Part I Book

India is an agriculturally important country.
through natural processes; land productivity

Two-thirds of its population is engaged in in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer
agricultural activities. Agriculture is a primary does not use fertilisers or other modern
activity, which produces most of the food that inputs. It is known by different names in
we consume. Besides food grains, it also different parts of the country.
produces raw material for various industries.
Can you name some such types of farmings?
Can you name some industries based on
It is jhumming in north-eastern states like
agricultural raw material?
Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland;
Moreover, some agricultural products like Pamlou in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district of
tea, coffee, spices, etc. are also exported. Chattishgarh, and in Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
TYPES OF FARMING
Jhumming: The ‘slash and burn’ agriculture
Agriculture is an age-old economic activity in is known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central
our country. Over these years, cultivation America, ‘Conuco’ in Venzuela, ‘Roca’ in
methods have changed significantly depending Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa, ‘Ladang’
upon the characteristics of physical in Indonesia, ‘Ray’ in Vietnam.
environment, technological know-how and In India, this primitive form of cultivation
socio-cultural practices. Farming varies from is called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya
subsistence to commercial type. At present, in Pradesh, ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh,
different parts of India, the following farming ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Orissa,
systems are practised. ‘Kumari’ in Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’
in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the
Primitive Subsistence Farming Himalayan belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, and
This type of farming is still practised in few ‘Jhumming’ in the North-eastern region.
pockets of India. Primitive subsistence
agriculture is practised on small patches of
land with the help of primitive tools like hoe,
dao and digging sticks, and family/community
labour. This type of farming depends upon
monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and
suitability of other environmental conditions
to the crops grown.
It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
Farmers clear a patch of land and produce
cereals and other food crops to sustain their
family. When the soil fertility decreases, the
farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land
for cultivation. This type of shifting allows
Nature to replenish the fertility of the soil Fig. 4.1
Rinjha lived with her family in a small village Plantation is also a type of commercial
at the outskirts of Diphu in Assam. She enjoys farming. In this type of farming, a single crop
watching her family members clearing, is grown on a large area. The plantation has
slashing and burning a patch of land for an interface of agriculture and industry.
cultivation. She often helps them in irrigating Plantations cover large tracts of land, using
the fields with water running through a capital intensive inputs, with the help of
bamboo canal from the nearby spring. She migrant labourers. All the produce is used as
loves the surroundings and wants to stay raw material in respective industries.
here as long as she can, but this little girl In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane,
has no idea about the declining fertility of banana, etc.. are important plantation crops.
the soil and her family’s search for fresh a Tea in Assam and North Bengal coffee in
patch of land in the next season.
Can you name the type of farming Rinjha’s

family is engaged in?
Can you enlist some crops which are grown
in such farming?
Intensive Subsistence Farming

This type of farming is practised in areas of
high population pressure on land. It is labour-
intensive farming, where high doses of
biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for Fig. 4.2: Banana plantation in Southern
obtaining higher production. part of India
Can you name some of the states of India

where such farming is practised?
Though the ‘right of inheritance’ leading to
the division of land among successive
generations has rendered land-holding size
uneconomical, the farmers continue to take
maximum output from the limited land in the
absence of alternative source of livelihood.
Thus, there is enormous pressure on
agricultural land.
Commercial Farming
The main characteristic of this type of farming
is the use of higher doses of modern inputs,
e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical Fig. 4.3: Bamboo plantation in North-east
fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order
to obtain higher productivity. The degree of
Karnataka are some of the important plantation
commercialisation of agriculture varies from
crops grown in these states. Since the
one region to another. For example, rice is a
production is mainly for market, a well-
commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but
developed network of transport and
in Orissa, it is a subsistence crop.
communication connecting the plantation
Can you give some more examples of crops areas, processing industries and markets plays
which may be commercial in one region and an important role in the development of
may provide subsistence in another region? plantations.
A GRICULTURE 35
CROPPING PATTERN vegetables and fodder crops. Sugarcane takes
almost a year to grow.
You have studied the physical diversities and
plurality of cultures in India. These are also Major Crops
reflected in agricultural practices and
A variety of food and non food crops are grown
cropping patterns in the country. Various
in different parts of the country depending
types of food and fibre crops, vegetables and
upon the variations in soil, climate and
fruits, spices and condiments, etc.. constitute cultivation practices. Major crops grown in
some of the important crops grown in the India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea, coffee,
country. India has three cropping seasons — sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute, etc.
rabi, kharif and zaid.
Rabi crops are sown in winter from October Rice: It is the staple food crop of a majority of
to December and harvested in summer from the people in India. Our country is the second
April to June. Some of the important rabi crops largest producer of rice in the world after China.
are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard. It is a kharif crop which requires high
Though, these crops are grown in large parts temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity
of India, states from the north and north- with annual rainfall above 100 cm. In the areas
western parts such as Punjab, Haryana, of less rainfall, it grows with the help of irrigation.
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Rice is grown in the plains of north and
Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh are important north-eastern India, coastal areas and the
for the production of wheat and other rabi deltaic regions. Development of dense network
crops. Availability of precipitation during
winter months due to the western temperate
cyclones helps in the success of these crops.
However, the success of the green revolution
in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh
and parts of Rajasthan has also been an
important factor in the growth of the above-
mentioned rabi crops.
Kharif crops are grown with the onset of
monsoon in different parts of the country and
these are harvested in September-October.
Important crops grown during this season are
paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong,
urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean.
Some of the most important rice-growing Fig. 4.4 (a): Rice Cultivation
regions are Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions
of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala
and Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkan
coast) along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Recently, paddy has also become an important
crop of Punjab and Haryana. In states like
Assam, West Bengal and Orissa, three crops of
paddy are grown in a year. These are Aus,
Aman and Boro.
In between the rabi and the kharif seasons,
there is a short season during the summer
months known as the Zaid season. Some of
the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are
water melon, muskmelon, cucumber, Fig. 4.4 (b): Rice is ready to be harvested in the field
36 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
India: Distribution of Rice
A GRICULTURE 37
of canal irrigation and tubewells have made it
possible to grow rice in areas of less rainfall
such as Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar
Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
Wheat: This is the second most important
cereal crop. It is the main food crop, in north
and north-western part of the country. This
rabi crop requires a cool growing season and
a bright sunshine at the time of ripening. It
requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly-
distributed over the growing season. There are
two important wheat-growing zones in the
Fig. 4.6: Bajra Cultivation
country – the Ganga-Satluj plains in the north-
west and black soil region of the Deccan. The
regions and grows well on red, black, sandy,
major wheat-producing states are Punjab,
loamy and shallow black soils. Karnataka is
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and
the largest producer of ragi followed by Tamil
parts of Madhya Pradesh.
Nadu. Apart from these states, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Jharkhand and
Arunachal Pradesh are also important for the
production of ragi.
Maize: It is a crop which is used both as food
and fodder. It is a kharif crop which requires
Fig. 4.5: Wheat Cultivation
Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are the

important millets grown in India. Though,
these are known as coarse grains, they have
very high nutritional value. For example, ragi Fig. 4.7: Maize Cultivation
is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro
nutrients and roughage. Jowar is the third temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows
most important food crop with respect to area well in old alluvial soil. In some states like Bihar
and production. It is a rain-fed crop mostly maize is grown in rabi season also. Use of
grown in the moist areas which hardly needs modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers
irrigation. Maharashtra is the largest producer and irrigation have contributed to the increasing
of jowar followed by Karnataka, Andhra production of maize. Major maize-producing
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. states are Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
black soil. Rajasthan is the largest producer of Pulses: India is the largest producer as well
bajra followed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, as the consumer of pulses in the world. These
Gujarat and Haryana. Ragi is a crop of dry are the major source of protein in a vegetarian
India: Distribution of Wheat
A GRICULTURE 39
diet. Major pulses that are grown in India are source of sugar, gur (jaggary), khandsari and
tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and molasses. The major sugarcane-producing
gram. Can you distinguish which of these states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
pulses are grown in the kharif season and Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
which are grown in the rabi season? Pulses Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
need less moisture and survive even in dry
Oil Seeds: India is the largest producer of oil-
conditions. Being leguminous crops, all these
seeds in the world. Different oil seeds are grown
crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility
covering approximately 12 per cent of the total
by fixing nitrogen from the air. Therefore, these
cropped area of the country. Main oil-seeds
are mostly grown in rotation with other crops.
Major pulse producing states in India are produced in India are groundnut, mustard,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor seeds,
Maharashtra and Karnataka. cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower. Most of
these are edible and used as cooking mediums.
Food Crops other than Grains However, some of these are also used as raw
Sugarcane: It is a tropical as well as a material in the production of soap, cosmetics
subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and and ointments.
humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts
27°C and an annual rainfall between 75cm. for about half of the major oilseeds produced
in the country. Andhra Pradesh is the largest
producer of groundnut followed by Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra –
linseed and mustard are rabi crops. Sesamum
is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in south
India. Castor seed is grown both as rabi and
kharif crop.
Tea: Tea cultivation is an example of
plantation agriculture. It is also an important
beverage crop introduced in India initially by
the British. Today, most of the tea plantations
are owned by Indians. The tea plant grows well
in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed
Fig. 4.8: Sugarcane Cultivation
with deep and fertile well-drained soil, rich in
humus and organic matter. Tea bushes
and 100cm. Irrigation is required in the regions require warm and moist frost-free climate all
of low rainfall. It can be grown on a variety of through the year. Frequent showers evenly
soils and needs manual labour from sowing to distributed over the year ensure continuous
harvesting. India is the second largest producer growth of tender leaves. Tea is a labour -
of sugarcane only after Brazil. It is the main intensive industry. It requires abundant,
Fig. 4.9: Groundnut, sunflower and mustard are ready to be harvested in the field
cheap and skilled labour.
Tea is processed within
the tea garden to restore
its freshness. Major tea-
producing states are
Assam, hills of Darjeeling
and Jalpaiguri districts,
West Bengal, Tamil Nadu
and Kerala. Apart from
these, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, Meghalaya, Fig. 4.10: Tea Cultivation Fig. 4.11: Tea-leaves Harvesting
Andhra Pradesh and
Tripura are also tea-producing states in the India is a producer of tropical as well as
country. India is the leading producer as well temperate fruits. Mangoes of Maharashtra,
as exporter of tea in the world. Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal, oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee
Coffee: India produces about four per cent of (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram,
the world’s coffee production. Indian coffee is Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava
known in the world for its good quality. The of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of
Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh and
produced in the country. This variety is in great Maharashtra, apples, pears, apricots and
demand all over the world. Intially its cultivation walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and Pradesh are in great demand the world over.
Fig. 4.12: Apricots, apple and pomegranate
even today its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri India produces about 13 per cent of the
in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. world’s vegetables. It is an important
producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage,
Horticulture Crops: India is the largest
tomato, brinjal and potato.
producer of fruits and vegetables in the world.
Fig. 4.13: Cultivation of vegetables – peas, cauliflower, tomato and bringal
A GRICULTURE 41
Non-Food Crops
Rubber: It is an equatorial crop, but under
special conditions, it is also grown in tropical
and sub-tropical areas. It requires moist and
humid climate with rainfall of more than 200
cm. and temperature above 25°C.
Rubber is an important industrial raw
material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicabar
islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya. India ranks
fifth among the world’s natural rubber producers.
Fig. 4.15: Cotton Cultivation

List the items which are made of rubber and
are used by us.
irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sun-
shine for its growth. It is a kharif crop and
requires 6 to 8 months to mature. Major
cotton-producing states are – Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab,
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Jute: It is known as the golden fibre. Jute
grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the
flood plains where soils are renewed every
year. High temperature is required during the
time of growth. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam,
Orissa and Meghalaya are the major jute
producing states. It is used in making gunny
bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other
artefacts. Due to its high cost, it is losing
market to synthetic fibres and packing
materials, particularly the nylon.
Fig. 4.14: Consumption of natural rubber Technological and Institutional Reforms
It was mentioned in the previous pages that
Fibre Crops: Cotton, jute, hemp and natural
agriculture has been practised in India for
silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India.
thousands of years. Sustained uses of land
The first three are derived from the crops grown
without compatible techno-institutional
in the soil, the latter is obtained from cocoons of
changes have hindered the pace of
the silkworms fed on green leaves specially
agricultural development. Inspite of
mulberry. Rearing of silk worms for the
development of sources of irrigation most of
production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.
the farmers in large parts of the country still
Cotton: India is believed to be the original depend upon monsoon and natural fertility
home of the cotton plant. Cotton is one of the in order to carry on their agriculture. For a
main raw materials for cotton textile industry. growing population, this poses a serious
India is the third-largest producer of cotton challenge. Agriculture which provides
in the world. Cotton grows well in drier parts livelihood for more than 60 per cent of its
of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. population, needs some serious technical and
It requires high temperature, light rainfall or institutional reforms. Thus, collectivisation,
Fig. 4.16: Modern technological equipments used in agriculture
consolidation of holdings, cooperation and programmes for farmers were introduced on

abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority the radio and television. The government also
to bring about institutional reforms in the announces minimum support price,
country after Independence. ‘Land reform’ was remunerative and procurement prices for
the main focus of our First Five Year Plan. The important crops to check the exploitation of
right of inheritance had already lead to farmers by speculators and middlemen.
fragmentation of land holdings necessitating
consolidation of holdings. Bhoodan – Gramdan
The laws of land reforms were enacted but Mahatma Gandhi declared Vinoba Bhave as
the laws of implementation was lacking or his spiritual heir. He also participated in
lukewarm. The Government of India Satyagraha as one of the foremost
embarked upon introducing agricultural satyagrahis. He was one of the votaries of
reforms to improve Indian agriculture in the Gandhi’s concept of gram swarajya. After
1960s and 1970s. The Green Revolution Gandhiji’s martyrdom, Vinobha Bhave
based on the use of package technology and undertook padyatra to spread Gandhiji’s
the White Revolution (Operation Flood) were message covered almost the entire country.
some of the strategies initiated to improve the Once, when he was delivering a lecture at
lot of Indian agriculture. But, this too led to Pochampalli in Andhra Pradesh, some poor
the concentration of development in few landless villagers demanded some land for
selected areas. Therefore, in the 1980s and their economic well-being. Vinoba Bhave
1990s, a comprehensive land development could not promise it to them immediately
programme was initiated, which included both but assured them to talk to the Government
institutional and technical reforms. Provision of India regarding provision of land for them
for crop insurance against drought, flood, if they undertook cooperative farming.
cyclone, fire and disease, establishment of Suddenly, Shri Ram Chandra Reddy stood
Grameen banks, cooperative societies and up and offered 80 acres of land to be
banks for providing loan facilities to the distributed among 80 land-less villagers.
farmers at lower rates of interest were some This act was known as ‘Bhoodan’. Later he
important steps in this direction. travelled and introduced his ideas widely all
Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal over India. Some zamindars, owners of
Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some many villages offered to distribute some
other schemes introduced by the Government villages among the landless. It was known
of India for the benefit of the farmers. Moreover, as Gramdan. However, many land-owners
special weather bulletins and agricultural chose to provide some part of their land to
A GRICULTURE 43
the poor farmers due to the fear of land From the above table, it is clear that though
ceiling act. This Bhoodan- Gramdan the GDP growth rate is increasing over the
movement initiated by Vinobha Bhave is also years, it is not generating sufficient
known as the Blood-less Revolution. employment opportunities in the country. The
growth rate in agriculture is decelerating
which is an alarming situation. Today, Indian
Contribution of agriculture to the national farmers are facing a big challenge from
economy, employment and output international competition and our government
Agriculture has been the backbone of the is going ahead with reduction in the public
Indian economy though its share in the Gross investment in agriculture sector particularly
Domestic Product (GDP) has registered a in irrigation, power, rural roads, market and
declining trend from 1951 onwards; yet its mechanisation. Subsidy on fertilisers is
share in providing employment and livelihood decreased leading to increase in the cost of
to the population continues to be as high as production. Moreover, reduction in import
63 per cent in 2001. duties on agricultural products have proved
The declining share of agriculture in the detrimental to agriculture in the country.
GDP is a matter of serious concern because Farmers are withdrawing their investment
any decline and stagnation in agriculture will from agriculture causing a downfall in the
lead to a decline in other spheres of the employment in agriculture.
economy having wider implications for society. Why are farmers committing suicides in
Considering the importance of agriculture several states of the country?
in India, the Government of India made
concerted efforts to modernise agriculture.
Establishment of Indian Council of Agricultural When farmers have been facing so many
Research (ICAR), agricultural universities, problems and land under agriculture is
veterinary services and animal breeding decreasing, can we think of alternative
centres, horticulture development, research employment opportunities in the agriculture
and development in the field of meteorology and sector?
weather forecast, etc. were given priority for
improving Indian agriculture. Apart from this,
improving the rural infrastructure was also
FOOD SECURITY
considered essential for the same.
You know that food is a basic need and every
citizen of the country should have access to
food which provides minimum nutritional
Find out why an Indian farmer does not want level. If any segment of our population does
his son to become a farmer. not have this access, that segment suffers from
lack of food security. The number of people
Table 4.1: India: Growth of GDP and who do not have food security is
major sectors (in %) disproportionately large in some regions of
Sector 1980- 1992- 2002-07 our country, particularly in economically less
91 2001 (Tenth plan developed states with higher incidence of
projected) poverty. The remote areas of the country are
more prone to natural disasters and uncertain
Agriculture 3.6 3.3 4.0 food supply. In order to ensure availability of
Industries 7.1 6.5 9.5 food to all sections of society our government
Services 6.7 8.2 9.1 carefully designed a national food security
system. It consists of two components (a)
GDP 5.6 6.4 8.0
buffer stock and (b) public distribution
Source: Tenth Five Year Plan, 2002-07 system (PDS).
As you know, PDS is a programme which on rice or wheat, the food crop with a better
provides food grains and other essential growth potential in that particular area must
commodities at subsidised prices in rural and be encouraged. Creation of necessary
urban areas. infrastructure like irrigation facilities,
India’s food security policy has a primary availability of electricity etc. may also attract
objective to ensure availability of foodgrains private investments in agriculture.
to the common people at an affordable price. The focus on increasing foodgrain
It has enabled the poor to have access to food. production which should be on a sustainable
The focus of the policy is on growth in basis and also free trade in grains will create
agriculture production and on fixing the massive employment and reduce poverty in
support price for procurement of wheat and rural areas.
rice, to maintain their stocks. Food There has been a gradual shift from
Corporation of India (FCI) is responsible for cultivation of food crops to cultivation of fruits,
procuring and stocking foodgrains, whereas vegetables, oil-seeds and industrial crops. This
distribution is ensured by public distribution has led to the reduction in net sown area under
system (PDS). cereals and pulses. With the growing
The FCI procures foodgrains from the population of India, the declining food
farmers at the government announced production puts a big question mark over the
minimum support price (MSP). The country’s future food security. The competition
government used to provide subsidies on for land between non-agricultural uses such
agriculture inputs such as fertilizers, power as housing etc. and agriculture has resulted
and water. These subsidies have now reached in reduction in the net sown area. The
unsustainable levels and have also led to large productivity of land has started showing a
scale inefficiencies in the use of these scarce declining trend. Fertilisers, pesticides and
inputs. Excessive and imprudent use of insecticides, which once showed dramatic
fertilizers and water has led to waterlogging, results, are now being held responsible for
salinity and depletion of essential degrading the soils. Periodic scarcity of water
micronutrients in the soil. The high MSP, has led to reduction in area under irrigation.
subsidies in input and committed FCI Inefficient water management has led to water
purchases have distorted the cropping pattern. logging and salinity.
Wheat and paddy crops are being grown more
for the MSP they get. Punjab and Haryana are Do you know why foodgrains productions
has remained stagnant or fallen for six
foremost examples. This has also created a
consecutive years?
serious imbalance in inter-crop parities.
You already know that the consumers are Table 4.2: India: Foodgrains production
divided into two categories : below poverty line (million tons)
(BPL) and above poverty line (APL), with the
issue price being different for each category. Cereals 1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004-
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
However, this categorisation is not perfect and
a number of deserving poor have been Rice 89.7 85.0 93.3 71.8 88.3 85.3
excluded from the BPL category. Moreover, Wheat 76.4 69.7 72.8 65.8 72.1 72.0
some of the so called APL slip back to BPL, Coarse 30.3 31.1 33.4 26.1 38.1 33.9
because of the failure of even one crop and it Pulses 13.4 11.1 13.4 11.1 14.9 13.4
is administratively difficult to accommodate
such shifts. Total 209.8 196.8 212.9 174.8 213.5 204.6
Each district and block can be made self Source: Economic Survey, 2005-06
sufficient in foodgrain production if government
provides proper agricultural infrastructure, One important reason is land degradation.
credit linkages and also encourages the use of Free power to a section of farmers has
latest techniques. Instead of concentrating only encouraged them to pump groundwater to
A GRICULTURE 45
grow water-intensive crops in low-rainfall also. Therefore, there can be no food security
areas (rice in Punjab, sugarcane in without the security of the small farmers.
Maharashtra). This unsustainable pumping
has reduced water storage in aquifers. Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture
Consequently, many wells and tubewells have Globalisation is not a new phenomenon. It was
run dry. This has pushed the marginal and there at the time of colonisation. In the
small farmers out of cultivation. nineteenth century when European traders
The big farmers with deeper tubewells still came to India, at that time too, Indian spices
have water, but many others face a water crisis. were exported to different countries of the world
Inadequate storage and marketing facilities also and farmers of south India were encouraged
act as a disincentive to the farmer. Thus, the to grow these crops. Till today it is one of the
farmers are badly affected by the uncertainties important items of export from India.
of production and market. They suffer from a During the British period cotton belts of
double disadvantage as they pay high prices India attracted the British and ultimately
for inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers etc. but cotton was exported to Britain as a raw material
lack the bargaining power to fix prices in their for their textile industries. Cotton textile
favour. All the production reaches the market industry in Manchester and Liverpool
simultaneously. The higher the supply the flourished due to the availability of good
lower is the demand. This causes distress sale quality cotton from India. You have read about
Organise a debate on food security of India, its need and efforts
the Champaran movement which started in Can you name any gene modified seed used
1917 in Bihar. This was started because vastly in India?
farmers of that region were forced to grow
indigo on their land because it was necessary
for the textile industries which were located in
Britain. They were unable to grow foodgrains
to sustain their families.
Under globalisation, particularly after
1990, the farmers in India have been exposed
to new challenges. Despite being an important
producer of rice, cotton, rubber, tea, coffee, jute
and spices our agricultural products are not
able to compete with the developed countries
because of the highly subsidised agriculture
Fig. 4.18: Problems associated with heavy pesticide
in those countries.
use are widely recognised in developed and
developing countries
Infact organic farming is much in vogue

today because it is practised without factory
made chemicals such as fertilisers and
pesticides. Hence, it does not affect environment
in a negative manner.
A few economists think that Indian farmers
Fig. 4.17: Tissue culture of teak clones have a bleak future if they continue growing
foodgrains on the holdings that grow smaller
Today, Indian agriculture finds itself at the and smaller as the population rises. India’s
crossroads. To make agriculture successful and rural population is about 600 million which
profitable, proper thrust should be given to the depends upon 250 million (approximate)
improvement of the condition of marginal and hectares of agricultural land, an average of less
small farmers. The green revolution promised than half a hectare per person.
much. But today it’s under controversies. It is Indian farmers should diversify their
being alleged that it has caused land cropping pattern from cereals to high-value
degradation due to overuse of chemicals, drying crops. This will increase incomes and reduce
aquifers and vanishing biodiversity. The environmental degradation simultaneously.
keyword today is “gene revolution”. Which Because fruits, medicinal herbs, flowers,
includes genetic engineering. vegetables, bio-diesel crops like jatropha
and jojoba need much less irrigation than
Genetic engineering is recognised as a rice or sugarcane. India’s diverse climate
powerful supplement in inventing new can be harnessed to grow a wide range of
hybrid varieties of seeds. high-value crops.
Change in cropping pattern for example from cereals to high-value crops will
mean that India will have to import food. During 1960’s this would have been
seen as a disaster. But if India imports cereals while exporting high-value
commodities, it will be following successful economies like Italy, Israel and Chile.
These countries exports farm products (fruits, olives, speciality seeds and wine)
and import cereals. Are we ready to take this risk? Debate the issue.
A GRICULTURE 47
EXERCISES EXERCISES E XERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES
1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following describes a system of agriculture where a single
crop is grown on a large area?
(a) Shifting Agriculture
(b) Plantation Agriculture
(c) Horticulture
(d) Intensive Agriculture
(ii) Which one of the following is a rabi crop?
(a) Rice (c) Millets
(b) Gram (d) Cotton
(iii) Which one of the following is a leguminous crop?
(a) Pulses (c) Millets
(b) Jawar (d) Sesamum
(iv) Which one of the following is announced by the government in support of
a crop?
(a) Maximum support price
(b) Minimum support price
(c) Moderate support price
(d) Influential support price
2. Answer the following questions in 30 words.

(i) Name one important beverage crop and specify the geographical conditions
required for its growth.
(ii) Name one staple crop of India and the regions where it is produced.
(iii) Enlist the various institutional reform programmes introduced by the
government in the interest of farmers.
(iv) The land under cultivation has got reduced day by day. Can you imagine
its consequences?
3. Answer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Suggest the initiative taken by the government to ensure the increase in
agricultural production.
(ii) How did the partition of the country in 1947 affect the jute industry?
(iii) Describe the impact of globalisation on Indian agriculture.
(iv) Describe the geographical conditions required for the growth of rice.
PROJECT WORK
1. Group discussion on the necessity of literacy among farmers.

2. On an outline map of India show wheat producing areas.
A CTIVITY
Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the
hidden answers.
A Z M X N C B V N X A H D Q
S D E W S R J D Q J Z V R E
D K H A R I F G W F M R F W
F N L R G C H H R S B S V T
G B C W H E A T Y A C H B R
H R T K A S S E P H X A N W
J I E S J O W A R J Z H D T
K C L A E G A C O F F E E Y
L T E F Y M T A T S S R G I
P D E J O U Y V E J G F A U
O U M H Q S U D I T S W S P
U O A C O T T O N E A H F O
Y O L F L U S R Q Q D T W I
T M U A H R G Y K T R A B F
E A K D G D Q H S U O I W H
W Q Z C X V B N M K J A S L
1. The two staple food crops of India.

2. This is the summer cropping season of India.
3. Pulses like arhar, moong, gram, urad contain…
4. It is a coarse grain.
5. The two important beverages in India are…
6. One of the four major fibers grown on black soils.
A GRICULTURE 49
Challenges to
Democracy
Overview
Chapter 8
This concluding chapter draws upon all that you have learnt in the
last two years so as to address the fundamental questions of
democratic politics : What are the challenges that democracy faces
in our country and elsewhere? What can be done to reform democratic
politics? How can our democracy become more democratic in its
practice and outcomes? This chapter does not answer these
questions. It only makes some suggestions about the way in which
we can approach the questions of challenges and reforms. It invites
you to think on your own and come up with your own reading of
the challenges, your recipe of how to overcome these and your own
definition of democracy. Challenges to Democracy
101
Thinking about challenges
Do you remember the first chapter of your Political These countries face the foundational challenge of
Science textbook of Class IX? There we tracked the making the transition to democracy and then instituting
expansion of democracy all over the world in the last democratic government. This involves bringing down
hundred years. Our reading thereafter has confirmed the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military
our initial impression: democracy is the dominant form away from controlling government and establishing a
of government in the contemporary world. It does sovereign and functional state.
not face a serious challenger or rival. Yet our exploration Most of the established democracies face the
of the various dimensions of democratic politics has challenge of expansion. This involves applying the
shown us something else as well. The promise of basic principle of democratic government across all
democracy is far from realised anywhere in the world. the regions, different social groups and various
Democracy does not have a challenger, but that does institutions. Ensuring greater power to local
not mean that it does not face any challenges. governments, extension of federal principle to all the
At different points in this tour of democracy, we units of the federation, inclusion of women and
have noted the serious challenges that democracy faces minority groups, etc., falls under this challenge. This
all over the world. A challenge is not just any problem. also means that less and less decisions should remain
We usually call only those difficulties a ‘challenge’ which outside the arena of democratic control. Most
are significant and which can be overcome. A challenge countries including India and other democracies like
is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for the US face this challenge.
progress. Once we overcome a challenge we go up to The third challenge of deepening of democracy
a higher level than before. is faced by every democracy in one form or another.
Different countries face different kinds of This involves strengthening of the institutions and
challenges. Can you recall the map of democratic practices of democracy. This should happen in such a
governments in the year 2000 that was included in your way that people can realise their expectations of
textbook? At least one fourth of the globe is still not democracy. But ordinary people have different
under democratic government. The challenge for expectations from democracy in different societies.
democracy in these parts of the world is very stark. Therefore, this challenge takes different meanings and
paths in different parts of the world. In general terms,
it usually means strengthening those institutions
that help people’s participation and control.
This requires an attempt to bring down the
control and influence of the rich and
powerful people in making governmental
decision.
We have noted or hinted at these
Democratic Politics
challenges in all the various examples and

stories that we studied in our textbook of
Class IX and in the earlier chapters of this
book. Let us go back to all the major stops
in our tour of democracy, refresh our
memory and note down the challenges
that democracy faces in each of these.
102
Different contexts, different challenges
Each of these cartoons represents a challenge to democracy. Please describe what that challenge is. Also place it
in one of the three categories mentioned in the first section.
Mubarak Re-elected Seeing the democracy

