430Ei-04
3 -36700 .1120E 4 1 .1150E+04
3 037270 .1130~ t01 .10g0E+04
3 037840 ,202OE +00 .13 10Et03
3.38410 .8970E+00 .
l220E 4 4
3 -38980 .1790E+01 .222OE&
3 39560 .1730E+01 .215OE+04
3.40140 .2 480E +oO .16403+03
3.40720 .1680~ +oo .1030E+03
3.41300 .8310~+00 .1050E+04
3.41880 .717OE+OO .8840E4-02
3.42470 .3320E 4 0 .2800~ +03
3 043050 .2030~ 40 .13303+03
3.43640 .3060E +oo .1980E -1-03
3.44230 .529OE-t00 .5510E+03
3.44830 .2090EtOO 1590E 4-03
3. b5420 .1720~-too .9160~+02
3.46020 .1130~+00 .5260~+02
3.46620 . l l l O E +00 .83603+02
.1600~t03
3.47220 .22803+00
3 '47830 . l l w E +oO .5210~+02
3.48430 -5310E-01 .361 0t02~
3 *4g040 .8090~-01 .44603+02
3 49650 .1130~+00 .7350~t02
3.50260 . g14q-01 .7050E+02
3.50880 .884O3-01 .38303+02
3 51490 .86203-01 .35203+02
3.52110 .1290E+OO .4770E 4 2
3 52730 .8300~-01 .5230E 4 2
3 53360 .83g0~-01 .54O0~+02
3 53980 .8380~-01 .52703+02
3.54610 -52503-01 .3780E+02
3 55240 .1490E+OO .6220~+02
3 55870 .7630E-01 .4830E+02
3 56510 -439E-01 .2310~+02
3 57140 .15 50E 4-00 .53103+02
3 57780 .1300~+00 .7100~+02
3.58420 .114OE+OO .78303+02
3 59070 . lgOOE 4-00 .
U70E 4-03
3 59710 ,32803-01 .3 700E+02
3.60360 .42603-01 .4600E+02
3.61010 .76803-01 .&70~t02
3.61660 .383OE-O1 .26203+02
3.62320 .34703-01 .4360EtO2
3 .62980 .59203-01 .5 410E 4 2
3.63640 .49903-01 .4O60~+02
3.64300 .3820~-01 .2830E+02
3 .64960 5970E-01 .314o~t02
3 965630 .4700E-01 .36 5 0+02
~
* The values in this column correspond to a pressure of 1 mm Hg.
For sea level conditions the values must be divided by 760.

2-36
 TABLE 2-7 (Continued)
WAVELENGTH, p S/d S / ( 2 n y 01"
3.66300 0.55703-01 0.62903 4 2
3 -66970 .3 7 8 0 +00
~ .2020~+03
3 *67650 .39203+00 .10TOE +03
3 .a320 .1420E 4 0 .41803+02
3.69000 .8360~ -01 .2240EtO2
3 69690 .5330E-01 .1730E +02
3 70370 .3 540E-01 .25go~+02
3.71060 .55803-01 .4O30~t-02
3 71750 -35303-01 .3110~+02
3.72440 .2320~-01 .3 740E+02
3 73140 .6800~-01 .5990E+02
3 73830 .5100~-01 .426O3+02
3 74530
9 .5890~-01 .1230E+03
3 75230 .6220~-01 .5 7 6 0+02
~
3.75940 .5880~-01 .4920E +02
3 76650 .2320~-01 .3890~+02
3 77360 .442OE-O1 .43903+02
3 78070 .7120~-01 .52503+02
3 78790 .2710~-01 .54203+02
3 79510 -22903-01 .2650~+02
3.80230 .5940E-01 .47403+02
3 080950 .4120E -01 .4130E 4 2
3.81680 e2190E-01 .2760~ -1.02
3 .82410 .348OE- 01 .3410E +02
3.83140 -47803-01 .3 550E +02
3.83880 .2030~-01 .29703+02
3.84620 .2070~-01 .2980~+02
3 a85360 -3790E-0 1 .3000~+02
3.86100 .2900E-01 .2920~ to2
3.86850 .1940E-01 .3000~+02
3.87600 .2380~-0 1 .3280~ to2
3 -88350 .3 18m-01 .2620~+02
3.89110 .2400E -0 1 .33 50E 4 2
3.89860 .1940E-01 .4070E+02
3.90630 .22203-01 .2830~+02
3 91390 .2270~-01 .24503+02
3.92160 .2 7 0 0 -~01 .3 510E +02
3 92930 .I S O E - 0 1 .55003+02
3 93700 .2120E-01 .2 770E +02
3.94480 .2010E-01 .3 1 8 0+02
~
3 95260
9
.2230~-01 .5290~ +02
3.96040 .1960~-01 .3 4 0 0 +02
~
3.96830 - 2120E-01 .3 420E 4 2
3 97610 .1940E-01 .3 8703+02
3.98410 .234O~-01 .5750E+02
3 99200 .2180~-01 .387OE+02
4 .ooooo .244OE-O1 .3930E -102
4.00800 .211OE-O1 .4200E+02
4.0 1600 .2OOOE-O1 .41203+02

* The values in this column correspond to a pressure of 1 mm Hg.

For sea level conditions the values must be divided by 760.

2-37
 TABLE 2-7 (Continued)

WAVELENGTH, jt S/d S/(2flr, )*

4.02400 0.2090E-01 0.4160E42
4.03200 .3400~-01 .6320~+02
4 .04000 .25 TOE -0 1 .468OE 4 2
4.0490 .2150~-01 .41903+02
4.05700 .22603 -01 .409OE+02
4.06500 .2200E-01 .4000E+02
4.07300 .49703-01 .7810~+02
4 a8200 .3280~-01 .5280~+02
4.08900 .2200E-01 .39lOE+02
4.09800 .2610~-01 .3880~+02
4.10700 .4970E -01 .73203+02
4.11500 .9700E-01 .1660~+03
4.12400 .2490E-01 .38703+02
4.13200 .23L.o~-01 .41603+02
4.14100 .3 i g o-01
~ .47703+02
4.14900 -
.2 7 4 0 ~01 .3870E 4 2
4.15800 .2380~-01 .3770E +02
4.16700 .256o~-01 .48 1OEa 2
4.17500 -3550E 01 - .5820~+02
4.18400 .49O3-01 .6110~+02
4.19300 .27503-01 .39103+02
4.20200 .2800~-01 .357OE+02
4.21100 -2530E-01 .lco50~+02
4.21900 .536OE-O1 .69703+02
4.22800 .1170E+00 .20 TOE 4 3
4.23700 .3 480~,-01 .3700E+02
4.24600 .336OE-O1 .3860~+02
4.25500 .29803-01 .33603+02
4.26400 .3190~-01. .3490E+02

* The values in thm column correspond to a pressure of 1 mm Hg.

For sea level conditions the values must be divided by 760.

2-38
 TABLE 2-8. SUMMARY OF BAND-MODEL METHODS FOR COMPUTING
ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION 14

AUTHOR GAS BAND MODEL WAVELENGTH RANGE, p EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Bradford co2 Elsasser 4.184 - 4.454 Bradford, McCormack, and Selby

(Ref. 36)
Thomson and co2 Elsasser 4.0 - 4.5 Theoretical
Downing
Elsasser Empirical 11.77 - 18.2 Cloud, Howard, et al. (Ref. 30)
Statistical 4.39 - 250 Palmer, Howard, et al.
Empirical 8.85 - 16.4 Summerfield, Walshaw (Ref. 32)
Elsasser -
2.64 2.88 Burch, e t al. (Refs. 29, 31)
4.15 - 4.52
Statistical 1.08 - 4.0 Burch, et al.; Howard, et al.;
4.0 - 5.0 Stull, Wyatt, and Plass
Elsasser 4.36 - 4.74 Burch, et al.
Statistical 3.02 - 4.16 Burch, et al.
Statistical -
4.4 5.0 Burch, et al.
Altshuler Empirical 1.0 - 15.0 Howard, et al.
Statistical 1.0 - 9.0 Howard, et al.
9.1 - 20.0 Taylor and Yates (Refs. 34, 35)

20 40- Palmer, et al.

40 - 250 Stanevich
Elsasser -
4.4 16.5 Strong (Ref. 33)
Elsasser 3.8 - 18.0 Shaw
Zachor (a) Elsasser -
1.0 5.3 Howard, et al.
(b) Two overlapping 1.0 - 5.3
Elsasser bands
 TABLE 2-8. (Continued)

AUTHOR GAS BAND MODEL WAVELENGTH RANGE, p EXPERIMENTAL DATA

0 3 Elsasser 9.3 - 10.2 Walshaw, et al.

Howard, Burch, Hz 0 Statistical 1.0 - 10.6 Howard, et al.
and Williams
Carpenter COZ Elsasser 4.167 - 4.51 Theoretical
Lindquist Hz 0 Statistical 1.0- 9.2 Howard, et al.
Green and Griggs COZ Statistical 1.0 - 10.0 Howard, et al.
Burch, e t al.
Statistical 1.0- 10.0 Howard, et al.
Burch, et al.
Statistical 9.3 - 10.2 Walshaw, et al.
Statistical 4.4 - 4.6 Burch, et al.
Statistical 3.15 - 3.45 Burch, et al.
Statistical 4.15 - 4.85 Burch, et al.
Stull, Wyatt, Quasi-random 1.0 - 20.0 Theoretical"
and Plass
Quasi-random 1.0 - 20.0 Theoretical*
Elder and Strong Empirical 0.7 - 5.9** See appropriate paragraph
Stauffer and Walsh Empirical 14 - 20 Stauffer and WalshjSA

* The results of Stull, Wyatt, and Plass were normalized against the laboratory data of Howard, et al. for each absorption band.
** The results of Elder and Strong give average window transmission for seven windows in the wavelength range.
 TABLE 2-9. SUMMARY OF LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS OF HOMOGENEOUS-PATH ABSORPTION SPECTRA"

OBSERVED RANGE OF
INTERVAL, PRESSURES* RANGE OF NO. OF RESOLUTION?
GAS BAND, p cm-' mm Hg ABSORBER, w** CURVES APPROX. RESEARCHERS

CO, 1.6 & 1.4 6000 - 7200 75 - 760 540 - 8100 13 0.12p Howard, et aL30
2.0 4600 - 5400 10 - 760 108 - 8630 32 0.9p Howard, et al.
2.7 3300 - 4100 1- 755 11- 1619 67 0.07~ Howard, et al.
2.7 3450 - 3850 14.2 - 2065 0.164 - 24.4 32 10 - 15 cm-' Burch, et al.'"
4.3 2200 - 2450 3.8 - 2115 0.0108 - 22.8 53 5 - 10 cm-' Burch, et al.
4.3 & 4.8 2000 - 2500 1- 735 9 - 1570 43 0.1p Howard, et al.
4.3 2250 - 2450 38 - 760 1.0 - 300 10 10 cm-' Bradford%
5.2 1800 - 2000 10 - 735 104 - 1570 9 0.lp Howard, et al.
9.398 & 10.41 900 - 1100 103 - 3800 4 8 - 11,200 25 5 - 10 cm4 Burch, et al.
720 - 875 103 - 3800 305 - 11,200 14 5 - 10 cm-' Burch, et al.
15 500 - 900 20 - 745 1- 863 37 0.5~ Howard, et al.
495 - 875 0.26 - 3190 0.0118 - 2470 30 5 - 10 cm-' Burch, et al.
HzO 1.1 8250 - 9500 9.8 - 740 0.03 - 1.93 41 0.13~ Howard, et al.
1.38 6500 - 8000 3 - 740 0.026 - 3.85 62 0.12p Howard, et al.
1.875 4000 - 6000 3 - 740 0.026 - 3.85 62 0.1p Howard, et al.
1.875 4950 - 5800 27.5 - 862 0.0033 - 0.101 14 20 cm-' Burch, et al.
2.7 & 3.2 2800 - 4400 2 - 750 0.017 - 2.1 114 0.07~ Howard, et al.
2.7 3000 - 4300 27.5 - 862 0.0033 - 0.101 5 20 cm-' Burch, et al.
6.3 1000 - 2200 2.5 - 742 0.021 - 1.49 69 0.4~ Howard, et al.

* Pressure designated is generally the equivalent ressure.

** w is expressed in precipitable centimeters for $20 and in atmospheric centimeters for the other gases.
$ Resolution specified is ordinarily center-band resolution and is used only to give an approximate designation.
 TABLE 2-9. (Continued)

OBSERVED RANGE OF
INTERVAL, PRESSURES,* RANGE OF NO. OF RESOLUTIONt
GAS BAND, I./ cm-' mm Hg ABSORBER, w** CURVES APPROX. RESEARCHERS
~ ~ ~~ ~~

HZO 6.3 1200 - 2200 14.0 - 805 0.0041 15 6 cm-' Burch, et al.
200 - 500 0.76 - 600 0.0041 - 0.143 5 - 10 cm-' Palmer
0 3 9.6 1000 - 2560 11.2 - 744 0.00278 - 1.968 7 cm-' Walshaw"
CO 4.666 2000 - 2250 1 - 3210 0.00096 - 22.2 147 25 cm-' Burch, et al.
2.347 4100 - 4400 54 - 756 36.6 - 1140 26 15 - 20 cm-' Burch, et al.
CH4 3.311 2700 - 3200 2 - 3085 0.015 - 188 88 25 cm-' Burch, et al.
6.452 & 7.657 1100 - 1800 3.8 - 3050 0.026 - 188 86 10 cm-' Burch, et al.
NZO 4.0 2400 - 2650 22.4 - 746 0.38 - 18.6 8 20 cm-' Burch, et al.
4.5 2100 - 2300 1.0 - 3120 0.00016 - 76.4 177 25 cm-' Burch, et al.
4.5 2100 - 2300 99.8 - 849 0.01 - 2.3 65 Abels"
7.78 & 8.57 1100 - 1400 3.2 - 3035 1.37 - 46.7 11 10 cm-' Burch, e t al.
14.45 & 16.98 500 - 800 4.5 - 851 1.89 - 359 7 6 cm-' Burch, et al.

* Pressure designated is generally the equivalent ressure.

** w is expressed in recipitable centimeters for $2 0 and in atmospheric centimeters for the other gases.
t Resolution specifped is ordinarily center-band resolution and is used only to give anapproximate designation.
 rABLE 2-10. WIDE-BAND ABSORPTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE

Band and Limits Total Absorption (aAB in p-’ ) Remarks

; - 18.511
1 5 ~11.7 - 0.15 + 1.24 log w + 1.06 logp, Also see Refs. 29,31
10.4~and 9.4~ For data see Ref. 29
5.05 - 5.35~
5.2~; 6.5 X lo-’ w1fzp:4 Also see Ref. 31
4.65 - 5.05~
4.8~; 2.75 X lo4 w”’ pt3’ Also see Ref. 31
4.0 - 4.65~
4.3~; 0.051 + 0.063 log w + 0.058 logp, Also see Refs. 29,31
2.66 - 2.82~
2.7~; - 0.100 + 0.056 log w + 0.050 logp, w < 4 atm-km
- 0.126 + 0.078 log w + 0.067 log pe w > 4 atm-km
- 0.012 log w logp, Also see Refs. 29,31
1.92 - 2.111
2.0~; + 1.97x 104 p:39 Total absorption < 0.02~
- 0.2144 + 0.0552log w + 0.0456 logp, Total absorption > 0.02~
Also see Ref. 31
1.611;1.52 - 1.66~ 1.61 X lo-’ wlf2 pt38 Also see Ref. 31
1.38 - 1.47~
1.4~; 1.14x 10-5 W I I p~ y 1 Also see Ref. 31

NOTE: 1.All logs t o the base 10.

