Fafacts PDF

PREFACE
Coal fly ash is a coal combustion product that has numerous

applications in highway construction. Since the first edition of Fly
Ash Facts for Highway Engineers in 1986, the use of fly ash in
highway construction has increased and new applications have
been developed. This document provides basic technical
information about the various uses of fly ash in highway
construction.
Fly ash has been used in roadways and interstate highways since
the early 1950s. In 1974, the Federal Highway Administration
encouraged the use of fly ash in concrete pavement with Notice N
5080.4, which urged states to allow partial substitution of fly ash
for cement whenever feasible. In addition, in January 1983, the
Environmental Protection Agency published federal
comprehensive procurement guidelines for cement and concrete
containing fly ash to encourage the utilization of fly ash and
establish compliance deadlines.
This document is sponsored by the U.S. Department of

Transportation, through the Federal Highway Administration, in
cooperation with the American Coal Ash Association and the
United States Environmental Protection Agency. The United
States Government assumes no liability for its contents or use.
The Federal Highway Administration endorses no products or
manufacturers. This publication does not constitute a standard,
specification, or regulation.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency supports the

beneficial use of coal combustion products as an important
priority and endorses efforts by the Federal Highway
Administration as described in this document.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 Fly Ash - An Engineering Material . . . . . . . . . . 1

Why Fly Ash? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Quality of Fly Ash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
CHAPTER 2 Highway Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Fly Ash in Portland Cement Concrete . . . . . . . 9
Fly Ash in Stabilized Base Course . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fly Ash in Flowable Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fly Ash in Structural Fills/Embankments . . . . 11
Fly Ash in Soil Imprevements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fly Ash in Asphalt Pavements. . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fly Ash in Grouts for Pavement Subsealing . . 13
CHAPTER 3 Fly Ash in Portland Cement Concrete. . . . . . . 15

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Mix Design and Specification Requirements . . 18
Fly Ash Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Other Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Construction Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
CHAPTER 4 Fly Ash in Stabilized Base Course. . . . . . . . . . 25

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Mix Design and Specification Requirements. . 25
Testing to Determine Mix Proportions . . . . . . 26
Construction Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Cautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
CHAPTER 5 Fly Ash in Flowable Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Mix Design and Specification Requirements. . 33
CHAPTER 6 Fly Ash in Structural Fills/Embankments . . . . 39

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Design and Specification Requirements . . . . . 39
Construction Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 7 Fly Ash in Soil Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Soil Stabilization to Improve Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Soil Stabilization to Control Shrink Swell. . . . . . . . . . . 50
Soil Modification to Reduce Water Content . . . . . . . . . 51
Cautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
CHAPTER 8 Fly Ash in Asphalt Pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Mix Design and Specification Requirements . . . . . . . . 53
CHAPTER 9 Fly Ash in Grouts for Pavement Subsealing . . . . . . . . . 57

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Mix Design and Specification Requirements . . . . . . . . 58
Construction Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Cautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
CHAPTER 10 Developments in Fly Ash Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Particle Size Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Carbon Reduction Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Other Developments in Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
APPENDIX A Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
APPENDIX B Specifications and Recommended Practice Guidelines. . 69

American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). . . . 69
American Concrete Institute (ACI). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Other Test Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
APPENDIX C Design and Construction References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Portland Cement Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Stabilized Base Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Flowable Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Grouts for Pavement Subsealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Soil Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Structural Fills/Embankments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Asphalt Pavements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
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LIST OF FIGURES
1-1 Method of fly ash transfer can be dry, wet or both
1-2 Fly ash particles at 2,000x magnification
1-3 Typical ash colors
1-4 Microscopic photographs of fly ash (left) and portland

cement (right)
3-1 Fly ash improves workability for pavement concrete
3-2 Typical strength gain of fly ash concrete
3-3 Permeability of fly ash concrete
3-4 Fly ash concrete is used in severe exposure applications
such as the decks and piers of Tampa Bay's Sunshine
Skyway Bridge
3-5 Fly ash concrete finishing

4-1 Full-depth reclamation of a bituminous road
5-1 Flowable fill used in a utility trench application
5-2 Flowable fill eliminates the need for manual compaction
5-3 Flowable fill can be used to backfill very narrow trenches

5-4 Bridge abutment backfill with flowable fill
5-5 Bridge replaced by culverts and flowable fill

6-1 Highway embankment with fly ash structural fill
6-2 Allowable moisture content range below optimum

moisture content
6-3 Spreading and compaction of fly ash structural fill
7-1 Mixing and shaping of fly ash stabilized soil
7-2 Compaction of fly ash stabilized soil

7-3 Mixing and compaction of fly ash into a plastic soil
8-1 Stone matrix asphalt
9-1 Fly ash grouts for pavement subsealing
v
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LIST OF TABLES
1-1 Fly ash production and use
1-2 Fly ash uses
1-3 Sample oxide analyses of ash and portland cement
1-4 Guidance documents used for fly ash quality assurance
1-5 Specifications for fly ash in PCC

5-1 High fly ash content mixes
5-2 Low fly ash content mixes
5-3 Flowable fill mixes with high air content
6-1 Combinations required for 95 percent of standard proctor
maximum dry density, AASHTO T 99
8-1 AASHTO M 17 specification requirements for mineral

filler use in asphalt paving mixtures
10-1 Typical mixes using ultra fine fly ash

10-2 Influence of the class of fly ash on concrete performance
10-3 Example mix designs incorporating Class C and Class F
blend
10-4 Example mix design for HVFAC
vii
CHAPTER.1
Fly Ash as an Engineering Material

FLY ASH - AN ENGINEERING MATERIAL
WHY FLY ASH?

What is fly ash? Fly ash is the finely divided residue that
results from the combustion of pulverized coal and is transported
from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases. Over 61 million
metric tons (68 million tons) of fly ash were produced in 2001.
Where does fly ash come from? Fly ash is produced by

coal-fired electric and steam generating plants. Typically, coal is
pulverized and blown with air into the boiler's combustion
chamber where it immediately ignites, generating heat and
producing a molten mineral residue. Boiler tubes extract heat
from the boiler, cooling the flue gas and causing the molten
mineral residue to harden and form ash. Coarse ash particles,
referred to as bottom ash or slag, fall to the bottom of the
combustion chamber, while the lighter fine ash particles, termed
fly ash, remain suspended in the flue gas. Prior to exhausting the
flue gas, fly ash is removed by particulate emission control
devices, such as electrostatic precipitators or filter fabric baghouses
(see Figure 1-1).
Where is fly ash used? Currently, over 20 million metric tons

(22 million tons) of fly ash are used annually in a variety of
engineering applications. Typical highway engineering
applications include: portland cement concrete (PCC), soil and Chapter.01
road base stabilization, flowable fills, grouts, structural fill and
asphalt filler.
What makes fly ash useful? Fly ash is most commonly used
as a pozzolan in PCC applications. Pozzolans are siliceous or
siliceous and aluminous materials, which in a finely divided form
and in the presence of water, react with calcium hydroxide at
ordinary temperatures to produce cementitious compounds.
The unique spherical shape and particle size distribution of fly ash
make it a good mineral filler in hot mix asphalt (HMA) applications
and improves the fluidity of flowable fill and grout. The consistency
and abundance of fly ash in many areas present unique opportunities
for use in structural fills and other highway applications.
1
Environmental benefits. Fly ash utilization, especially in
Fly Ash Facts for Highway Engineers
concrete, has significant environmental benefits including: (1)

increasing the life of concrete roads and structures by improving
concrete durability, (2) net reduction in energy use and greenhouse
gas and other adverse air emissions when fly ash is used to replace
or displace manufactured cement, (3) reduction in amount of coal
combustion products that must be disposed in landfills, and (4)
conservation of other natural resources and materials.
Figure1-1. Method of fly ash transfer can be dry, wet or both.
PRODUCTION
Fly ash is produced from the combustion of coal in electric utility
or industrial boilers. There are four basic types of coal-fired
boilers: pulverized coal (PC), stoker-fired or traveling grate,
cyclone, and fluidized-bed combustion (FBC) boilers. The PC
boiler is the most widely used, especially for large electric
generating units. The other boilers are more common at
industrial or cogeneration facilities. Fly ashes produced by FBC
boilers are not considered in this document. Fly ash is captured
2
from the flue gases using electrostatic precipitators (ESP) or in

filter fabric collectors, commonly referred to as baghouses. The
physical and chemical characteristics of fly ash vary among
combustion methods, coal source, and particle shape.
Table 1-1. 2001 Fly ash production and use.
As shown in Table 1-1, of the 62 million metric tons (68 million

tons) of fly ash produced in 2001, only 20 million metric tons (22
million tons), or 32 percent of total production, was used. The
following is a breakdown of fly ash uses, much of which is used in
the transportation industry.
Table 1-2. Fly ash uses

Chapter.01
HANDLING
The collected fly ash is typically conveyed pneumatically from the
ESP or filter fabric hoppers to storage silos where it is kept dry
pending utilization or further processing, or to a system where the
dry ash is mixed with water and conveyed (sluiced) to an on-site
storage pond.
The dry collected ash is normally stored and handled using

equipment and procedures similar to those used for handling
portland cement:
3
➤ Fly ash is stored in silos, domes and other bulk storage
facilities
➤ Fly ash can be transferred using air slides, bucket conveyors
and screw conveyors, or it can be pneumatically conveyed
through pipelines under positive or negative pressure
conditions
➤ Fly ash is transported to markets in bulk tanker trucks, rail
cars and barges/ships
➤ Fly ash can be packaged in super sacks or smaller bags for
specialty applications
Dry collected fly ash can also be moistened with water and
wetting agents, when applicable, using specialized equipment
(conditioned) and hauled in covered dump trucks for special
applications such as structural fills. Water conditioned fly ash can
be stockpiled at jobsites. Exposed stockpiled material must be
kept moist or covered with tarpaulins, plastic, or equivalent
materials to prevent dust emission.
CHARACTERISTICS
Size and Shape. Fly ash is typically finer than portland cement
and lime. Fly ash consists of silt-sized particles which are generally
spherical, typically ranging in size between 10 and 100 micron
(Figure 1-2). These small glass spheres improve the fluidity and
workability of fresh concrete. Fineness is one of the important
properties contributing to the pozzolanic reactivity of fly ash.
Figure 1-2. Fly ash particles at 2,000x magnification.
Chemistry. Fly ash consists primarily of oxides of silicon,

aluminum iron and calcium. Magnesium, potassium, sodium,
titanium, and sulfur are also present to a lesser degree.
4
When used as a mineral admixture in concrete, fly ash is classified

as either Class C or Class F ash based on its chemical composition.
American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) M 295 [American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) Specification C 618] defines the chemical composition of
Class C and Class F fly ash.
Class C ashes are generally derived from sub-bituminous coals

and consist primarily of calcium alumino-sulfate glass, as well as
quartz, tricalcium aluminate, and free lime (CaO). Class C ash is
also referred to as high calcium fly ash because it typically
contains more than 20 percent CaO.
Class F ashes are typically derived from bituminous and

anthracite coals and consist primarily of an alumino-silicate glass,
with quartz, mullite, and magnetite also present. Class F, or low
calcium fly ash has less than 10 percent CaO.
Table 1-3. Sample oxide analyses of ash and portland cement
Color. Fly ash can be tan to dark gray, depending on its

chemical and mineral constituents. Tan and light colors are
typically associated with high lime content. A brownish color is
Chapter.01
typically associated with the iron content. A dark gray to black
color is typically attributed to an elevated unburned carbon
content. Fly ash color is usually very consistent for each power
plant and coal source.
Figure 1-3. Typical ash colors.
5
QUALITY OF FLY ASH
Quality requirements for fly ash vary depending on the intended