© Patrick Chappatte - Cagle Cartoons Inc.
© Ares - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Liberal Gender Equality Campaign Money
© Ares - Best Latin America, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
© Tab - The Calgary Sun, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
Challenges to Democracy
103
Case and context Your description of the challenges for democracy in that
situation
Chile: General Pinochet’s [Example] Establishing civilian control over all governmental
government defeated, but institutions, holding the first multi-party elections, recalling all
military still in control of political leaders from exile.
many institutions
Poland: After the first
success of Solidarity, the
government imposed
martial law and banned
solidarity
Ghana: Just attained
independence, Nkrumah
elected president
Myanmar: Suu Kyi under
house arrest for more than
15 years, army rulers
getting global acceptance
International
organisations:
US as the only super
power disregards the UN
and takes unilateral action
Mexico: Second free
election after the defeat
of PRI in 2000; defeated
candidate alleges rigging
China: Communist Party
adopts economic reforms
but maintains monopoly
over political power
Pakistan: General
Musharraf holds
referendum, allegations
of fraud in voters’ list
Iraq: Widespread
sectarian violence as the
Democratic Politics
new government fails to

establish its authority
South Africa: Mandela
retires from active politics,
pressure on his successor
Mbeki to withdraw some
concessions given to
White minority
104
Case and context Your description of the challenges for democracy in that
situation
US, Guantanamo Bay:

UN Secretary General
calls this a violation of
international law,
US refused to respond
Saudi Arabia: Women not
allowed to take part in
public activities,
no freedom of religion for
minorities
Yugoslavia: Ethnic
tension between Serbs
and Albanians on the rise
in the province of Kosovo.
Yugoslavia disintergrated
Belgium: One round of
constitutional change
taken place, but the Dutch
speakers not satisfied;
they want more autonomy
Sri Lanka: The peace talks
between the government
and the LTTE break
down, renewed violence
US, Civil Rights: Blacks
have won equal rights, but
are still poor, less
educated and marginalised
Northern Ireland: The
civil war has ended but
Catholics and Protestants
yet to develop trust
Nepal: Constituent
Assembly about to be
elected, unrest in
Terai areas, Maoists have
not surrendered arms
Bolivia: Morales, a
supporter of water struggle,
becomes Prime Minister,
MNCs threaten to leave
the country
105
Different types of challenges
Now that you have noted down all these challenges, let us group these together into some broad categories.
Given below are some spheres or sites of democratic politics. You may place against each of these the specific
challenges that you noted for one or more countries or cartoons in the previous section. In addition to that write
one item for India for each of these spheres. In case you find that some challenges do not fit into any of the
categories given below, you can create new categories and put some items under that.
Constitutional
design
Democratic
rights
Working of
institutions
Elections
Federalism,
decentralisation
Accommodation
of diversity
Political
organisations
Any other category

Democratic Politics
Any other category
106
Let us group these again, this time by the nature of these challenges as per the classification suggested in the first
section. For each of these categories, find at least one example from India as well.
Foundational
challenge
Challenge of
expansion
Challenge of
deepening
Now let us think only about India. Think of all the challenges that democracy faces in contemporary India. List
those five that should be addressed first of all. The listing should be in order of priority, i.e, the challenge you
find most important or pressing should be mentioned at number 1, and so on. Give one example of that
challenge and your reasons for assigning it the priority.
Priority Challenges to Example Reasons for preference

democracy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
107
Thinking about political reforms
Each of these challenges is linked to the possibility political activists, parties, movements and politically
of reforms. As mentioned above, we discuss conscious citizens.
challenges only because we think these can be z Any legal change must carefully look at what results
overcome. Generally all the suggestions or proposals it will have on politics. Sometimes the results may be
about overcoming various challenges to democracy counter-productive. For example, many states have
are called ‘democracy reform’ or ‘political reform’. banned people who have more than two children
We are not going to give here a list of desirable from contesting panchayat elections. This has resulted
political reforms, for there cannot be any such list. If in denial of democratic opportunity to many poor
all the countries do not have the same challenges, it and women, which was not intended. Generally, laws
follows that everyone cannot follow the same recipe that seek to ban something are not very successful in
of political reforms. We cannot prescribe a procedure
politics. Laws that give political actors incentives to do
for car repair without knowing which model the car
good things have more chances of working. The best
is, what the defect is and what tools are available,
laws are those which empower people to carry out
where the car has broken down, etc.
democratic reforms. The Right to Information Act is
Can we at least have a list of such reforms for our a good example of a law that empowers the people
country in today’s context? We can develop some to find out what is happening in government and act
proposals for reforms at the national level. But the as watchdogs of democracy. Such a law helps to
real challenge of reforms may not lie at the national control corruption and supplements the existing laws
level. Some of the crucial questions need to be thought that banned corruption and imposed strict penalties.
at the State or local level. Besides, such a list may
z Democratic reforms are to be brought about
become irrelevant after some time. So, instead of that
principally through political practice. Therefore, the
let us think of some broad guidelines that can be kept
main focus of political reforms should be on ways to
in mind while devising ways and means for political
strengthen democratic practice. As we discussed in the
reforms in India:
chapter on political parties, the most important concern
z It is very tempting to think of legal ways of should be to increase and improve the quality of
reforming politics, to think of new laws to ban political participation by ordinary citizens.
undesirable things. But this temptation needs to be
z Any proposal for political reforms should think not
resisted. No doubt, law has an important role to play
in political reform. Carefully devised changes in law only about what is a good solution but also about who
can help to discourage wrong political practices and will implement it and how. It is not very wise to think
encourage good ones. But legal-constitutional changes that the legislatures will pass legislations that go against
by themselves cannot overcome challenges to the interest of all the political parties and MPs. But
democracy. This is like the rules of cricket. A change measures that rely on democratic movements, citizens’
in rules for LBW decisions helped to reduce negative organisations and the media are likely to succeed.
batting tactics. But no one would ever think that the Let us keep these general guidelines in mind and
Democratic Politics
quality of cricket could be improved mainly through look at some specific instances of challenges to
changes in the rules. This is to be done mainly by the democracy that require some measure of reform. Let
players, coaches and administrators. Similarly, us try to come up with some concrete proposals of
democratic reforms are to be carried out mainly by reform.
108
Here are some challenges that require political reforms. Discuss these challenges in detail study the reform
options offered here and give your preferred solution with reasons. Remember that none of the options
offered here is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’. You can opt for a mix of more than one options, or come up with something
that is not offered here. But you must give your solution in details and offer reasons for your choice.
Doctors’ absenteeism Political funding

Challenge: Challenge:
Uttar Pradesh government got a survey done and On an average, every candidate who contested the
found out that most of the doctors posted in the rural last Lok Sabha elections owned a property of more
primary health centres are simply not there. They live than Rs one crore. There is a fear that only wealthy
in a town, carry out private practice and visit the village people or those with their support can afford to
where they are posted only once or twice in the entire fight elections. Most of the political parties are
month. Villagers have to travel to towns and pay very dependent on money given by big business houses.
high fee to private doctors even for common ailments. The worry is that the role of money in politics will
Reform proposals: reduce whatever little voice the poor have in our
democracy.
z The government should make it compulsory
for the doctors to live in the village where they are Reform proposals:
posted, otherwise their service should be terminated. z The financial accounts of every political party
z District administration and police should carry should be made public. These accounts should be
out surprise raids to check the attendance of the examined by government auditors.
doctors. z There should be state funding of elections.
z Village panchayat should be given the power to Parties should be given some money by the
write the annual report of the doctor which should government to meet their election expenditure.
be read out in the gram sabha meeting. z Citizens should be encouraged to give more
z Problems like this can be solved only if Uttar donations to parties and to political workers.
Pradesh is split into several smaller states which can Such donations should be exempt from income
be administered more efficiently. tax.
Any other problem of your choice

Challenge:
Reform proposals:
109
Reforming
politicians Rose managed to catch Madam Lyngdoh outside the
classroom,
something she had been
planning to do for some time. “Ma’am! I
really liked that Canadian cartoon”. Rose
needed something to open the
conversation. “Which one?” Madam
Lyngdoh could not recall. “Ma’am, the one
which says 98% Canadians want all the
politicians to be locked in the trunk of a
car and thrown into Niagara falls. I was
thinking of our politicians. We would need a
bigger vehicle and a river as mighty as
Brahmaputra!”
Lyngdoh Ma’am smiled at Rose. Like most
Indians, she is also very much unhappy
with the way politicians of the country have been behaving and running the parties and
governments. But she wanted Rose to appreciate the complexity of the problem: “Do you
think our problems will be solved if we get rid of our politicians?,” she asked.
“Yes, Ma’am. Aren’t these mean politicians responsible for all the problems in our country?
I mean corruption, defection, casteism, communal violence, criminality… everything.”
Lyngdoh Madam: “So, all we need is to get rid of the current lot. Are you sure that those
who replace them will not do these things?”
Rose: “Well, I had not thought of it, but may be not. May be we will get leaders of better
character”.
Lyngdoh Madam: “I agree with you that the situation will change if people show more care
and alertness to reject corrupt and bad politicians and elect the right ones. And, maybe,
all politicians are not corrupt…”
“How can you say that Ma’am” interrupted Rose.
Lyngdoh Madam: “I did not say that politicians are not corrupt. Maybe when you think of
politicians you think of these big people whose photos appear in newspapers. I think of
political leaders that I have known. I don’t think that the political leaders I know are more
corrupt than my own colleagues, government officials, contractors or other middle class
professionals that I know. The corruption of the politician is more visible and we get the
impression that all politicians are corrupt. Some of them are and some of them are not.”
Rose did not give up. “Ma’am, what I meant is that there should be strict laws to curb
Democratic Politics
corruption and wrong practices like appeals to caste and community.

Lyngdoh Madam: “I am not sure Rose. For one thing there is already a law banning any
appeal to caste and religion in politics. Politicians find a way to bypass that. Laws can
have little impact unless people resist attempts to mislead and divide people in the name
of caste and religion. You cannot have democracy in a real sense unless people and
politicians overcome the barriers of caste and religion.
110
Redefining democracy
We began this tour of democracy last year with a z Our discussion of democracy has gone beyond
minimal definition of democracy. Do you remember the government and its activities. We discussed how
that? This is what Chapter 2 of your textbook said last eliminating discrimination based on caste, religion and
year: democracy is a form of government in which gender is important in a democracy.
the rulers are elected by the people. We then looked at z Finally, we have had some discussion about some
many cases and expanded the definition slightly to add outcomes that one can expect from a democracy.
some qualifications:
In doing so, we have not gone against the definition
z the rulers elected by the people must take all the of democracy offered last year. We began then with a
major decisions; definition of what is the minimum a country must
z elections must offer a choice and fair opportunity have to be called a democracy. In the course of our
to the people to change the current rulers; discussion we moved to the set of desirable conditions
z this choice and opportunity should be available to that a democracy should have. We have moved from
all the people on an equal basis; and the definition of democracy to the description of a
good democracy.
z the exercise of this choice must lead to a
government limited by basic rules of the constitution How do we define a good democracy? What are
and citizens’ rights. its features? Which are the features a democracy must
have to be called a good democracy? And what must
You may have felt disappointed that the definition
not take place in a democracy if it is a good democracy?
did not refer to any high ideals that we associate with
democracy. But in operational terms, we deliberately You decide that.
started with a minimalist but clear definition of
democracy. It allowed us to make a clear distinction Reading between the Lines
between democratic and non-democratic regimes.
You may have noticed that in the course of our
discussions of various aspects of democratic
government and politics, we have gone beyond that
definition:
z We discussed democratic rights at length and noted
© Ares - Best Latin America, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
that these rights are not limited to the right to vote,

stand in elections and form political organisations. We
discussed some social and economic rights that a
democracy should offer to its citizens.

z We have taken up power sharing as the spirit of
democracy and discussed how power sharing between
governments and social groups is necessary in
a democracy.
z We saw how democracy cannot be the brute rule
of majority and how a respect for minority voice is
necessary for democracy.
111
Here is your space for writing your own definition of good democracy.
(Write your name here) ________________________ ’s definition of good

democracy (not more than 50 words):
Features (use only as many points as you want. Try to compress it in as few points as
possible)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Democratic Politics
How did you like this exercise? Was it enjoyable? Very demanding? A little frustrating? And a little scary? Are
you a little resentful that the textbook did not help you in this crucial task? Are you worried that your definition
may not be ‘correct’?
Here then is your last lesson in thinking about democracy: there is no fixed definition of good democracy.
A good democracy is what we think it is and what we wish to make it. This may sound strange. Yet, think of it:
is it democratic for someone to dictate to us what a good democracy is?
112
Democracy
and
Diversity
Overview
Chapter 3
In the last chapter, we saw how power can be distributed to
accommodate linguistic and regional diversities. But language and
region are not the only features that give a distinct identity to
people. Sometimes, people also identify themselves and relate with
others on the basis of their physical appearance, class, religion,
gender, caste, tribe, etc. In this chapter, we study how democracy
responds to social differences, divisions and inequalities. We begin
with an example of public expression of social divisions. We then
draw some general lessons about how social differences can take
various forms. We then turn to how democratic politics affects and
is affected by these social diversities. Democracy and Diversity
29
A Story from Mexico Olympics
The pictures on this tried to draw international attention to
page depict an racial discrimination in the United
important landmark in States. The black-gloved and raised
the history of the CIVIL clenched fists were meant to symbolise
RIGHTS MOVEMENT IN BLACK POWER. The silver medallist,
THE U NITED S TATES . white Australian athlete, Peter Norman,
These represent the medal ceremony wore a human rights badge on his shirt
My salute to of the 200 metres race in the 1968 during the ceremony to show his
Carlos and Olympics held at Mexico City. The two
Smith! Will I ever support to the two Americans.
men standing with clenched fists
have the courage upraised and heads bowed, while the Do you think that Carlos and
to do what they Smith should have raised an internal
American national anthem was
did? matter of American society in an
played, are the US athletes, Tommie
Smith and John Carlos. They are international forum? Would you say
AFRICAN-AMERICANS. They had won the that what they did was political? Why
gold and bronze medals respectively. do you think Peter Norman, who was
They received their medals wearing neither Black nor American, joined in
Civil Rights Movement
in the USA (1954-1968) black socks and no shoes to represent the gesture of protest? If you were in
refers to a set of events Black poverty. With this gesture, they Norman’s place what would you do?
and reform movements
aimed at abolishing legal
racial discrimination
against African-Americans.
Led by Martin Luther
King Jr., this movement
practiced non-violent
methods of civil
disobedience against
racially discriminatory
laws and practices.
African-American,
Afro-American, Black
American, or Black are the
terms used to refer mainly
to the descendants of
© wikipedia & photo flickr.com Kevin
Africans who were