2. w = atm-cm; p, = mm Hg.

2-43
 TABLE 2-11. WIDE-BAND ABSORPTION OF WATER VAPOR

Band and Limits Total Absorption (aAP in P-' ) Remarks

6 . 3 ~4.75
; -8.7~ 1.21 + 0.87 log w + 0.62 logp, Questionable validity for
w < 0.001 pr-cm or
pe < 10 mm Hg.
Also see Ref. 31
3 . 2 ~3.08
; - 3.57~ 0.041 w1I2pO,.j Also see Ref. 31
; - 3.08~
2 . 7 ~2.3 0.23 w ' I 2 p0,.32 Valid for total absorption
<0.15~
0.246 + 0.180 log w + 0.109 logp, Valid for total absorption
> 0.15~
Also see Ref. 31
1.8711; 1.67 - 2 . 0 8 ~ 0.053 w '12p,0.3 Valid for total absorption
< 0.097
0.0445 + 0.0810 log w + 0.0505 logp, Valid for total absorption
> 0.097
Also see Ref. 31
1.381.1; 1.19 - 1 . 5 6 ~ 0.0304 w1I2p,"j Valid for total absorption
< 0.067
0.0384 + 0.0875 log w + 0.0376 logp, Valid for total absorption
> 0.067
1 . 1 ~1.05
; - 1.19~ 0.003 7 5 w ' I 2 p216
0 . 9 4 ~ 0.89
; - 1.00 0,00335 w 1f2p,0.27

NOTE: 1.All logs to the base 10.

2. w = pr-cm;p, = mm Hg.

2-44
 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10

CARBON D I O X I D E PATH LENGTH X (ATMOSPHERIC KILOMETER)

FIGURE 2-12. Experimental Fit of Butch and Williams Data to Error Function Absorption at 2.7 Microns

By far the largest window extends from 8 to 1 4 may exist in the window and is only important
microns. Elder and Strong3’ and Streete3’* for short paths. The continuum absorption
have related the wide-band transmission in each coefficient a is the sum of the contributions of
window to the amount of water vapor in the all the distant water vapor lines in the neigh-
path. Their data should be used with caution boring bands and is a slowly varying function of
since it is difficult to eliminate the effect of aero- wavelength. The measurements of Ref. 39
sol scattering (especially at wavelengths less than clearly show the effect of the exponential in Eq.
5 microns) from absorption due to water vapor. 2-57 and the exponential variation of transmit-
The transmittance inside a window region is tance with w. Careful measurements in the 8- to
expected to vary as follows: 14-micron window have been performed in Refs.
40 and 41 to separate the effect of water vapor
t = (1- C@) exp [-(aw+ pax)](2-57) absorption from aerosol scattering. A plot of a
in Eq. 2-57 vs wavelength h is shown in Fig.
where 2-13. Transmission curves in the 8- to 14-micron
C = constant to be determined window taking into account all these effects can
a = continuum absorption coefficient due to be found in Ref. 42. Recent unpublished meas-
water vapor urements by Burch indicate that absorption due
w = amount of water vapor in the path to water vapor in the 8- to 14-micron window is
0, = aerosol scattering coefficient strongly dependent on water vapor partial pres-
(par. 2-4.3.1) sure. Thus at altitudes above a few kilometers
X = path length where this partial pressure is down by an order
of magnitude as compared to sea level, absorp-
The second term on the right hand side of Eq. tion due to water vapor should be negligible.
2-57 is due to the few water vapor lines that This should apply also to the other windows.

2-45
T 14
WAVELENGTH (MICRON )
FIGURE 2- 13. Variation of Continuum Absorption Coefficient vs Wavelength
2-4.2.4.4 Equivalent Sea-level Path To evaluate the integrals in Eqs. 2-58 and
2-59,it is necessary to-know {(h), T(h), and
The problem of atmospheric absorption is
p ( h ) . A discussion of absorber concentration was
complicated by the fact that in most cues the
given in par. 2-4.2.2 and { ( h ) can be obtained
paths considered are paths along which the from Table 2-5.A typical temperature profile is
tempratures and pressures The discussion given in Fig. 2-9and the pressure, which can be
and in the previous paragraphs Only assumed to decrease exponentially with altitude,
to the case of constant pressure and temperature is given by
paths.
p = exp (- h/7.5),atmospheres
2-4.2.4.4.1 Equivalent-pad, Absurp tion Calculations
where h is in km and 7.5 km represents the
It is possible under certain conditions, how- average scale length of the atmosphere.
ever, to reduce a slant path through the atmos-
phere to an equivalent sea level path in which In the case of the Goody model, it can be
pressure and temperature are constant. The that the absorptance is given by an
reduction can be easily justified if either the equation analogous to Eq. 2-54which holds in
weak line or the strong line approximation both the weak and the strong line limits.
holds2’ . If the line intensities are not too
dependent on temperature, the results are as
follows:
(1) Weak Line Approximation:
The equivalent absorber content is w
given by where 5 is defined by Eqs. 2-59and 2-60,and w
by Eq. 2-58.
(2-58)
2-4.2.4.4.2 Equivalent-path Absorber Contents
A typical atmospheric measurement situation
where { ( h ) is the absorber concentration
is illustrated in Fig. 2-14,in which observer A, at
(atm-cm km4 ), h is the altitude (km), and 8 is
the zenith angle. The absorptance will be given an altitude hl , views object B, at altitude h z ,
along a slant path, at zenith angle 8. The exact
by the first of Eq. 2-50.
calculations of absorber content along this path
(2) Strong Line Approximation: are quite complex. There are certain simplifica-
The pressure and temperature corrected tions however, which, for most problems, will
absorber content in a slant path is defined by43 permit rapid estimates of absorber contents to
be made. If the zenith angle 8 is less than 85
deg, the curvature of the earth can be ignored
and absorber contents estimated by dividing
vertical path contents by cos 8. Values for w
(uncorrected curve) and 6 (pressure-corrected
and the average pressure in the path is curve), for a vertical path extending from any
- w altitude to a point outside the earth’s atmos-
P = w (2-60) phere, may be obtained from Fig. 2-15for any
gas with constant mixing ratios (COz, CH4,
etc.). Values for w and W are given in atm-km
where p ( h ) is the pressure in atmospheres at
but may be converted to atm-cm by using Table
altitude h, T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin
2-5. Water vapor w and ;values can be obtained
and w is given by Eq. 2-58. Transmission
from Fig. 2-16for a dry model atmosphere and
through a slant path can then be obtained from
a wet model atmosphere4’ .
any of the models discussed above (see the
second part of Eqs. 2-50 and 2-56)either by Another situation which lends itself to sim-
replacing w wherever it occurs by Lo, or by plified calculations involves slant paths near
replacing y by yp where y is the line half-width horizontal and path altitudes which vary only
at sea level. slightly (they can only occur for path lengths

2-47
less than 100 km). In this case, for a uniformly h = path altitude, km
distributed absorber such as CO, , w, = absorber content for the same path length
at sea level
W = w,exp [- 1~17.51 (2-62) Absorber values w for ozone and water vapor
may be approximated from Figs. 2-7 and 2-9,
and
respectively. It should be understood, however,
that values for any actual problem can vary
W = w,exp [-2617.53 (2-63) considerably from those given in these figures.
Approximate values for W for ozone and water
vapor can be obtained by multiplying the w
where values by exp (- h/7.5).

FIGURE 2-14. Geometrical Relation Between Observer A and Object B

2-48
\ UNCORRECTED: w

\ PRESSURE
CORRECTED: i
\

ABSORBER UNIFORMLY D1ISTR

10 20 30
ALTITUDE (km)
FIGURE2-15. I R Absorber Conrenr Above a Given Altitude

2-49
 Next Page

0.1

0.001

0.0001

ALTITUDE (km)
FIGURE 2-16. Water Vapor Content Above a Given Altitude

2-50
 CHAPTER 3

IR SYSTEM COMPONENTS*

3-1 INTRODUCTION a. Long wavelength IR (LWIR) multi-sensor

arrays and associated electronics attained the
level of development which now makes possible
The various major components and tech- thermal mapping of terrestrial expanses in the 8-
niques which enable active as well as passive IR to 14-micron region. The use of LWIR arrays in
systems to emit, focus, detect, and process IR space for object detection and in satellite
signals for any of a number of end uses are communication systems represents a major
discussed here. The interrelated functions of the achievement in space technology.
individual components when joined to form a
variety of standard as well as specialized IR
systems are then analyzed in Chapters 4 and 5 . b. Cryogenic electronics have been developed
for use in processing the output of high-sensivity
A thorough understanding of the function of LWIR sensors. This electronic advancement is
these components is essential in order to make treated here in the context of the components
possible the economical design of an operation- discussion and in AMCP 706-128 in terms of
ally optimum IR system. The functional rela- systems application.
tionship of the major disciplines of IR tech-
nology and the associated design specialties are
indicated in Fig. 3-1. The essential elements used c. Other components such as lasers, illumina-
in IR systems are identified and discussed in the tors, and displays are discussed in fairly detailed
following paragraphs within this chapter: form because of their novelty and the increasing
interest in their application. The advent of the
lasers and, especially, the recent development of
3-2 Optics high-power IR lasers has opened new frontiers in
3-3 Emitters and Illuminators optical range finding and detection. The relative
3-4 Detectors novelty of lasers, compared to other IR compo-
3-5 Cooling Systems nents, is responsible for the lack of detailed
3-6 Signal Processing published data on the subject; consequently, a
3-7 Data Display and Recording comprehensive discussion is included here as the
3-8 Testing IR and Associated Equipment preface for the design criteria discussion on laser
3-9 Ancillary IR Components and EM1 systems. The remaining material included in the
Rejection Techniques lasers chapter appears in current IR publications;
however, an attempt is made here to update that
material by including any new significant devel-
An attempt is made in this chapter to update opments.
information previously published regarding these
components and techniques. Specifically, recent
technological advancements in the following d. The requirement for real-time observation
areas are thought to merit special attention: of high data-rate IR information in performing
surveillance and tactical tasks has prompted
detailed discussions of display systems,
man-machine interface considerations, and
human engineering techniques. These are dis-
cussed partly in this chapter and partly in Chap-
*Written by K. Seyrafi. ter 5.
- --+-
mas
I

lUWS

FIGURE 3- 1. Functional Relationship of the Major Disciplines and Associated Design Specialties
3-2 OPTICS 1. Metal-backed epoxy mirrors can be success-
fully fabricated by a molding (replication)
3-2.1 OPTICAL MATERIALS technique. Aspheric surfaces‘ can be readily
produced, thereby, resulting in components
3-2.1.1 Material Types which are generally adequate for condenser
systems.
3-2.1.1.1 Refractive Materials

Infrared transmitting materials include various

types of glass, crystals, and plastics. In the glass 2. Polystyrene has a large number of stable
category are the oxide (regular optical, high narrow absorption bands in the IR region. This
silica and fused quartz, and special oxide glasses) characteristic makes it an excellent standard in
and nonoxide materials. Although physically the form of thin sheet for wavelength calibration
suited for IR applications, the transmission of IR spectrometers and related instruments.
range of oxide glasses is limited t o wavelengths
of 6 microns or less. Oxide glasses usually The index of refraction for all commercially
exhibit absorption in the 2.7- to 3.3-micron available plastics ranges between the limits 1.49
region due to the water content in the material; for Lucite or Plexiglas to 1.59 for polystyrene.
however, some “water free” types have been
developed. Nonoxide glasses which transmit to
longer wavelengths (some to 20 microns) tend to
be softer and have lower softening points.
Significant improvements are being made in the 3-2.1.1.2 Reflective Materials
nonoxide chalcogenide (sulfur, selenium, and
tellurium) glasses’ . Results of investigations of
many combinations and variations of glasses are The limited selection of suitable IR transmit-
reported in some of the open literature listed in ting materials along with limiting size considera-
the bibliography. tions have promoted the use of reflective ele-
ments in IR systems. Substrate materials used
Crystalline materials can be either single include fused quartz, Pyrex, low-expansion
crystalline or polycrystalline. The single crystal fused silica, glass-ceramics and metals (especially
materials have been used primarily at the longer beryllium and aluminum). Vacuum-deposited
wavelengths, but available size, cost, and unsuit- aluminum is most frequently used as a reflective
able physical properties have been limiting fac- coating, although silver, gold, copper, and rho-
tors in many engineering applications. The num- dium are also effective. Protective coatings of
ber and size of polycrystalline materials have silicon monoxide or magnesium fluoride, which
increased significantly during recent years. may also increase the reflectivity of the primary
Among these are chiefly IRTRAN* materials coating, are usually applied.
made by Eastman Kodak and KRS-5 materials.
Beryllium, stainless steel, aluminum, and
Plastic materials, in general, are considered fused quartz are used in fabricating mirror
unsuitable for use as optical components in IR substrates for cold optical devices which must be
instruments-mainly because of poor mechanical cooled to cryogenic temperatures t o avoid be-
properties, low scratch resistance, temperature coming performance-limited due t o background
instability, instability due to water absorption, photon fluctuations. From a thermal standpoint,
and difficult surface finishing characteristics. the mirror substrate material must have high
The following exceptions should be noted: thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity
characteristics and, if possible, low thermal
capacity. These combined characteristics deter-
mine the ease with which the optical element
can be cooled to the required operating tem-
*ITRAN is a proprietary name of Eastman Kodak C o .
for optical materials which transmit in the 3-5 and perature and maintained in a thermal gradient-
2-14p bands. free condition.