use. Fly ash quality is affected by fuel characteristics (coal), co-
firing of fuels (bituminous and sub-bituminous coals), and various
aspects of the combustion and flue gas cleaning/collection
processes. The four most relevant characteristics of fly ash for use
in concrete are loss on ignition (LOI), fineness, chemical
composition and uniformity.
LOI is a measurement of unburned carbon (coal) remaining in the

ash and is a critical characteristic of fly ash, especially for concrete
applications. High carbon levels, the type of carbon (i.e.,
activated), the interaction of soluble ions in fly ash, and the
variability of carbon content can result in significant air-
entrainment problems in fresh concrete and can adversely affect
the durability of concrete. AASHTO and ASTM specify limits for
LOI. However, some state transportation departments will specify
a lower level for LOI. Carbon can also be removed from fly ash.
Some fly ash uses are not affected by the LOI. Filler in asphalt,
flowable fill, and structural fills can accept fly ash with elevated
carbon contents.
Fineness of fly ash is most closely related to the operating

condition of the coal crushers and the grindability of the coal
itself. For fly ash use in concrete applications, fineness is defined
as the percent by weight of the material retained on the 0.044 mm
(No. 325) sieve. A coarser gradation can result in a less reactive
ash and could contain higher carbon contents. Limits on fineness
are addressed by ASTM and state transportation department
specifications. Fly ash can be processed by screening or air
classification to improve its fineness and reactivity.
Some non-concrete applications, such as structural fills are not

affected by fly ash fineness. However, other applications such as
asphalt filler, are greatly dependent on the fly ash fineness and its
particle size distribution.
Chemical composition of fly ash relates directly to the mineral

chemistry of the parent coal and any additional fuels or additives
used in the combustion or post-combustion processes. The
pollution control technology that is used can also affect the
6
chemical composition of the fly ash. Electric generating stations

burn large volumes of coal from multiple sources. Coals may be
blended to maximize generation efficiency or to improve the
station environmental performance. The chemistry of the fly ash
is constantly tested and evaluated for specific use applications.
Some stations selectively burn specific coals or modify their
additives formulation to avoid degrading the ash quality or to
impart a desired fly ash chemistry and characteristics.
Uniformity of fly ash characteristics from shipment to shipment

is imperative in order to supply a consistent product. Fly ash
chemistry and characteristics are typically known in advance so
concrete mixes are designed and tested for performance.
Table 1-4. Guidance documents used for fly ash quality assurance
Quality Assurance and Quality Control criteria vary for each

use of fly ash from state to state and source to source. Some states
require certified samples from the silo on a specified basis for
testing and approval before use. Others maintain lists of
approved sources and accept project suppliers' certifications of fly
ash quality. The degree of quality control requirements depends
Chapter.01
on the intended use, the particular fly ash, and its variability.
Testing requirements are typically established by the individual
specifying agencies.
Figure 1-4. Microscopic photographs of fly ash (left) and portland

cement (right).
7
Table 1-5. Specifications for fly ash in PCC.

Notes:
1 ASTM requirements are six percent
2 The density and fineness of individual samples shall not vary from the
average established by the 10 preceding tests, or by all preceding tests if
the number is less than 10, by more than the maximum percentages
indicated
8
CHAPTER.2
Highway Applications
HIGHWAY APPLICATIONS
FLY ASH IN PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE

Overview. Fly ash is used in concrete admixtures to enhance the
performance of concrete. Portland cement contains about 65
percent lime. Some of this lime becomes free and available
during the hydration process. When fly ash is present with free
lime, it reacts chemically to form additional cementitious
materials, improving many of the properties of the concrete.
Benefits. The many benefits of incorporating fly ash into a PCC

have been demonstrated through extensive research and countless
highway and bridge construction projects. Benefits to concrete
vary depending on the type of fly ash, proportion used, other mix
ingredients, mixing procedure, field conditions and placement.
Some of the benefits of fly ash in concrete:
➤ Higher ultimate strength
➤ Improved workability
➤ Reduced bleeding
➤ Reduced heat of hydration
➤ Reduced permeability
➤ Increased resistance to sulfate attack
➤ Increased resistance to alkali-silica reactivity (ASR)
➤ Lowered costs
➤ Reduced shrinkage
➤ Increased durability
Chapter.02
Cautions. Care should be taken when using fly ash in concrete

due to:
➤ Potential for decreased air entraining ability with high
carbon fly ash may reduce durability
➤ Reduced early strength
➤ Reduced heat of hydration in colder climates
These concerns can be accommodated using proper design and

construction practices. See Chapter 3 for additional information.
9
FLY ASH IN STABILIZED BASE COURSE
Overview. Fly ash and lime can be combined with aggregate to

produce a quality stabilized base course. These road bases are
referred to as pozzolanic-stabilized mixtures (PSMs). Typical fly
ash contents may vary from 12 to 14 percent with corresponding
lime contents of three to five percent. Portland cement may also
be used in lieu of lime to increase early age strengths. The
resulting material is produced, placed, and looks like cement-
stabilized aggregate base
Benefits. PSM bases have advantages over other base materials:

➤ Use of locally available materials
➤ Provides a strong, durable mixture
➤ Lower costs
➤ Autogenous healing
➤ Increased energy efficiency
➤ Suitable for using recycled base materials
➤ Can be placed with conventional equipment
Cautions. PSM bases require attention to:

➤ Seasonal limitations
➤ Traffic loading before complete curing
➤ Proper sealing and protection with asphalt or other surface
treatment is required to improve skid resistance
Chapter 4 provides a more thorough discussion of stabilized base

course.
FLY ASH IN FLOWABLE FILL

Overview. Flowable fill is a mixture of coal fly ash, water, and
portland cement that flows like a liquid, sets up like a solid, is self-
leveling, and requires no compaction or vibration to achieve
maximum density. In addition to these benefits, a properly
designed flowable fill may be excavated later. For some mixes, an
optional filler material such as sand, bottom ash, or quarry fines, is
added. Flowable fill is also referred to as controlled low-strength
material, flowable mortar, or controlled density fill. It is designed
to function in the place of conventional backfill materials such as
soil, sand, or gravel and to alleviate problems and restrictions
generally associated with the placement of these materials.
10
The benefits of using flowable fill include:
➤ Allows placement in any weather, even under freezing
conditions
➤ Achieves 100 percent density with no compactive effort
➤ Fills around/under structures inaccessible to conventional fill
placement techniques
➤ Increases soil-bearing capacities
➤ Prevents post-fill settlement problems
➤ Increases the speed and ease of backfilling operations
➤ Decreases the variability in the density of the backfilled
materials
➤ Improves safety at the job site and reduces labor costs
➤ Decreases excavation costs
➤ Allows easy excavation later when properly designed
Cautions. When using flowable fill, care must be taken to:

➤ Anchor lighter weight pipes to prevent floating
➤ Provide confinement before initial set of the material
➤ Evaluate corrosion of metal pipe at interface of soil
Chapter 5 includes a detailed discussion of flowable fill

applications.
FLY ASH IN STRUCTURAL FILLS/EMBANKMENTS

Overview. Fly ash can be used as a borrow material to construct
fills and embankments. When fly ash is compacted in lifts, a
structural fill is constructed that is capable of supporting highway
buildings or other structures. Fly ash has been used in the Chapter.02
construction of structural fills/embankments that range from small
fills for road shoulders to large fills for interstate highway
embankments.
Benefits. When used in structural fills and embankments, fly ash

offers several advantages over soil and rock:
➤ Cost-effective where available in bulk quantities
➤ Eliminates the need to purchase, permit, and operate a
borrow pit
➤ Can be placed over low bearing strength soils
➤ Ease of handling and compaction reduce construction time
and equipment costs
11
Cautions. Be aware that:
➤ State or local environmental regulations may require

consideration of the potential impacts to ground water at
adjoining properties
➤ Requires dust control and erosion prevention measures
Chapter 6 provides additional information.
FLY ASH IN SOIL IMPROVEMENT

Overview. Fly ash is an effective agent for chemical and/or
mechanical stabilization of soils. Soil density, water content,
plasticity, and strength performance of soils. Typical applications
include: soil stabilization, soil drying, and control of shrink-swell.
Benefits. Fly ash provides the following benefits when used to

improve soil conditions:
➤ Eliminates need for expensive borrow materials
➤ Expedites construction by improving excessively wet or
unstable subgrade
➤ By improving subgrade conditions, promotes cost savings
through reduction in the required pavement thickness
➤ Can reduce or eliminate the need for more expensive natural
aggregates in the pavement cross-section
Cautions. The most important considerations for soil

improvement projects are:
➤ The rate of the hydration reaction upon exposure to water
➤ Soil moisture content at the time of compaction
➤ Fly ash with a sulfate content greater than 10 percent may
cause soils to expand more than desired
➤ In many cases, leaching tests may be required by local and
state agencies
Soil improvement is discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 7.
FLY ASH IN ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

Overview. Fly ash can be used as mineral filler in HMA paving
applications. Mineral fillers increase the stiffness of the asphalt
mortar matrix, improving the rutting resistance of pavements, and
the durability of the mix.
12
Benefits. Fly ash will typically meet mineral filler specifications
for gradation, organic impurities, and plasticity. The benefits of
fly ash include:
➤ Reduced potential for asphalt stripping due to hydrophobic
properties of fly ash
➤ Lime in some fly ashes may also reduce stripping
➤ May afford a lower cost than other mineral fillers
Chapter 8 has additional information.
FLY ASH IN GROUTS FOR PAVEMENT SUBSEALING

Overview. Grouts are proportioned mixtures of fly ash, water,
and other materials used to fill voids under a pavement system
without raising the slabs (subsealing), or to raise and support
concrete pavements at specified grade tolerances by drilling and
injecting the grout under specified areas of the pavement.
Benefits. Fly ash grouts can:

➤ Be used to correct undermining without removing overlying
pavement
➤ Be accomplished quickly with minimum disturbance to
traffic
➤ Develop high ultimate strength
Cautions. Fly ash grouts:

➤ Require curing period before extremely heavy loading
because of low early strength
➤ Require confinement of the grout mixture under pavement Chapter.02
Chapter 9 presents more information on this topic.
13
14
CHAPTER.3
Fly Ash in Portland Cement Concrete

