Competency Training in

Power System Apparatus

Testing ( Substation Power
Transformer )

“Hands On IPF Training”

By: Engr. Rodolfo R. Penalosa, PEE, PECE,
APEC Engr.
 Insulation System
 Pressboard ( approx. 1/8 - 1/2” thick )
 Kraft paper ( approx. 5-20 mills thick )
 Manila and hemp paper
 High density particle board
 Pressboard collars and end insulation
 Laminated ( plywood type ) particle board
 Enamels
 Inorganic and organic core lamination
coatings
 Porcelain
Insulation System, cont..
 Epoxy power coating
 Maple wood structural forms
 Vulcanized fiber
 Cotton
 Plastics and cements, adhesive tapes, glass
fiber bands, etc.
 Liquid dielectric fluid ( except air-insulated or
gas insulated apparatus )
Transformer Load
Aging Insulation:
Theoretical vs Practical Transformer Life:
 In practice, a constant winding temperature is
seldom, if ever, achieved. Keep in mind that
the flash point of transformer mineral oil is
145 deg - 150 deg C. This fact is just another
reason why the cellulosic materials - Kraft
paper, cotton, and pressboard - are the
weakest link in the insulating system,
Transformer Load
Aging Insulation: cont.
 Power transformer when properly maintained
should have a practical life of 50-75 years.
 Typical utility may work with a 20-40 years old
unit life expectancy.
 Therefore, the condition in which the
insulation system is maintained largely
determines the difference between 20 and 50
years of transformer life.
Transformer Load
Aging Insulation: cont.
 The Chemistry of insulating system is what the
transformer lives or die. Transformer don’t die of old
age.
 Aging or gradual degradation is the result of several
chemical reactions within the transformer.
 The solid insulation is one part of the transformer that
has an aging characteristics that is irreversible.
 Mineral oil can be cleaned, making it good as or
better than new oils. However, when paper is
neglected, the life of the transformer..
Transformer Load
Aging Insulation: cont.
..is the life of the cellulosic paper. In
short, transformer do not die of old age,
but are killed by neglect!
 Consider the factors that contribute to
eventual failure:
 Failure to recognize basic facts concerning
cellulosic degradation. The process of
degradation of oil - impregnated cellulose..
Transformer Load
Aging Insulation: cont
…deterioration on transformer life. Each
can lead to premature transformer
failure.
 Cracking of the cellulose. Though a
transformer may maintain sufficient
dielectric strength, embrittlement
nevertheless occurs as moisture is driven
from paper into the insulating fluid.
Transformer Load
Aging Insulation: cont.
Embrittled cellulose without excessive
moisture is actually “quite good”
electrically”. Failure usually occurs when
the cellulose material falls apart or is
mechanically distorted by vibrations, short
circuit or switching surges.
 Loss of Cellulosic Mechanical Strength.
When cellulosic insulation is heated for any
length of time, a proportional decrease..
Transformer Load
Aging Insulation: cont..
..of mechanical strength occurs, but when a
transformer is overheated ( moisture
again is driven out from the paper ), the
insulation resistance reading may actually
increase. The result, however, is that the
unit can not handle high-current short
circuits of, possibly, six times its rated
current, or even shock loading.
Transformer Load
Aging Insulation: cont..
 Shrinkage of the Cellulose, can cause
embrittlement of cellulosic material, resulting
in its shrinkage. In a unit such as furnace
transformer, which is subjected to great
mechanical stress, shrinkage may permit
movement by lowering the clamping
pressure.
The cellulose derioration amplifies the normal
tendency for the windings to grow
progressively looser over the service life.
Transformer Load
Aging Insulation: cont..
The transformer no longer a tightly
compacted unit. The jack screws
compressing the windings and superstructure
become loosened. They were originally
torqued to a predetermined setting that held
the windings under pressure to keep the unit
tight. However, cellulose shrinks, it causes or
permits additional coil movement - either 120
cycles vibrations or surge voltages.
 Cross Section of Major Transformer Components