3-3
 TABLE 3 - 1 . SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL IR MATERIALS

MATERIAL WAVELENGTH (MICRONS) % WATER EXP

REFRA HDNS SP
REFL SOLUB COEF
INDEX KNOOP GR
LOSS g/100g 6
η io- /°c

POTASSIUM
1.49¬
DIHYDROGEN 7 33 2.34
1.51
PHOSPHATE (KDP)

AMMONIUM
1.47¬
DIHYDROGEN 8 36.8 1.80
1.50
PHOSPHATE(ADP)

3.0
40 5.3
at 2μ

7¬ 1.45¬ 300¬ 4¬ 2.5¬

INSOL
20 1.98 600 10 36

1.334
4 88 19.2 12 2.26
at 0.67μ

3.789
51 INSOL 6.9
at 2.0μ

1.438
6 INSOL 1600 0.55 2.20
at 2.0μ

1.624
11 .0014 3 Moh 25 2.71
at 2.0μ

CALCIUM
1.63
10 ALUMINATE 11 600 8.3 3.07
at 2μ
GLASS
 TABLE 3 - 1 . SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL IR MATERIALS (Continued)

MATERIAL WAVELENGTH (MICRONS) % WATER EXP SP

REFRA HDNS
REFL SOLUB COEF
INDEX KNOOP GR
0.5 1.0 2 5 10 20 30 50 LOSS g/100g 10-6/°C
η

SPECIAL
OXIDE 1.8 3.0¬
15 INSOL >400 8-10
GLASSES at 2μ 6.0

SPINEL
12 (MgO- 1.724
13 INSOL 1140 5.9 3.61
3.5A1 0 )
2 3
at 0.66μ

TITANIUM
13 I DIOXIDE 2.399
29 INSOL 890 7-9 4.26
(TiOj)(Rutile) at 2.0μ

SAPPHIRE
13 1.73 5.8¬
W | INSOL ~1700 3.98
(A1 0 )2 3 at 2.2μ 7.7

STRONTIUM
2.21
15 I TITANATE 25 595 5.12
at 3.4μ 9. 4
(SrTi0 ) 3

INDIUM
16 I ARSENIDE 3.4
46 INSOL 5.3
(InAs) at 6μ

LEAD
17 I SULFIDE 4.10
54 8.6x10" 5
7.5
(PbS)(£ilm) at 3.0μ

LEAD
18 I SELENIDE 4.5
58 INSOL 18.4 8.1
(PbSe)(film) at 2.2μ

LEAD
19 I TELLURIDE 5.35
64 8.16
(PbTe)(film) at 3μ

LANTHANUM
201 FLUORIDE 1.82 MED
16 INSOL 5.94
(LaF ) at 0.58μ HARD
3
TABLE 3-1. SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL IR MATERIALS (Continued]

WAVELENGTH (MICRONS) EXP

HDNS SP
COEF GR
WOOF
10-6IOc

64 0 11.5 3.58

2.3 Moh 16.75 6.24

415 16.6 3.17

400 5.9

690 13.8 3.57

110 3.7 2.64

3 Moh 22.0 6.34

MED 3.98
HARD

4.5 Moh 20.6 4.35

160 22 3.18
 TABLE 3 - 1 . SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL IR MATERIALS (Continued)

MATERIAL WAVELENGTH (MICRONS) % REFRA WATER EXP

HDNS SP
REFL INDEX SOLUB COEF
KNOOP GR
20 30 50 LOSS η g/100g 6
io- /°c
STRONTIUM
FLUORIDE 1.439
31 6 .0117 4 Moh 4.28
(SrF ) at 0.58μ
2

CESIUM
32 FLUORIDE 1.478 .367
7 3.59
(CsF) at 0.59μ at 18°

IRTRAN 3
1.300
33 (Polycrys. 3 .0017 200 24 3.18
at 10μ
CaF )
2

IRTRAN 2
(Polycrys. 2.151
34 24 INSOL 354 6.8 4.09
ZnS) at 13μ

INDIUM
3.0
35 PHOSPHIDE 40 at 10μ
(InP)

ZINC
36 SULFIDE 4.1
(ZnS)(film)

INDIUM
3.95
37 ANTIMONIDE 52 5.5
at 1 0 μ

(InSb)

CADMIUM
2.56
38 TELLURIDE 32 4.5 6.2
at ΙΟμ
(CdTe)

POTASSIUM
39 FLUORIDE 1.361 92.3
5 2.48
(KF) at 0.57μ at 18°

IRTRAN 1
1.34 10¬
40 (Polycrys. 4 .0076 576 3.18
at 4.87μ 12
MgF )
2
 TABLE 3-1. SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL I R MATERIALS (Continued)

MATERIAL

I 0.5 1.0
WAVELENGTH (MICRONS)

2 5 10 20 30 50
%
REFRA
INDEX
n
WATER
sOLUB
gmog
HDNS
KNOOP
EXP
COEF
10-6/0c
SP
GR

3.42 INSOL 1150 4.15 2.33

at 5 . 0 ~

1.45 0.12 82 15-18 4.03

at 5 . 2 ~

3.135
INSOL 5.7
at 1 0 ~

POLYETHYLENE

POLYMETHYL 1.49
7 6.3 1.19
METHACRYLATE at .6p

1.65
0.064 2 00 8.24
at 4 . 0 ~

2.30
at 1 . 2 ~ INSOL 122 4.2 4.82

2.41
INSOL 125 24.6 3.2
at 5 . 0 ~

1.27
4.2 60 36 2.79
at 8 . 0 ~

1.93 6.2~10-~ 3.53

 TABLE 3-1. SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL IR MATERIALS (Continued)

7. WATER EXP
REFRA HDNS SP
REFL SOLUB COEF
INDEX KNOOP GR
LOSS g/100g 6
η io- /°c

2.310
51 27 INSOL 150 7.5 5.27
at 20μ

521 INSOL

53 INSOL 5.81

2.48
54 31 INSOL 34
at 5.0μ

1.638
55 11 91 3.20
at 0.61μ

1.765
56 14 180 3.67
at 0.65μ

4.001 5.5¬
57 52 INSOL 6.25 Moh 5.327
at 16μ 6.5

58 1.495
8 36 15.2 44 3. 16
at 10.Ομ

1.95
59 19 INSOL 9.5 30 5.59
at 15.0μ

60 2.45
30 36.8 4.26
at 2.5μ
r; TABLE 3-1. SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL IR MATERIALS (Continued)
0

MATERIAL

I 0.5 1.0
WAVELENGTH (MICRONS)
2 5 10. 20 30 50
% REFRA
INDEX
n
WATER

g/lOOg
SP
GR

61
POTASSIUM
CHLORIDE
1.363
a t 23p
34'7 7'2
9.3
I 36 1.99

62 2.673
a t lop
INSOL 45 I 5.7 5.85

63

64
CHLORIDE 1.644
a t 0.54,)

2.193
a t 101-1
0.32
I 3.97

7.02

2.18
65 0.32 7.19
at 9 . 0 ~

66 BROMIDE
~

2.232
a t 0.6711 INSOL I 34.9 6.47

67 BROMIDE
1.524
at 11.0~ 27 I 43 2.75

68
2.371
a t lop
40.2 1 58 7.37

69
THALLIUM
2.338
a t 9.981.1
I 0.05 11.9 I 51 7.45

70
PGTASSIUM
IODIDE D e t a i l s not
at lop
I 144 3.13
 TABLE 3-1. SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL IR MATERIALS (Continued)

MATERIAL

CESJXM
71

72

73
 4.

X
w 3#
W
W

B
d
9

2,

1.

WAVELENGTH (micron)

FIGURE 3-2. Refractive Index vs Wavelength for Several Optical Materials

3-12
 0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

FIGURE 3-3. Dispersion vs Wavelength for Several Optical Materials

3-13
 TABLE 3-2. MIRROR MATERIALS

MELTING
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC HARDNESS,
MATERIAL COEFFICIENT, POINT, MODULUS, cd cm - -1 o -1
GRAVITY ,oc "C lo6psi HEAT KNOOP

Fused Quartz 2.20 0.55 1600 10.5 0.0033 0.188 460

Pyrex (7740) 2.23 3.2 820 9.5 0.0027 0.233 480
Vycor (7900series) 2.18 0.80 1500 6.7 0.0035 0.19 530
Glass-ceramics
Pyroceram (9606) 2.61 5.7 1350 17.3 0.0087 0.230 698
Pyroceram (9608) 2.50 0.4 - 2.0 1250 12.5 0.0047 0.235 703
CER-VIT C-101 2.50 0.15 13.4 0.0040 0.217 540
Aluminum 2.70 23.9 680 6.9 0.53 0.215 2.0 Moh
Beryllium 1.82 12.4 1300 28.0 0.38 0.516
Invar (36% Ni) 8.0 1.30 14.8 0.026 0.095
Magnesium 1.74 26 4.5 0.38 0.25 2.0 Moh
Titanium 4.54 8.5 11.6 0.042 0.126
 Next Page

TABLE 3-3. REFLECTIVITY CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON MIRROR COATINGS

MATERIAL

ALUMINUM
 CHAPTER 4

IR SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION"

Even a cursory survey of the various infrared understood in terms of a relatively few func-
systems that have been produced, delivered, or tional parameters. These parameters will be
proposed leaves the uninitiated with the impres- identified and used to describe and categorize
sion of a bewildering array of different uses and the systems. The following chapter, Chapter 5,
techniques. In this chapter it will be shown that will expand the discussion into specific system
a coherent set of underlying principles exist analyses and design methods. Table 4-1defines
which allow IR systems to be described and the terms used.

TABLE 4-1. INFRARED SYSTEM DEFINITIONS

SYMBOL TERM DEFINITION UNITS

Ad Detector area Area of sensitive surface cm2

of a detector
AT Target area Cross-sectional area of a cmz
target
Airy disc Central bright portion ---_ __--
of the diffraction
pattern
C Speed of light 2.997925 X 10" cm sec-'
.D* Detectivity Detector figure of merit cm H z " ~w-'
Do Optical diameter Diameter of a circular cm
entrance aperture of an
optical system
F f/number (f/no.) Ratio of focal length to dimensionless
optical diameter
SAf Noise equivalent Bandwidth of white noise Hz
bandwidth which has the same inte-
grated noise power as the
total power of the actual
noise

Afe Electrical bandwidth Bandwidth between the Hz

two half-power points of
~~
the amplitude response of
* Written by S.J. Halasz the network
$ F o r a white noise and an ideal bandpass filter, the The noise spectrum of most IR detectors and
filter bandwidth and noise equivalent bandwidth are systems are white or close to white (with the excep-
the same. However for nonwhite noise or practical tion of the low frequency band below 10 or 20 Hz).
filter, the filter bandwidth and noise equivalent band- The filter bandwidth and noise equivalent bandwidth
width are different. have therefore, almost the same values.

4-1
 TABLE 4-1. INFRARED SYSTEM DEFINITIONS (Continued)

SYMBOL TERM DEFINITION UNITS

Optimum electrical
bandwidth
Scanner spin rate Rate of spin of a rotating revolutions
mechanical scanner per second
(w), rpm
Focal length Effective focal length of cm
an optical system
Irradiance ---_ w cm-'
Change in spectral Variation in irradiance w cm-*
irradiance caused by variation in
scene temperature or
emissivity
Spectral irradiance Irradiance per unit wave-
length interval
Planck's constant 6.62554 X lo-'' erg sec
Aircraft height ---

Photon energy Energy of a quantum

of radiation
Radiant intensity Radiant power per
unit solid angle from
a source
Velocity constant sec-'
Proportionality ----
constants
Cycles per revolution Eq. 4-35 rev-'
of spinning reticle
Number of detectors Number of detector dimensionless
elements that are em-
ployed to scan the total
field of view
Number of prism faces Number of individual sides dimensionless
on the rotating prism
mirror of a down-looking
line scanner

* For a white noise and an ideal band ass filter, the The noise spectrum of most IR detectors and
filter bandwidth and noise equivalent {andwidth are systems are white or close to white (with the excep-
the same. However for nonwhite noise or practical tion of the low frequency band below 10 or 20 Hz
filter, the filter bandwidth and noise equivalent band- The filter bandwidth and noise equivalent bandwidtk
width are different. have therefore. almost the same values.

4-2
 TABLE 4-1. INFRARED SYSTEM DEFINITIONS (Continued)

SYMBOL TERM DEFINITION UNITS

NEFD Noise equivalent flux Eq. 4-3 w cm-*

density
NEP Noise equivalent power Eq. 4-2 W

NET Noise equivalent A T within scene element OK,"C

temperature (at constant emissivity and
at some scene temperature,
usually 300"K) which pro-
duces a change in electrical
signal level that is numerically
equal to the r m s electrical
noise
PT Transmitted power Radiant power generated by W
an illuminator
R Range Distance to target cm
di Reflection efficiency Ratio of incident flux to sr-'
reflected radiant energy
from an illuminated target.
A product of surface reflec-
tivity and geometric losses
T Temperature Temperature in absolute "K
or Kelvin scale
ST Sample period Pulse-width of a transmitted sec
pulse of illumination for
ranging purposes
t Dwell time Time duration of a point in sec
the image plane on a
detector scanning across
the point
tf Frame time, rotation Time in which s2 is scanned sec, min
period of reticle
VAZ Instantaneous voltage Eq. 4-28 V
of scan drive in azimuth
VEL Instantaneous voltage Eq. 4-28 V
of scan drive in eleva-
tion
Reference voltage Voltage generated by an V
analog pickoff from the
scanner drive
Aircraft velocity f t sec-'

4-3
 TABLE 4-1. INFRARED SYSTEM DEFINITIONS (Continued)

SYMBOL TERM DEFINITION UNITS

v/h Velocity-to-height ratio Ratio of the forward ground sr sec-'

velocity to the altitude of
an aircraft
w, Signal power Product of irradiance and W
collecting aperture
Wh Spectral radiant Radiant emittance per unit w cm-2 p - l
emittance wavelength interval
-
Wh Average radiant power Average spectral power in a W
very narrow bandwidth

w, Differential radiant Differential blackbody w cm-2 OK-'

emittance radiant density within
a spectral bandwidth,
for a small change in
temperature

AW rms radiant Integral of W, for all W

power wavelengths
€ Emissivity Ratio of radiant power dimensionless
emitted by a body to that
emitted by a blackbody
at the same temperature
A€ Change in dimensionless
emissivity
€0 Optical efficiency Fraction of incident dimensionless
irradiance actually trans-
mitted by an optical sys-
tem after losses to absorp-
tion, reflection, blocking,
etc.
Scan efficiency Factor describing the ratio dimensionless
of dwell time of an ideal
scanner to the dwell time
of a given scanner
Emissivity for a ____ dimensionless
particular h
Overall optical Factor that combines dimensionless
efficiency all optical losses in a
system

4-4
 TABLE 4-1. INFRARED SYSTEM DEFINITIONS (Continued)

SYMBOL TERM DEFINITION UNITS

qhd Quantum efficiency Ratio of number of dimensionless

of detector photons that are effec-
tive in generating carriers
in the detector to the total
number of photons inci-
dent at the detector
Average number of ---- dimensionless
background photo-
electrons per sample
period 6 T
-
1178 Average number of ____ dimensionless
pulse-return photoelec-
trons per sample period
6T
8 Instantaneous angular Angular position of a rad
position scanning optical axis
with reference to its
mid position
8' Full cone angle of Eq. 4-11 rad
cold shield for
detector
Azimuth angular posi- Eq. 4-27 rad
tion of detector with
respect to center of 52
Error angle of scanner, Eq. 4-25 rad
instant angular dis-
placement error
Maximum error angle Eq. 4-39 rad
of scanner
Elevation angular Eq. 4-27 rad
position of detector
with respect to center
of 52
Constant reference Eq. 4-27 rad
angle
Angular position of Eq. 4-25 rad
optical axis (center
of field of view)
Target angular Eq. 4-25 rad
position
Direction of missile Eq. 4-26 rad sec-'
velocity

4-5
 TABLE 4-1. INFRARED SYSTEM DEFINITIONS (Continued)

SYMBOL TERM DEFINITION UNITS

Rate of output
angular displace-
ment
Maximum steady Eq. 4-39 rad sec-'
state tracking
rate available
..
43
from servo
Output accelera-
tion
Line of sight Eq. 4-26 rad sec-'
angular rate in
inertial coor-
dinates
Down-looking Angular coverage perpen- rad
scan angle dicular to the line of
sight of a down-looking
line scanner
A Wavelength Electromagnetic wave cm
interval
AA Spectral band Half-power spectral cm
bandwidth
Am Longest signifi-
cant wavelength
in an expression for
diffraction limited
operation
V Frequency ____ sec-'
TA Atmospheric Fraction of radiance dimensionless
transmission transmitted by the
intervening atmosphere
between source and
instrument
Beam angle Half-power subtended rad
angle of a beam