FLY ASH IN PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE
INTRODUCTION
The use of fly ash in portland cement concrete (PCC) has many
benefits and improves concrete performance in both the fresh and
hardened state. Fly ash use in concrete improves the workability
of plastic concrete, and the strength and durability of hardened
concrete. Fly ash use is also cost effective. When fly ash is added
to concrete, the amount of portland cement may be reduced.
Benefits to Fresh Concrete. Generally, fly ash benefits fresh

concrete by reducing the mixing water requirement and
improving the paste flow behavior. The resulting benefits are
as follows:
Improved workability. The spherical shaped particles of fly ash

act as miniature ball bearings within the concrete mix, thus
providing a lubricant effect. This same effect also improves
concrete pumpability by reducing frictional losses during the
pumping process and flat work finishability.
Chapter.03
Figure 3-1. Fly ash improves workability for pavement concrete.
15
➤ Decreased water demand. The replacement of cement by
fly ash reduces the water demand for a given slump. When
fly ash is used at about 20 percent of the total cementitious,
water demand is reduced by approximately 10 percent.
Higher fly ash contents will yield higher water reductions.
The decreased water demand has little or no effect on drying
shrinkage/cracking. Some fly ash is known to reduce drying
shrinkage in certain situations.
➤ Reduced heat of hydration. Replacing cement with the

same amount of fly ash can reduce the heat of hydration of
concrete. This reduction in the heat of hydration does not
sacrifice long-term strength gain or durability. The reduced
heat of hydration lessens heat rise problems in mass concrete
placements.
Benefits to Hardened Concrete. One of the primary benefits of

fly ash is its reaction with available lime and alkali in concrete,
producing additional cementitious compounds. The following
equations illustrate the pozzolanic reaction of fly ash with lime to
produce additional calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) binder:
➤ Increased ultimate strength. The additional binder

produced by the fly ash reaction with available lime allows
fly ash concrete to continue to gain strength over time.
Mixtures designed to produce equivalent strength at early
ages (less than 90 days) will ultimately exceed the strength of
straight cement concrete mixes (see Figure 3-2).
16
Figure 3-2. Typical strength gain of fly ash concrete.
➤ Reduced permeability. The decrease in water content

combined with the production of additional cementitious
compounds reduces the pore interconnectivity of concrete,
thus decreasing permeability. The reduced permeability
results in improved long-term durability and resistance to
various forms of deterioration (see Figure 3-3)
Chapter.03
Figure 3-3. Permeability of fly ash concrete
➤ Improved durability. The decrease in free lime and the

resulting increase in cementitious compounds, combined
with the reduction in permeability enhance concrete
durability. This affords several benefits:
17
-Improved resistance to ASR. Fly ash reacts with available
alkali in the concrete, which makes them less available to react

with certain silica minerals contained in the aggregates.
-Improved resistance to sulfate attack. Fly ash induces three

phenomena that improve sulfate resistance:
·Fly ash consumes the free lime making it unavailable to react

with sulfate
·The reduced permeability prevents sulfate penetration into
the concrete
·Replacement of cement reduces the amount of reactive
aluminates available
-Improved resistance to corrosion. The reduction in

permeability increases the resistance to corrosion.
Figure 3-4. Fly ash concrete is used in severe exposure

applications such as the decks and piers of Tampa Bay's
Sunshine Skyway Bridge.
MIX DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

Procedures for proportioning fly ash concrete (FAC) mixes
necessarily differ slightly from those for conventional PCC. Basic
guidelines for selecting concrete proportions are contained in the
American Concrete Institute (ACI) Manual of Concrete Practice,
Section 211.1. Highway agencies generally use variations to this
procedure, but the basic concepts recommended by ACI are
widely acknowledged and accepted. There is very little on
proportioning in ACI 232.2.
Fly ash is used to lower the cost and to improve the performance
of PCC. Typically, 15 percent to 30 percent of the portland
18
cement is replaced with fly ash, with even higher percentages used

for mass concrete placements. An equivalent or greater weight of
fly ash is substituted for the cement removed. The substitution
ratio for fly ash to portland cement is typically 1:1 to 1.5:1.
A mix design should be evaluated with varying percentages of fly

ash. Time versus strength curves can be plotted for each
condition. To meet specification requirements, curves are
developed for various replacement ratios and the optimum
replacement percentage ratio is selected. A mix design should be
performed using the proposed construction materials. It is
recommended that the fly ash concrete being tested incorporates
local materials in performance evaluation.
Cement Factors. Because fly ash addition contributes to the total

cementitious material available in a mix, the minimum cement
factor (portland cement) used in the PCC can be effectively
reduced for FAC. The ACI acknowledges this contribution and
recommends that a water/ (cement plus pozzolan) ratio be used for
FAC in lieu of the conventional water/cement ratio used in PCC.
Fly ash particles react with free lime in the cement matrix to
produce additional cementitious material, and thus, to increase
long-term strength.
FLY ASH PROPERTIES

Fineness. The fineness of fly ash is important because it affects
the rate of pozzolanic activity and the workability of the concrete.
Specifications require a minimum of 66 percent passing the 0.044
Chapter.03
mm (No. 325) sieve.
Specific gravity. Although specific gravity does not directly

affect concrete quality, it has value in identifying changes in other
fly ash characteristics. It should be checked regularly as a quality
control measure, and correlated to other characteristics of fly ash
that may be fluctuating.
Chemical composition. The reactive aluminosilicate and

calcium aluminosilicate components of fly ash are routinely
represented in their oxide nomenclatures such as silicon dioxide,
aluminum oxide and calcium oxide. The variability of the
chemical composition is checked regularly as a quality control
19
measure. The aluminosilicate components react with calcium
hydroxide to produce additional cementitious materials. Fly

ashes tend to contribute to concrete strength at a faster rate when
these components are present in finer fractions of the fly ash.
Sulfur trioxide content is limited to five percent, as greater

amounts have been shown to increase mortar bar expansion.
Available alkalis in most ashes are less than the specification limit
of 1.5 percent. Contents greater than this may contribute to
alkali-aggregate expansion problems.
Carbon content. LOI is a measurement of unburned carbon

remaining in the ash. It can range up to five percent per
AASHTO and six percent per ASTM. The unburned carbon can
absorb air entraining admixtures (AEAs) and increase water
requirements. Also, some of the carbon in fly ash may be
encapsulated in glass or otherwise be less active and, therefore,
not affect the mix. Conversely, some fly ash with low LOI values
may have a type of carbon with a very high surface area, which
will increase the AEA dosages. Variations in LOI can contribute
to fluctuations in air content and call for more careful field
monitoring of entrained air in the concrete. Further, if the fly ash
has a very high carbon content, the carbon particles may float to
the top during the concrete finishing process and may produce
dark-colored surface streaks.
OTHER CONSTITUENTS
Aggregates. As with any concrete mix, appropriate sampling
and testing are needed to ensure that the aggregates used in the
mix design are of good quality and are representative of the
materials that will be used on the project. Aggregates containing
reactive silica may be used in the FAC.
Cement. Fly ash can be used effectively in combination with all

types of cements: portland cement, performance cement, and
blended cements. However, special care should be taken when
using fly ash with high early strength or pozzolanic cements.
Appropriate mix design and testing should be conducted to
evaluate the impact of fly ash addition on the performance of high
early strength concrete. Blended or pozzolanic cements already
contain fly ash or other pozzolan. Additional cement replacement
20
would affect early strength development. Characteristics of

cement vary, as do fly ashes, and not all combinations produce a
good concrete. The selected portland cement should be tested and
approved on its own merit, as well as evaluated in combination
with the specific fly ash to be used.
Air Entraining Admixtures (AEAs). The higher the carbon

content in the fly ash, the more difficult it is to control the air
content. Further, if the carbon content varies, air content must be
closely monitored and admixture dosage rates changed to insure
proper levels of air entrainment.
Retarders. Adding fly ash should not appreciably alter the

effectiveness of a chemical retarder. Some fly ashes may delay
the time of set and may reduce the need for a retarder.
Water reducers. Fly ash concrete normally requires less water,

but it can be further improved with the use of a water-reducing
admixture. The effectiveness of these admixtures can vary with
the addition of fly ash.
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
Fly ash concrete mixes can be developed to perform essentially
the same as PCC mixes with minor differences. When mixing
and placing any FAC, some minor changes in field operation may
be desirable. The following general rules-of-thumb will be useful:
Plant Operations. Fly ash requires a separate watertight, sealed

silo or holding bin for storage. Take care and clearly mark the
Chapter.03
loading pipe for fly ash to guard against cross-contamination
when deliveries are made. If a separate holding bin cannot be
provided, it may be possible to divide the cement silo. If
available, use a double-walled divider to prevent cross-
contamination. Due to its particle spherical shape, dry fly ash is
more flowable than dry portland cement. The angle of repose of
fly ash is typically less than that of cement.
As with any concrete mix, mixing time and conditions are critical
to producing quality concrete. The increase in paste volume and
concrete workability (ball bearings effect) associated with the use
of fly ash typically improve mixing efficiency.
21
Field Practices. Beginning with the first concrete delivery to the
job site, every load should be checked for entrained air until the
project personnel are confident a consistent air content is being
obtained. After that, periodic testing should continue to ensure
consistency. Concrete should be placed as quickly as possible to
minimize entrained air loss by extended agitation. Normal
practices for consolidation should be followed. Excessive
vibration should be avoided to minimize the loss of in-place
air content.
FAC mix workability characteristics allow it to be placed easily.

Many contractors report improved smoothness of FAC pavements
over those constructed with conventional PCC. FAC contains
more paste than conventional PCC, which is beneficial to the
finishing. The slower early strength development of FAC may
also result in longer moisture retention.
Figure 3-5. Fly ash concrete finishing
Troubleshooting. First-time users of fly ash in concrete should

evaluate the performance of proposed mixes prior to construction.
All concrete ingredients must be tested and evaluated to develop
the desired mix design.
Air content. The fineness of fly ash and the improved

workability of FAC make it naturally more difficult to develop
and hold entrained air. Also, residual unburned carbon in ash
adsorbs some of the air entraining agent and make it more
challenging to develop the desired air content. Higher carbon
content ashes naturally require higher AEA contents. Quality
assurance and quality control testing of ash at the source must
22
ensure that the fly ash used maintains a uniform carbon content

(LOI) to prevent unacceptable fluctuations in entrained air. New
technologies and procedures to address unburned carbon in fly
ash are described in Chapter 10.
Lower early strength. Fly ash concrete mixes typically result in

lower strengths at early ages. The slower strength gain may
require forms to be strengthened to mitigate hydraulic loads. It
should be noted that form removal and opening to traffic may be
delayed due to the slower strength gains. Lower early strengths
can be overcome by using accelerators.
Seasonal limitations. Construction scheduling should allow time

for FAC to gain adequate density and strength to resist de-icing
applications and freeze-thaw cycling prior to the winter months.
Strength gain of FAC is minimal during the colder months.
Although pozzolanic reactions are significantly diminished below
4.4 degrees C (40 degrees F), strength gain may continue at a
slower rate resulting from continued cement hydration. Chemical
admixtures can be utilized to off-set seasonal limitations.
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION REFERENCES

See Appendix C.
Chapter.03
23
24
CHAPTER.4
Fly Ash in Stabilized Base Course

FLY ASH IN STABILIZED BASE COURSE
INTRODUCTION
Fly ash stabilized base courses are proportioned mixtures of fly
ash, aggregate, and an activator (cement or lime) that, when
properly placed and compacted, produce a strong and durable
pavement base course. Fly ash stabilized base courses are cost-
effective substitutes for properly engineered full-depth asphalt,
cement-treated, and crushed stone base courses. Fly ash stabilized
base course is suitable for both flexible and rigid pavements.

Mix design. The stabilization of aggregate road bases with fly
ash has a long and successful history. This application, termed
pozzolanic-stabilized mixture (PSM) uses several materials and
material combinations to construct stabilized aggregate bases.
Class C fly ash can be used as a stand-alone material. Class F fly
ash can be used when blended with lime, portland cement or
cement kiln dust (CKD). Typical proportions for the Class F fly
ash lime blends are two to eight percent lime blended with 10 to
15 percent Class F fly ash. Also, 0.5 to 1.5 percent Type I
portland cement can be blended with Class F fly ash to produce
the stabilizing agent. The stabilization of aggregate bases provides
several advantages:
➤ Adds significant strength and durability
Chapter.04
➤ Allows the use of marginal or low quality aggregates
➤ Permits better use of open graded base courses
➤ Reduces project cost
Strength. Closely controlled curing conditions are important as

both time and temperature significantly affect strength. Use
standard proctor-sized specimens; normal curing for lime/fly
ash/aggregate mixtures is at plus 38 degrees C (100 degrees F) for
7 days. Some states use different curing times and temperatures.
Durability. It is important to ensure that adequate resistance to

freeze-thaw cycling is achieved before the onset of colder months.
The vacuum saturation test is normally used per ASTM C 593.
25
TESTING TO DETERMINE MIX PROPORTIONS
The following steps summarize the procedures for a laboratory

determination of mix proportions:
➤ Obtain a representative sample of aggregate. Determine the

particle size distribution of the aggregate. Screen the
aggregate through a three-quarter-inch sieve, and use the
portion passing the three-quarter-inch sieve for testing.
➤ Use proctor-size molds for all test samples. Add fly ash to
the aggregate in five different proportions, starting at the
lower limit (10 percent for coarse aggregate) and proceed in
convenient increments to the upper limit (20 percent for
coarse aggregate). Mold one test specimen at each fly ash
content in accordance with ASTM C 593 compaction
procedures at an estimated optimum moisture content.
➤ Determine the molded dry density of each aggregate-fly ash

blend. Plot the test results to identify a peak value or
maximum dry density.
➤ Select an optimum matrix content at least two percent above

the matrix content found at the maximum dry density. Then
determine the optimum moisture content and maximum dry
density for that blend.
➤ Determine the most suitable proportions of activator to fly ash.