Democratic Politics
brought into America as

slaves between the 17th
century and early 19th
century.
The Black Power
movement emerged in
1966 and lasted till 1975,
which was a more militant
anti-racist movement,
advocating even violence In 2005, the San Jose State University installed a 20-foot high sculpture representing the
if necessary to end racism protest by Tommie Smith and John Carlos. A photograph of the original medal ceremony
in the US. in 1968 is on the top.
30
The International Olympic succeeded in gaining international
Association held Carlos and Smith guilty attention for the Civil Rights Movement
of violating the Olympic spirit by in the US. Recently, the San Jose
making a political statement. Their (pronounced ‘Saan Hoze’) State
medals were taken back. Back home, University, of which they were former
they were subjected to a lot of criticism. students, honoured them and installed
Norman too suffered for his action and their statue in the University campus.
was not included in the Australian team When Norman died in 2006, Smith and
for the next Olympic. But their action Carlos were pallbearers at his funeral.
Some Dalit groups decided to participate in the UN Conference

Against Racism in Durban in 2001, demanding the inclusion of caste
in the agenda of this conference. Here are three reactions to this move:
Amandeep Kaur (a government official): Our Constitution declares
caste discrimination to be illegal. If some caste discrimination
continues, it is an internal matter. I am opposed to this being raised in
an international forum.
Oinam (a sociologist): I am opposed to this because caste and race are
not similar divisions. Caste is a social division, while race is a biological
one. Raising caste in this conference on racism would mean equating
the two.
Ashok (a Dalit activist): The argument about internal matter is a
way of preventing open discussion of oppression and
discrimination. Race is not purely biological. It is as much a legal I met this group
and sociological category as caste. Caste discrimination must be of girls from
raised in this conference. Pakistan and felt
that I had more
Which of the three opinions do you agree with most and why? in common with
them than many
girls from other
parts of my own
country. Is this
Democracy and Diversity
anti-national to
Differences, similarities, divisions feel so?
The athletes in the example above were show both regional and social divisions.
responding to social divisions and In the case of Belgium we noted that
social inequalities. But does that people who live in different regions
happen only in societies which have speak different languages. In Sri Lanka,
racial divisions? In the previous two we noted linguistic as well as religious
chapters we have already noted some differences. Thus social diversity can
other forms of social divisions. The take different for ms in different
examples of Belgium and Sri Lanka societies.
31
Origins of social differences follow a religion other than the one in
These social differences are mostly which they were born. Most of us
based on accident of birth. Normally choose what to study, which
we don’t choose to belong to our occupation to take up and which
community. We belong to it simply games or cultural activities to take part
because we were born into it. We all in. All these lead to formation of social
experience social differences based on groups that are based on our choices.
accident of birth in our everyday lives. Every social difference does not
People around us are male or female, lead to social division. Social
they are tall and short, have different differences divide similar people from
kinds of complexions, or have different one another, but they also unite very
physical abilities or disabilities. But all different people. People belonging to
kinds of social differences are not different social groups share
based on accident of birth. Some of differences and similarities cutting
the differences are based on our across the boundaries of their groups.
choices. For example, some people are In the instance above, Carlos and
atheists. They don’t believe in God or Smith were similar in one way (both
any religion. Some people choose to were African-American) and thus
different from Norman who was
white. But they were also all similar in
other ways – they were all athletes who
stood against racial discrimination.
It is fairly common for people
belonging to the same religion to feel
that they do not belong to the same
community, because their caste or sect
is very different. It is also possible for
people from different religions to have
the same caste and feel close to each
other. Rich and poor persons from the
same family often do not keep close
relations with each other for they feel
they are very different. Thus, we all
have more than one identity and can
belong to more than one social group.
Democratic Politics
We have different identities in different

contexts.
© Ares - Cagle Cartoons Inc.
A cartoon like this can be read by different

people to mean different things. What does
this cartoon mean to you? How do other
students in your class read this?
32
Overlapping and cross-cutting
differences
Social division takes place when some
social difference overlaps with other
differences. The difference between
the Blacks and Whites becomes a social
division in the US because the Blacks
tend to be poor, homeless and
discriminated against. In our country
Dalits tend to be poor and landless.
They often face discrimination and
injustice. Situations of this kind
produce social divisions, when one
kind of social difference becomes
more important than the other and
people start feeling that they belong to
different communities.
If social differences cross cut one
another, it is difficult to pit one group
of people against the other. It means
that groups that share a common
interest on one issue are likely to be in
different sides on a different issue.
Consider the cases of Northern
Ireland and the Netherlands. Both are
predominantly Christian but divided
between Catholics and Protestants. In
Northern Ireland, class and religion Read these two poems by Dalit writers. Why do you think the
overlap with each other. If you are poster is titled ‘Hidden Apartheid’ ?
Catholic, you are also more likely to be Social divisions of one kind or
poor, and you may have suffered a another exist in most countries. It does
history of discrimination. In the not matter whether the country is small
Netherlands, class and religion tend to or big. India is a vast country with many
Homeogenous society:
cut across each other. Catholics and communities. Belgium is a small country
A society that has similar
Protestants are about equally likely to with many communities. Even those kinds of people,
be poor or rich. The result is that countries such as Germany and Sweden, especially where there
Catholics and Protestants have had that were once highly HOMOGENEOUS, are are no significant ethnic
conflicts in Northern Ireland, while differences.
undergoing rapid change with influx of
Migrant: Anybody who
they do not do so in the Netherlands. people from other parts of the world. shifts from one region
Overlapping social differences create MIGRANTS bring with them their own or country to another
possibilities of deep social divisions culture and tend to form a different region within a country
or to another country,
and tensions. Cross-cutting social social community. In this sense most
usually for work or other
differences are easier to accommodate. countries of the world are multi-cultural. economic opportunities.
33
Imrana is a student of Class X, section B. She and all her classmates are
planning to help students of Class XI in giving a farewell party to the
students of Class XII. Last month she played for section team in a game of
kho-kho against the team of Class X, section A. She goes back home in a bus
and joins all the students from various classes. They all come from trans-
Yamuna area in Delhi. Back home, she often joins her elder sister, Naima, in
complaining against her brother who does no work at home, while the sisters
are asked to help their mother. Her father is looking for a good match for her
elder sister, from a Muslim family with a similar economic status from their
own ‘biradari’.
Can you list the various kinds of identities Imrana has?

At home she is a girl
In terms of religion she is ………….
In the school she is ………….
…………… she is …………
……………. she is ………….
Politics of social divisions

How do these social divisions affect years the site of a violent and bitter
politics? What does politics do to these ethno-political conflict. Its population
social divisions? At first sight, it would is divided into two major sects of
appear that the combination of politics Christianity: 53 per cent are
and social divisions is very dangerous Protestants, while 44 per cent are
and explosive. Democracy involves Roman Catholics. The Catholics were
competition among various political represented by Nationalist parties who
parties. Their competition tends to demanded that Northern Ireland be
divide any society. If they start unified with the Republic of Ireland,
competing in terms of some existing a predominantly Catholic country. The
Democratic Politics
social divisions, it can make social Protestants were represented by

divisions into political divisions and Unionists who wanted to remain with
lead to conflict, violence or even the UK, which is predominantly
disintegration of a country. This has protestant. Hundreds of civilians,
happened in many countries. militants and security forces were killed
in the fight between Unionists and
Range of outcomes Nationalists and between the security
Take the case of Northern Ireland that forces of the UK and the Nationalists.
we referred to above. This region of It was only in 1998, that the UK
the United Kingdom has been for many government and the Nationalists
34
Bulgaria,
Ganesh had come back from his trip and was talking to Mahashweta
about the Roma people who live in many countries of Eastern
Europe. He met Yordanka who works as a nurse in Bulgaria. This is
Romania what she has to say about Roma people:
or “Being a nurse you can’t refuse to look after some people, but
India?
these Roma people are very dirty. Even when something small
happens to any one in their family, all the family and even the
neighbours just march to our hospital. And once they are in the hospital
they don’t know how to keep quiet. They talk aloud, smoke and drop ashes all
over and spit on the wall! They have no patience, and they just start pestering our
doctors! And when they are just hanging out like that any way they look so
aggressive. After all these dark skinned people don’t look like us. They have a
strange sense of colour. Look at their dress, why can’t they try to look like
everyone else in the country? And we all know they are thieves. I have heard
people say that these Roma people live by selling their blood. None of them can
afford the hospital fees. But when they are ill they just rush to hospital at the cost
of good Bulgarians who pay their taxes!”
“That sounds familiar’ said Mahashweta.
Ganesh went on to talk about Modruzeni, a Romani who lives in Romania. When
she was eighteen years old, she went to the hospital, to give birth to her first
child. She had no money to pay to the doctor or nurse. Though she was in the
hospital, nobody bothered to come and take care of her. Finally the sweeper, who
was also a Romani, helped her give birth to a boy. And then the nurse appeared on
the scene and said, “Here we have another criminal”. Talking about how the Roma
people are treated in public hospitals, she says: “These doctors keep us waiting
outside their cabins. On one occasion one doctor asked me to take a bath if I
needed to be examined! Of course, I smelled. During the pregnancy I ate
from the garbage containers, because I was so hungry all the time. My
husband had left me. I had two children, and I was pregnant with the
third.
The social worker refused my request for food assistance. My neighbour
helped me to deliver the baby. I often feel it is better not to visit these
hospitals.”
Mahashweta heard him out and said, “Ganesh, why do you have to travel
halfway across the world to find this out? This is not a story about Romania
and Bulgaria or about the Roma people. This is as much a story about our
own country and about our people who are branded as criminals by our
system.”
z Do you think Mahashweta is right? Do you know of some community
in your area that is treated like the Romas?
z Have you heard people say things similar to what Yordanka or
Modruzeni say here? If yes, try to think of what the story would sound like if
you heard it from the other side?
Do you think the Bulgarian government should try to ensure that the
Roma people dress and behave like other people from Bulgaria?
35
reached a peace treaty after which the divisions, make different promises to
latter suspended their armed struggle. different communities, look after due
In Yugoslavia, the story did not have a representation of various communities
happy end. Political competition along and make policies to redress the
religious and ethnic lines led to the grievances of the disadvantaged
disintegration of Yugoslavia into six communities. Social divisions affect
independent countries. voting in most countries. People from
So, it happens all Such examples lead some people one community tend to prefer some
over the world, to conclude that politics and social party more than others. In many
even in Europe! divisions must not be allowed to mix. countries there are parties that focus
I thought it was They think that it would be best if there only on one community. Yet all this
only in countries does not lead to disintegration of the
are no social divisions in any country.
like India that we country.
If social divisions do exist in a country,
have social
they must never be expressed in politics. Three determinants
divisions.
At the same time every expression Three factors are crucial in deciding
of social divisions in politics does not the outcome of politics of social
lead to such disasters. We have already divisions. First of all the outcome
seen that social divisions of one kind depends on how people perceive their
or another exist in most countries of identities. If people see their identities
the world. Wherever they exist, these in singular and exclusive terms, it
divisions are reflected in politics. In a becomes very difficult to
democracy it is only natural that accommodate. As long as people in
political parties would talk about these northern Ireland saw themselves as
only Catholic or Protestant, their
differences were difficult to reconcile.
It is much easier if the people see that
their identities are multiple and are
complementary with the national
identity. A majority of Belgians now
feel that they are as much Belgian as
© Orion / Juska Rantanen flickr.com
they are Dutch or German-speaking.