Total field Solid angle that is repet- sr, mrad2

of view itively sampled or scanned
by one or more detector
e1ements

4-6
 TABLE 4-1. INFRARED SYSTEM DEFINITIONS (Continued)

SYMBOL TERM DEFINITION UNITS

0 Instantaneous Small solid angle sub- sr

solid angle field tended by a detector
of view element in the focal
plane of an optical
system
Solid angle Eqs. 4-9, 4-9a sr
through which
ambient radiation
enters detector

4-1 PASSIVE SYSTEMS screen are widely used for sights and viewing
devices. These form a separate category which is
For purposes of parametric description, it is described in par. 4-1.1.2.*)
convenient to separate passive IR systems into
two broad categories: (1)scanning systems such The major portion of the IR scene radiance is
as search, track, and imaging systems, and (2) in the 10-micron region, and sensitive detector
measurement systems such as spectrometers, elements and arrays as well as efficient optical
radiometers, and interferometers. Terms used in components and detector cooling mechanisms
the discussion of passive systems are identified are now available for this spectral region. Thus,
in Table 4-1. it is possible to obtain maximum sensitivity to
thermal variations in the structure of the scene.
Scanning systems scan and sample the radiant
intensity distribution within a designated field.
Their output may be a linear analog of this A block diagram for a typical imaging system
distribution for imaging purposes, or a simple is shown in Fig. 4-1. The basic elements are a
indication of the presence of a target and its scanner which scans the scene (an object plane
location as in search-track applications. which can be assumed for all practical purposes
to be located at infinity) with a sensor which
Measurement systems are intended for per- responds t o the IR radiance level within the
forming a measure on the irradiance directed at instantaneous field of view of each detector
the system. The measure may be as simple as element; amplification and filtering to convert
intensity level within some fixed radiation band- the detector outputs into electrical signals to
width, or a sequential measure of intensity modulate corresponding light sources; and a
within a variable center radiation bandwidth, or display scan that moves the light sources in
a simultaneous measure of intensity over a angular synchronism with the sensor scan in
number of center bandwidths. order to “paint out” a visible radiance distribu-
tion that is analogous t o the scanned scene. The
display scan may be the electron beam deflec-
41.1 IMAGING SYSTEMS tion on a CRT, or the optical deflection of a
At the present state-of-the-art in infrared
imaging technology, the most frequent emphasis * Other image conversion devices such as the Absotion
is on thermal imaging with systems using me- Edge Image Converter, the Evapo raph, an? the
chanical scanning in the 10-micron region, and Thermosensitive Phosphor Imaging gystem rely on
some physical change in state with temperature that
somewhat less frequently in the 3- to 5-micron can be observed optically’. *. They have had limited
region. (Image tubes using electron focusing of a applicability to practical military systems. Baird-
Atomic, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., has developed the
near-IR photo-emissive cathode onto a phosphor Evapograph into a commercial instrument.

4 -7
IMAGING IMAGE AMPLIFICATION
& FILTERING DRIVER DISPLAY PLANE
DETECTOR( S ) (PHOSPHOR, OR
FILM, OR EMITTER
DIODES, E - L
MATRIX, E T C . )

SCANNING
MECHANISM -< SYNCHRO- L
c
SCANNING
(SENSOR) NIZATION DISPLAY
A < L b

t
CONTROL

FIGURE4-1. Typical Imaging System Block Diagram

light beam focused on a strip of film. If the scan ditions similar to the conditions to be encoun-
rate is rapid enough to scan an entire designated tered by the detector when it is installed within
scene repeatedly at a rate higher than the flicker the scanner. The other approach which is suit-
frequency of the human eye, then an integrating able only for BLIP detectors, regards the ran-
display surface such as film or long-persistence dom arrival rate of photons from the back-
phosphor is not needed. The display plane can ground as being the ultimate source of detector
be simply the focal plane onto which scanning noise. (Refer to par. 3-4for definition of BLIP
modulated light sources such as diode emitters or background-limited operation.) Here the de-
are focused. To the human observer the visible tector noise-power-density is calculated on the
image will appear to reside in that plane. basis of photon rate and detector quantum
efficiency. For situations where the number of
Supporting system functions consist of the IR
signal photons is small in comparison to the
scanning mechanism, detector cooling mech-
number of background photons, the two
anism (if needed), and a multiplexing subsystem
approaches are equivalent since BLIP D* is
for commutating the outputs of many detectors
determined by background photon rate. For
into one CRT (if needed). In some systems it
situations where the number of signal photons is
may be desirable to transmit the scanner output
larger than the average number of background
signals to a remote recording and/or display
photons, the noise due to the random arrival
station. This of course requires a transmitter-
time of the signal photons predominates and D*
receiver data link to be included in the loop but
has no meaning. This situation, however, is less
does not change the generality of the approach.
likely to occur in imaging systems than in
41.1.1 Mechanical Scanners systems where bright objects are located against
dark backgrounds, as for example, in star
For slow scanners, the simplest scan tech- trackers.
nique might be to move the optical telescope
assembly on its gimbals through some pro- After deriving the sensitivity equations the
grammed raster scan, spiral scan, or any path optical parameters will be analyzed, then the
which avoids redundant scan and gaps in the effect of scan rate on system bandwidth will be
field. This is adequate where many seconds or described. Finally the sensitivity equation will
minutes are available for the scan of one frame. be presented in parametric form, showing the
For higher speed scanning, schemes must be trade-offs among operational parameters such as
devised where less physical mass is to be moved. scan rate, field of view and resolution; and
Common techniques are to direct the optical instrumentation parameters such as optical col-
viewing path of the sensor at oscillating plane- lector diameter, number of detector elements,
mirrors located outside the collector aperture, or and optical efficiencies.
through counterrotating prisms as described in
Chapter 3. Down-looking line scanners that 4- 1.1.1.1 Scanner Parameters
operate from aircraft utilize the aircraft’s mo- 4- 1.1.1.1.1 Noise Equivalent Temperature
tion to achieve scan in the forward direction, (Sensitivity)
and a spinning four-sided mirror whose rotation Customarily, image forming scanners are not
axis is parallel to the direction of motion for designed to respond to the absolute radiance
scanning in the direction perpendicular to the level of a scene element, i.e., they are not
line of flight. designed for dc response. They are, however,
In this chapter scanning imaging systems will designed to follow the changes in scene radiance
be described in terms of functional parameters. as the scene is being scanned, down to very low
First the sensitivity equations will be derived. frequencies corresponding to a gradual change in
There are two basic approaches to describing the level over a large portion of the scan. Dc
sensitivity of the detector within the scanner. restoration may be used in the circuitry to
One approach is based on utilizing the detector restore the average scene level to some arbitrary
figure of merit D* which was described in par. average intensity level at the display output.
3-4.This approach regards the detector as a There are two major reasons for not designing
source of noise of a fixed level, the level being for absolute level or dc response. The first is that
determined from measurements under con- the possible range of radiance levels in a scene

4-9
spans a far greater range of levels than that
which can be reproduced in a practical display
system. Frequent periods of no brightness or
complete saturation of the display output could
result if absolute levels were maintained. The
second reason is that both detectors and high
gain dc amplifiers exhibit drift and high l / f
noise near zero frequency. (In cases where
absolute radiance level measurement is a require-
ment, reference blackbody sources are supplied
within the system, and provisions are made to
allow the scanner to periodically scan them and
present a reference output.)
The signal in the scene that is of significance
to the imaging sensor is therefore the variation in
irradiance H caused by variation in scene tem-
perature or emissivity. This is expressed by

AH =

where
w = instantaneous field of view, sr
T = temperature, K
€ = emissivity
Wh = spectral radiant emittance, w cm-2p - l
If the system noise is mainly detector noise,
it can be expressed in terms of “noise equivalent
flux density”. This is the minimum signal irra-
diance that will produce a peak signal-to-rms-
noise ratio of one.
The system noise equivalent power (NEP), in
watts, is obtained from the figure of merit for
the detector, denoted as D*.This relationship
can be expressed as

NEP = (4-2)

where
Ad = area of sensitive surface of detector,
cm2
A f = system noise bandwidth, Hz
D* = detector figure of merit, cm Hz’” w-l

The signal power on the detector is equal to

the optical collector area times the signal flux
density. Therefore the system noise equivalent
flux density (NEFD)is

4-10
 atmosphere. Generally, the integrals in Eq. 4-1
NEFD = --, A A w cm-2 (4-3)
nD?D- E ”, should also contain these factors as multiplying
-~ -
elements. In practice, however, sufficient ac-
where curacy can usually be achieved by applying
Do = diameter of aperture of optical averaged transmission values to these factors and
system, cm retaining them as constant multipliers or as a
single constant outside the integrals.
e, = optical efficiency
and other terms as previously defined.
The sensitivity of an image forming scanner is
Both AT and Ae contribute to the differential expressed by “noise equivalent temperature”, and
radiant emittance AH of a thermal scene. How- is abbreviated as NET. It refers to that AT within
ever, by convention only the AT term in Eq. 4-1 the scene element (at constant emissivity and at
is considered in sensitivity calculations. If the some average scene temperature, usually 300”K)
first integral in this equation is abbreviated to which produces a change in electrical signal level
W, then Eq. 4-1 can be reduced to that is numerically equal to the rms electrical
w system noise. In a well-designed system, the sys-
A H = - ATW,, wcm-’ (4-4) tem noise is mostly due to detector noise. The
n
NET is determined by solving for AT in Eq. 4-7
The instantaneous field of view w is defined by for a signal-to-noise ratio equal to one. By incor-
the area of the detector A d and the optical focal porating the atmospheric transmission r A in
length f l Eq. 4-7, NET is obtained as
w =A,
(fl)’ ’
Substituting Eq. 4-5 into Eq. 4-3 gives
In the derivation of Eq. 4-8, it was assumed that
G
4F w A f
,w cm-2
NEFD =
nD,D E,

where F is the f/no. of the optics.

(4-6)
side of Eq. 4-1 s%
the value of the second term in the right-hand

0
WAdX, is negligible.
Given a particular imaging system whose param-
The signal-to-noise (SIN) generated by the eters are known, Eq. 4-8 will express the tem-
scanner is given by the ratio of AH to NEFD perature sensitivity of the system. Implicit as-
A T W ~ D , D * ~ , ~ ~ sumptions are that the scene area over which the
S/N = (4-7) temperature differential AT occurs is significantly
4 F p T
larger than the instantaneous field of view, and
where all terms previously have been defined. the detector D* refers to the detector inside the
It should be noted that the spectral distribu- instrument under its normal operating conditions.
tion of
a ’w
- is not the same as that for W A .For
The D* of a particular detector type will vary
aT considerably from the generally published data
example, a 300°K blackbody, or a scene at this owing to such factors as manufacturing process
average temperature, will have its peak spectral control for unusual sizes, cold-shielding effi-
energy density at approximately 10 microns, ciency, nonoptimum electrical bias and loading
whereas the partial derivative with respect to conditions, aging effects, background radiance
temperature at an average temperature of 300°K effects, and aerodynamically heated optical win-
will have a peak spectral energy density at dow radiance.
approximately 8 microns. The difference is im-
portant when optical transmitting elements, fil- In Eq. 4-8 the system noise was derived on
ters, and detector responses are under considera- the basis of detector D* . For BLIP operation
tion. it is sometimes more useful t o derive the rms
noise value on the basis of the random fluctua-
The A H actually seen by the sensor is modified tion in arrival rate of incident photons on the
by the spectral transmission of the optical com- detector. To obtain this photon noise, Poisson
ponents and by the spectral transmission of the statistics are usefully invoked, which state that

4-11
the mean square value of the number of pho- As previously indicated, in Eq. 4-9, w B is not
tons in a sample time period is equal to the the solid angle subtended by the detector at the
average number of photons in that sample inter- optical focal length, but the solid angle through
val. If the average radiant power in a narrow which ambient radiation enters the detector.
spectral bandwidth is K, the average number For a detector without cold shielding this angle
of photons per period is %6T/(hv)where6T is effectively n steradians. If a cold shield with a
is the sample period. The rms variation in the round aperture is employed, the value of w B is
power is, therefore, 4-1, w. Similarly,
if the detector sees an average background spec- WB = n sin' 6'/2 (4-10)
tral irradiance HA, it will see a random varia-
tion whose rms value is given by
, ,W
A ~ = [ z A f ( ~ ) ~ ~ ) ~ ~ . , /( c: ):d ,h ]H 112

A1 where 6 ' is the full cone angle of the shield.

(4-9) The lower limit to this angle is set by the nu-
where B 's not the 'lid 'llbtended by merical aperture of the collector optics.
the detector at the optical focal length, but
the solid angle through which ambient radia- 1 (4-11)
sin(0'/2) =
tion enters the detector. The term l)Ad represents 1-J
the quantum efficiency of the detector. It is the
ratio of the number of photons that are effective
in generating carriers in the detector t o the and oB(minimum) = 71
(4-12)
total number of photons incident at the de- 4F' +1
tector. The bandwidth A f represents the effec-
tive noise bandwidth of the system, and the The signal power w, is the product of the
factor 2 is a consequence of the negative fre- kadiance (Eq. 4-1) and collecting aperture:
quencies in the power spectrum of the noise.
For photoconductive detectors, where both
generation and recombination of carriers occur,
an additional factor of 2 should be included
w, = oATD:EO
4
j; Ad (*)dh,w
aT
under the radical. Eq. 4-9 when applied t o a A1
(4-13)
photoconductor can be simplified to

[
A w = AfWBD:E, fiAd HA(F)dh] 'I2, w
To obtain NET find the case where W, =
A w , i.e., the signal power is equal to back-
ground noise power. From Eqs. 4-9 and 4-13
A1
(4-9a) we obtain