Use five different activator-to-fly ash combinations at the
optimum matrix content. The five combinations should span
the recommended range of ratios for each activator. The
typical range of activator to fly ash ratio is 1:3 to 1:4 using
lime or portland cement; with either lime kiln dust or cement
kiln dust as an activator, the typical range is 1:1 to 1:2.
➤ Prepare six proctor-size specimens for each combination in

accordance with the compaction procedures in ASTM C
593. Cure all six test specimens for seven days in sealed
containers. For lime or kiln dust activators, cure at 37.8
degrees C (100 degrees F). For portland cement as the
activator, cure in a moist room at ambient conditions of 22.8
degrees C (73 degrees F) and 100 percent relative humidity.
26
➤ Test three specimens for compressive strength and test the
other three specimens for durability at the end of the seven-
day curing period, as described in ASTM C 593. Some
agencies utilize the ASTM D 560 freezing and thawing test,
which incorporates a brushing procedure and related
performance criteria developed by the Portland Cement
Association for soil-cement mixtures. In areas with virtually
no freezing and thawing, durability testing may be waived in
accordance with local practices.
➤ Plot a curve of compressive strength as a function of

activator percentage for each of the five activator-to-fly ash
combinations. Only test mixtures with a seven-day
compressive strength exceeding 2,760 kPa (400 psi) and
acceptable durability should be considered as a potential
PSM for field use.
➤ Select the most economical (lowest percentage activator)

mixture that exceeds the compressive strength and durability
requirements. The PSM actually used in the field should
contain a higher percentage of activator (a 0.5 percent
increase for lime or portland cement; and a one percent
increase for lime kiln dust or cement kiln dust) than the most
economical mixture identified in the laboratory. This assures
an adequate factor of safety for placement techniques
available in the field
Control of Materials
Lime. Hydrated lime is the most popular form used, although
Chapter.04
quick lime and other products containing lime (kiln dust, etc.) can
be used successfully with appropriate precautions. Type 1 portland
cement has also been used successfully as a reactant when higher
early strength requirements or reactant market conditions dictate.
Determine actual lime content from samples using approved
titration methods (ASTM D 2901, AASHTO T 232).
Fly ash. Unconditioned (dry) or conditioned (water added) fly

ash can be used successfully. Check the reactivity of fly ash with
cement in accordance with ASTM C 593 and for comparison and
mix design results. Reactivity and fineness are the fly ash
characteristics that most directly affect PSM quality.
27
Aggregates. Aggregates must be sound and resist deterioration
from environmental elements. They may include sands, gravels,

or crushed stones. Gradation should be such that the final
mixture is mechanically stable and highly compactable
Blending of materials. Central plant mixing provides the best
quality, although in-place mixing has also been successful. Most
plants use a continuous pugmill, but central mix concrete plants
also work well. When unconditioned (dry) fly ash is used, a silo
and surge bin are needed for lime or cement and fly ash. When
belt feeding, drop dry fly ash on top of the aggregate to keep it
from rolling down the belt during pugmill loading. Conditioned
Class F fly ash can be routinely added through an aggregate.
In-place mixing. In-place mixing involves the use of portable

pulverizing and mixing equipment to blend granular soil or
aggregate materials with PSM reagent material and water in pre-
determined proportions at the project site. Class F fly ash is
usually added in conditioned form, although it may also be added
dry. The reagent materials (lime and/or portland cement) are
usually added after the fly ash and are most often introduced in a
dry form, although they may be added in a slurry form in order
to minimize dusting. Water is usually sprayed on the mixture as
needed just prior to in-place mixing.
Full depth reclamation. When deteriorated asphalt pavements

are recycled in place, a technique known as full-depth reclamation
can be used. The flexible pavement and a pre-determined
portion of the underlying base material are milled and pulverized
to a depth that can range from 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12 inches) or
more. The pulverized material is mixed within the reclaiming
machine while stabilization reagents (such as lime or portland
cement and fly ash) and water are introduced and blended with
the pulverized recycled paving aggregate. The reclaimer is then
followed by grading, spreading, and compaction equipment
working in the same manner and sequence as if plant-mixed PSM
material were delivered and placed at the project site.
Spreading. A PSM can be placed with spreader boxes or

asphalt laydown machines. Equipment with automated grade
control is highly recommended. Layers are normally spread to a
28
thickness of 15 to 30 percent greater than the desired compacted

thickness. Maximum lift thickness is 200 to 250 mm (8 to 10 in).
Place the second lift on the same day or take appropriate
measures to ensure adequate sealing and subsequent bonding of
additional lifts.
Compaction. Achieving a high degree of compaction is crucial

to the successful performance of PSM roadbases. Final density
should be reached as quickly as possible to achieve the highest
ultimate strengths. This is especially the case when using Class C
fly ash as the stabilization reagent, since nearly all Class C fly
ashes are rapid setting and will not achieve the desired density
unless compacted immediately following spreading. Compacting
this noncohesive material with steel-wheel pneumatic, and
vibratory rollers has been successful. The PSM surface should be
kept moist throughout compaction. PSM moisture should be on
the low side of optimum to achieve the best field compaction. If
placed with a spreader box, the final surface should be fine
graded with a motor grader before final rolling with a steel-
wheeled roller. When fine grading, take care not to fill in the low
spots because the feathering-in will tend to reduce bonding at that
location, thus creating a potential trouble spot. If equipment with
graded control is used, fine grading is not required.
Curing. Compacted layers should be quickly sealed to prevent

drying. Apply a prime coat of 0.45 to 0.90 liters per square
meter (0.1 to 0.2 gal/sy) of cut back or emulsified asphalt to the
moist surface within 24 hours of final compaction. Multiple
applications of lighter coats tend to produce better penetration
Chapter.04
and improve adhesion.
CAUTIONS
Ash quality. Fly ashes, which contain sulfur in excess of 5.0
percent as SO3 or contain scrubber residues, should be carefully
evaluated with specific project soils to evaluate the expansion
potential of the materials combination.
Seasonal limitations. PSMs often require several weeks of

warmer weather to develop adequate strength to resist freeze-
thaw cycling of the first winter. If late season placements are
necessary, add portland cement in lieu of some of the lime to
increase early strength.
29

See Appendix C.
Figure 4-1. Full-depth reclamation of a bituminous road
30
CHAPTER.5
Fly Ash in Flowable Fill

FLY ASH IN FLOWABLE FILL
GENERAL
Flowable fill includes a family of products usually consisting of
water, fly ash, portland cement, and sometimes, coarse or fine
aggregates, or both. Flowable fill is an engineered, strength
controlled, fill material that is self-leveling, self-compacting and
non-settling. This material is also known as:
➤ Controlled density fill (CDF)

➤ Controlled low strength material (CLSM)
➤ Flowable fly ash
➤ High slump fly ash grout
➤ Lean concrete slurry
➤ Lean mix backfill
➤ Unshrinkable fill
Chapter.05
Figure 5-1. Flowable fill used in a utility trench application
Flowable fill mixtures make up a class of engineering materials

having characteristics and uses that overlap those of a broad
range of traditional materials including compacted soil, soil-
cement, and concrete. Consequently, flowable fills are
proportioned, mixed, and delivered in a form that resembles a
very workable concrete; and they provide for an in-place
product that is equivalent to a high-quality compacted soil
without the use of compaction equipment and related labor.
Virtually any coal fly ash can be used in flowable fill mixes.
The fly ash does not have to meet AASHTO M 295 (ASTM C
31
618) specification requirements as a concrete admixture to be
suitable for use in flowable fill, even fly ash with high LOI or
carbon content is suitable. The individual specifying agencies
may have applicable specifications or regulations regarding fly
ash flowable fill. Regardless of the type of handling practices,
fly ash for flowable fill can be used in a dry or moisture
conditioned form. Fly ash recovered from storage ponds has
been used successfully. Flowable fill mixes using high-calcium
fly ash may not require any cement. Mix design and
performance testing are typically prepared to determine the
suitability of a fly ash and other ingredients for the specific
flowable requirements.
Upon comparison, flowable fill materials usually offer an

economic advantage over the cost of placing and compacting
earthen backfill materials. Depending on the job conditions
and costs involved, significant savings are possible. The closer
the project location is to the source of the flowable fill, the
greater the potential cost savings. Flowable fill also becomes
more economical than conventional earthen backfill if shoring
and/or sloping of the trench is necessary for worker safety
within the excavated area. With flowable fill, workers need not
be in the excavation, resulting in cost savings from less
excavation and no shoring.
Figure 5-2. Flowable fill eliminates the need for manual compaction
32
Figure 5-3. Flowable fill can be used to backfill very narrow trenches

Flowable fill mixes typically contain fly ash, portland cement and
water. Other cementing compounds (e.g., Class C ash, cement
kiln dust, etc.) may be used in lieu of portland cement in certain
applications. Filler materials such as bottom ash, sand (including
some foundry sands) or other aggregates can also be used in the
mix. The flowable character of these mixtures derives from the
spherical particle shape of fly ash or from a distribution of
spherical and irregular particle shapes and sizes in fly ash and
sand combinations when mixed with enough water to lubricate
the particle surfaces.
Fly ash can be a major ingredient in a flowable fill mix. It can be

less expensive than sand. Flowable fills can use non-concrete
grade fly ash, which may be obtained at a reduced cost. However,
when sand is more economical, fly ash can be limited to 300 or
fewer kilograms per cubic meter (500 or fewer pounds per cubic
Chapter.05
yard). Water requirements for mixture fluidity will depend on the
surface parameters of all solids in the mixture, however, a range
of 250 to 400 liters per cubic meter (50 to 80 gallons per cubic
yard) would satisfy most materials combinations. Portland cement
is added, typically in quantities from 30 to 60 kilograms per cubic
meter (50 to 100 pounds per cubic yard) to provide a weak
cementitious matrix.
The two basic types of flowable fill mixes are high fly ash content
and low fly ash content. The high fly ash content mixes typically
contain almost all fly ash with a small percentage of portland
cement and enough water to make the mix flowable. The low fly
ash content mixes contain a high percentage of fine aggregate or
filler material (usually sand), a low percentage of fly ash sufficient
33
to help the sand particles flow, a small percentage of portland
cement (similar to that used in high fly ash content mixes), and
enough water to make the mix flowable.
ACI Committee 229 has designated low fly ash content mixes
that contain high percentages of fine aggregate as CLSM.
According to the ACI definition, CLSM has an upper
compressive strength limit of 8,300 kPa (1,200 psi), however,
strengths can be designed as low as 345 kPa (50 psi). Most
flowable fill mixes are designed to achieve a maximum strength of
1,000 to 1,400 kPa (150 to 200 psi) so as to allow for excavation at
a later time. It is important to remember that flowable fill mixes
with an ultimate strength in the 345 to 480 kPa (50 to 70 psi)
range have at least two to three times the bearing capacity of well-
compacted earthen backfill material.
Usually, flowable fill mix designs are proportioned based on the