This helps them to stay together. This
is how most people in our country see
their identity: they think of themselves
Democratic Politics
as Indian as well as belonging to a state

or a language group or a social or
religious community.
Second, it depends on how
political leaders raise the demands of
In some societies of Northern Ireland, the colonies of Protestant and any community. It is easier to
Catholic communities are divided by walls. These walls are sometimes accommodate demands that are within
filled with graffiti as you can see here. The Irish Republican Army and
the constitutional framework and are
British Government signed an agreement in 2005. What does the graffiti
here tell about the conflict in the society? not at the cost of another community.
36
The demand for ‘only Sinhala’ was at Draw or collect some
images of social divisions
the cost of the interest and identity of in different aspects of life.
the Tamil community in Sri Lanka. In
© Dario Castillejos - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Can you think of some
examples of social
Yugoslavia, the leaders of different
division or discrimination
ethnic communities presented their in the field of sports?
demands in such a way that these could
not be accommodated within a single
country.
Third, it depends on the how the
government reacts to demands of
different groups. As we saw in the
examples of Belgium and Sri Lanka,
if the rulers are willing to share power
and accommodate the reasonable intensity. This leads to strengthening
demands of minority community, of a democracy.
social divisions become less So, you are
But a positive attitude towards
threatening for the country. But if they saying that too
diversity and a willingness to
try to suppress such a demand in the many small
accommodate it do not come about
divisions are
name of national unity, the end result easily. People who feel marginalised, better than a
is often quite the opposite. Such deprived and discriminated have to single big
attempts at forced integration often fight against the injustices. Such a fight division? Are you
sow the seeds of disintegration. often takes the democratic path, also saying that
Thus the assertion of social voicing their demands in a peaceful and politics is a force
diversities in a country need not be seen constitutional manner and seeking a of unity?
as a source of danger. In a democracy, fair position through elections.
political expression of social divisions Sometimes social differences can take
is very normal and can be healthy. This the form of unacceptable level of
allows various disadvantaged and social inequality and injustice. The
Exercises
marginal social groups to express their struggle against such inequalities
grievances and get the government to sometimes takes the path of violence
attend to these. Expression of various and defiance of state power. However
kinds of social divisions in politics history shows that democracy is the
often results in their cancelling one best way to fight for recognition and
another out and thus reducing their also to accommodate diversity.
1. Discuss three factors that determine the outcomes of politics of

social divisions.
2. When does a social difference become a social division?
3. How do social divisions affect politics? Give two examples.
4. ________________ social differences create possibilities of deep
social divisions and tensions. ___________________ social
differences do not usually lead to conflicts.
37
5. In dealing with social divisions which one of the following statements
is NOT correct about democracy?
(a) Due to political competition in a democracy, social divisions get
reflected in politics.
(b) In a democracy it is possible for communities to voice their
grievances in a peaceful manner.
(c) Democracy is the best way to accommodate social diversity.
(d) Democracy always leads to disintegration of society on the basis
of social divisions.
6. Consider the following three statements.
A. Social divisions take place when social differences overlap.
B. It is possible that a person can have multiple identities.
C. Social divisions exist in only big countries like India.
Exercises
Which of the statements is/are correct?
(a) A, B and C (b) A and B (c) B and C (d) Only C
7. Arrange the following statements in a logical sequence and select
the right answers by using the code given below.
A. But all political expression of social divisions need not be always
dangerous.
B. Social divisions of one kind or the other exist in most countries.
C. Parties try to win political support by appealing to social
divisions.
D. Some social differences may result in social divisions.
(a) D, B, C, A (b) D, B, A, C (c) D, A, C, B (d) A, B, C, D

8. Among the following, which country suffered disintegration due to
political fights on the basis of religious and ethnic identities?
(a) Belgium (b) India (c) Yugoslavia (d) Netherlands
9. Read the following passage from a famous speech by Martin Luther
King Jr. in 1963. Which social division is he talking about? What are
his aspirations and anxieties? Do you see a relationship between this
speech and the incident in Mexico Olympics mentioned in this
chapter?
“I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a
nation where they will not be judged by the colour of their skin
but by the content of their character. Let freedom ring. And when
this happens, and when we allow freedom ring—when we let it
Democratic Politics
ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and
every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God’s
children—black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles,
Protestants and Catholics—will be able to join hands and sing in
the words of the old Negro spiritual: ‘Free at last! Free at last!
Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!’ I have a dream that
one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of
its creed: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men
are created equal’.”
38
Federalism
Overview
Chapter 2
In the previous chapter, we noted that vertical division of power among
different levels of governments is one of the major forms of power
sharing in modern democracies. In this chapter, we focus on this form
of power sharing. It is most commonly referred to as federalism. We
begin by describing federalism in general terms. The rest of the chapter
tries to understand the theory and practice of federalism in India. A
discussion of the federal constitutional provisions is followed by an
analysis of the policies and politics that has strengthened federalism in
practice. Towards the end of the chapter, we turn to the local
government, a new and third tier of Indian federalism.
Federalism
13
What is federalism?
Let us get back to the contrast between for all practical purposes, a unitary
Belgium and Sri Lanka that we saw in system where the national government
the last chapter. You would recall that has all the powers. Tamil leaders want
one of the key changes made in the Sri Lanka to become a federal system.
Constitution of Belgium was to reduce
Federalism is a system of
the power of the Central Government
government in which the power is
I am confused. and to give these powers to the regional
divided between a central authority and
What do we call governments. Regional governments
various constituent units of the
the Indian existed in Belgium even earlier. They
country. Usually, a federation has two
government? Is had their roles and powers. But all these
powers were given to these levels of government. One is the
it Union, Federal
or Central? governments and could be withdrawn government for the entire country that
by the Central Government. The is usually responsible for a few subjects
change that took place in 1993 was that of common national interest. The
the regional governments were given others are governments at the level of
constitutional powers that were no provinces or states that look after
longer dependent on the central much of the day-to-day administering
government. Thus, Belgium shifted of their state. Both these levels of
from a unitary to a federal form of governments enjoy their power
government. Sri Lanka continues to be, independent of the other.
Federal
political systems
Russia
Canada Germany
Belgium
Austria
Switzerland
United States
of America Spain
Bosnia and Pakistan
Herzegovina
St. Kitts India
Mexico and Nevis Nigeria PACIFIC OCEAN
United
Venezuela Arab
Ethiopia Emirates
ATLANTIC Comoros Malaysia
Democratic Politics
PACIFIC OCEAN Brazil OCEAN INDIAN

OCEAN
Micronesia Australia
Argentina
South Africa
Source: Montreal and Kingston, Handbook of Federal Countries: 2002, McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002.
Though only 25 of the world’s 192 countries have federal political systems, their citizens make up 40 per cent of
the world’s population. Most of the large countries of the world are federations. Can you notice an exception to this
rule in this map?
14
In this sense, federations are 7 The federal system thus has dual
contrasted with unitary governments. objectives: to safeguard and promote
Under the unitary system, either there unity of the country, while at the same
is only one level of government or the time accommodate regional diversity.
sub-units are subordinate to the central Therefore, two aspects are crucial for
government. The central government the institutions and practice of
can pass on orders to the provincial or federalism. Governments at different
the local government. But in a federal levels should agree to some rules of If federalism
system, the central government cannot power sharing. They should also trust works only in big
order the state government to do that each would abide by its part of countries, why
something. State government has the agreement. An ideal federal system did Belgium
powers of its own for which it is not has both aspects : mutual trust and adopt it?
answerable to the central government. agreement to live together.
Both these governments are separately
answerable to the people. The exact balance of power
between the central and the state
Let us look at some of the key
government varies from one federation
features of federalism :
to another. This balance depends
1 There are two or more levels (or
mainly on the historical context in which
tiers) of government.
the federation was formed. There are
2 Different tiers of government
two kinds of routes through which
govern the same citizens, but each tier
federations have been formed. The first
has its own JURISDICTION in specific
route involves independent States
matters of legislation, taxation and
coming together on their own to form
administration.
a bigger unit, so that by pooling
3 The jurisdictions of the respective
levels or tiers of government are sovereignity and retaining identity they
specified in the constitution. So the can increase their security. This type of
existence and authority of each tier of ‘coming together’ federations include
government is constitutionally the USA, Switzerland and Australia. In
guaranteed. this first category of federations, all the
4 The fundamental provisions of constituent States usually have equal
the constitution cannot be unilaterally power and are strong vis-à-vis the
changed by one level of government. federal government.
Such changes require the consent of The second route is where a large
both the levels of government. country decides to divide its power
5 Courts have the power to interpret between the constituent States and the
the constitution and the powers of national government. India, Spain and
different levels of government. The Belgium are examples of this kind of
highest court acts as an umpire if ‘holding together’ federations. In
disputes arise between different levels Jurisdiction: The area
this second category, the central over which someone
Federalism
of government in the exercise of their government tends to be more powerful has legal authority. The
respective powers. vis-à-vis the States. Very often different area may be defined in
6 Sources of revenue for each level constituent units of the federation have terms of geographical
boundaries or in terms
of government are clearly specified to unequal powers. Some units are of certain kinds of
ensure its financial autonomy. granted special powers. subjects.
15
Some Nepalese citizens were discussing the proposals on the adoption
of federalism in their new constitution. This is what some of them said:
Khag Raj: I don’t like federalism. It would lead to reservation of seats for
different caste groups as in India.
Sarita: Ours in not a very big country. We don’t need federalism.
Babu Lal: I am hopeful that the Terai areas will get more autonomy if they get
their own state government.
Ram Ganesh: I like federalism because it will mean that powers that were earlier
enjoyed by the king will now be exercised by our elected representatives.
If you were participating in this conversation what would be your response to each
of these? Which of these reflect a wrong understanding of what federalism is?
What makes India a federal country?
What makes India a federal country?

We have earlier seen how small the Union of India and the State
countries like Belgium and Sri Lanka governments. Later, a third tier of
face so many problems of managing federalism was added in the form of
diversity. What about a vast country like Panchayats and Municipalities. As in
India, with so many languages, religions any federation, these different tiers
and regions? What are the power enjoy separate jurisdiction. The
sharing arrangements in our country? Constitution clearly provided a three-
Isn’t that Let us begin with the Constitution. fold distribution of legislative powers
strange? Did our India had emerged as an independent between the Union Government and
constitution nation after a painful and bloody the State Governments. Thus, it
makers not know partition. Soon after Independence, contains three lists:
about several princely states became a part of z Union List includes subjects of
federalism? Or
the country. The Constitution declared national importance such as defence
did they wish to
India as a Union of States. Although it of the country, foreign affairs, banking,
avoid talking
did not use the word federation, the communications and currency. They
about it?
Democratic Politics
Indian Union is based on the principles are included in this list because we need
of federalism. a uniform policy on these matters
Let us go back to the seven features throughout the country. The Union
of federalism mentioned above. We can Government alone can make laws
see that all these features apply to the relating to the subjects mentioned in
provisions of the Indian Constitution. the Union List.
The Constitution originally provided z State List contains subjects of
for a two-tier system of government, State and local importance such as
the Union Government or what we call police, trade, commerce, agriculture
the Central Government, representing and irrigation. The State Governments
16
alone can make laws relating to the There are some units of the Indian
subjects mentioned in the State List. Union which enjoy very little power.
z Concurrent List includes subjects These are areas which are too small to
of common interest to both the Union become an independent State but
Government as well as the State which could not be merged with any
Governments, such as education, forest, of the existing States. These areas, like
trade unions, marriage, adoption and Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the
If agriculture and
succession. Both the Union as well as capital city of Delhi, are called Union commerce are
the State Governments can make laws Territories. These territories do not state subjects,
on the subjects mentioned in this list. have the powers of a State. The Central why do we have
If their laws conflict with each other, Government has special powers in ministers of
the law made by the Union running these areas. agriculture and
Government will prevail. This sharing of power between the commerce in the
What about subjects that do not Union Government and the State Union cabinet?
fall in any of the three lists? Or subjects governments is basic to the structure
like computer software that came up of the Constitution. It is not easy to
after the constitution was made? make changes to this power sharing
According to our constitution, the arrangement. The Parliament cannot
Union Government has the power to on its own change this arrangement.
legislate on these ‘residuary’ subjects. Any change to it has to be first passed
We noted above that most by both the Houses of Parliament with
federations that are formed by ‘holding at least two-thirds majority. Then it has
together’ do not give equal power to to be ratified by the legislatures of at
its constituent units. Thus, all States in least half of the total States.
the Indian Union do not have identical The judiciary plays an important
powers. Some States enjoy a special role in overseeing the implementation
status. Jammu and Kashmir has its own of constitutional provisions and
Constitution. Many provisions of the procedures. In case of any dispute about
Indian Constitution are not applicable the division of powers, the High Courts
to this State without the approval of and the Supreme Court make a decision.
the State Assembly. Indians who are The Union and State governments
not permanent residents of this State have the power to raise resources by
cannot buy land or house here. Similar levying taxes in order to carry on the
special provisions exist for some other government and the responsibilities
States of India as well. assigned to each of them.
Listen to one national and one regional news bulletin broadcast by All India
Federalism
Radio daily for one week. Make a list of news items related to government policies or
decisions by classifying these into the following categories:
z News items that relate only to the Central Government,
z News items that relate only to your or any other State Government,
z News items about the relationship between the Central and State Governments.
17
z Pokharan, the place where India conducted its nuclear tests, lies
in Rajasthan. Suppose the Government of Rajasthan was opposed to
the Central Government’s nuclear policy, could it prevent the Government of
India from conducting the nuclear tests?
z Suppose the Government of Sikkim plans to introduce new textbooks in its schools.
But the Union Government does not like the style and content of the new
textbooks. In that case, does the state government need to take permission from
the Union Government before these textbooks can be launched?
z Suppose the Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Orissa have
different policies on how their state police should respond to the naxalites. Can the
Prime Minister of India intervene and pass an order that all the Chief Ministers will
have to obey?
Democratic Politics
18
How is federalism practiced?
Constitutional provisions are necessary the political map of India when it
for the success of federalism but these began its journey as a democracy in
are not sufficient. If the federal 1947 and that of 2006, you will be
experiment has succeeded in India, it surprised by the extent of the changes.
is not merely because of the clearly laid Many old States have vanished and
out constitutional provisions. The real many new States have been created.
success of federalism in India can be Areas, boundaries and names of the
attributed to the nature of democratic States have been changed.
politics in our country. This ensured
In 1947, the boundaries of several
that the spirit of federalism, respect
old States of India were changed in
for diversity and desire for living
order to create new States. This was
together became a shared ideal in our
done to ensure that people who spoke
country. Let us look at some of the
the same language lived in the same
major ways in which this happened.
State. Some States were created not on
Linguistic States the basis of language but to recognise
The creation of Linguistic States was differences based on culture, ethnicity
the first and a major test for democratic or geography. These include States like
politics in our country. If you look at Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand.
2006
z Has your village or town

remained under the same State
since Independence? If not,
what was the name of the
Federalism
earlier State?
z Can you identify three State
names in 1947 that have
changed later?
z Identify any three States which
have been carved out of a
bigger State.
19
When the demand for the continues to be the official policy of
formation of States on the basis of the Government of India. Promotion
language was raised, some national does not mean that the Central
leaders feared that it would lead to the Government can impose Hindi on
disintegration of the country. The States where people speak a different
Central Government resisted linguistic language. The flexibility shown by
States for some time. But the Indian political leaders helped our
experience has shown that the country avoid the kind of situation that
formation of linguistic States has Sri Lanka finds itself in.
actually made the country, more united.
Centre-State relations
It has also made administration easier.
Restructuring the Centre-State
Language policy relations is one more way in which
A second test for Indian federation is federalism has been strengthened in
the language policy. Our Constitution practice. How the constitutional
did not give the status of national arrangements for sharing power work
language to any one language. Hindi was in reality depends to a large extent on
identified as the official language. But how the ruling parties and leaders
Hindi is the mother tongue of only follow these arrangements. For a long
Why Hindi? about 40 per cent of Indians. Therefore, time, the same party ruled both at the
Why not there were many safeguards to protect Centre and in most of the States. This
Bangla or other languages. Besides Hindi, there are meant that the State governments did
Telugu? 21 other languages recognised as not exercise their rights as autonomous
Scheduled Languages by the federal units. As and when the ruling
Constitution. A candidate in an party at the State level was different,
examination conducted for the Central the parties that ruled at the Centre tried
Government positions may opt to take to undermine the power of the States.
the examination in any of these In those days, the Central Government
languages. States too have their own would often misuse the Constitution
official languages. Much of the to dismiss the State governments that
government work takes place in the were controlled by rival parties. This
official language of the concerned State. undermined the spirit of federalism.
Unlike Sri Lanka, the leaders of our All this changed significantly
country adopted a very cautious after 1990. This period saw the rise
attitude in spreading the use of Hindi. of regional political parties in many
According to the Constitution, the use States of the country. This was also
of English for official purposes was to the beginning of the era of
C OA L I T I O N G OV E R N M E N T S at the
Democratic Politics
stop in 1965. However, many non-