4-12
4 1.1.1.1.2 Optical Gain and Resolution
G =2.44Am (4-15)
From a viewpoint of system analysis, how- Do
ever, the parameters in Eq. 4-8 are not all
independent. In the first place, the optical
diameter D o has to be sufficiently large to make where A, is the longest significant wavelength in
diffraction effects compatible with the optical an expression for diffraction limited operation.
resolution requirements. The the NET of a diffraction limited imaging
system is
The central bright portion of the diffraction
1.6Fd A f
pattern, the Airy disc, contains 84 percent of NET = 9 "K (4-16)
the energy of an imaged point source. In a AnlD*fcJT*W@
diffraction limited system this Airy disc should where A f is noise equivalent bandwidth. Thus
not be larger than the size of an individual the sensitivity of a diffraction limited system is
detector element. independent of optical diameter. The trade-off is
A classical Airy disc is produced only by only between optical diameter and resolution.
monochromatic radiation, but an IR imaging
system will be sensitive to the entire available 4 1.1.1.1.3 Scan Rate and Bandwidth
spectral bandwidth, typically the 8.5- to 14- The electrical bandwidth A f e is determined
micron atmospheric window or the 3.2- to by the scan rate. It is proportional to the
5.0-micron window. Therefore, the intensity reciprocal of the dwell time of an image point
distribution within the diffraction pattern will on the scanning detector. The electrical filter
be a superposition of the weighted values of all can be optimized, in principle, to maximize the
of the incoming wavelengths. The contribution signal-to-noise ratio, if the characteristics of the
from the edges of the window will be less signal and noise can be completely described.
significant than that from the central portion of This process is described in Chapter 3 and in
the window. This intensity distribution is fur- Ref. 3. In practice, however, the optimum filter
ther modified by residual optical aberrations and is usually not realizable physically, and in an
imperfections. This intensity distribution or spot imaging system utilizing many detectors and
spread function is, therefore, not readily predict- amplifiers, even a piecewise approximation to
able analytically. the optimum filter for each detector channel
The focal plane image is a convolution of the might require an excessive number of electronic
object scene with this spread function. The components. A relatively simple bandpass filter
scanning of this image plane by the detector consisting of a flat response with low- and
represents, in effect, a second convolution be- high-frequency cutoff is often adequate and
tween the detector area and the image. Each provides a signal-to-noiseratio very nearly equal
convolution of course degrades the image qual- to the theoretical optimum. A few decibels of
ity to some extent. peaking near the high frequency end of the filter
will result in improved definition of small details
A basis for a rigorous relationship between in the scene, at the expense of a slight increase
optical spread function and detector area cannot in noise.
be provided. An optimum error budget and cost A t this point in the filter design, many design
budget exists if the spread function is approx- trade-offs are possible. Most of these trade-offs
imately equal to the detector area. This crite- will relate to the aesthetic appeal of the dis-
rion can be formulated approximately by requir- played scene or to compensating for system
ing that the Airy disc diameter formed by the component characteristics. For example, high
longest significant wavelength in the window, frequency enhancement, which is analogous to
e.g., the one-half power point on the atmos- differentiation, will enhance the edges of objects
pheric transmission curve, be equal to or less within the scene by causing light and dark
than the size of the detector. banding in the direction of scan. In the extreme,
If the detector area is square, and it subtends the scene can be reduced very nearly to a stick
an instantaneous solid angle field of view o , drawing over a uniform intensity background
then according to Rayleigh criteria: level. Or, contrast can be traded for fine-detail

4-13
definition by adjusting the slope of the high- 352 €
A f ; ’ = 2, H z (4-18)
frequency cutoff. Compression and expansion 4w tt
can be implemented to compensate for non-
linearities and dynamic range in the display In reality this refers to the upper cutoff
element. If bandwidth compression is an impor- frequency because it is impractical to design for
tant consideration, the statistical constraints dc response. However, the lower cutoff frequency
among picture samples and the properties of is typically very low-of the order of a few
human vision can be exploited to achieve an Hertz-in order to allow the scanner to ac-
order of magnitude reduction in bandwidth 4 . curately reproduce the low frequency features
within the scene. The upper cutoff frequency is
In most instances, however, the desire is for a typically of the order of tens of kHz so that it is
displayed output scene whose intensity distribu- numerically very nearly equal to the total
tion is a reasonably linear analog of the thermal bandwidth. If a number Nd of detectors are used
intensity distribution in the scanned scene, and to simultaneously scan the field 52, then the
to obtain this with maximum economy. If a required bandwidth A f l is proportionately
simple low-pass filter were used, its optimum reduced.
electrical bandwidth A f ; for best peak signal-
voltage-to-rms-noise ratio would be approx- The equivalent noise bandwidth A f will gen-
imately’ erally be somewhat larger than A f l owing to
3 excess l / fnoise, amplifier noise, and the gradual
A f l = - ,Hz (4-17) cutoff of simple R-Cfilters. The equivalent noise
4t
bandwidth is obtained by integrating the noise
The constant of proportionality of 3/4 be- power spectrum in A f l and equating it to the
tween the bandwidth and the reciprocal of integration of an ideal white noise power
dwell-time t is not rigorous because the assumed spectrum.
signal pulse does not have zero rise time and
because the bandwidth does not have a math- 4 1.1.1.1.4 Performance Requirements and
ematically sharp cutoff. But an important factor instrumentation Parameters
to be kept in mind for this type of analysis is
that the constant of proportionality is not at all Expressed in terms of scan rate, the NET of a
critical in value. Goldman’ has shown, for scanning system is
example, that, if the bandwidth is reduced by a
factor of one-third (to a proportionality con-
stant of 1/2), the peak signal-to-noise ratio is NET =
reduced only by 6.5 percent and, if the band-
width is increased by one-third (to a propor-
tionality constant of l), the signal-to-noise ratio
is reduced only by 3 percent. Therefore the
approximation of Eq. 4-15 is well within the (4-19)
accuracy requirements of a system trade-off
study. The terms in Eq. 4-19 have been separated
into three groups by the use of parentheses in
If a total field of view of s1 steradians is order to illustrate the nature and effect of the
scanned at a constant rate, without redundancy, different parameters involved.
by an instantaneous field of view of w steradians
and the scan is completed in a frame time period a. First Group of Terms:
t f , the dwell time t of a point on the detector is The first group, w,52, and tf-which are
tf X w / n . Because of mechanical scan rate instantaneous field*, total field, and frame time,
limitations, a linear scan rate is usually difficult respectively-represents the system performance
to achieve, with the result that the dwell time in requirements. These parameters are governed by
some parts of the field will be reduced by a
factor eS called scan efficiency. This requires an * Instantaneous field is also commonly referred to as the
“resolution” of the system since it relates to the
increased electrical filter bandwidth, and is resolvable detail within the scene. It is important to
commonly expressed as scan efficiency or scan note that this is not the same definition of resolution
as the Rayleigh criterion, or those definitions that
overshoot. The required bandwidth is then relate to photographic or television resolutions.

4-14
the operational or tactical demands on the significantly less than f/1.5 are very difficult and
system and are derived from a larger system costly to achieve, and the cost trade-off is poor.
analysis such as that for an integrated fire For narrow field of view, high-resolution sys-
control-navigation system, weapon delivery sys- tems, analogous to telephoto lens cameras, a
tem, etc. longer focal length and, therefore, a higher
f/number is necessary. A practical lower limit to
b. Second Group of Terms:
the size of detector elements that can be
The terms in the second set of parentheses fabricated is of the order of a few thousandths
represent the instrumentation parameters, or of an inch. Therefore, a limit is reached where
tools, which the designer has at his disposal for decreased instantaneous field can only be
synthesizing an IR imaging system to meet the achieved by increasing the focal length.
requirements. Actually, he will find that the
flexibility and range of values at his disposal are The selection of the detector type to be used
quite restricted and that he cannot design for is one of the most critical steps in the design
any arbitrary set of performance specifications. process. The choice depends not only on the
Similarly, the system analyst who defines the wavelength band of operation and available D '
performance requirements soon becomes aware but also on cooling requirements, cost and
that he cannot request any arbitrary set of availability in the specific configuration called
performance specifications. He, therefore, must for, reliability and aging characteristics, and
perform judicious trade-offs among the perform- particular characteristics such as time constant,
ance parameters in order to constrain the net responsivity, sensitivity contours and uniform-
demands to the state-of-the-art in instrumenta- ity, spectral filtering requirements, etc.
tion. For example, Eq. 4-19 (first parentheses) The last parameter in this group, W,, is the
shows that sensitivity or NET trades off as the differential radiant emittance from the scene. In
square root of scan rate, and inversely as the 3- to 5-micron window for an average scene
resolution or instantaneous field of view. Thus if temperature of 240°K, W, has a value of
high resolution is important, then it may be approximately 1.5 X lo-' w cm-? O K - ' , depend-
necessary to relax scan rate. If frame time ing considerably on atmospheric and meteoro-
cannot be increased, then the total field of view logical conditions. In the 8.5- to 14-micron
that is to be scanned might be decreased. Or, the window, the value is approximately 2.1 X 10'
NE.T specification may have to be relaxed. w cm-? OK-', again depending on the atmos-
Among the instrumentation parameters in the pheric absorption path and meteorological con-
second set of parentheses, the number of detec- ditions. Thus, the available energy is consid-
tor elements Nd is probably the only parameter erably higher in the 10-micron region; however,
that allows for a wide range of values. The cooling requirements are usually more severe for
number of detectors used in imaging systems detectors operating in this region than for those
vary from one to a few hundred. The other operating in the 3- to 5-micron window. The
parameters are less flexible. optical diffraction limit is worse for the longer
wavelength region, and optical materials such as
Optical diameter Do is typically of the order refractors and filters tend to be significantly
of a few inches to a foot. Weight and cost more costly for the longer wavelengths.
increase much more rapidly than gains in sen-
sitivity for sizes larger than this range. On the c. Third Group of Terms:
other hand, for optical sizes much smaller than The terms in the last set of parentheses
this range, system sensitivity and resolution represent specific engineering design efficiency
decrease much more rapidly than overall system parameters. Optical transmission efficiency E ,
cost or weight. Therefore, practical considera- and scan efficiency eS are parameters that have
tion constrains optics diameter to this range of to be maximized during the detailed design
sizes. The optimum diameter depends on a close layout phase. Optical transmission in particular
analysis of the overall instrumentation approach. can become a critical or pacing item, especially
The f/number for sensitive systems is similarly in the longer wavelength system. Optical mate-
constrained to a narrow range of values, typ- rials such as germanium or zinc sulfide have very
ically between f/1.5 and f/3.0. Again, values high indexes of refraction, resulting in high

4-15
reflection losses at each surface. For example, if for w = 1 mrad2, S2 = 10" X lo",or 0.03 sr; and
a fast, high-resolution optical system design tf = 17 min. Instruments similar to the thermo-
requires four air-spaced refractive elements and graph are also produced by Servo Corporation of
if a transmission loss of 50 percent were suffered America and Radiation Electronics Corporation.
at each two surfaces, the net transmission would
be reduced to (0.5)4 or 0.0625 owing to this 4- 1.1.1.3 Down-looking Line Scanners
effect alone. To make up for this loss by
increasing the optical diameter would require an For air-to-ground IR reconnaissance mapping,
increase of Do by a factor of almost 16 which, a down-looking line scanner is a configuration
of course, would be absurd. A multi-layered that utilizes the forward motion of the aircraft
anti-reflection coating can reduce the reflection as one dimension of scan. The instantaneous
loss to about 2 percent at each surface, depend- field w is caused to scan through an angle 8 a at
ing on the specific material to be coated and the right angles to the direction of motion. Typi-
width of the spectral band that is to be cally, 8 is made large enough to provide nearly
subtended. A 2 percent reflection loss per horizon-to-horizon coverage. The rate of scan is
surface would result in a net transmission of adjusted to the forward speed of the aircraft so
0.92 percent. that successive scans cover adjacent strips on the
ground.
The atmospheric transmission rA is actually
beyond the control of the system designer. It is To provide the scan pattern, a rotating mirror
merely a factor to be considered in the analysis in the form of a prism with a number of faces is
and selection of the wavelength band of opera- placed in front of the imaging optics. As each
tion. face rotates past the optics, the optical line of
sight is deviated along with it. Two basic
4 1.1.1.2 Therrnographs configurations are: (1) faces at 45 deg to the
optics, and (2)a folded system where the faces
A thermograph is essentially a scanning radi- on the prism are parallel to the direction of
ometer. (See par. 4-1.4 for a description of motion, and the receiving optics are separated
radiometers.) A typical configuration produced into two halves to receive the reflection from
by the Barnes Engineering Company utilizes an two sides of the rotating prism.
oscillating plane mirror mounted at 45 deg in
front of the 8-in. diameter radiometer optics. The scan rate for this configuration is equiva-
The mirror is cam-driven in a horizontal scan lent to
with a quick return. During the return, the
mirror tilts up one linewidth, thus generating a h
'"
scan rate = - ,sr sec-' (4-20)
line-by-line scan of the scene. The back of the
same plane mirror scans a light spot from a glow where ν and h are aircraft velocity and height,
modulator tube over photographic film. The respectively, and θ is expressed in radians. The
a
light spot is made proportional in size t o the dwell time on the detector is approximately
instantaneous field of the radiometer, and is
intensity modulated by the radiometer output. t = -
WU
,sec (4-21)
Since the same mirror scans both the IR scene 8ah
and the light output, excellent synchronization
and the spin rate of the mirror that is required is
is maintained between the two.

The dynamic range and average intensity level

of the output can be varied by electronic (4-22)
controls. The radiometer measures the level of
the scene radiance by comparing it to a built-in
where N f is the number of sides on the rotating
reference blackbody source. It also supplies a set
prism mirror. For low-altitude, high-speed flight,
of reference signal levels which register as
the work load imposed on the scanner is
reference gray scale levels on the film.
- . for a ulh ratio of
relatively severe. For example,
By utilizing an immersed thermistor bolome- one steradian per second (i.e., 1000-ft altitude
ter, characteristic performance is a NET of 0.04"C and 1000-ft sec-l velocity) and an instantaneous

4-16
 Next Page

field of 1mrad’, the scan rate is approximately n increases the distortion and scene rectification
sr sec4, the dwell time t is approximately 3 X problem.
lo-’ sec, and the spin rate fd for a four-sided
mirror ( N f = 4) is 15,000 rpm. Using more than Fig. 4-2 illustrates one part of the distortion.
one detector relieves some of the work load, but The angular resultion of the detector is constant,

FIGURE4-2. End of Scan Distortion

4-17
 CHAPTER 5

IR SYSTEM DESIGN*

5 1 SYSTEM APPROACH Cost effectiveness is the mission performance

TO INFRARED DESIGN achieved at a given cost for one system ap-
proach. This determination must be made in the
The system approach to infrared design en- broadest possible sense; i.e., the measure(s) of
gineering is a technique Of
effectiveness must be appropriate and all the
the total system are considered in the design of costs, amortized Over the sensible life of the
each individual subsystem and component. This system, must be included. The question of
entails defining Of the total whether increased effectiveness at increased cost
mission Objectives; the Priority and should be provided depends on the allocation of
relative weightings of each individual mission resources between qualitatively different sys-
objective; the operational environment in which tems and is beyond the scope of the analysis to
the system must function; the target, back- be performed by the infrared systemdesigner.
ground, and transmission characteristics; the
measures of effectiveness against which alternate Following the delineation of functional re-
designs and requirements can be evaluated; and, quirements, a set of baseline sensor parameters
finally, a methodology by which a final system are established to satisfy the performance re-
design can be synthesized. For the system to quirements. These parameters include optical
perform effectively in the operational envi- diameter, optical speed (f/no.), number of detec-
ronment, detailed consideration must be given tors, detector size and aspect ratio, detector
to reliability, maintainability, logistics, and type, the operating spectral region, electrical
ground support equipment. bandwidth, and the desired output display or
format. Since most of these parameters are
The first task in the evolution of system interrelated and are functions of the perform-
design involves the identification of the mission ance parameters, the actual selection of numer-
objectives and subsequent translation of these ical values must follow a detailed parametric
objectives into a set of functional requirements trade-off analysis in which the possible con-
to be satisfied in the design of the sensor system. straints of size, weight, power, and cost effec-
For example, the functional requirements for an tiveness considerations are evaluated. The oub
IR search system might include threat warning, put of this phase of analysis will be a baseline
threat identification, and threat priority assign- preliminary design specification.
ment. Each may have different (and perhaps
conflicting) implications on the performance At this point, the mission objectives should be
parameters of the sensor system. The output of reexamined, several alternative sets of func-
the functional requirement analysis includes tional requirements established, and a set of
characteristics associated with the operational sensor parameters developed for each require-
performance of the system such as detection ment. The optimum set of performance param-
range, detection probability, minimum signal- eters and sensor parameters can then be resolved
to-noise ratio, sensitivity, false alarm? rate, through the synthesis and development of a cost
frame time, total field of view, resolution, and effectiveness model that can relate sensor and
tracking rates. It should always be remembered performance parameters to mission effectiveness
that this baseline set of operational parameters and cost. The end result will then be the
must be continuously re-evaluated in light of performance and design specification which de-
cost effectiveness considerations. fines the final system.