percentage of fly ash, on a dry weight basis. The high fly ash
content mixes normally contain 95 percent fly ash and 5 percent
portland cement. In some areas, self-cementing fly ash accounts
for 100 percent of the cementitious material. Because the low fly
ash content mixes contain an additional ingredient (sand or filler),
there is a much broader range of mix proportions. Some typical
mix designs for high and low fly ash content mixes are included
in Tables 5-1 and 5-2. The most important physical characteristics
of flowable fill mixtures are: strength development, flowability,
hardening time, and bleeding/subsidence.
Table 5-1. High fly ash content mixes.
Table 5-2. Low fly ash content mixes.
34
Strength development. Strength development in flowable fill

mixtures is directly related to the amount of cementitious material
and water content. With low CaO (Class F) fly ashes, the cement
content and water content relate directly to strength development.
With high CaO (Class C) fly ashes, no cement may be required
and strength is related directly to the fly ash and water content.
Most high fly ash content mixes only require from three to five
percent portland cement by dry weight of the fly ash to develop
28-day compressive strengths in the 345 to 1,000 kPa (50 to 150
psi) range. Long-term strength may gradually increase beyond
the 28-day strength. Water content of mix also influences strength
development. Water is added to achieve a desired flowability or
slump. At a given cement content, increased water content
usually results in a slight decrease in compressive strength
development over time. With high air (greater than 20 percent)
flowable fill mixtures, the water content is reduced and strength is
limited by the presence of air voids.
Flowability. Flowability is basically a function of the water and

entrained air content. The higher the water and air content, the
more flowable the mix. It is usually desirable to make the mix as
flowable as practical in order to take advantage of the self-
compacting qualities of flowable fill. Typical flowable fill mixes
with high air content are shown in Table 5-3.
Chapter.05
Table 5-3. Flowable fill mixes with high air content.
Hardening time. Hardening time is directly related to the

cement content. Typical high fly ash flowable fill mixes
containing five percent cement achieve a sufficient set to support
the weight of an average person in about three to four hours,
depending on the temperature and humidity. Within 24 hours,
construction equipment can move across the surface without any
apparent damage. Some low fly ash flowable fill mixes containing
high calcium fly ash have reportedly set sufficiently to allow street
patching within one to two hours after placement.
35
Bleeding and subsidence. Bleeding and subsidence are possible
in high fly ash flowable fill mixes with relatively high water
contents (corresponding to a 254 mm/10-in slump). Evaporation
of the bleed water and absorption into the surrounding soil often
results in a subsidence of approximately 11 mm/m (1/8-in/ft) of
depth of the fill. This shrinkage may occur laterally as well as
vertically, but no additional shrinkage or long-term settlement of
flowable fill occurs after initial set. Prior to hardening, flowable
fill mixes are self-leveling.
Because the flowable fill is commonly obtained from ready-mixed

concrete producers, quality control of the fill is easily maintained
with the materials scales and metering devices already in use at
the concrete plant. Delivery is usually by conventional ready-mix
trucks. Flowable fill can also be pumped or placed by bucket,
conveyor, or hose. It does not usually segregate even if dropped
from considerable heights or pumped for long distances.
Applications of flowable fills include, but are not limited to:

backfill for bridge abutments, culverts, and trenches; fill for
embankments, bases, and subbases; bedding for slabs and pipes;
insulating fill; fill for caissons and piles; and fill for abandoned
storage tanks, shafts, and tunnels.
An important requirement for flowable fills in many applications

is that they can be removed with ordinary excavation equipment.
This means that compressive strength should be limited to 700 to
1,400 kPa (100 to 200 psi) with mechanical equipment and 345
kPa or less (50 psi) for manual excavation. Because of the
combined concrete/soils technology associated with flowable
mixtures, a variety of control tests have been applied to their use,
including flowability as measured by a concrete slump cone, a
flow cylinder, or a mortar flow cone and unit weight, as well as
measures of compressive strength, bearing capacity, or penetration
resistance (ACI 229R).
36
Figure 5-4. Bridge abutment backfill with flowable fill.
As with any construction application, quality control and quality
assurance (QC/QA) of the materials and the mix are extremely
important. Good QC/QA will take maximum advantage of the
benefits of flowable fill.
Corrosion. Test methods developed to evaluate the potential for

corrosion of metals in soil backfills can be used to evaluate the
corrosion potential of flowable fills. ACI 229R describes several
test methods specific to the material in contact with flowable fill.
Chapter.05
Figure 5-5. Bridge replaced by culverts and flowable fill.

See Appendix C.
37
38
CHAPTER.6
Fly Ash in Structural Fills/Embankments

FLY ASH IN STRUCTURAL FILLS/EMBANKMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Specifications for fly ash structural fills and embankments are
similar to specifications for engineered soil fills. Proper placement
and compaction of fly ash fills is required to achieve the desired
strength and compressibility characteristics assumed for design.
Chapter.06
Figure 6-1. Highway embankment with fly ash structural fill.
DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

Ash sources. Fly ash for structural fill applications can be
obtained as conditioned fly ash from a silo or as ponded fly ash
from a pond or a stockpile. Silo fly ash can be delivered with
close controls on moisture content and grain size distribution.
Conversely, the moisture content or grain size distribution of
ponded or stockpiled ash can vary considerably depending upon
its location within the pond or stockpile. Therefore, using ponded
39
or stockpiled ash may require several series of laboratory tests. If
fly ash from more than one source is being used on the project at
the same time, it is preferable to place and compact the ashes
separately. Because of its self-hardening properties, high calcium
ash is typically stored dry in silos and hauled to the construction
site in pneumatic tank trucks, or is removed from a pond or
temporary stockpile. This procedure may not be necessary if the
site is close enough to the plant to allow the ash to be hauled in
the moistened condition.
Site conditions. As with any embankment project, standard

geotechnical techniques are used to evaluate subsurface soil and
groundwater conditions. The two most important subsurface
characteristics affecting embankment construction and
performance are shear strength and compressibility of the
foundation soils. ASTM E 1861 provides additional guidance
concerning technical and environmental considerations.
Physical, engineering, and chemical properties of the ash.

The physical and engineering properties of fly ash that will
determine the behavior of the embankment are grain-size
distribution, moisture-density relationships, shear strength,
compressibility, permeability, capillarity, and frost susceptibility.
Laboratory tests designed for testing soil properties may be applied
to testing fly ash. The chemical characteristics of the fly ash affect
the physical behavior as well as the quality of the leachate
produced by the ash. The utility company or its marketing agent
can provide information on the physical, engineering, and
chemical composition of the ash and leachate characteristics.
Design issues. The mechanical behavior and compaction

characteristics of fly ash are generally similar to those of silt. For
this reason, fly ash also shares some of the difficulties that are
characteristic of silt such as dusting, erosion and frost
susceptibility. These difficulties can be properly addressed during
the design of the embankment. For example, ice lenses grow in
silt-sized soils by wicking water up from a shallow groundwater
table. Such ice lenses expand during the winter and melt during
the spring causing unstable and soft embankment conditions. The
problem can be avoided by controlling upward seepage with a
layer of coarse-grained material or geotextile at the base of the
embankment. In general, avoid using fly ash as a fill material
40
below the groundwater table or when the embankment design

cannot provide adequate drainage.
Environmental impacts. The trace element concentrations in

many fly ashes are similar to those found in naturally occurring
soils. Although the leachates of some fly ashes may contain trace
element concentrations that exceed drinking water quality
standards, this is also true of certain soils. State environmental
regulatory agencies can guide you through applicable test
procedures and water quality standards. The amount of leachate
produced can be controlled by assuring adequate compaction,
grading to promote surface runoff, and daily proof-rolling of the
finished subgrade to impede infiltration. When construction is
finished, a properly seeded soil cover will reduce infiltration. For
highway embankments, the pavement may be an effective barrier
to infiltration.
Erosion and dust control. To prevent wind and surface water

erosion of the fly ash embankment, use the same sediment and
erosion control techniques common during earthwork operations.
This includes wetting down exposed surfaces and installing silt
fences or straw bales around construction areas. Dusting will
likely occur when compacted fly ash is placed in dry, windy, or
freezing weather, or during traffic disturbance. During
construction, the surface should be kept moist, covered, or
stabilized with lime or bitumen. To prevent erosion and dusting
after completion of the embankment, protect the fly ash with
topsoil and vegetation or by sealing with bituminous emulsion. Chapter.06
Specifications/quality control. There are two types of
specifications used for the construction of fly ash embankments:
performance specifications and method specifications. The
construction quality control effort required depends greatly on the
selected specification approach. Additional information on
specifications and procedures can be found in ASTM E 1861.
Performance specifications. Performance specifications

designate the required degree of compaction and the allowable
moisture content range. For road embankments, a typical
requirement is to compact the fly ash to 95 to 100 percent of
maximum dry density, as determined by AASHTO T 99 (ASTM
D 698). The allowable range for the moisture content is
41
determined by plotting the laboratory moisture-density
relationship. Figure 6-2 shows the dry density and moisture

content relationship. Fly ash may be variable enough that several
curves are required. It is preferable to place the ash at less than
optimum moisture because it will be difficult to impossible to
obtain compaction above optimum moisture contents.
Figure 6-2. Allowable moisture content range below optimum

moisture content
Method specifications. On some projects, method specifications

are preferable over performance specifications. The method
specification is based on the results of field compaction tests on
trial strips. The required lift thickness, weight of compaction
equipment, speed of compaction equipment, and the number of
passes are thus specified so that the necessary degree of
compaction is achieved. If vibratory compaction equipment is
being used, the resonant frequency of each compactor in use is also
established in the field. The method specification allows for
simpler quality control because the compaction procedures can be
monitored visually. Compactive efforts to achieve 95 percent of the
standard proctor maximum dry density are shown in Table 6-1.
42
Table 6-1. Combinations required for 95 percent of the standard
proctor maximum dry density, AASHTO Method T 99
General. Recommended construction procedures have been
developed as the result of experience gained with trial embankments
and construction projects. Adjustments to these standard procedures
may be necessary, depending on actual field conditions.
Site preparation. Preparing the site for fly ash placement is

similar to requirements for soil fill materials. The site must be
cleared and grubbed. Topsoil should be retained for final cover.
Special attention should be given to draining the site and to
Chapter.06
preventing seeps, pools, or springs from contacting the fly ash.
Delivery and on-site handling. Fly ash is usually hauled to the

site in covered dump trucks or pneumatic tanker trucks. Adjust
the water content of the ash to prevent dusting. In the case of
lagoon ash, reduce the water through temporary stockpiling
and/or mixing with drier silo ash to prevent road spillage during
hardening properties of high calcium ash, it is stored dry in silos

or pneumatic tanker trucks. Low calcium ash can be stockpiled
on-site if the ash is kept moist and if the ash is covered to prevent
dusting and erosion.
43
Spreading. Fly ash is usually spread and leveled with a dozer,
grader, or other equipment in loose lifts of 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12

in) thick. The lift is then tracked with the dozer or other
equipment for initial compaction.
Compaction equipment. Begin compaction as soon as the

material has been spread and is at the proper moisture content.
The most successful compaction results have been achieved with
self-propelled, pneumatic-tired rollers and self-propelled or towed
vibratory rollers. Vibratory rollers operated at the resonant
frequency of the fly ash will compact the ash more effectively and
in fewer passes than non-vibratory rollers. Table 6-1 lists the types
of compaction equipment that have been tested for use with fly ash.
Figure 6-3. Spreading and compaction of fly ash structural fill.
Moisture control. Control of the required range of moisture is

an important consideration in the compaction procedure. Fly ash
can be conditioned with water at the plant silo to achieve the
desired moisture content. Be sure to compare the alternatives of
hauling fly ash moistened to the desired water content at the
plant, or adding water at the site. Hauling moist fly ash to the site
means higher transportation costs, while adding water on-site
sacrifices productivity in field placement.
Weather restrictions. Fly ash can often be placed during

inclement weather. In the winter months, frost usually penetrates
only the upper layer of the compacted ash, which can be re-
compacted upon thawing. During compaction, if the water
freezes too fast, the operation should be suspended until the
temperature rises. Construction can also proceed during wet
44
weather even if the moisture content of the ash is too high.