Jack Screw Winding Stick

Surge Ring

Core

Copper
Conductor
Iron

Kraft
Insulating
Paper

Vertical Cross Section of Major Transformer Components

Transformer Load
Aging Insulation: cont..
Mineral oil, likewise, starts to deteriorate
from the moment it is introduced into the
transformer. In other words, oxidation
of the insulating liquid begins. And
soluble contaminants from the solid
insulation are dissolved in the oil and
may affect its insulating properties and
life.
Analysis of Overload Curves
Unique effect of elevated temperature
on aging:
The increasing practice of recurring
overloading of transformers beyond the
nameplate rating, as well as higher
average loads is due to improved
technology and business economics.
Analysis of Overload Curves.
Cont..
The effects of thermal aging appears to
have been greater significance for
larger MVA units. As a consequence,
the role of thermal aging has finally
been recognized as a prominent factor
in life expectancy & the interralated
effects of thermal aging and mechanical
stress on the integrity of transformer
conductor insulation.
Normal Graph Life Expectancy
Life
Expectancy in Life Years
hours.
40 yrs
1000000
20 yrs
10 yrs
100000 8 yrs
6 yrs
4 yrs
10000 2 yrs
1 yr
1000

100
180 160 140 120 100 80
Operating Temperature Deg C
Life of winding insulation versus temperature, 65 deg C rise designs
Loading Guides for Oil
Immersed Transformers
 Loading guide is voluntary and not a
mandatory standard, and is a conservative
one.
 The average annual ambient temperature
does not exceed 20 deg C by more than a
few degrees.
 Power transformer do not operate at constant
100% load.
 Insulation tensile strength of 50% may not be
the end for the transformer. Remember that
insulation hardly ever dies, it is killed.
Functional Life Testing
 Insulation Power Factor ( IPF )
 Bushing
 Winding
 Oil
 Over all insulation
 Excitation current
 Impedance
 Short circuit
 Watts loss
Functional Life Testing
 Dissolve Gas Analyses
 Filtration ( vacuum/ heating or purely
cartridge type )
Other tests conducted when short circuit /
overload / transformer fall during transport, a
leakage reactance tesing or sweep frequency
analysis is needed to determine movement of
core, etc.
Transformer Protection
Transformer protection is not just using
breakers, relays, monitors, surge
arresters, cooling, etc., but more of
making sure the transformer operates
well.
Overload and overcurrent is a function
of how transformer is loaded.
Effects of Overload or Over
Heating on Transformers:
 Cellulosic Paper;
 This insulating material shrinks and
become more brittle. Certain secondary
effects are also important, such as,
production of “gases” and “free water”
during the decomposition of the
pressboard paper and paper. If free water
remains where it is generated, it further
accelerates the degradation process.
Effects of Overload or Over Heating on
Transformers: cont..

If the “gases” liberated during

decomposition
are unable to escape from the windings,
Bubbles may collect in regions of high
electrical stress, and displaced oil and give
rise to premature failure. Therefore, since
transformer is less able to withstand
overloading should be limited to a hot spot
temperature not exceeding 140 deg C.
Effects of Overload or Over Heating on
Transformers: cont..

 Rule to Remember:
 Accepted rule for cellulosic paper as the
“8”C rule;
 Transformer mineral oil on the “10”C rule
 Transformer must be operated with two
critical temperatures: 105 or 110 deg C for
solid insulation; 60 deg C for mineral oil.
Basic Impulse Level or
Impulse Strength
 This relates to the ability of the
insulation system to withstand a surge
voltage and retain its original
characteristics within described bounds.
 The impulse strength is 2 -2.5 times the
normal electrical stress under operating
voltages.
Basic Insulation Level or
Impulse Strength, cont.
 Major Insulation:
 This is the heart of the transformer, as
defined by IEEE standards, consists of the
insulation between the HV & LV windings
in the same phase. Between them is Kraft
paper cylinders and layers of sheets; high
density organic sticks bonded with
synthetic resin; pressboard sheets for
phase insulation and colars.
Basic Inpulse Level or Impulse
Strength, cont..
 Minor Insulation:
 This insulation is between adjacent turns in
a winding and between different sections of
the same winding. This is separated by
pressboard spacers, tape, and synthetic
enamel wire.
Basic Insulation Level or
Impulse Strength, cont..
 Phase to Phase Insulation:
 This is an insulation between windings of
the same phases. It is separated by heavy
Kraft paper or pressboard
Pictorial Diagram of Three Classes of
Transformer
Minor Ins.
Insulation
Major Ins.