* Written by S. Braunheim and K. Seyrafi 5-2 R EQUIR EMENTS

?When a signal waveform am litude exceeds a preset Systematic evaluation of mission require-
threshold level due to noise, &is excess of threshold is
called false alarm. ments, functional requirements, targets, back-
grounds, and the effects of atmospheric trans- 12.1.1 Operational Environment
mission establishes the basic framework within The operational environment delineates the
which systems are designed and optimized. The mission characteristics and objectives in such a
interrelationships among the various sensor pa- manner as to permit the development of the
rameters and performance parameters, and the functional requirements. Thus, it is at this point
constraints and objectives of the mission consti- that mission profiles and overall objectives
tute the analytical and quantitative base for should be established.
establishing cost effectiveness relationships.
The geometric and kinematic relationships
52.1 SYSTEM ANALYSIS
between the sensor platform and the target
The paragraphs which follow describe the provide the initial clues into the requirements
methodology through which functional require- for detection range, field of view, tracking rates,
ments are established. A specific example is and frame times. For example, assume that the
assumed throughout the remaining paragraphs to mission of the sample SAM is to provide point
provide a few concrete situations in what must defense capability for such targets as bridges,
be an otherwise fairly-general discussion. For command posts, supply dumps, etc., against
this purpose, the design of an IR sample-data low-altitude attack jet aircraft armed with con-
tracker for use on an inexpensive surface-to-air ventional low-drag ordnance. An analysis of the
missile (SAM) was selected. Table 5-1 lists and ordnance ballistics and other characteristics
defines the symbols used. would show that, for a given drop altitude and

TABLE 5-1. LIST OF SYMBOLS

SYMBOL DEFINITION UNITS

Maximum amplitude of angular scan rad

Background area in receiver field of view m2
Detector area cmz
Inherent availability
Area of illuminated spot mz
Optics collecting area cmz
Receiver area mz
Finite area of target mz
Background radiance w cm-2sr-'
Background spectral radiance w sr-'p-'
Radiance of the intervening atmosphere at -
ambient temperature
Contrast of target and background
Speed of light cm sec-' or
m sec-'
Detector specific detectivity cm Hz'" w-I
Detectivity of detector before roll-off w cm-2

52
 TABLE 51. LIST OF SYMBOLS (cont'd)

SYMBOL DEFINITION UNITS

Optical diameter cm
Aperture diameter cm
Minimum object dimension m
Maximum diameter constraint cm
Diffraction limit rad
Detector linear dimension cm
Minimum linear dimension of element
Acquisition threshold level Hz
Charge on the electron 1.602 X C
Frequency Hz
Optical speed -

Lower cutoff frequency Hz

Upper cutoff frequency of filter Hz
Filter center frequency Hz
Noise equivalent bandwidth Hz
Electrical (filter) bandwidth Hz
Natural frequency of servo Hz
Detector aspect ratio (height-to-width)
-
Sampling rate of servo -

Electron multiplier gain

Irradiance at the collecting aperture w cm-2
Apparent background irradiance w cme2
Total background radiant intensity w cm-2
Background radiant intensity w cm-2 p-' sr-l
Target irradiance w cme2
Spectral irradiance on ground w m-?p-'
Planck's constant 6.625 X w sec-2
or 6.625 X J-sec
Threshold-to-rms noise ratio
Moment of inertia of rotating seeker components
about the spin axis in.-oz sec2
Background induced current A
Photomultiplier dark current A

53
 TABLE 5-1. LIST OF SYMBOLS (cont'd)

SYMBOL DEFINITION UNITS

Signal current
Radiant intensity
Spectral radiant intensity of target
Spectral radiant intensity from target
Apparent spectral radiant intensity from target
Proportionality constants
Number of linear resolution elements required
for identification
Scan efficiency -
Boltzmann 's constant 1.38x 10-23 J/OK-*

Radiance of illuminated spot on the ground w m-2

Rms system noise w cm-2
Noise equivalent input (sensor sensitivity) w cm
False alarm rate crossings per sec
Number of bars -

Number of detectors -
Required number of detectors -

Number of resolution elements in the acceptance gate

Number of looks required for detection
Total number of resolution elements in the field of view -
Background power level W

Reflected power impinging upon detector W

Laser power W

Probability that a noise pulse exceeds the threshold

in any given resolution element
Probability of an initiating noise pulse occurring
Probability that at least one noise pulse will exceed
threshold in acceptance box
Detection probability
Probability of a false alarm
Probability that any one of n, looks exceeds the threshold
Probability distribution function of noise -
Incident photon flux density phot cm-2sec-I
 TABLE 5-1. LIST OF SYMBOLS (cont'd)

SYMBOL DEFINITION UNITS

Range cm
Visible detection range of target due to cloud cover m
Weapon release range to target m
Load resistor ohm
Minimum acceptable detection range m
Safety margin range m
Scan rate rad sec-'
Signal-to-backgroundnoise ratio -
Signal-to-noiseratio -
Amplitude of signal -

Threshold level of system -

Torque in.-oz
Time sec
Temperature "K
Effective temperature contrast between target
and background "K
Number of levels the threshold level is above the -
noise level

Dwell time of an individual detector see

Time required for a point image to cross a detector sec
Mean time between false alarms sec
Time period sec
Time of flight of missile sec
Frame time that would produce the roll-off knee
frequency (3 dB point) for a given size detector sec
Reaction time prior to launching the SAM sec
Frame time sec
Frame (scan) time sec
Optimum scan time sec
Maximum frame time sec
Maximum scan time sec
Missile velocity m sec-'
Attacking aircraft velocity m sec-'
Velocity of target m sec-'
Target speed m sec-'
 TABLE 5-1. LIST OF SYMBOLS (cont'd)

SYMBOL DEFINITION UNITS

Instantaneous noise voltage V

Detector linear dimension cm
Detector height cm
Detector linear dimension cm
Detector width cm
Empirically determined number -

Receiver field of view rad

Instantaneous field of view sr
Limiting field of view sr
Angular resolution required of system rad
Coefficient which relates the peak or rms value
of the signal output t o the input irradiance -
Optical efficiency -
Error for a ramp input -
Peak value of error -
Quantum efficiency of detector -
Photocathode quantum efficiency -
Angle between laser beam and normal to surface rad
Minimum angular dimension of an individual detector rad
Detector angular resolution in direction of scan rad
Detector's angular dimension rad
Detector width rad
Detector's angular dimension rad
Sinusoidal scan angle rad
Angular scan rate rad sec-'
Angular rate rad sec-'
Long-wavelength cutoff cm
Short-wavelength cutoff cm
Long-wavelength cutoff cm
Spectral bandpass P
Spectral bandwidth of receiver optical filter P
Reflectance -
Minimum signal-to-noise requirement -

Signal-to-background plus noise ratio -

Signal-to-noise ratio SIN -

 TABLE 51. LIST OF SYMBOLS (cont'd)

SYMBOL DEFINITION UNITS

U Rms value of noise V

7 Transmittance -

T(h) Atmospheric transmission for target -

TB(h)
Atmospheric transmission for background -

Ta
Atmospheric transmission -

Transmission of the atmospheric path between

the optical system and the background
T(X*R) Atmospheric transmission as a function of
wavelength and pathlength
T io Transmission factor of illuminator optics -
Tro Transmission factor of receiver optics -
qJ Field of view in the direction of scan rad
a Total field of view mrad or sr
Qv Angular precession velocity about output axis rad sec-'
w Scan rate of system rad sec-'
Angular velocity of scanner rad sec-'
001 Angular subtense of detector sr

0max Maximum angular scanning rate of field of view rad sec-'

wr Seeker spin velocity rad sec-'

speed, the weapons must be released some

distance Rd prior to reaching the target in order
for the weapon to hit the target and for the Analogous expressions can be developed for the
attacking aircraft to safely clear the area. It is search field frame time and other sensor per-
necessary for the defense missile to intercept the formance parameters. For an infrared instru-
aircraft with some safety margin prior to the ment, the minimum signal-to-noise ratio is deter-
aircraft reaching the range R d . If we represent mined by the required detection probability and
the safety margin range as R , and the missile the false alarm rate. If the false alarm rate
velocity as V m , the time of flight t , of the requirement is very stringent, the system must
missile may be calculated as (it is implicitly operate at a high threshold level which would be
assumed that the aircraft altitude relative to significantly higher than the rms noise values of
range is small) the system. This implies that the peak signal
R d + R, must be at least equal to the threshold level. If
t, = the detection probability requirement is 99
Vm
percent and the system noise is Gaussian white
If the reaction time prior to launching the SAM noise (normal), then the minimum signal must
is tr and the attacking aircraft velocity is V t , be at least 2.33 times noise standard deviations
then the minimum acceptable detection range (usually expressed as root mean square-rms-
may be calculated by noise) above the threshold in order to assure this

57
probability of detection. If the threshold setting case, the volume weight or power constrainte of
based on false alarm rate considerations must be the missile nose will not permit the installation
6 times rms noise, then the minimum signal-to- of a seeker which provides the full desired
noise ratio for 99 percent detection probability mission capability. As a consequence, the de-
would be 8.33:l. In this manner (clearly simpli- signers of both the IR seeker and the mounting
fied at this point), the mission requirements and platform must determine whether the mission
operational environment determine the func- performance can be resolved if the power
tional requirements. required can be reduced; or whether more
power, weight, or volume can be allocated to the
5-2.1.2 Functions seeker.
The mission objectives and requirements de- It can now be seen that the mission objec-
termine the sensor parameters and sequence of tives, operational environment, and the func-
functions that the sensor must perform, thereby, tional requirements have begun to yield a
dictating the functions of the subsystems and preliminary set of performance specifications
components within the overall system. A def- from which the sensor characteristics can be
inite delineation of these generic functions is developed.
imperative if reasonable and realistic require-
ments are to be allocated. Again consider the IR 52.1.3 Requirement Analysis
seeker on the SAM. Prior to initiation of the
SAM launch sequence it is necessary to detect
and acquire the target. This requires prior Following the definition of the functional
acquisition of the target by some other element requirements, the system designer can begin to
of the SAM system (e. g., infrared or radar formulate the sensor system parameters. In
acquisition system) and then a transfer of this general, these are derived analytically from the
acquisition information to the IR seeker. The system sensitivity equations; the considerations
pointing accuracy of the initial acquisition sys- of optical, mechanical, and electrical design;
tem determines, in large measure, the field of cooling requirements and power constraints; and
view requirements of the IR seeker. If target size and weight constraints.
acquisition is also a requirement of the IR Assume a target of radiant intensity J in w
seeker, it must be capable of rejecting back- sr-' at a given range R in cm through an
ground clutter and providing the sensitivity atmosphere that provides transmittance T. The
necessary to detect and lock on a target at the irradiance at the collecting aperture is expressed
desired range. Thus, the acquisition function in as
conjunction with the operational environment
will establish the ground rules governing the
field of view, background clutter rejection, and
sensitivity requirements.
The second function of the seeker is to track
the target and to provide guidance error signals. based on the inversesquare law. The sensor
In this mode of operation, the seeker must reject sensitivity or noise equivalent input (NEI) is
the countermeasure response of the target and given by Eq. 5-4, which is discussed further in
provide data at the rate and resolution required par. 5-3.3.1.
to achieve the desired kill probability. It must
possess the necessary gimbal freedom for main- d A d A f
taining the target in the field of view despite NEI = e,e,A,D* ' w cm-z (5-4)
target maneuvers. A sufficiently-high angular
tracking rate capability must be provided to where
maintain a small miss-distance at the intercept
point. In order to establish numerical require- Ad = detector area, emz
ments for these functions, the missile and target Af = noise equivalent bandwidth, Hz
motion usually undergo dynamic simulation on
an analog computer. However, as is often the E, = optical efficiency
 E, = coefficient which relates the peak expressed as follows in terms of optical speed,
or rms value of the signal output to aperture, and field of view:
the input irradiance (a unique func-
tion of the filter characteristics and
input waveforms)
where
A , = optics collecting area, cmz
D* = detector specific detectivity, cm f h o . = opticalspeed
HZ1/2w-l
a = instantaneous field of view, sr
If the minimum signal-to-noise requirement is Do = optical diameter, cm
pm then the noise equivalent input can be
rewritten as: The background clutter rejection capability of
a sensor is often expressed in terms of the
signal-to-background noise ratio. This reflects
the fact that the higher the ratio, the higher the
threshold can be set (given adequate sensitivity)
It is thus shown (for this example) how the and, thus, the more background clutter that can
functional requirement for detection at range R be eliminated. Since background radiance is a
is related to the sensor parameters of Eq. 5-4. It complete random function, a frequently-used
is also apparent that there is no unique solution criterion is a “worst case” or peak background
to Eq. 5-5 since an infinite combination of radiance. The signal-to-background noise ratio
numerical values will satisfy the equation. S/B may be computed as
Assume the need to scan the total field of
view S2 steradians once per t, seconds, and nd Jr
detectors of instantaneous field of view a S/B = -2 ( 5-9)
aBR
steradians to scan the field at 100 percent duty
cycle, then the dwell time t d of an individual where
detector is expressed as
B = background radiance, w cm-2 sr-’

Eq. 5-9 applies when the target is a point source

and the background is an extended source such
The filter (electrical) bandwidth A f ’ for scanning as a cloud. Both the signal-to-background and
systems is often given as signal-to-noise ratios can be improved by making
the instantaneous field of view a small in the
equation. This is done at the expense of cost and
Aft = - ,Hz (5-7)
complexity compared to a system of equal size
td and performance, since the number of scanned
elements in a frame time is S2/a. The frame time
in which case the system response will be can be achieved by using additional detectors.
reduced by a factor of 0.60 to 0.70 of its There are also physical constraints on the
maximum amplitude. Theoretically, one would minimum dimension d ~ , , of current state-of-
like to have A f t = 00 so that there would be no the-art detectors which can be fabricated to
degredation in system response. However, b e form large arrays. Thus, the constraint imposed
cause of the increase in noise power with dictates that
bandwidth, A f should be limited. Practically, the
selection of A f t as indicated by the relationship dmin G f h o . D,O,,,(rnin) ( 5-10)
of Eq. 5-7 is a compromise between system
response and noise. In this case the response has where Ox,, (rnin) is the minimum angular dimen-
been reduced by a factor of 0.6-0.7, depending sion in radians of an individual detector. Since
on its application. The detector area A d can be total package size, weight, and volume are