However, the equipment may bog down and it may be difficult to
achieve proper compaction.
Insensitivity to moisture variations. Because water is added to

low calcium fly ash during unloading from storage silos, fly ash
can be obtained at any moisture content that is desired. Although
the optimum moisture content is greater than that of silty soils, the
compaction behavior of low calcium fly ash is relatively
insensitive to variations in moisture content when placed dry of
optimum. High calcium fly ash, however, will self-harden when
water is added and becomes difficult to handle if not placed in a
timely manner.

See Appendix C.
Chapter
45
46
CHAPTER.7
Fly Ash in Soil Improvement

FLY ASH IN SOIL IMPROVEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Soil stabilization is the alteration of soil properties to improve the
engineering performance of soils. The properties most often
altered are density, water content, plasticity and strength.
Modification of soil properties is the temporary enhancement of
subgrade stability to expedite construction.
Class C fly ash and Class F-lime product blends can be used in
numerous geotechnical applications common with highway
construction:
➤ To enhance strength properties
➤ Stabilize embankments
➤ To control shrink swell properties of expansive soils
➤ Drying agent to reduce soil moisture contents to permit
compaction
Class C fly ash can be used as a stand-alone material because of its

self-cementitious properties. Class F fly ash can be used in soil
stabilization applications with the addition of a cementitious agent
(lime, lime kiln dust, CKD, and cement). The self-cementitious
behavior of fly ashes is determined by ASTM D 5239. This test
provides a standard method for determining the compressive
strength of cubes made with fly ash and water (water/fly ash weight
ratio is 0.35), tested at seven days with standard moist curing. The
self-cementitious characteristics are ranked as shown below:
Chapter.07
Very self-cementing > 500 psi (3,400 kPa)

Moderately self-cementing 100 - 500 psi (700 - 3,400 kPa)
Non self-cementing < 100 psi (700 kPa)
It should be noted that the results obtained from ASTM D 5239

only characterizes the cementitious characteristics of the fly ash-
water blends and does not alone provide a basis to evaluate the
potential interactions between the fly ash and soil or aggregate.
The use of fly ash in soil stabilization and soil modification may
be subject to local environmental requirements pertaining to
leaching and potential interaction with ground water and
adjacent water courses.
47
SOIL STABILIZATION TO IMPROVE SOIL STRENGTH
Fly ash has been used successfully in many projects to improve

the strength characteristics of soils. Fly ash can be used to
stabilize bases or subgrades, to stabilize backfill to reduce lateral
earth pressures and to stabilize embankments to improve slope
stability. Typical stabilized soil depths are 15 to 46 centimeters (6
to 18 inches). The primary reason fly ash is used in soil
stabilization applications is to improve the compressive and
shearing strength of soils. The compressive strength of fly ash
treated soils is dependent on:
➤ In-place soil properties

➤ Delay time
➤ Moisture content at time of compaction
➤ Fly ash addition ratio
Figure 7-1. Mixing and shaping of fly ash stabilized soil.
Delay time. Delay time is the elapsed time measured between

when the fly ash first comes into contact with water and final
compaction of the soil, fly ash and water mixture. Compressive
strength is highly dependent upon delay time. Both densities and
strength are reduced with increasing delay to final compaction.
Delay time is critical due to the rapid nature of the tricalcium
aluminate (C3A) reaction that occurs when Class C fly ash is
mixed with water. Densities and strengths are reduced because a
portion of the compactive energy must be used to overcome the
bonding of the soil particle by cementation and because a portion
of the cementation potential is lost. Maximum strength in soil-fly
ash mixtures is attained at no delay. Typically, a one-hour
compaction delay is specified for construction purposes.
48
Moisture content. The water content of the fly ash stabilized

soil mixture affects the strength. The maximum strength realized
in soil-fly ash mixtures generally occurs at moisture contents
below optimum moisture content for density. For silt and clay
Figure 7-2. Compaction of fly ash stabilized soil.
soils the optimum moisture content for strength is generally four

to eight percent below optimum for maximum density. For
granular soils the optimum moisture content for maximum
strength is generally one to three percent below optimum
moisture for density. Therefore, it is crucial that moisture content
be controlled during construction. Moisture content is usually
measured using a nuclear density measurement device.
Addition Ratios. Typical fly ash addition rates are 8 percent to

16 percent based on dry weight of soil. The addition rate depends
on the nature of the soil, the characteristics of the fly ash and the
strength desired. The addition rate must be determined by
laboratory mix design testing. In general the higher the addition
Chapter.08
rate the higher the realized compressive strength. Fly ashes for
state department of transportation projects are usually specified to
meet AASHTO M 295 (ASTM C 618), even though the
requirements of this specification are not necessary for this
application and may increase the ash supply costs. Increasingly
non-AASHTO M 295 compliant materials are being successfully
used. It should be noted that virtually any fly ash that has at least
some self-cementitious properties can be engineered to perform in
transportation projects.
Soil Properties. The plasticity of soils treated with Class C or

other high-calcium fly ash is influenced by the types of clay
minerals present in the soil and their adsorbed water. Soils
49
containing more than 10 percent sulfates have been prone to swell
excessively in some applications. Also, organic soils are difficult

to stabilize using fly ash.
SOIL STABILIZATION TO CONTROL SHRINK SWELL

Many clay soils (plastic soils) undergo extensive volumetric
changes when subjected to fluctuating moisture contents. These
volumetric changes if not controlled can lead to movements in
structures and impose loads which can cause premature failure.
The plasticity of soils has historically been quantified by the

plasticity index, as determined by ASTM D 4318. Typically
specifications limit the plasticity index of a soil to no more than
10-12 to ensure a stable material. In general terms, the higher the
plasticity index, the higher the potential to shrink or swell as the
soil undergoes moisture content fluctuations.
Figure 7-3. Mixing and compaction of fly ash into a plastic soil
Historically, plastic soils have been treated with quick lime (CaO)
or hydrated lime [Ca (OH)2] to lower their plasticity. The lime
chemically reacts with the soil particles, effectively changing the
soil grains from clay size (less than 0.002 mm) to silt size (0.05 to
0.002 mm). The determination of the plasticity index is geared
towards measuring this chemical change in the soil.
Fly ash reduces the potential of a plastic soil to undergo

volumetric expansion by a physical cementing mechanism, which
cannot be evaluated by the plasticity index. Fly ash controls
shrink-swell by cementing the soil grains together much like a
portland cement bonds aggregates together to make concrete. By
bonding the soil grains together, soil particle movements are
restricted. Typical addition rates based on dry weight of soil are
12 to 15 percent.
50
It should be noted that a Class C fly ash may contain 15 percent
or more calcium expressed as calcium oxide, but very little of this
calcium is in the form of free calcium oxide (CaO). Therefore,
the determination of the plasticity limits is inappropriate when
evaluating the effect of fly ash on the shrink-swell characteristics
of a soil. To properly evaluate a fly ash for shrink-swell control,
the soil-fly ash blends should be tested with a soil expansion test
such as ASTM D 4829 or ASTM D 1883.
The swell potential of fly ash treated soils is typically less than 0.5
percent under confining pressures of 48 kPa (100 psf) even when
compacted two to four percent below optimum moisture content
for maximum density.
SOIL MODIFICATION TO REDUCE WATER CONTENT

Soils must be compacted to their maximum practical density to
provide a firm base for overlying structures. For soils to be
compacted the moisture content must be controlled because of
the relationship between soil density and moisture content. If the
soil to be compacted is either to wet or too dry, the moisture
content must be adjusted to near optimum to achieve maximum
density. If a soil is too dry, moisture is simply added. If a soil is
too wet, the moisture content of the soil must be lowered. Class
C fly ash and other high lime fly ash have been found to be very
effective drying agents, capable of reducing soil moisture content
by 30 percent or more.
The fly ash dries the soil by two basic mechanisms, chemical
Chapter.07
reactions that consume moisture in the soil and by simple
dilution. Class C fly ashes contain tricalcium aluminate (C3A),
which is highly reactive with water. C3A is the chemical
compound present in ordinary portland cement which is
responsible for early strength. The C3A present in fly ash reacts
with the water, lowering the overall moisture content of the soil.
The drying effect of fly ash in wet soil is very rapid and
immediate, permitting the contractor to quickly proceed with
construction. In addition to the speeding up of the construction
process the use of fly ash provides several other benefits, such as
making the soil more resistant to additional water infiltration,
provides additional support for traffic, creates a more stable work
platform and reduces dusting from construction traffic.
51
CAUTIONS
Some state or local environmental agencies may require a
leaching test of the ash prior to use.

See Appendix C.
52
CHAPTER.8
Fly Ash in Asphalt Pavement

FLY ASH IN ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Fly ash can be used as a cost-effective mineral filler in hot mix
asphalt (HMA) paving applications. Where available locally, fly
ash may cost less than other mineral fillers. Also, due to the
lower specific gravity of fly ash, similar performance is obtained
using less material by weight, further reducing the material cost of
HMA. Mineral fillers increase the stiffness of the asphalt mortar
matrix, improving the rutting resistance of pavements. Mineral
fillers also help reduce the amount of asphalt drain down in the
mix during construction, which improves durability of the mix by
maintaining the amount of asphalt initially used in the mix.
Fly ash will normally meet mineral filler specification

requirements for gradation, organic impurities and plasticity.
Also, fly ash is hydrophobic (non-water wettable) , reducing the
potential for asphalt stripping; the presence of lime in some fly
ashes may also reduce stripping.
Mineral fillers have become more necessary as mixture gradations

have become coarser. Asphalt pavements with coarse gradations
are increasingly being designed because they perform well under
heavy traffic conditions. Some mixtures require higher dust to
asphalt ratios than can be gained through the recycling of
baghouse fines alone.
Chapter.08

Fly ash must be in a dry form when used as mineral filler.
Typically, fly ash is handled in a similar manner to hydrated
lime - it is transported to the HMA plant in pneumatic tankers;
stored in watertight silos at the plant; and metered into the
HMA using an auger.
Engineering Properties. The physical requirements for

mineral filler in bituminous paving are defined in AASHTO
M 17, Table 8-1.
53
Organic impurities. Although no standard for carbon content
or LOI is specified for fly ash used as mineral filler, laboratory

asphalt mortar evaluations incorporating fly ashes with LOIs up to
10 percent perform satisfactorily.
Plasticity. Fly ash is a non-plastic material.
Figure 8-1. Stone matrix asphalt.
Table 8-1. AASHTO M 17 specification requirements for mineral

filler usein asphalt paving mixtures.
Gradation. Most fly ashes typically fall within a size range of 60

to 90 percent passing the 75 µm (No. 200 sieve).
Fineness. There is no fineness standard for mineral filler beyond

the AASHTO M 17 gradation requirements; however, when
Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) was first introduced to the U.S. in
1990, often a requirement for a maximum percent passing the 20
µm (No. 635) sieve was specified. Typically, fly ash has 40 to 70
percent passing the 20 µm sieve and performs well in mortar
testing and field performance.
Specific gravity. The specific gravity of fly ash varies from

source to source; it is typically 2.0 to 2.6. Most "non-fly ash"
mineral fillers have a specific gravity ranging from 2.6 to 2.8;
therefore, HMA designed with fly ash will usually require a lower
54
percentage by weight to obtain the same performance (e.g., voids
Fly Ash in Asphalt Pavement

in mineral aggregate, stiffness, drain down, etc.).
Rigden voids. Research indicates that mineral fillers with more

than 50 percent voids as determined using the modified Rigden's
voids test tend to overly stiffen the asphalt binder. Most fly ashes
have a Rigden void of less than 50 percent.