Hindi speaking States demanded that Centre. Since no single party got a
the use of English continue. In Tamil clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the
Coalition government: major national parties had to enter
A government formed Nadu, this movement took a violent
by the coming together form. The Central Government into an alliance with many parties
of at least two political responded by agreeing to continue the including several regional parties to
parties. Usually partners use of English along with Hindi for form a government at the Centre.
in a coalition form a This led to a new culture of power
official purposes. Many critics think
political alliance and
adopt a common that this solution favoured the English- sharing and respect for the autonomy
programme. speaking elite. Promotion of Hindi of State Governments. This trend was
20
The States Plead for More Powers
© Kutty - Laughing with Kutty

Perils of Running a Coalition Government
© Ajith Ninan - India Today Book of Cartoons
Here are two cartoons showing the relationship between Centre and States. Should the
State go to the Centre with a begging bowl? How can the leader of a coalition keep the Are you
Federalism
partners of government satisfied? suggesting that

regionalism is
supported by a major judgement of arbitrary manner. Thus, federal
good for our
the Supreme Court that made it power sharing is more effective today
democracy? Are
difficult for the Central Government than it was in the early years after
you serious?
to dismiss state governments in an the Constitution came into force.
21
+
Linguistic diversity of India
How many languages do we have
in India? The answer depends on
z Make a bar or pie chart on
the basis of this information.
how one counts it. The latest z Prepare a map of linguistic
information that we have is from diversity of India by shading the
the Census of India held in 1991. region where each of these
This census recorded more than languages is spoken on the map
1500 distinct languages which of India.
z Find out about three
people mentioned as their mother
languages that are spoken in
tongues. These languages were
India but are not included in this
grouped together under some
table.
major languages. For example
languages like Bhojpuri, Magadhi,
Bundelkhandi, Chhattisgarhi,
Rajasthani, Bhili and many others Scheduled Languages of India
were grouped together under
Language Proportion of
‘Hindi’. Even after this grouping,
speakers (%)
the Census found 114 major
Assamese 1.6
languages. Of these 22 languages
Bangla 8.3
are now included in the Eighth
Bodo 0.1
Schedule of the Indian Constitution
Dogri 0.2
and are therefore called ‘Scheduled
Gujarati 4.9
Languages’. Others are called ‘non-
Scheduled Languages’. In terms of
Hindi 40.2
languages, India is perhaps the Kannada 3.9
most diverse country in the world. Kashmiri 0.5
Konkani 0.2
A look at the enclosed table Maithili 0.9
makes it clear that no one Malayalam 3.6
language is the mother tongue of
Manipuri 0.2
the majority of our population. The
Marathi 7.5
largest language, Hindi, is the
Nepali 0.3
mother tongue of only about 40
Oriya 3.4
per cent Indians. If we add to that
Punjabi 2.8
all those who knew Hindi as their
Sanskrit 0.01
second or third language, the total
Democratic Politics
Santhali 0.6
number was still less than 50 per
Sindhi 0.3
cent in 1991. As for English, only
0.02 per cent Indians recorded it as
Tamil 6.3
their mother tongue. Another 11 Telugu 7.9
per cent knew it as a second or Urdu 5.2
third language. Note: The first column in this table lists all the languages
currently included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian
Constitution. The second column gives the proportion of the
Read this table carefully, but speakers of each of these languages as per cent of the total
population of India. These figures are based on the Census of
you do not need to memorise it. India, 1991. The figures for Kashmiri and Dogri are based on
estimates, as the Census was not conducted in Jammu and
Just do the following: Kashmir in 1991.
22
Read the following excerpts from an article by noted historian,
Ramachandra Guha, that appeared in the Times of India on November 1,
2006:
‘ ‘ Federalism
Take the example of your own state or any other state that was affected by
linguistic reorganisation. Write a short note for or against the argument given by
the author here on the basis of that example.
23
Decentralisation in India
We noted above that federal villages and municipalities in urban
governments have two or more tiers areas were set up in all the States. But
of governments. We have so far these were directly under the control
discussed the two-tiers of government of state governments. Elections to
in our country. But a vast country like these local governments were not held
India cannot be run only through these regularly. Local governments did not
two-tiers. States in India are as large as have any powers or resources of their
So, we are like a independent countries of Europe. In own. Thus, there was very little
three-tier coach
terms of population, Uttar Pradesh is decentralisation in effective terms.
in a train! I
bigger than Russia, Maharashtra is A major step towards decentra-
always prefer the
about as big as Germany. Many of lisation was taken in 1992. The
lower berth!
these States are internally very diverse.
Constitution was amended to make the
There is thus a need for power sharing
third-tier of democracy more powerful
within these States. Federal power
and effective.
sharing in India needs another tier of
government, below that of the State z Now it is constitutionally
governments. This is the rationale for mandatory to hold regular elections to
decentralisation of power. Thus, local government bodies.
resulted a third-tier of government, z Seats are reserved in the elected
called local government. bodies and the executive heads of
When power is taken away from these institutions for the Scheduled
Central and State governments and given Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other
to local government, it is called Backward Classes.
decentralisation. The basic idea behind z At least one-third of all positions
decentralisation is that there are a large are reserved for women.
number of problems and issues which z An independent institution called
are best settled at the local level. People the State Election Commission has
have better knowledge of problems in
been created in each State to conduct
their localities. They also have better ideas
panchayat and municipal elections.
on where to spend money and how to
manage things more efficiently. Besides, z The State governments are required
at the local level it is possible for the to share some powers and revenue with
people to directly participate in decision local government bodies. The nature of
sharing varies from State to State.
Democratic Politics
making. This helps to inculcate a habit

of democratic participation. Local Rural local government is
government is the best way to realise one popularly known by the name
important principle of democracy, panchayati raj. Each village, or a group
namely local self-government. of villages in some States, has a gram
The need for decentralisation was panchayat. This is a council consisting
recognised in our Constitution. Since of several ward members, often called
then, there have been several attempts panch, and a president or sarpanch.
to decentralise power to the level of They are directly elected by all the
villages and towns. Panchayats in adult population living in that ward
24
or village. It is the decision-making constitute the zilla (district) parishad.
body for the entire village. The Most members of the zilla parishad are
panchayat works under the overall elected. Members of the Lok Sabha
supervision of the gram sabha. All the and MLAs of that district and some
voters in the village are its members. other officials of other district level
It has to meet at least twice or thrice bodies are also its members. Zilla
in a year to approve the annual budget parishad chairperson is the political
of the gram panchayat and to review head of the zilla parishad. Prime Minister runs
the perfor mance of the gram Similarly, local government bodies the country. Chief
panchayat. exist for urban areas as well. Minister runs the
The local government structure Municipalities are set up in towns. Big state. Logically,
goes right up to the district level. A cities are constituted into municipal then, the
few gram panchayats are grouped corporations. Both municipalities and chairperson of Zilla
Parishad should
together to form what is usually called municipal corporations are controlled
run the district.
a panchayat samiti or block or mandal. by elected bodies consisting of people’s
Why does the D.M.
The members of this representative representatives. Municipal chairperson
or Collector
body are elected by all the panchyat is the political head of the municipality. administer the
members in that area. All the panchayat In a municipal corporation such an district?
samitis or mandals in a district together officer is called the mayor.
Federalism
What do these newspaper clippings have to say about efforts of decentralisation in India?
25
+ An experiment in Brazil
A city called Porto Alegre in Brazil has carried out an extraordinary experiment
in combining decentralisation with participative democracy. The city has set up a
parallel organisation operating alongside the municipal council, enabling local
inhabitants to take real decisions for their city. The nearly 13 lakh people in this
city get to participate in making the budget for their own city. The city is divided
into many sectors or what we call wards. Each sector has a meeting, like that of
the gram sabha, in which anyone living in that area can participate. There are
some meetings to discuss issues that affect the entire city. Any citizen of the city
can participate in those meetings. The budget of the city is discussed in these
meetings. The proposals are put to the municipality that takes a final decision
about it.
About 20,000 people participate in this decision making exercise every year.
This method has ensured that the money cannot be spent only for the benefit of
the colonies where rich people live. Buses now run to the poor colonies and
builders cannot evict slum-dwellers without resettling them.
In our own country, a similar experiment has taken place in some areas in
Kerala. Ordinary people have participated in making a plan for the development
of their locality.
This new system of local increased women’s representation and

government is the largest experiment voice in our democracy. At the same
in democracy conducted anywhere in time, there are many difficulties. While
the world. There are now about 36 lakh elections are held regularly and
elected representatives in the enthusiastically, gram sabhas are not
panchayats and municipalities etc., all held regularly. Most state governments
over the country. This number is bigger have not transferred significant powers
than the population of many countries to the local governments. Nor have
in the world. Constitutional status for they given adequate resources. We are
local government has helped to deepen thus still a long way from realising the
democracy in our country. It has also ideal of self-government.
Democratic Politics
Find out about the local government in the village or town you live in.
If you live in a village, find out the names of the following: your panch or ward
member, your sarpanch, your panchayat samiti, the chairperson of your zilla
parishad. Also find out when did the last meeting of the gram sabha take place and
how many people took part in that.
If you live in urban areas, find out the name of your municipal councillor, and the
municipal chairperson or mayor. Also find out about the budget of your municipal
corporation, municipality and the major items on which money was spent.
26
1. Locate the following States on a blank outline political map of India:
Manipur, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh and Goa.
2. Identify and shade three federal countries (other than India) on a
blank outline political map of the world.
3. Point out one feature in the practice of federalism in India that is
similar to and one feature that is different from that of Belgium.
4. What is the main difference between a federal form of government
and a unitary one? Explain with an example.
5. State any two differences between the local government before and
after the Constitutional amendment in 1992.
6. Fill in the blanks:
Since the United States is a ___________________ type of
Exercises
federation, all the constituent States have equal powers and States
are ______________vis-à-vis the federal government. But India is a
_____________________ type of federation and some States have
more power than others. In India, the ____________ government
has more powers.
7. Here are three reactions to the language policy followed in India.
Give an argument and an example to support any of these positions.
Sangeeta: The policy of accommodation have strengthened
national unity.
Arman: Language based States has divided us by making
everyone conscious of their language.
Harish: This policy has only helped to consolidate the
dominance of English over all other languages.
8. The distinguishing feature of a federal government is:
(a) National government gives some powers to the provincial
government.
(b) Power is distributed among the legislature, executive and
judiciary.
(c) Elected officials exercise supreme power in the government.
(d) Governmental power is divided between different levels of
government.
9. A few subjects in various Lists of the Indian Constitution are given
here. Group them under the Union, State and Concurrent Lists as
provided in the table below.
A. Defence; B. Police; C. Agriculture; D. Education;
E. Banking; F. Forests; G. Communications; H. Trade; I. Marriages
Federalism
Union List
State List
Concurrent List
27
10. Examine the following pairs that give the level of government in
India and the powers of the government at that level to make laws
on the subjects mentioned against each. Which of the following pairs
is not correctly matched?
(a) State government State List

(b) Central government Union List
(c) Central and State governments Concurrent List
(d) Local governments Residuary powers
11. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists:
List I List II
Exercises
1. Union of India A. Prime Minister
2. State B. Sarpanch
3. Municipal Corporation C. Governor
4. Gram Panchayat D. Mayor
1 2 3 4
(a) D A B C
(b) B C D A
(c) A C D B
(d) C D A B
12. Consider the following two statements.