59
strongly influenced by f h o . and diameter; Also it can be shown that the signal-to-noise
severe penalties can result from using small ratio S/N required for any given detection
detectors. probability P d when S 9 N , is
For sensors wherein the limiting source of
noise is the internal system noise-Govided this
noise is Gaussian distributed with a flat ampli-
tude (white) spectrum-the ratio of threshold to
N - N + JF] 1- @dFV
(5-14)

the rms noise required for any prescribed false

alarm rate is Given a signal of amplitude S , a threshold value
T , and noise N , all the same units (volts, for
examde). and a detection rule of n,, looks:

./- )"'-'I
I I 2 11

-T - - 2 Q n [A fnd tf,(ng (&11) the detection probability can be derived in the

N nV manner which follows. First, the probability p r
V
that any one of the n, looks exceeds the thresh-
where hold is expressed as
T = threshold level of the system
N = r m s noise
p s = 1 - exp [- 2 ( 7 ) * ]
1 S-T (5-15)

Assuming that an overall detection probability

n, = number of looks required for detec- of p d is required, then
tion
nd = number of detectors Pd = (ps)"' (5-16)
A f = noise equivalent bandwidth, Hz or
1
t, mean time between false alarms, sec
= P S = ('Pd)R-v (5-17)
ng = number of resolution elements in the Substituting Eq. 5-15 into Eq. 5-17 gives
acceptance gate

The proof of Eq. 5-11 (see Eqs. A-1 through 1

A-12 in the Appendix to this chapter) assumes (Pd)Rt = (5-18)
Rayleigh-distributed white noise such that the
probability density functions p ( u ) can be written and ~

where
p ( u ) = probability distribution function of (5-20)
U
noise
u = instantaneous noise voltage, V
u = rms value of noise, V Substituting N for u and rearranging terms,
results in Eq. 5-14.
and the probability that a noise pulse exceeds
any given threshold T is
- For example, assume the target analysis as
S, 4 exp [- 1 T having shown that, in the spectral band of
p(v>T) =

- exp 1- +(~r1 (--J]du

(5-13)
interest (3.8 to 4.8 microns for instance), the
radiant intensity of the target is 7 w sr-', and
the mission analysis as having indicated a detec-
tion range of 9 km through an atmosphere that
Eq. 5-11 is the result of u being defined as the provides 0.3 transmittance. From Eq. 5-3 the
rms value of the noise which is denoted as N . irradiance will then be

5-10
 where
H
Ad = (f/no.)2D,2a [Eq. 5-81
Let us also assume the background analysis as
and
having shown the effective peak-background-
radiance in the band to be 3 X lU5 w crnm2sr-' A, = ( i ) D :
and that a signal-to-background noise ratio of
2.0 is necessary for background clutter rejection. (representing the detector and collector area,
Then from Eq. 5-9 respectively), NEI can be expressed as
2.6 X
2*o = x 3 x 10-5 (5-21)

The instantaneous field of view a must be or

approximately 4.4 X l o - * sr which implies a
detector instantaneous field of view of (5-22)
2.1 X 10-4rad, assuming a 1:l aspect ratio. With
a total field of view 51 of 10 X 10 mrad dictated By further assuming an f h o . of 3.0 for purposes
by pointing accuracy requirements and a need to of optical resolution and packaging and an
search the field with a single-bar linear array, the optical efficiency E , of 0.5,
required number of detectors would be
10x 10-3 48 Do =
nd =
~

2.1 x 10-4 -
4 X 3 X d 4 . 4 X l o - ' X 710
3.14X 0.5 X 0.65X 4 X 10" X 2.74X
Let it also be assumed that in order to provide
an adequate information rate, the system must = 5.8 cm = 2.3 in.
scan the complete field 30 times per sec; then
from Eq. 5-6

48 X 0.033 X 4.4 X lo-' =

Next, a check is made to verify that neither the
td = Rayleigh diffraction limit criterion or the cell
100 x 10 -6
size limit have been exceeded. The required
resolution was 2.1 X rad. The diffraction
and from Eq. 5-7
limit equation is
= 1
= 710Hz
2 x 7 x 10-4
DL = 2.44 <6 (5-23)
If a detection probability requirement of 0.99 Do
is required, an average false alarm rate of one per
Assuming the limiting wavelength to be 4.8
hour is acceptable, and a single-look detection
microns, then
criterion is used, a threshold setting of 6.4 (Eq.
511) and signal-to-noise ratio of 9.5 (Eq. 5-14)
DL =
2.44 X 4.8 X l o m 4= rad
will be required. From Eq. 5-5 the required 5.8
sensitivity is determined to be
and thus the diffraction limit is not exceeded.
Assume next that the minimum linear dimension
c i ~ " of a PbSe element is 0.001 in. or
It is now assumed that an analysis has shown 2.5 X cm. From Eq. 5-10 it is shown that
lead selenide (PbSe) to be potentially the most the detector dimension
suitable detector material and that an average
D* of 4 X 10" cm Hz"' w-l can be expected d = 5.8 X 3.0 X 2.1 X = 3.65 X lo-' cm
when the detector is cooled to -80°C. By
replacing A d and A, of Eq. 5-4 by their which is greater than the assumed dmin of
respective terms, 2.5 x 10-3cm.

5 11
52.1.4 Block Diagrams of simple pictorial diagrams. This technique is,
of course, well-suited for illustrating the overall
One of the most effective methods of describ- scope, internal functions, and interfacings of
ing all manner of complex systems is by means typical IR systems (see Fig. 5-1).

I
I
I
I
I
I
I

r
I
l
I
I
I
I
I cl
I 0

E
cl
0 I 0
U

!2
0
U
I w
d
h

3 I --.
U
w
U
rn
rn
W
U I U

I:
I
I
I
I L f
I‘

5 12
52.2 TARGET DEFINtTION ating feature of the target description. As a
result, spectral optimization has become a highly
The mission objectives and the generic class of
effective tool in providing increased background
targets of interest in any given application
rejection. Thus, it is extremely important for the
determine the functional role of the IR sensor.
system designer to have, or to be able to
The target characteristics or interest in a recon-
generate, an accurate spectral representation of a
naissance or mapping mission are in most cases
(minimum) target under the operating con-
distinctly different from those of interest in a
ditions expected to be encountered in the field.
threat warning application. The spectral, spatial,
temporal, and amplitude characteristics of the For example, the spectral signature of a jet
surrounding background, in large measure, deter- aircraft at side aspect is significantly different
mine the overall effectiveness of the system. If from that of the same aircraft viewed from the
no significant distinguishable target characteris- tail. In the first case, the signature is character-
tics exist relative to its background, the target is ized by emission bands of H20 and C02
essentially camouflaged. In general, there will combustion products at 2.7 and 4.4 microns,
always be some distinguishable aspects of the while in the second case, the signature is
target. The question is then relative to the type characterized by the blackbody emission of the
of detection system required and to its cost. Par. hot tailpipe. Fig. 5-2 shows the various aspect
2-6.2and AMCP 706-128discuss in detail some emissions. When viewed from the nose aspect,
of the salient characteristics of military targets. the signature may be dominated by graybody
The following two paragraphs describe the man- emission from the relatively cool surface of the
ner in which the system designer makes use of aircraft.
this information.
Ground targets, which exhibit relatively little
52.2.1 Spectral Radiant Intensity Bounds
energy compared to airborne targets, are gener-
ally characterized by small temperature differ-
The spectral characteristics of many military ences between the target and the surrounding
targets are often the most dominant differenti- background.

TAIL ASPECT

'ASPECT

WAVELENGTH (p)

FIGURE 5-2. Spectral Characteristics of Aircraft vs Viewing Aspecf

5 13
52.2.2 Radiance Gradients illumination at night. In the longer wavelengths
(above 4 microns) the spectral characteristics are
Virtually all infrared sensors operate on the
dominated by graybody emission at or near
modulated gradient between the target and its
ambient temperature. Since most natural objects
surrounding background. Thus, from a signal tend to have high emissivities in the long
standpoint, the effective signal is the difference wavelengths the spectral signatures approach
between the target and the background. Thus, that of a blackbody. These subjects are discussed
for example, a 300°K blackbody target con- in greater detail in par. 2-6.1. The spectral
trasted against a 300°K blackbody background absorptive properties of the intervening atmos-
would not produce a discernible gradient. In phere and the re-emission of the atmosphere in
many cases it is not required that the contrast be the absorption bands tend to modify the spec-
positive because negative gradients can also be tral characteristics of the background in a
processed. In the case of thermal imaging sys- fashion which in many cases is to the advantage
tems, targets are often specified in terms of the of the designer. In many cases, terrain back-
effective temperature contrast AT between tar- grounds will be at a range greater than or equal
get and background. For example, a sampan on to the target range, which means that the
a river might be said to have a 5"AT gradient. It background will be attenuated as much as or
should be noted that this temperature gradient is more than the target. It should also be noted
the result of both emissivity and temperature that the relative position of the sun, the type
differences. In the 8- to 14-micron region a ?5 and amount of cloud cover, and the type of
percent emissivity difference around E = 0.95 is terrain also affect the amplitude and spectral
equivalent to approximately a 7" C temperature signature of backgrounds.
difference at 300"K ambient.
The spatial characteristics of terraip are usu-
5-2.3 BACKGROUND DEFINITION ally dominated by a large low-frequency com-
The spectral and spatial characteristics of the ponent and roll-off at about l/f"beginning at
relatively low spatial frequencies. Many targets
background relative to the target determine the
of interest may be characterized by point
degree of background clutter that must be
processed and the resulting false alarm rate if objects with corresponding high-frequency com-
background is the dominant source of noise. To ponents. This tends to improve the background
this date there has been no satisfactory statis- clutter problem if the proper spatial and electri-
tical representation of the underlying stochastic cal filters are used. In general, these filters limit
process of background noise. Weiner spectra the low-frequency response of the system. This
representations of backgrounds have never been reduces signal energy, but at a much slower rate
found to adequately represent the spatial distri- than background energy, and thus improves the
bution of backgrounds. As a result, the system signal-to-background ratio.
designer must generally utilize concepts such as
the signal-to-background ratio which can be 52.3.2 Clouds
quantitatively translated into false alarm rates
only through complete knowledge of the prob- Clouds, or more exactly cloud edges, have
ability distribution function. However, if the been the traditional enemy of IR system design-
signal-to-background ratio is defined in terms of ers because of the large radiance gradient be-
the minimum signal-to-maximum background tween blue sky and a cloud edge. There are few
and the ratio is significantly greater than unity, analogous situations in the case of terrain
then in most cases the background can be backgrounds that produce gradients of this
adequately thresholded to a point where the magnitude. As a result, systems that are designed
false alarm rate will be within tolerable limits. to operate in a cloud environment must be
carefully designed with respect to their spectral
52.3.1 Terrain, Sea and spatial filtering properties.
The spectral signature of most ground back- As in the case of terrain, the spectral signature
grounds are characterized by diffusely reflected of clouds are dominated by emitted energy in
solar energy in the short wavelengths during the long wavelengths and reflected energy in the
daylight hours; and lunar, stellar, and air glow shorter wavelengths as illustrated in Fig. 5-3.

5 14
 \ WATER CLOUD

1
WAVELENGTH (p)

FIGURE 5-3. Typical Sunlit

-
Cloud Radiances vs Wavelength

(Refer to par. 2-6 for more detailed informa- second source of stellar radiation is the noise
tion.) The spectral radiance of clouds in the emission from many unresolved stars. In some
reflected region is strongly affected by the solar long-wavelength applications this may be the
scattering angle and the cloud altitude. High- limiting noise source.
altitude ice clouds tend to be better reflectors in
the short wavelengths but, because of their 5-2.4 TRANSMISSION
cooler temperatures, have lower radiance than
the low-altitude water clouds in the longer The selective absorption of radiated infrared
wavelengths. energy by the intervening atmosphere influences
both the spectral characteristics and amplitude
of the received target signal. As a consequence, a
52.3.3 Stellar Backgrounds comprehensive understanding of absorption
The stellar background provides two sources phenomena is mandahory for successful system
of background radiation. The first comes from design. The primary constituents that absorb
the bright stars that are resolved or detected by infrared energy are the vibration and rotation
the sensor. The number and position of resolv- bands of water vapor and carbon dioxide.
able stars can often be predicted in advance Secondary absorption sources include nitrous
through the use of star tapes and ephemeris oxide, ozone, methane, and other minor atmos-
catalogues. When this information is stored in pheric cases. Particulate matter causes scattering
processing computers, these false targets can be of the infrared energy. The phenomenology of
eliminated. Another technique of stellar discrim- this subject is discussed in par. 2-4.
ination is based on the spectral signature of
stars. Since most stars radiate as 5000" - 6000"K
5-2.4.1 Absorption
blackbodies, an instrument operating in two
spectral regions has a potential for rejecting The dominant absorption bands in the infra-
these objects relative to much cooler targets. In red are the 2.7-micron band of H 2 0 and C 0 2 ,
the regions of high-stellar density such as the the 6.3-micron band of H20, and the 15-micron
galactic equator it is often impossible to process band of C 0 2 . Because of these absorption bands
the information in real-time and as a conse- and the spectral characteristics of target radia-
quence these regions are often avoided. A tion, the traditional operating bands which have

5-15
evolved include: 1.8 to 2.7 microns, 3 to 5 infrared energy. This is often characterized by
microns, and 8 to 14 microns. It should be probability curves of cloud free line-of-sight as
noted that, since the atmosphere absorbs in the shown qualitatively in Fig. 5-5.The point A on
same bands where hobgas plumes emit, only a the curve indicates that at an altitude of about
small fraction of these strong emission bands is 20 kft and an observer-target distance of 5 mi
transmitted even through relatively short atmos- there is 80 percent probability of a cloud-free
pheric paths. However, temperature and pressure line of sight. While at the same altitude but for a
broadening of the plume emission bands results 6 - mi observer-target distance, point B on the
in a small residual skirt of energy that is curve, there is 70 percent probability of a
transmitted as shown in Fig. 5-4.It is apparent cloud-free line of sight. Curves such as those in
from Fig. 5-4 that unless both the spectral Fig. 5-5are especially useful in cost effectiveness
characteristics of the target and transmissions studies. For example, from the point of view of
are well understood, the estimation of the aircraft detection it may be desirable to have a
transmitted target energy can be significantly in detection range of 20 km. If, however, there is
error. It should also be noted that nonhomoge- only a 1 percent chance of having a cloud-free
neities in the atmosphere in the absorption line of sight to that altitude, it may not be
regions can be a significant source of external economical to provide that range capability. In
scanning noise. addition, the relationships of Fig. 5-5 are useful
Model atmospheres have been developed to in determining the expected range at which
represent the differing climatological environ- targets may emerge from cloud cover. This
information is often required in determining
ments in which an infrared system may operate.
frame rate requirements. For example, if a
For example, a model temperate atmosphere
system must detect a target by some minimum
describes the altitude dependence of C 0 2 ,H20,
range Rmin and the cloud data indicate that
temperature, and pressure for mid-latitude re-
there is a high probability that the target is not
gions. Similar models exist for tropical and
visible until some other range R , and the
arctic regions. In addition, transmission models
velocity of the target is V,,then the maximum
by such authors as Thomas Altshuler' greatly
frame time is
facilitate the calculation of slant path transmis-
sion.
(5-24)
52.4.2 Obscuration
In addition to being a background problem, Cloud cover data are also often required for
clouds are also a source of obscuration of airborne and satellite reconnaissance systems in