See Appendix C.
Chapter.08
55
56
CHAPTER.9
Fly Ash in Grouts for Pavement Subsealing

FLY ASH GROUTS FOR PAVEMENT SUBSEALING
INTRODUCTION
Fly ash grouts are used for sealing voids beneath pavement slab
sections. The unconfined compressive strength requirements for a
grout mixture will usually exceed 8,300 kPa (1,200 psi) at 28 days
and will range between 4,100 and 5,500 kPa (600 and 800 psi) at
7 days. This strength profile for grouts differentiates them from
flowable fill materials inasmuch as the flowable fill definition (or
controlled low strength material) sets an unconfined compressive
strength limit of 8,300 kPa (1,200 psi) at 28 days. Furthermore,
the relatively small size of the void filled with the grout mixture
further differentiates this application from the larger voids where
the lower strength flowable fills are utilized.
The principal requirements for a slab stabilization material is that

it can flow to fill very small voids and still have adequate strength
to support the slab. A good stabilization material should remain
insoluble, incompressible, and not erode after it has been placed
and hardened. It should also have sufficiently low internal
friction to flow into very small voids and water channels. If the
material is too stiff, it will create a seat below the grout hole and
not fill all voids. If it is too wet, it will not have enough strength
to support the slab and may have a large amount of shrinkage.
Finally, it should have sufficient body to displace free water from
under the slab and develop adequate strength and durability.
Chapter.09
Figure 9-1. Fly ash grouts for pavement subsealing
57
Mix design. A typical cement-fly ash (Class F) mix design calls

for 1 part cement (Type I, II, or III), 3 parts fly ash, and enough
water for flowability, usually about 1.5 to 3.0 parts water. It may
be possible to reduce the cement component if a Class C ash is
used. Water content is determined using a flow cone and ASTM
C 939. The flow cone measures the flowability of the grout
mixture. The time of efflux is the flow time in seconds required
to empty the cone. A time of efflux in the range of 10 to 16
seconds gives the best flowability and strengthens cement-fly ash
grout slurries. The determination of initial set time of the grout in
laboratory tests is useful in comparing various mixes. Usually, the
Proctor Needle Test (AASHTO T 197/ASTM C 403) is used.
Typical set times with these tests are 1½ to 2 hours.
Additives. It may be necessary to use additives or admixtures in

fly ash-cement grouts to achieve the required goals of flow, set
time, shrinkage and strength.
Types of additives may include accelerators such as calcium

chloride to reduce set times; retarders to increase set time;
expanding materials such as powdered aluminum to offset
shrinkage; friction reducers or pumping aids to ease pumping,
increase flow, and aid in cleanup; wetting and dispersing agents to
get a more uniform mixture; and water-reducing agents to lower
the water content.
Strength. A minimum strength requirement is normally used to

ensure the durability of the grout. A typical value is 4,100 kPa
(600 psi) at 7 days measured by the standard mortar cube test,
AASHTO T 106 (ASTM C 109). A pozzolan-cement grout is
typically designed to achieve a 7-day compressive strength of
4,100 to 5,500 kPa (600 to 800 psi). The ultimate strength of the
grout will be much higher (10 to 28 mPa/1,500 to 4,000 psi).
Equipment. In the past, most grouting/stabilization contractors
used batch mixers and bagged materials. Today's contractors
use very mobile, self-contained units that carry all the
equipment and materials needed for slab stabilization. The dry
materials are packaged in either uniform-volume bags or
measured by bulk weight.
58
A colloidal mixer is needed to produce the cement-fly ash grouts.
Fly Ash in Grouts for Pavement Subsealing

Grout mixes made by these mixers stay in suspension and resist
dilution by free water. The two most common types of colloidal
mixers are the centrifugal pump and the shear blade. The first
pulls the grout through a high-pressure centrifugal pump at high
velocity. The shear blade slices through the grout at speeds
between 800 rpm and 2000 rpm. The high shearing action and
subsequent pressure release of these mixers de-aerate the solid
particles, which allows them to be wetted to make a more
homogeneous mixture.
It is not recommended to use paddle-type drum mixers to

produce cement-fly ash grouts. Grout should never be mixed
using a screw conveyor, a mortar mixer, or a ready mix truck.
Mixes made with these devices will not be homogenous and will
require more water to promote flowability.
Injection holes. Grout injection holes are drilled in a pattern

determined by the contracting agency in consultation with the
contractor. They are typically no larger than 50 mm (2 in) in
diameter, drilled vertically and to a depth sufficient to penetrate
any stabilized base and into the subgrade material to a depth of
no more than 76 mm (3 in). The holes can be washed with water
or blown with air to create a small cavity to better intercept the
voids beneath the pavement.
Upon completion of the subsealing, all drilled holes are sealed

flush with the pavement surface with a fast-setting concrete or
other patching material approved by the engineer.
Chapter.09
Pumping and vertical grade control. String lines are

established above the pavement to monitor movement during
subsealing. An expanding rubber packer or other approved
device is lowered into the drilled holes. The discharge end of the
packer or hose must not extend below the lower surface of the
concrete pavement.
The pressure in the grout must be monitored by an accurate

pressure gauge in the grout line that is protected from the grout
slurry. Continuous grout pressures to 1,400 kPa (200 psi) are
typical, with pressures to 2,100 kPa (300 psi) allowed only for
short periods. In the event the pavement is bonded to the
59
subbase, brief pressure rises (10 seconds or fewer) to 4,100 kPa
(600 psi) are not unusual. Allow the water displaced from
pavement system voids by the grout to flow freely. Take
appropriate measures to prevent excessive loss of the grout
through cracks and joints or in the shoulder area.
Opening to traffic. The time allowed before traffic can get back
on the grouted slabs varies considerably. Deflection
measurements taken after slab stabilization have shown that the
deflections are reduced over a period of 30 minutes to 3 hours.
Grout hardening depends on the temperature, degree of
confinement, and grout properties.
CAUTIONS
Pavement movements above the specified tolerances may require
grinding or even removal and replacement of the pavement.
Existing cracks in the pavement should be marked prior to
subsealing operations. New cracks radiating diagonally through
the grout injection holes typically will be presumed to have been
caused by improper injection techniques and could result in
penalties to the contractor or even removal and replacement of
the pavement.
When the ambient air temperature is between 2 degrees C and 10

degrees C (35 degrees F and 50 degrees F), add an accelerator to
the grout mix. When calcium chloride is used, it must be
thoroughly pre-mixed with the water before the addition of dry
ingredients. Cement-fly ash grouts should not be used when the
ambient temperature is below 2 degrees C (35 degrees F) or when
the subgrade is frozen.

See Appendix C.
60
CHAPTER.10
Developments in Fly Ash Utilization

DEVELOPMENTS IN FLY ASH UTILIZATION
INTRODUCTION
Several new and important technologies are being
commercialized in the areas of fly ash beneficiation and utilization
to bring fly ash into conformance with current AASHTO and
ASTM specifications for use in concrete. As the fly ash utilization
industry has matured, quality control, quality assurance, and
improved product performance have increasingly become
important. Technologies have been commercialized to improve
and assure fly ash quality for conventional concrete applications.
Also, fly ash utilization technologies have been developed to
produce high performance concrete products.
Changes in boiler operations or alteration of air emissions control

systems at power plants will alter the quality of fly ash produced.
Factors that may impact ash quality in this way include:
➤ A reduction in the pozzolanic reactivity caused by increased

proportion of coarse particles
➤ The presence in the fly ash of excessive unburned carbon
(UBC)
➤ Chemical residuals from post-combustion emission control
PARTICLE SIZE CONTROL

Screening. In mineral processing, it is common practice to use
Chapter.10
screens to remove coarse particles from powdered products. In
general, dry screening of powders is not economically feasible at
below 45 µm (325 screen mesh size). Typical fly ash has a large
proportion of the particles (typically more than 50 percent) finer
than 45 µm. The use of coarse screens (100 or 80 mesh), might be
effective for the removal of most of the coarse particles, many of
which comprise UBC. The ability to remove carbon by this method
depends on the degree to which the carbon-rich particles are
discrete (liberated), and the size and shape of the carbon particles.
As such, screening may be effective as part of a general ash
processing scheme to reduce coarse particle content, reduce carbon
content, reduce variability, and improve concrete workability.
61
Air classification. Classification systems that use air to separate
particles by size and weight are also used to retain the finer ash
fraction. Air classification may be performed on ash for the
removal of coarse particles or the selective concentration of fine
particles. In some instances, the products differ not only in
particle fineness, but also in carbon content. The type of carbon
removed by air classification is comprised of the coarse unburned
coal particles.
CARBON REDUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

Carbon removal by combustion. A simple approach to
remove carbon is to re-burn it, producing a pozzolan quality fly
ash. Carbon removal by combustion is commercially available.
Electrostatic separation. Electrostatic separation exploits the

forces acting upon charged particles in an electrical field. This
technology basically involves passing fly ash through a high
voltage electric field, thus inducing opposite charges on the
mineral fly ash particles and residual carbon. The fly ash is
separated into a low carbon (less than three percent) pozzolan
fraction and a carbon rich reject. Electrostatic separation is
commercially available.
TREATMENT PROCESSES
Chemical treatment/carbon modification. Residual carbon in
fly ash, as represented by the LOI value, is not the only factor
that may affect the performance of AEAs in concrete. Adsorption
of AEA due to the level and type of unburned carbon and
conductance due to the interaction of soluble ions from the trace
mineral components of the fly ash are also factors that interfere
with the performance of AEAs. Fly ash can be treated using a
chemical reagent to passivate the carbon adsorptive properties. In
this technology, carbon is not removed, but its effect on air
entrainment is minimized. The chemical treatment of fly ash for
carbon passivation is commercially available.
Ammonia removal processes. Certain air emissions control

systems may deposit excess ammonia on the fly ash. Technologies
under development to deal with ammoniated fly ash include: heat
treatment, wet washing/stripping, and chemical treatment. Low
concentrations of ammonia have no impact on concrete properties,
however, a strong ammonia odor may be emitted.
62
OTHER DEVELOPMENTS IN TECHNOLOGY