A. In a federation the powers of the federal and provincial
governments are clearly demarcated.
B. India is a federation because the powers of the Union and State
Governments are specified in the Constitution and they have
exclusive jurisdiction on their respective subjects.
C. Sri Lanka is a federation because the country is divided into
provinces.
D. India is no longer a federation because some powers of the States
have been devolved to the local government bodies.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Democratic Politics
(a) A, B and C (b) A, C and D (c) A and B only (d) B and C only
28
Flora and Fauna in India
Narak! My Lord, you are the creator of music
If you look around, you will be able to find
in the world of Lepchas
that there are some animals and plants which
Oh Narak! My Lord, let me dedicate are unique in your area. In fact, India is one
myself to you of the world’s richest countries in terms of
Let me gather your music from the its vast array of biological diversity, and has
springs, the rivers, the mountains, the forests, nearly 8 per cent of the total number of
the insects and the animals species in the world (estimated to be 1.6
Let me gather your music from the sweet million). This is possibly twice or thrice the
breeze and offer it to you number yet to be discovered. You have
already studied in detail about the extent
Source: Lepcha folk song from northern part of
and variety of forest and wildlife resources
West Bengal in India. You may have realised the
importance of these resources in our daily
life. These diverse flora and fauna are so
We share this planet with millions of other well integrated in our daily life that we take
living beings, starting from micro-organisms these for granted. But, lately, they are under
and bacteria, lichens to banyan trees, great stress mainy due to insensitivity to
elephants and blue whales. This entire our environment.
habitat that we live in has immense
biodiversity. We humans along with all living
organisms form a complex web of ecological Over 81,000 species of fauna and 47,000
system in which we are only a part and very species of flora are found in this country
much dependent on this system for our own so far? Of the estimated 47,000 plant
existence. For example, the plants, animals species, about 15,000 flowering species
and micro-organisms re-create the quality of are endemic (indigenous) to India.
the air we breathe, the water we drink and
the soil that produces our food without which
we cannot survive. Forests play a key role in Find out stories prevalent in your region
the ecological system as these are also the which are about the harmonious relationship
primary producers on which all other living between human beings and nature.
beings depend.
Some estimates suggest that at least 10
per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and
Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is 20 per cent of its mammals are on the
immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated threatened list. Many of these would now be
species, diverse in form and function but categorised as ‘critical’, that is on the verge
closely integrated in a system through of extinction like the cheetah, pink-headed
multiple network of interdependencies. duck, mountain quail, forest spotted owlet,
and plants like madhuca insignis (a wild
variety of mahua) and hubbardia accurate information about actual loss of
heptaneuron,(a species of grass). In fact, no natural forests.
one can say how many species may have
already been lost. Today, we only talk of the Let us now understand the different
larger and more visible animals and plants categories of existing plants and animal
that have become extinct but what about species. Based on the International Union for
smaller animals like insects and plants? Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN), we can classify as follows –
Normal Species: Species whose population
Do you know that among the larger levels are considered to be normal for
animals in India, 79 species of mammals, their survival, such as cattle, sal, pine,
44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 of rodents, etc.
amphibians are threatened? Nearly 1,500 Endangered Species: These are species
plant species are considered endangered. which are in danger of extinction. The
Flowering plants and vertebrate animals survival of such species is difficult if the
have recently become extinct at a rate negative factors that have led to a decline in
estimated to be 50 to 100 times the their population continue to operate. The
average expected natural rate. examples of such species are black buck,
crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion
tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in
Vanishing Forests Manipur), etc.
The dimensions of deforestation in India are Vulnerable Species: These are species
staggering. The forest cover in the country is whose population has declined to levels from
estimated at 637,293 sq km, which is 19.39 where it is likely to move into the endangered
per cent of the total geographical area. category in the near future if the negative
(dense forest 11.48 per cent; open forest 7.76 factors continue to operate. The examples of
per cent; and mangrove 0.15 per cent). such species are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant,
According to the State of Forest Report Gangetic dolphin, etc.
(1999), the dense forest cover has increased
Rare Species: Species with small population
may move into the endangered or vulnerable
category if the negative factors affecting them
continue to operate. The examples of such
species are the Himalayan brown bear, wild
Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.
Endemic Species: These are species which
are only found in some particular areas
usually isolated by natural or geographical
barriers. Examples of such species are the
Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman
wild pig, mithun in Arunchal Pradesh.
Fig. 2.1
Extinct Species: These are species which
by 10,098 sq km since 1997. However, this are not found after searches of known or
apparent increase in the forest cover is due likely areas where they may occur. A species
to plantation by different agencies. The State may be extinct from a local area, region,
of Forest Report does not differentiate country, continent or the entire earth.
between natural forests and plantations. Examples of such species are the Asiatic
Therefore, these reports fail to deliver cheetah, pink head duck.
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 15
Fig. 2.2: A few extinct, rare and endangered species
depleted our forests and wildlife. The greatest

Asiatic Cheetah: where did they go?
damage inflicted on Indian forests was during
The world’s fastest land mammal, the the colonial period due to the expansion of the
cheetah (Acinonyx jubantus), is a unique and railways, agriculture, commercial and scientific
specialised member of the cat family and forestry and mining activities. Even after
can move at the speed of 112 km./hr. The Independence, agricultural expansion
cheetah is often mistaken for a leopard. Its continues to be one of the major causes of
distinguishing marks are the long teardrop- depletion of forest resources. Between 1951 and
shaped lines on each side of the nose from 1980, according to the Forest Survey of India,
the corner of its eyes to its mouth. Prior to over 26,200 sq. km. of forest area was converted
the 20th century, cheetahs were widely into agricultural land all over India. Substantial
distributed throughout Africa and Asia. parts of the tribal belts, especially in the north-
Today, the Asian cheetah is nearly extinct eastern and central India, have been deforested
due to a decline of available habitat and or degraded by shifting cultivation (jhum), a type
prey. The species was declared extinct in of ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
India long back in 1952.
Are colonial forest policies

What are the negative factors that cause such to be blamed?
fearful depletion of the flora and fauna?
Some of our environmental activists say that
If you look around, you will be able to find the promotion of a few favoured species, in
out how we have transformed nature into a many parts of India, has been carried
resource obtaining directly and indirectly from through the ironically-termed “enrichment
the forests and wildlife – wood, barks, leaves, plantation”, in which a single commercially
rubber, medicines, dyes, food, fuel, fodder, valuable species was extensively planted
manure, etc. So it is we ourselves who have and other species eliminated. For instance,
teak monoculture has damaged the natural the fact remains that a substantial part of the
forest in South India and Chir Pine (Pinus fuel-fodder demand is met by lopping rather
roxburghii) plantations in the Himalayas than by felling entire trees. The forest
have replaced the Himalayan oak (Quercius ecosystems are repositories of some of the
spp.) and Rhododendron forests. country’s most valuable forest products,
minerals and other resources that meet the
demands of the rapidly expanding industrial-
Large-scale development projects have also urban economy. These protected areas, thus
contributed significantly to the loss of forests. mean different things to different people, and
Since 1951, over 5,000 sq km of forest was therein lies the fertile ground for conflicts.
cleared for river valley projects. Clearing of
forests is still continuing with projects like the The Himalayan Yew in trouble
Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh,
The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana) is a
which would inundate 40,000 hectares of
medicinal plant found in various parts of
forest. Mining is another important factor
Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh.
behind deforestation. The Buxa Tiger Reserve
A chemical compound called ‘taxol’ is
in West Bengal is seriously threatened by the
extracted from the bark, needles, twigs and
ongoing dolomite mining. It has disturbed the
roots of this tree, and it has been successfully
natural habitat of many species and blocked
used to treat some cancers – the drug is now
the migration route of several others, including
the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the
the great Indian elephant.
world. The species is under great threat due
Many foresters and environmentalists hold
to over-exploitation. In the last one decade,
the view that the greatest degrading factors
thousands of yew trees have dried up in
behind the depletion of forest resources are
various parts of Himachal Pradesh and
grazing and fuel-wood collection. Though, there
Arunachal Pradesh.
may be some substance in their argument, yet,
Tribal girls using bamboo saplings in a

nursery at Mukhali near Slient Valley
Tribal women selling minor forest produce Leaf litter collection by women folk
Fig. 2.3
Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, men. In many societies, women bear the major
over-exploitation, environmental pollution, responsibility of collection of fuel, fodder, water
poisoning and forest fires are factors, which and other basic subsistence needs. As these
have led to the decline in India’s biodiversity. resources are depleted, the drudgery of women
Other important causes of environmental increases and sometimes they have to walk for
destruction are unequal access, inequitable more than 10 km to collect these resources.
consumption of resources and differential This causes serious health problems for women
sharing of responsibility for environmental and negligence of home and children because
well-being. Over-population in third world of the increased hours of work, which often has
countries is often cited as the cause of serious social implications. The indirect impact
environmental degradation. However, an of degradation such as severe drought or
average American consumes 40 times more deforestation-induced floods, etc. also hits the
resources than an average Somalian. Similarly, poor the hardest. Poverty in these cases is a
the richest five per cent of Indian society direct outcome of environmental destruction.
probably cause more ecological damage Therefore, forest and wildlife, are vital to the
because of the amount they consume than the quality of life and environment in the
poorest 25 per cent. The former shares subcontinent. It is imperative to adapt to sound
minimum responsibilities for environmental forest and wildlife conservation strategies.
well-being. The question is: who is consuming
what, from where and how much? Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India
Conservation in the background of rapid
decline in wildlife population and forestry has
Do you know that over half of India’s become essential. But why do we need to
natural forests are gone, one-third of its conserve our forests and wildlife? Conservation
wetlands drained out, 70 per cent of its preserves the ecological diversity and our life
surface water bodies polluted, 40 per cent support systems – water, air and soil. It also
of its mangroves wiped out, and with preserves the genetic diversity of plants and
continued hunting and trade of wild animals for better growth of species and
animals and commercially valuable breeding. For example, in agriculture, we are
plants, thousands of plant and animal still dependent on traditional crop varieties.
species are heading towards extinction? Fisheries too are heavily dependent on the
maintenance of aquatic biodiversity.
In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists
demanded a national wildlife protection
Have you noticed any activity which leads programme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection)
to the loss of biodiversity around you? Write Act was implemented in 1972, with various
a note on it and suggest some measures to provisions for protecting habitats. An all-India
prevent it. list of protected species was also published.
The thrust of the programme was towards
protecting the remaining population of certain
The destruction of forests and wildlife is not endangered species by banning hunting,
just a biological issue. The biological loss is giving legal protection to their habitats, and
strongly correlated with the loss of cultural restricting trade in wildlife. Subsequently,
diversity. Such losses have increasingly central and many state governments
marginalised and impoverished many established national parks and wildlife
indigenous and other forest-dependent sanctuaries about which you have already
communities, who directly depend on various studied. The central government also
components of the forest and wildlife for food, announced several projects for protecting
drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc. specific animals, which were gravely
Within the poor, women are affected more than threatened, including the tiger, the one-
Fig. 2.4: Rhino and deer in Kaziranga National Park
horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or dropped to 3,600. There are 27 tiger
hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh water reserves in India covering an area of
crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the Gharial, 37,761 sq km Tiger conservation has been
the Asiatic lion, and others. Most recently, the viewed not only as an effort to save an
Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), the endangered species, but with equal
great Indian bustard (godawan) and the snow importance as a means of preserving
leopard, etc. have been given full or partial biotypes of sizeable magnitude. Corbett
legal protection against hunting and trade National Park in Uttaranchal, Sunderbans
throughout India. National Park in West Bengal, Bandhavgarh
National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska
Project Tiger Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, Manas
Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger
the faunal web. In 1973, the authorities Reserve in Kerala are some of the tiger
realised that the tiger population had reserves of India.
dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated
55,000 at the turn of the century. The major
The conservation projects are now focusing
threats to tiger population are numerous,
on biodiversity rather than on a few of its
such as poaching for trade, shrinking
components. There is now a more intensive
habitat, depletion of prey base species,
search for different conservation measures.
growing human population, etc. The trade
Increasingly, even insects are beginning to find
of tiger skins and the use of their bones in
a place in conservation planning. In the
traditional medicines, especially in the
notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and
Asian countries left the tiger population on
1986, several hundred butterflies, moths,
the verge of extinction. Since India and
beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to
Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds
the list of protected species. In 1991, for the
of the surviving tiger population in the
first time plants were also added to the list,
world, these two nations became prime
starting with six species.
targets for poaching and illegal trading.
“Project Tiger ”, one of the well-
publicised wildlife campaigns in the world,
was launched in 1973. Initially, it showed Collect more information on the wildlife
success as the tiger population went up to sanctuaries and national parks of India and
4,002 in 1985 and 4,334 in 1989. But in cite their locations on the map of India.
1993, the population of the tiger had

Can you find out the reasons for the above mentioned problems?
Types and Distribution of Forest and (iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other
Wildlife Resources forests and wastelands belonging to
Even if we want to conserve our vast forest and both government and private individuals
wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to and communities.
manage, control and regulate them. In India, Reserved and protected forests are also
much of its forest and wildlife resources are referred to as permanent forest estates
either owned or managed by the government maintained for the purpose of producing
through the Forest Department or other timber and other forest produce, and for
government departments. These are classified protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the
under the following categories. largest area under permanent forests,
constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area.
(i) Reserved Forests: More than half of the
Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,
total forest land has been declared
Uttaranchal, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
reserved forests. Reserved forests are
and Maharashtra have large percentages of
regarded as the most valuable as far as the
reserved forests of its total forest area whereas
conservation of forest and wildlife resources
Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
are concerned.
Orissa and Rajasthan have a bulk of it under
(ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the protected forests. All North-eastern states and
total forest area is protected forest, as declared parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage
by the Forest Department. This forest land are of their forests as un-classed forests managed
protected from any further depletion. by local communities.
Community and Conservation and treated as a part of temple devotees. In
Conservation strategies are not new in our and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan,
country. We often ignore that in India, forests herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai and
are also home to some of the traditional peacocks can be seen as an integral part of
the community and nobody harms them.
communities. In some areas of India, local
communities are struggling to conserve these
habitats along with government officials,
recognising that only this will secure their own Write a short essay on any practices which
long-term livelihood. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, you may have observed and practised in
Rajasthan, villagers have fought against your everyday lives that conserve and protect
mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act. In the environment around you.
many areas, villagers themselves are protecting
habitats and explicitly rejecting government The famous Chipko movement in the
involvement. The inhabitants of five villages in Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared deforestation in several areas but has also shown
1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev that community afforestation with indigenous
Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their own set of species can be enormously successful.
rules and regulations which do not allow Attempts to revive the traditional conservation
hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against methods or developing new methods of
any outside encroachments. ecological farming are now widespread. Farmers
and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao
Sacred groves - a wealth of diverse Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown
and rare species that adequate levels of diversified crop
Nature worship is an age old tribal belief production without the use of synthetic
based on the premise that all creations of chemicals are possible and economically viable.
nature have to be protected. Such beliefs In India joint forest management (JFM)
have preserved several virgin forests in programme furnishes a good example for
pristine form called Sacred Groves (the involving local communities in the
forests of God and Goddesses). These management and restoration of degraded
patches of forest or parts of large forests have forests. The programme has been in formal
been left untouched by the local people and existence since 1988 when the state of Orissa
any interference with them is banned. passed the first resolution for joint forest
Certain societies revere a particular tree management. JFM depends on the formation
which they have preserved from time of local (village) institutions that undertake
immemorial. The Mundas and the Santhal of protection activities mostly on degraded forest
Chhota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia land managed by the forest department. In
latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus return, the members of these communities are
cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Orissa and entitled to intermediary benefits like non-timber
Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus forest produces and share in the timber
indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees harvested by ‘successful protection’.
during weddings. To many of us, peepal and The clear lesson from the dynamics of both
banyan trees are considered sacred. environmental destruction and reconstruction
Indian society comprises several in India is that local communities everywhere
cultures, each with its own set of traditional have to be involved in some kind of natural
methods of conserving nature and its resource management. But there is still a long
creations. Sacred qualities are often way to go before local communities are at the
ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants centre-stage in decision-making. Accept only
and animals which are closely protected. You those economic or developmental activities,
will find troops of macaques and langurs that are people centric, environment-friendly
around many temples. They are fed daily and economically rewarding.