Tank

Core

Oil Windings

A. Major Insulation; B. Minor Insulation; C. Phase to Phase Insulation

Basic Impulse Level or
Impulse Strength, cont..
 Temperature
 Service related conditions have shown that
impulse strength decreases as the operating
temperature increases.
 The “hot spot” temperature was selected as the
most significant indicator of the thermal state of
the unit, since the hot spot temperature is the
weakest link in the chain. Therefore, limiting the
hot spot temperature to a more realistic figure than
manufacturer’s design is one way of preserving
the unit’s impulse strength.
Basic Impulse Level or
Impulse Strength, cont..
 Thermal Aging:
 Deteriorating cellulose insulation due to
aging ( high heat plus long time duration )
will still show good dielectric strength, but
as it ages the insulation becomes brittle. A
surge voltage comes along, cracks develop
in the cellulose structure, and the game is
over. The unit can not handle the impulse
voltage and it will fail.
Basic Impulse Level or
Impulse Strength, cont..
 Moisture:
 Moisture is also a factor in the reduction of
basic impulse strength. The moisture
content of oil-impregnated pressboard has
a curve relationship to the insulation power
factor. Look at the curve relationship..
 Curve Relationship Moisture/Impulse Strength
Percent Power
Factor
10.0

8.0

6.0

2.0

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.5 Acceptable limit PF

0.4

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Percent Moisture by weight
 Curve Relationship Moisture/Impulse Strength

Impulse Strength
KV Crest

300

250

200

150

100

100

50
0

4.0 6.0 8.0

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 10 20 40 60
Percent Power Factor
 Water Content in Oil Parts Per Million ( ppm )

Impulse Strength
In Percent

1000

80

60

40

20

0
Percent Power Factor
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0.1 1.5 2.0 Water Content in Paper Percent
Short Circuit Withstand Causes:

 Modern arresters protect equipment and

apparatus against high voltage lightning
strikes, less protection exists against
surges of current.
 Therefore, reduced short circuit
withstand may be considered today a
more critical factor than impulse
strength.
Short Circuit Withstand
Causes, cont..
 Again, temperature during surge or short
circuit of one or two seconds, a mechanical
jolt occurs inside the transformer. The
temperature may go as high as 500 deg C
for a short period of time as a result of short
circuit. Since insulation deterioration is
cumulative, and mechanical losses can’t be
regained the conclusion is obvious,
transformer breakdown.
Overvoltage & Overcurrent Protection:

 Transformers should be protected by

relays for overvoltage or overcurrent as
part of the system.
 This is set in accordance with the
characteristics the relay operates the
protection engineer studied.
 This can be discussed thoroughly in
another subject for protective relaying.
 Electrical Tests on Transformers:

 DC Testing On Series Insulation:

DC Test Voltage

Stop Bad

Tests Results: Good

Insulation System: Bad

If the first dielectric is good, DC test will indicate good;

any remaining dielectrics will not be tested.
 Electrical Tests on Transformers:

 DC Testing On Series Insulation:

DC Test Voltage

Stop Bad
Short

Tests Results: Good

Insulation System: Bad

For a DC test to be good, only one dielectric needs to be in good condition;

any remaining dielectrics will not be tested.
During an AC Test the Power Factor will change at each dielectric fails.
 Electrical Tests on Transformers:

 DC Testing On Series Insulation:

DC Test Voltage

Short

Tests Results: Bad

Insulation System: Bad

For a DC test to be bad, all dielectrics must be in poor condition ;

 DC Testing on Parallel Insulation

DC Test Voltage

A. If one parallel dielectric fails, the Test will fail

B. There will no way to tell, if the other dielectric good or bad.
During AC test, the Power Factor will change as each dielectric fails.
Electrical Tests on Transformers, cont..

 Insulating Resistance:
 DC winding resistance test is made with a
low resistance ohm meter. It will indicate a
change in dc winding resistance when
there are short circuited turns, poor joints
or bad contacts. This reading should be
compared to factory tests information.
 The low resistance is measured by the
potential drop method.
Electrical Tests on Transformers, cont..

 Winding Resistance;
 The idea is to apply current to the system, the
resistance will be constant, so the potential will
show any voltage drop present. Readings should
be in milliohm range. High readings would
indicate loose or dirty connections.
 On 3Ph transformers the measurements are made
on the individual windings (phase to neutral ),
whenever possible.
Electrical Tests on Transformers, cont..

 Winding Resistance..
 On delta connections, there will always be two
windings ( in series ) which are in parallel with the
winding under test. For this test, three
measurements should be obtain to get close to
accurate results.
 Now, since resistance of copper varies with
temperature, all tests readings must be converted
to a common temperature to give good results.
Most factory test data are converted to 75 deg C.
Electrical Tests on Transformers, cont..