Ultra fine fly ash. As compared to typical fly ash, with a mean
particle diameter ranging from 20-30 micrometers, ultra fine fly
ash can be produced with a mean particle diameter of 1-5
microns. The reduced particle size means that the pozzolanic
reaction, which is normally a slow process is accelerated. Further,
the finer particles may more completely react than the coarser
particles of fly ash. So, the durability and strength benefits that
one observes with a typical fly ash at a late age (more than one
year) can be attained at a much earlier age (less than 90 days) and
with a smaller dosage of an ultra fine fly ash. Table 10-1 shows
typical mix designs containing ultra fine fly ash.
Typically, ultra fine fly ash is used at a replacement rate of 5 to 15

percent of the cement weight. At these dosage levels, it has been
demonstrated that ultra fine fly ashes contribute more to concrete
strength gain and permeability reduction than common AASHTO
M 295 (ASTM C 618) fly ash, and will perform comparable to
highly reactive pozzolans such as silica fume. Concrete durability
properties such as resistance to alkali-silica reaction, sulfate attack,
and corrosion are also enhanced by ultra fine fly ash.
Chapter.10
Table 10-1. Typical mixes using ultra fine fly ash.
63
Fly ash blends (Class C and Class F). Both AASHTO M 295
(ASTM C 618) Class C and Class F fly ashes have their own
specific advantages when used as a cementitious material in
concrete. Table 10-2 summarizes some general properties of
concrete made with Class C and Class F fly ashes. It may be ideal
to have a fly ash with a low to moderate LOI and that can be used
to prepare a concrete that is very effective in resisting ASR, sulfate
attack, and at the same time have high early strengths. One way
to achieve that is to blend Class C and Class F fly ashes. The
exact ratio of the blend will depend upon the specific fly ashes and
their desired behavior in concrete. An example of fly ash blend
mix design is shown in Table 10-3. Blended fly ashes are being
marketed on a small scale in the United States.
High volume fly ash concrete (HVFAC). HVFAC refers to

concrete where the fly ash comprises more than 30 percent of the
total cementitious materials. HVFAC has a lower cost and is
more durable than conventional concrete, and affords improved
resistance to ASR and sulfate attack. Several successful field
applications have been completed. Adequate early strengths and
set times are obtained by using high range water reducers to
achieve a very low water/cement ratio. Allowable cement
substitution rates are currently limited by state transportation
department specifications. An example of an HVFAC mix design
Table 10-2. Influence of the class of fly ash on

concrete performance.
is shown in Table 10-4.
64
Table 10-3. Example mix designs incorporating Class C and
Class F blend.
Chapter.10
Table 10-4. Example mix design for HVFAC.
65
66
APPENDIX.A
Conversion Factors
CONVERSION FACTORS
1 inch 2.54 cm
1 foot 0.305 m
1 pound 0.436 kg
1 ton 0.907 tons

(metric)
1 psi 6.895 kPa
1 psf 0.479 kPa
1 gal/sy 4.527 liters/m3
°C 5/9 (° F - 32°)
°F 9/5 (° C + 32°)
APPENDIX.A
67
68
APPENDIX.B
Specifications and Recommended Practice Guidelines

SPECIFICATIONS AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICE GUIDELINES
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO)
AASHTO M 85 Specification for Portland Cements
AASHTO M 172 Standard Specification for Mineral Filler for
Bituminous Paving Mixtures
AASHTO M 240 Specification for Blended Cements
AASHTO M 295 Standard Specifications for Coal Fly Ash and
Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a
Mineral Admixture in Concrete
AASHTO T 26 Standard Method of Test for Quality of Water to
be Used in Concrete
AASHTO T 99 Standard Method of Test for Moisture-Density
Relation of Soils Using a 2.5 kg (5.5 pound)
Rammer and 305 mm (12 inch) Drop
AASHTO T 106 Standard Method of Test for Compressive
Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortar (Using 50
mm or 2 inch) Cube Specimens
AASHTO T 197 Standard Method of Test for Time of Settling of
Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resistance
AASHTO T 232 Standard Method of Test for Cement Content of
Freshly Mixed Soil-Cement
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

ASTM C 29 Test Method for Unit Weight and Voids in
Aggregates
ASTM C 33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates
APPENDIX.B
ASTM C 39 Test Method for Compressive Strength of

Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
ASTM C 78 Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete
(Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading)
ASTM C 94 Specification for Ready Mixed Concrete
ASTM C 109 Test Method for Compressive Strength of
Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or 50-
mm Cube Specimens)
69
ASTM C 150 Specification for Portland Cement

ASTM C 403 Test Method for Time of Setting of Concrete
Mixtures by Penetration Resistance
ASTM C 494 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
ASTM C593 Fly Ash and Other Pozzolans for Use with Lime
ASTM C 595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
ASTM C 596 Test Method for Drying Shrinkage of Mortar
Containing Portland Cement
ASTM C 618 Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or
Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral
Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete
ASTM C 666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid
Freezing and Thawing
ASTM C 672 Test Method for Scaling Resistance of Concrete
Surfaces Exposed to Deicing Chemicals
ASTM C 685 Specification for Concrete Made by Volumetric
Batching and Continuous Mixing
ASTM C 917 Test Method for Evaluation of Cement Strength
Uniformity From a Single Source
ASTM C 928 Specification for Packaged, Dry, Rapid-Hardening
Cementitious Materials for Concrete Repairs
ASTM C 939 Test Method for Flow of Grout for Preplaced-
Aggregate Concrete (Flow Cone Method)
ASTM C 1157 Performance Specification for Hydraulic Cement
ASTM D 698 Test Method for Laboratory Compaction
Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort
(12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3))
ASTM D 1883 Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of
Laboratory-Compacted Soils
ASTM D 2901 Test Method for Cement Content of Freshly Mixed
Soil-Cement
ASTM D 4318 Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and
Plasticity Index of Soils
ASTM D 4829 Test Method for Expansion Index of Soils
ASTM D 5239 Practice for Characterizing Fly Ash for Use in Soil
Stabilization
ASTM E 1861 Guide for Use of Coal Combustion By-Products in
Structural Fills
70
American Concrete Institute (ACI)
Specifications and Recommended Practice Guidelines

ACI 211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions of
Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete
ACI 211.4R Guide for Selecting Proportions for High-Strength
Concrete with Portland Cement and Fly Ash
ACI 212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
ACI 214 Recommended Practice for Evaluation of
Strength Results of Concrete Strength Testing
ACI 226.1R Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag as A
Cementitious Constituent in Concrete
ACI 229R Controlled Low Strength Materials (CLSM)
ACI 232.2R Use of Fly Ash in Concrete
ACI 301 Specifications for Structural Concrete for
Buildings
ACI 305R Hot Weather Concreting
ACI 306R Cold Weather Concreting
ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete
ACI 363R State-of-the-Art Report on High-Strength Concrete
ACI 363.2R Guide to Quality Control and Testing of High
Strength Concrete
Other Test Methods

APPENDIX.B
ANSI/AWWA C105/A21.5 American National Standard for

Polyethylene Encasement for Ductile-
Iron Pipe Systems
71
72
APPENDIX.C
Design and Construction References

PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE

ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Michigan.
Fast Track Concrete Pavements, Technical Bulletin 004P, American
Concrete Pavement Association, Skokie, Illinois, 1994.
STABILIZED BASE COURSE

Coal Fly Ash in Pozzolanic Stabilized Mixtures for Flexible Pavement
Systems (Flexible Pavement Manual), American Coal Ash
Association, Washington, DC.
Guidelines and Guide Specifications for Using Pozzolanic Stabilized
Mixture (Base Course or Subbase) and Fly Ash for In-Place
Subgrade Soil Modifications, AASHTO Task Force Report
28, Washington, DC.
Soil and Pavement Base Stabilization with Self-Cementing Coal Fly Ash,
American Coal Ash Association, Alexandria, Virginia,
May 1999.
FLOWABLE FILL
ACI 229R, Controlled Low Strength Materials, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan.
NRMCA Flowable Fill Pamphlet, National Ready Mixed
Concrete Association.
APPENDIX.C
GROUTS FOR PAVEMENT SUBSEALING

Slab Stabilization Guidelines for Concrete Pavements, Technical Bulletin
018P, American Concrete Pavement Association, Skokie,
Illinois, 1994.
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
Soil and Pavement Base Stabilization with Self-Cementing Coal Fly Ash,
American Coal Ash Association, Alexandria, Virginia,
May 1999.
Fly Ash for Soil Improvement, Geotechnical Special Publication No.
36, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, New
York, 1993.
73
Guidelines and Guide Specifications for Using Pozzolanic Stabilized
Mixture (Base Course or Subbase) and Fly Ash for In-Place

Subgrade Soil Modifications, AASHTO Task Force Report
28, Washington, DC.
STRUCTURAL FILLS/EMBANKMENTS
ASTM E 1861, Structural Guide for the Use of Coal Combustion By-
Products in Structural Fills, American Society for Testing
and Materials, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
Technical Advisory T 5080.9, Use of Coal Ash in Embankments
and Bases, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, DC, May 1988.
ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials.
Standard Method of Test, Mineral Filler for Bituminous
Paving Mixtures, AASHTO Designation M17-83, Part 1
Specifications, 14th Edition, 1986.
L. Allen Cooley, Jr. and Michael H. Huner. Evaluation of Fly Ash
Sources for Use as Mineral Filler in Hot Mix Asphalt,
Proceedings: 14th International Symposium on
Management and Use of Coal Combustion Products,
Volume 2, Palo Alto, California, January 2001.
Guidelines for Materials, Production, and Placement of Stone Matrix
Asphalt, National Asphalt Pavement Association,
Information Series 118, August 1994.
74

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PREFACE

Coal fly ash is a coal combustion product that has numerous

This document is sponsored by the U.S. Department of

The United States Environmental Protection Agency supports the

CHAPTER 1 Fly Ash - An Engineering Material . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 2 Highway Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

CHAPTER 3 Fly Ash in Portland Cement Concrete. . . . . . . 15

CHAPTER 4 Fly Ash in Stabilized Base Course. . . . . . . . . . 25

CHAPTER 5 Fly Ash in Flowable Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

CHAPTER 6 Fly Ash in Structural Fills/Embankments . . . . 39

CHAPTER 8 Fly Ash in Asphalt Pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

CHAPTER 9 Fly Ash in Grouts for Pavement Subsealing . . . . . . . . . 57

CHAPTER 10 Developments in Fly Ash Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

APPENDIX A Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

APPENDIX B Specifications and Recommended Practice Guidelines. . 69

APPENDIX C Design and Construction References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

1-4 Microscopic photographs of fly ash (left) and portland

3-5 Fly ash concrete finishing

5-3 Flowable fill can be used to backfill very narrow trenches

5-5 Bridge replaced by culverts and flowable fill

6-2 Allowable moisture content range below optimum

6-3 Spreading and compaction of fly ash structural fill

7-1 Mixing and shaping of fly ash stabilized soil

7-2 Compaction of fly ash stabilized soil

1-5 Specifications for fly ash in PCC

8-1 AASHTO M 17 specification requirements for mineral

10-1 Typical mixes using ultra fine fly ash

Fly Ash as an Engineering Material

WHY FLY ASH?

Where does fly ash come from? Fly ash is produced by

Where is fly ash used? Currently, over 20 million metric tons

concrete, has significant environmental benefits including: (1)

Figure1-1. Method of fly ash transfer can be dry, wet or both.

Fly Ash as an Engineering Material

Table 1-1. 2001 Fly ash production and use.

As shown in Table 1-1, of the 62 million metric tons (68 million

Table 1-2. Fly ash uses

The dry collected ash is normally stored and handled using

Figure 1-2. Fly ash particles at 2,000x magnification.

Chemistry. Fly ash consists primarily of oxides of silicon,

Fly Ash as an Engineering Material

Class C ashes are generally derived from sub-bituminous coals

Class F ashes are typically derived from bituminous and

Table 1-3. Sample oxide analyses of ash and portland cement

Color. Fly ash can be tan to dark gray, depending on its

Figure 1-3. Typical ash colors.

Quality requirements for fly ash vary depending on the intended

LOI is a measurement of unburned carbon (coal) remaining in the

Fineness of fly ash is most closely related to the operating

Some non-concrete applications, such as structural fills are not

Chemical composition of fly ash relates directly to the mineral

Fly Ash as an Engineering Material

Uniformity of fly ash characteristics from shipment to shipment

Quality Assurance and Quality Control criteria vary for each

Figure 1-4. Microscopic photographs of fly ash (left) and portland

Table 1-5. Specifications for fly ash in PCC.

FLY ASH IN PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE

Benefits. The many benefits of incorporating fly ash into a PCC

Cautions. Care should be taken when using fly ash in concrete