I I-TRANSMISSION

WAVELENGTH (p)

FIGURE 54. Relative Target Energy and Transmission vs Wavelength for Plume Emission

5-16
determining the percentage of time that ground three dominant suppressing techniques for mis-
targets will be visible. sile and aircraft targets are shielding, cooling,
and additives.
52.5 COUNTERMEASURES Shielding is a technique whereby the hot
engine parts of an aircraft, helicopter, or any
The designer of infrared systems must be other potential target are shielded from all but a
constantly aware of potential countermeasures very narrow range of aspect angles, usually only
that may be used against the system. This a few degrees directly around the exhaust
knowledge can in some cases permit the inclu- nozzle. Shielding and cooling are often used
sion of counter-countermeasures in the initial simultaneously in order to improve the overall
system design. In almost all cases the details of effectiveness. Fuel additives are sometimes used
countermeasure techniques and their perform- in order to reduce plume radiation. These
ance are highly classified and, as a result, the additives can be quenching in nature, such as
discussion must be general in nature. IR counter- water, which tends to reduce the temperature
measures are divided into two general groups and thus the radiation of the plume emission, or
representing two functional modes of operation: they can be inhibiting in nature such as certain
passive countermeasures and active counter- chemical additives.
measures.
5-2.5.2 Active Countermeasures
52.5.1 Passive Countermeasures
Active countermeasures are those counter-
Passive countermeasures can be broadly de- measures that either confuse or destroy the
fined as that class of countermeasures which are attacker’s guidance system. Flares, decoys,
employed continuously and are not activated as modulation jammers, and directed energy beams
a result of the presence of an attacker. Passive are all considered active countermeasures.
countermeasures exclude the deployment or
ejection of physical objects from the defended The infrared flare is one of the most common
platform. The most generally employed counter- countermeasures used to reduce the effective-
measure against IR systems is a reduction in ness of air-to-air missiles. If the radiant intensity
target signature. The primary objective of these of the ejected flare is slightly greater than that
techniques is to reduce or suppress the level of of the intended target and its trajectory is not a
IR radiation from the defended platform to a too radical departure from that of the intended
level so low that the attacker cannot detect his target, the missile will tend to follow the flare
target until it is too late to mount an attack. The and not the aircraft. The intent is to use a

T 90% 80% 70% 60%

10

3 4 5 6
OBSERVER- TARGET HORIZONTAL DISTANCE
(statute mile)

FIGURE5-5. Estimate of Probability of Cloud-free Line-of-sight from (or to) Surface Level
(Washington, b.e.-Summer)

5-17
sufficient number of flares deployed at the right concept prior to the firm delineation of the
time so that when the last flare has burned out, performance requirements; however, it must be
the aircraft is out of the missile’s field of view. remembered that cost and schedule constraints
The missile is then rendered harmless because may require the revision of the performance
the remaining time is insufficient for reacquiring specifications if the trade-off analyses of the
the target. It should be realized that since the baseline design and the alternative concepts
flare is significantly smaller than the target, it indicate that the specifications cannot be satis-
must be substantially hotter in order to emit as fied. Thus, the baseline design is part of the
much or more energy in any given spectral band. repeated cost effectiveness analysis.
As a result, if the air-to-air missile were to have a
two-color tracker (a counter-countermeasure) it 5-3.1 SPECTRAL OPTIMIZATION
could discriminate against the flare and reject it.
This, of course, would force the defense into the The selection of the optimum spectral band
deployment of a two-color flare (a counter- and the choice of detector are the most critical
counter-countermeasure), and so on. decisions made in designing an infrared sensor.
The optimum spectral region must be selected in
Decoys are objects that simulate the spectral the context of the operational mission, the
and spatial characteristics of the target but are targets, background, and transmission character-
dispersed in such large numbers that it becomes istics; and size, weight, power, and cost con-
uneconomical for the attacker to fire at all of straints imposed on the system. The two dom-
them in an attempt to hit the real target(s). As inant factors involved in spectral selection are
in the case of the flare, the attacker may try to system sensitivity and background rejection.
find a discriminant which the decoy does not Both of these factors affect the spectral location
simulate and use this to reject them in favor of and the spectral bandwidth, and are always in
the true target. opposition. The maximum target-to-background
ratio is achieved by selecting an infinitesimally
Modulation jamming is a technique whereby small bandwidth at the spectral location of
flashing or blinking lights are used to introduce maximum target-to-background contrast as
spurious tracking signals into the missile tracker shown in Fig. 5-6. However, since the bandwidth
in an attempt to either completely confuse it or is infinitesimally small, the signal-to-noise ratio
to introduce a significantly large miss-distance so is essentially zero. In order to increase the
as to render it ineffective. signal-to-system-noise ratio, the spectral band
must be widened which reduces the signal-to-
Potentially, lasers (directed energy beam) background ratio since the background is in-
could be used as a defensive technique to creasing faster than the target as the optimum
destroy either the optical coatings, filter, or the point is the center wavelength. The resolution of
sensing element of the threatening IR seeker. this problem is generally found in minimizing
Achievement of these objectives requires high- the number of detectors required for a series of
power levels not always compatible with air- fixed-aperture diameters, then developing a
borne platforms. In addition, efficient use of philosophy of making aperture/detector trade-
these lasers requires precise pointing mecha- offs.
nisms,

5-3 BASELINE DESIGN CONCEPT 53.1.1 Tradeoffs

The baseline design concept is a technique The instantaneous field of view and the
used to focus the analysis once a firm set of detector material, in addition to sensitivity
performance requirements have to be estab- requirements, must be considered in selecting
lished. The sensor system is then optimized by the optimum spectral region. The optimum
performing hardware and sensor parametric spectral region can be defined as the one that
trade-offs about the baseline design point to maximizes the signal-to-background-plus-noise
determine the most economical way t o achieve ratio p p and simultaneously satisfies the mini-
the performance requirements. It is almost mum signal-to-noise constraint p N . These can be
always premature to establish a baseline design defined by the following expressions

5-18
 MAXIMUM SPECTRAL BACKGROUND RATIO

BACKGROUND
RADIANCE AND
t
TARGET RADIANT
INTENSITY -
ARBITRARY
UNITS

-
TARGET

WAVELENGTH (p)

FIGURE 5-6. Example Spectral Background and Target Radiant Intensity

Eqs. 5-25 and 5-26 are based on the target,

background, transmission spectral characteris-
tics, and the detector noise characteristics.

Assume the target and background radiance

(5-25) and the transmission coefficient to be as shown
and in Figs. 5-7 and 5-8, and a mission detection
range of 7 km in a temperate atmosphere. Also
assume the field of view of the sensor to be very
small so that all backgrounds will be at a range
equal to or greater than the target. The apparent
target and background (as seen through the
where atmosphere) will then be as shown in Fig. 5-9. It
is apparent that transmission has significantly
pp = signal-to-background plus noise altered the spectral characteristics of both target
ratio and background.
S
p N = signal-to-noise ratio -
N
Next, assume an instantaneous field of view
J(A) = spectral radiant intensity of target, of 1U6 sr selected on the basis of resolution and
w sr-' p -' number of detectors. It should be noted that
this is an extremely significant design selection,
T ( A ) = atmospheric transmission for target
therefore, several iterations may be required to
TB(A) = atmospheric transmission for back- determine the optimum detector subtense. The
ground cumulative target and background irradiation
R = range, cm curves are shown in Fig. 5-10. These curves show
the amount of energy up to the long-wavelength
OL = instantaneous field of view, sr cutoff hz on the abscissa. The plateau region is
B ( h ) = background spectral radiance,
the result of the strong absorption at 4.4
w sr-' p -' microns. The signal-to-background-plus-noise
ratio pp is illustrated in Fig. 5-11 for several
N = rms system noise, w cm -* [ Eq. 5-41 short-wavelength cutoffs h . The curves with the

5-19
 CLOUD
BACKGROUND

2 3 4 5

WAVELENGTH (p)

FIGURE 5-7. Sample Spectral Signature of Target and Background

1.0.

z
0
H
v3
v3
E
3
h

WAVELENGTH (p)

FIGURE 58. Spectral Transmission Curves

5-20
 TARGET

3 4 5
WAVELENGTH (p)

FIGURE 59. Apparent Target and Background Signatures

i.-
TARGET

CLOUD

v
3 4 5
LONG-WAVELENGTH CUTOFF A2 (p)

FIGURE 5-10. Target and Background Cumulative lrradiance vs Upper Wavelength Cutoff

521
 w
LA
H
0

pc
XI = 3.75
3
8
M
Q
Q
X1 = 3.50

u
2I A1 = 3.25
0
E-r
I

J2
LA
LONG-WAVELENGTH CUTOFF AZ(p)

FIGURE 5- 11. Signal-to-backgroundPlus Noise Ratio for Various Upper and Lower Wavelength
Cutoffs

larger values of pp represent narrow spectral this paragraph. For example, the trade-off of
bands. detector instantaneous field of view was not
A t this point the signal-to-noise constraint examined. However, even before this paragraph
must be invoked. Assume that a minimum S/N can be completed, a discussion on the final
ratio of 6 has been determined based on an choice between detector materials must be
analysis of Eqs. 5-11 and 5-14. Also keep in included.
mind that size constraints limit the collecting
aperture to some fixed maximum. In the spec- 13.1.2 Detector Selection
tral region of interest, the two potentially useful
detector materials are PbSe and InSb. Fig. 5-12, The availability of detector materials for
which illustrates the cumulative S/N ratios p N specific spectral regions, their physical prop-
for these two detector materials, indicates that erties, sensitivities, and cost are some of the
InSb is more sensitive than PbSe. For any given more significant considerations in selecting a
detector material, the optimum band is the most spectral region and the design of an infrared
narrow band that satisfies the constraint of sensor. The most significant detector parameters
S / N = 6. This is found by iteratively selecting which influence the choice of detector materials
different combinations. Since InSb is more are spectral response, detectivity D* , responsiv-
sensitive, it can satisfy the requirement with a ity, cooling requirements, minimum size con-
narrower band than can PbSe (in this example, straints, cell-to-celluniformity, long-term stabili-
3.75 to 4.50 microns vs 3.50 to 5.00 microns). ty, manufacturing tolerances, array technology,
The implications for the signal-to-background and costs.
ratio are illustrated in Fig. 5-11. The system The spectral response of most detector mate-
using PbSe would operate at position A of this rials is relatively narrow in that their sensitivities
graph while the system using InSb would oper- outside of the limiting band are usually not
ate at position B. It is apparent then that the satisfactory for weapon system applications. As
most sensitive detector also provides the better a result, there are few examples in which more
background rejection capability. It should be than two or possibly three detector materials are
noted that only a few aspects of the spectral serious candidates for a specific application. Of
region selection problem have been illustrated in these candidates, the second consideration is the

5-22
 .P I

I
3 4 5
WAVELENGTH (IJ-)
FIGURE 5- 12. Cumulative Signal-to-noise Ratios for Two Detector Types

intrinsic sensitivity of the detector material area is related t o the field of view by Eq. 5-8 and
under the system operating conditions. It is clear the linear dimensions X and Yare given by
that detector sensitivity has a significant impact
on both system size and system performance.
In order to achieve maximum sensitivity,
most detector materials must be cooled to
cryogenic temperatures. The electrical power
requked to provide this cooling is often the ~r = e x e y (sr) (5-29)
most significant portion of the sensor's power
budget, and in many applications is often the where 0 x , 8 are the detector's angular dimen-
parameter that determines the choice of detec- sions. The state-of-theart usually limits the
tor material. For example, mercury-doped- minimum physical dimension at which a given
germanium Ge:Hg can operate in the 3- to detector material can be manufactured. For
5-micron region, but must be cooled to or below some detectors this may be 0.001 in. while for
30°K. On the other hand, indium-antimonide others it may be 0.004 in. Thus, if very small
InSb also operates in the 3- t o 5-micron region; instantaneous fields of view are required for
however, it must be cooled to only 77°K. For background rejection, and the optical diameter
equivalent heat inputs, the Ge:Hg system will Do and optical speed f h o . are limiting the
require approximately three times the input package size, it may not be possible to use a
power as will the InSb sensor, consequently, a particular detector material due to its size
substantial system trade-off could be made limitations.
relative to size (due to cooling requirements) When large arrays are required for specific
before selecting the detector material. applications, the existence of array technology
and the uniformity of the detectors in the array
Detector cell size is also an important param- also influence the choice of detector materials.
eter in the selection of a detector material. I t For example, there are only two detector
was shown that the instantaneous field of view materials (PbS and Ge:Hg) for which large array
of a detector was a significant parameter in (greater than 100 detectors) technology cur-
eliminating background clutter. The detector rently exists. The long-term stability of detector

523
 Next Page

sensitivity and responsivity also must be con- A linear array of detectors is assumed to cover
sidered in the choice of a detector material. the elevation field of view. The electrical (filter)
bandwidth of the filter A t ' is approximated by
53.2 FRAME-TIME OPTIMIZATION Af' = 1
-
2td
In many cases the frame time can be derived
and optimized based on target geometry and where td is the time it takes a point image to
kinematic considerations. For example, consider cross a detector. If the detector is of width O x
the problem posed in par. 5-2.1.1 in which and the system is scanning at a rate w rad/sec,
detection and acquisition are required by some then
range Rmin as defined by Eq. 5-2. The optimum
scan rate will be defined as the rate that OX
minimizes the aperture diameter Do while assur- t* = - (5-32)
w
ing target detection at a minimum range Rmin
which provides an acceptable signal-to-back- and
ground-noise ratio S/B. As shown in Eq. 5-9 Af' = 2 (5-33)
Jr 28X
S/B =
aBR2
~

If the field of view in the direction of scan is

The following simplified relationship for atmos- $ and the frame (scan) time is t,, then
pheric transmission 7, is used to arrive at an
analytic solution of the optimum frame time: (5-34)

(5-30) and

which is an approximation for a negative expo- (5-35)

nential, where x is determined empirically in the
spectral region of interest for the ranges of Substituting Eqs. 5-30, 5-31, and 5-35 into
interest. NEI Eq. 5-21, and solving for S/N, we obtain
For many detector materials (e.g., PbS) the
detectivity D* term in Eq. 5-21 is a function of
the frame time t, as a result of its high-fre-
quency timeconstant roll-off past some knee
frequency

D* =
D*(
A $) " (5-31)
(5-36)

t, s to If the signal-to-noise ratio for a particular

where detector is to be constant, independent of range,
h
it is required, therefore, from Eq. 5-9 that
D* = detectivity of the detector before
roll-offt, w cm - 2 a = K1R2 (5-37)
to = frame time that would produce the
roll-off knee frequency ( 3 dB point) where K, is a constant multiplier.
for a given size detector, sec For square detectors
t, = frame time, sec
e2 = a (5-38)
Y = number which is empirically
determined ey = ex =+ (5-39)
By substituting Eq. 5-39 into Eq. 5-36, the
t Frequency roll-off is defined as a frequency beyond following relationship is obtained between Do
which the output signal relative to input signal begins
to be attenuated. andR

5-24
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( AMCRD-TV)

FOR THE COMMANDER:

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Major G e n e r a l , USA
C h i e f of S t a f f

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C h i e f , HQ A d m i n Mgt Ofc

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