 Core Ground Test or Leakage Current Test:

 Advantage of Excitation Current Test
 Detects abnormal core grounds
 Identifies LTC Problems
 Recognizes winding faults, shorts or open circuits
 This test is conducted to detect movements of the
core supports, braces, upon delivery of new units
to the site.
Power Factor Tests

 Insulation Power Factor tests should not

be confused with power factor in an ac
network.
 Insulation Power Factor or IPF is to
provide indication of the quality of
insulation of an apparatus (
Transformers, Bushings, Windings,
LTC, rotating machines, cables, etc. )
Power Factor Tests

 Any winding in a transformer is

separated from all other windings and
ground potential by solid insulation.
Cellulosic insulation forms an effective
capacitance network, from primary
winding to ground, secondary winding to
ground, primary to secondary ( HV to
LV ) capacitance and its equivalent
series resistances.
Power Factor Tests
 In each capacitance are dielectric loses which
can be conveniently represented by a resistor
in series with capacitor.
 Insulation Integrity
 Current/Capacitance/Inductance
 Watts
 Power Factor/Dissipation Factor/Tangent Delta
 Single Phase Excitation
 Current & Losses
 Transformer Turns Ratio
 Leakage Reactance (Short Circuit
Impedance)
 Power Factor Tests
 Measures/Calculate (10KV and actual values)
 Current
 Watts

 Power Factor/ Dissipation Factor /

Tangent Delta
 Capacitance

 Inductance

 Multiple test

 Oil test on Cell container

 Power Factor Tests

 Transformer Turns Ratio ( TTR ):

 It is primarily to determine problems of
winding conditions, on all tap positions,
that internal connections are correct and
there no short circuited turns.
 Modern TTR instruments use capacitor
devices which is supplied with 1-10kV.
The turns ratio should be within the limits
set by the Manufacturer on the
transformer.
Leakage Reactance Tests
 Benefits of Leakage Reactance
 Confirm nameplate impedance.
 Detects winding deformations and movement
 Short circuit impedance and reactance
 Measure Values
 Voltage
 Current
 Calculated Values
 Impedance (base value and %)
 Reactance (base value and %)
 Resistance
 Inductance
 Watts Loss
 Power Factor
Transformer Maintenance & Application

 Tests on Transformer may be

conducted yearly or every two years
depending on the condition of the
apparatus.
 For new transformers, there should be a
benchmark of tests as the basis for
future references.
Transformer Maintenance & Application

 The benchmark shall be the template

and compared to factory tests shown in
the certificate.
 The tests shall be conducted in the
presence of the maintenance officers, or
the Utility, should a sub-contractor was
used.
Transformer Maintenance & Application

 Having a benchmark on your

transformer, the next maintenance
schedules may refer from the that
benchmark, if the original parameters
stay.
 Annual DGA ( Disolve Gas Analysis ) is
required for transformers 3-5 years and
older.
Transformer Maintenance & Application

 The most critical maintenance is tests

conducted on bushings annually, if it
shows within the acceptable limit of
0.5PF. Should this goes higher after a
year and decay much faster, an
immediate evaluation of the bushing
should be done without much delay.
Transformer Maintenance & Application

 Oil filtration may required when oil tests and

DGA shows significant increase of gases and
contaminants. Follow strictly the limits by the
manufacturer.
 Cleaning of bushings shall be done in
accordance with best practices, such as; use
water and soap with soft cloth. Never use
abrasive cleaner or evaporating compounds.
This will tend to cool the bushing and create
condensation inside the it, thus making
changes in IPF results.
Transformer Maintenance & Application

 Field repair of transformers should be

avoided.
 Winding insulations are suceptible to
moisture.
 Insulating oil replacement should be
done with care, filter the oil before filling
it inside the transformer. Make sure the
oil PF if new is at infinity or 0.03.
Transformer Maintenance & Application

 Drying out a wet transformer:

 Use cartridge type filtering machine. The
use of vacuum with heat and degassing is
good, when the transformer is found to
have accumulated gas.
 Moisture maybe removed by heating the
transformer and let it cool. Saturated water
can be removed by cartridge filtering.
Transformer Maintenance & Application

 These are just a few of the basic

maintenance tips you can use for your own
plants.
 It is better to always refer your programs of
maintenance from your supplier.
 It is better to have your apparatus maintained
by a qualified service provider, with complete
instruments than pay a cheaper provider with
traditional testing program.