“The tree is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence and
makes no demand for its sustenance, and extends generously the products of its
life activity. It affords protection to all beings, offering shade even to the axemen
who destroy it”.
Gautama Buddha (487 B.C.)
EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

(i) Which of these statements is not a valid reason for the depletion of flora
and fauna?
(a) Agricultural expansion.
(b) Large scale developmental projects.
(c) Grazing and fuel wood collection.
(d) Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation.
(ii) Which of the following conservation strategies do not directly involve
community participation?
(a) Joint forest management (c) Chipko Movement
(b) Beej Bachao Andolan (d) Demarcation of Wildlife sanctuaries
2. Match the following animals with their category of existence.
Animals/Plants Category of existence
Black buck Extinct

Asiatic elephant Rare
Andaman wild pig Endangered
Himalayan brown bear Vulnerable
Pink head duck Endemic
3. Match the following.
Reserved forests other forests and wastelands belonging to both

government and private individuals and
communities
Protected forests forests are regarded as most valuable as far as the
conservation of forest and wildlife resources
Unclassed forests forest lands are protected from any further depletion

(i) What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important for human lives?
(ii) How have human activities affected the depletion of flora and fauna? Explain.

(i) Describe how communities have conserved and protected forests and wildlife
in India?
(ii) Write a note on good practices towards conserving forest and wildlife.
Gender,
Religion and
Caste
Overview
Chapter 4
In the previous chapter we noted that the existence of social diversity
does not threaten democracy. Political expression of social differences
is possible and sometimes quite desirable in a democratic system. In
this chapter we apply these ideas to the practice of democracy in
India. We look at three kinds of social differences that can take the
form of social divisions and inequalities. These are social differences
based on gender, religion and caste. In each case we look at the
nature of this division in India and how it gets expressed in politics.
We also ask whether different expressions based on these differences
are healthy or otherwise in a democracy.
G e n d e r, R e l i g i o n a n d C a s t e
39
Gender and politics
Public/private division
Boys and girls are brought up to believe
that the main responsibility of women is
housework and bringing up children.
This is reflected in a SEXUAL DIVISION OF
LABOUR in most families: women do all
work inside the home such as cooking,
cleaning, washing clothes, tailoring,
looking after children, etc., and men do
all the work outside the home. It is not
that men cannot do housework; they
simply think that it is for women to
© Zuban
attend to these things. When these jobs

are paid for, men are ready to take up
A poster from Bengal affirming women’s these works. Most tailors or cooks in
strength. hotels are men. Similarly, it is not that
women do not work outside their home.
In villages, women fetch water, collect
Let us begin with gender division. This fuel and work in the fields. In urban
Sexual division of labour: is a form of hierarchical social division areas, poor women work as domestic
A system in which all work seen everywhere, but is rarely recognised helper in middle class homes, while
inside the home is either in the study of politics. The gender middle class women work in offices. In
done by the women of the division tends to be understood as natural
family, or organised by fact the majority of women do some
them through the and unchangeable. However, it is not sort of paid work in addition to
domestic helpers. based on biolog y but on social domestic labour. But their work is not
expectations and stereotypes. valued and does not get recognition.
The result of this division of labour
is that although women constitute half
of the humanity, their role in public life,
especially politics, is minimal in most
societies. Earlier, only men were allowed
to participate in public affairs, vote and
Democratic Politics
contest for public offices. Gradually the

gender issue was raised in politics.
Why not? If Women in different parts of the world
Why are we
politics is about organised and agitated for equal rights.
discussing things
power, then There were agitations in different
like household
surely male countries for the extension of voting
work in this
dominance in the rights to women. These agitations
textbook on
household should
Political Science? demanded enhancing the political and
be considered
Is this politics? legal status of women and improving
political.
40
their educational and career question helped to improve women’s
opportunities. More radical women’s role in public life. We now find women
movements aimed at equality in personal working as scientists, doctors, engineers,
and family life as well. These movements lawyers, managers and college and
are called FEMINIST movements. university teachers which were earlier not
Political expression of gender considered suitable for women. In some
division and political mobilisation on this parts of the world, for example in
Feminist: A woman
© Zuban
or a man who
believes in equal rights
Discuss all these perceptions of an ideal woman that prevail in our society. Do you
and opportunities for
agree with any of these? If not, what is your image of an ideal woman? women and men.
41
Scandinavian countries such as Sweden, dominated, PATRIARCHAL society. Women
Norway and Finland, the participation face disadvantage, discrimination and
of women in public life is very high. oppression in various ways:
In our country, women still lag much z The literacy rate among women is
behind men despite some improvement only 54 per cent compared with 76 per
since Independence. Ours is still a male- cent among men. Similarly, a smaller
+ A ‘time use survey’ was conducted in six states of our country. It

shows that an average woman works every day for a little over
seven and half hours while an average man works for six and a
half hours. Yet the work done by men is more visible because
most of their work leads to generation of income. Women also do
a lot of direct income generating work, but the bulk of their work
is household related. This work remains unpaid and invisible.
Daily time use (hours: minutes)
Activities Men Women

Income generating work 6:00 2:40
Household and related work 0:30 5:00
Talking, Gossip 1:25 1:20
No work/ Leisure 3:40 3:50
Sleep, self-care, reading etc. 12:25 11:10
Source: Government of India, Time Use Survey, 1998-99.
You can conduct a similar time use survey in your own household.
Democratic Politics
Observe all the adult male and female members of your family for
one week. Every day note down the number of hours each of
them spends on the following activities: income generating
Patriarchy: Literally, activity (working at the office or shop or factory or field, etc.),
rule by father, this household related activity (cooking, cleaning, washing, fetching
concept is used to refer water, looking after children or elders, etc.), reading and
to a system that values recreation, talking/gossiping, self-care, taking rest or sleeping. If
men more and gives necessary make new categories. Add up the time taken on each
them power over activity for a week and calculate the daily average for each activity
women. for each member. Do women work more in your family as well?
42
proportion of girl students go for higher and therefore often not valued.
studies. When we look at school results, Mummy always
z The Equal Wages Act provides that says to outsiders:
girls perform as well as boys, if not equal wages should be paid to equal “I don’t work. I
better in some places. But they drop out work. However in almost all areas of am a housewife.”
because parents prefer to spend their work, from sports and cinema, to But I see her
resources for their boys’ education rather factories and fields, women are paid less working non-stop
than spending equally on their sons and than men, even when both do exactly all the time. If
daughters. the same work. what she does is
z No wonder the proportion of z In many parts of India parents not work, what
women among the highly paid and prefer to have sons and find ways to else is work?
valued jobs is still very small. On an have the girl child aborted before she is
average an Indian woman works one born. Such sex-selective abortion led to
hour more than an average man every a decline in child sex ratio (number of
day. Yet much of her work is not paid girl children per thousand boys) in the
Can you identify your district on this map?
What is the child sex ratio in it? How is it
different from others with a different colour?
Identify the States where most districts have

child sex ratio below 850.
Compare this map with the poster on the next

page. How do the two of them tell us about the
same issue?
CHILD SEX RATIO
DELHI BELOW 800
800-849
850-899
900-949
950 AND ABOVE
DATA NOT AVAILABLE
NATIONAL AVERAGE 927
Source: UNFP
Map not to scale
43
They are not safe even within their own
home from beating, harrassment and
other forms of domestic violence.
Women’s political
representation
All this is well known. Yet issues related
to women’s well being or otherwise are
not given adequate attention. This has led
many feminists and women’s movements
to the conclusion that unless women
control power, their problems will not
get adequate attention. One way to
ensure this is to have more women as
elected representatives.
© Oxfam GB
In India, the proportion of women

in legislature has been very low. For
example, the percentage of elected
country to merely 927. As the map women members in Lok Sabha has never
shows, this ratio has fallen below 850 or reached even 10 per cent of its total
even 800 in some places. strength. Their share in the state
There are reports of various kinds assemblies is less than 5 per cent. In this
of harassment, exploitation and violence respect, India is among the bottom
against women. Urban areas have group of nations in the world (see the
become particularly unsafe for women. graph below). India is behind the
Women in national parliaments in different

regions of the world (in%)
40
40
World
Average
Democratic Politics
16.8
20.2 19.6
16.5 16.3
Could you think of some 12.3 11.7
reasons why women’s 8.3 8.2
representation is so low
in India? Do you think 0
America’s and Europe Nordic Americas Europe Sub- Asia Pacific South India Arab
countries Saharan Africa Asia States
have achieved a
Region
satisfactory level of Note: Figures are for the per cent of women in the directly elected chambers of parliament in 2006
women’s representation? Source: http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm
44
averages for several developing countries reservation of at least one-third of
of Africa and Latin America. In the seats in the Lok Sabha and State
government, cabinets are largely all-male Assemblies for women. A bill with this
even when a woman becomes the Chief proposal has been pending before the
Minister or the Prime Minister. Parliament for more than a decade. But
One way to solve this problem is to there is no consensus over this among
make it legally binding to have a fair all the political parties. The bill has not
proportion of women in the elected been passed. If casteism and
bodies. This is what the Panchayati Raj Gender division is an example that communalism are
has done in India. One-third of seats in some form of social division needs to bad, what makes
local government bodies – in panchayats be expressed in politics. This also shows feminism a good
thing? Why don’t
and municipalities – are now reserved that disadvantaged groups do benefit
we oppose all
for women. Now there are more than when social divisions become a political
those who divide
10 lakh elected women representatives issue. Do you think that women could
the society on
in rural and urban local bodies. have made the gains we noted above if any lines – caste,
Women’s org anisations and their unequal treatment was not raised religion or
activists have been demanding a similar in the political domain? gender?
© Surender - The Hindu
This cartoon offers an understanding of why the Women’s Reservation Bill has not been passed in the
Parliament. Do you agree with this reading?
45
Religion, communalism and politics
Let us now turn to a very different kind particular religion like Hinduism or Islam
of social division, the division based on but moral values that inform all religions.
religious differences. This division is not He believed that politics must be guided
as universal as gender, but religious by ethics drawn from religion.
diversity is fairly widespread in the world z Human rights groups in our country
today. Many countries including India have argued that most of the victims of
have in their population, followers of communal riots in our country are
different religions. As we noticed in the people from religious minorities. They
case of Northern Ireland, even when have demanded that the government
most of the people belong to the same take special steps to protect religious
Democratic Politics
religion, there can be serious differences minorities.

about the way people practice that z Women’s movement has argued
religion. Unlike gender differences, the that FAMILY LAWS of all religions
religious differences are often expressed discriminate against women. So they
I am not religious. in the field of politics. have demanded that government should
Why should I Consider the following: change these laws to make them more
bother about equitable.
z Gandhiji used to say that religion can
communalism and
never be separated from politics. What All these instances involve a
secularism?
he meant by religion was not any relationship between religion and politics.
46
But they do not seem very wrong or same social community. If the followers
I often crack
dangerous. Ideas, ideals and values of different religion have some
jokes about
drawn from different religions can and commonalities these are superficial and
people from one
perhaps should play a role in politics. immaterial. Their interests are bound to
religion. Does
People should be able to express in be different and involve a conflict. In its
that make me
politics their needs, interests and demands extreme form communalism leads to the communal?
as a member of a religious community. belief that people belonging to different
Those who hold political power should religions cannot live as equal citizens
sometimes be able to regulate the within one nation. Either, one of them
practice of religion so as to prevent has to dominate the rest or they have to
discrimination and oppression. These form different nations.
political acts are not wrong as long as This belief is fundamentally flawed.
they treat every religion equally. People of one religion do not have the
Communalism same interests and aspirations in every
context. Everyone has several other roles,
The problem begins when religion is seen
positions and identities. There are many
as the basis of the nation. The example
voices inside every community. All these
of Northern Ireland in Chapter 3 shows
voices have a right to be heard. Therefore
the dangers of such an approach to
any attempt to bring all followers of one
nationalism. The problem becomes
religion together in context other than
more acute when religion is expressed
religion is bound to suppress many voices
in politics in exclusive and partisan terms,
within that community.
when one religion and its followers are
pitted against another. This happens when Communalism can take various
beliefs of one religion are presented as forms in politics:
superior to those of other religions, z The most common expression of
when the demands of one religious communalism is in everyday beliefs.
group are formed in opposition to These routinely involve religious
another and when state power is used prejudices, stereotypes of religious
to establish domination of one religious communities and belief in the superiority
group over the rest. This manner of of one’s religion over other religions. This
using religion in politics is communal is so common that we often fail to notice
politics. it, even when we believe in it.
Communal politics is based on the z A communal mind often leads to a
idea that religion is the principal basis of quest for political dominance of one’s
social community. Communalism own religious community. For those Family laws: Those
involves thinking along the following belonging to majority community, this laws that deal with
lines. The followers of a particular takes the for m of majoritarian family related matters
religion must belong to one community. dominance. For those belonging to the such as marriage,
Their fundamental interests are the same. minority community, it can take the divorce, adoption,
Any difference that they may have is form of a desire to form a separate inheritance, etc. In our
irrelevant or trivial for community life. political unit. country, different family
It also follows that people who follow laws apply to followers
z Political mobilisation on religious
of different religions.
different religions cannot belong to the lines is another frequent form of
47
We remain strangers
Even after so many meetings
Blood stains remain
Even after so many rains
‘Faiz’
communalism. This involves the use of Secular state

sacred symbols, religious leaders, Communalism was and continues to
emotional appeal and plain fear in order be one of the major challenges to
to bring the followers of one religion democracy in our country. The makers
together in the political arena. In electoral of our Constitution were aware of this
Democratic Politics
politics this often involves special appeal challenge. That is why they chose the
to the interests or emotions of voters model of a secular state. This choice was
of one religion in preference to others. reflected in several constitutional
z Sometimes communalism takes its provisions that we studied last year:
most ugly form of communal violence, z There is no official religion for the
riots and massacre. India and Pakistan Indian state. Unlike the status of
suffered some of the worst communal Buddhism in Sri Lanka, that of Islam in
riots at the time of the Partition. The Pakistan and that of Christianity in
post-Independence period has also seen England, our Constitution does not give
large scale communal violence. a special status to any religion.
48
z The Constitution provides to all
individuals and communities freedom to
profess, practice and propagate any
religion, or not to follow any.
z The Constitution prohibits
discrimination on grounds of religion.
z At the same time the Constitution
allows the state to intervene in the
© Ajith Ninan - The Times of India

matters of religion in order to ensure
equality within religious communities.
For example, it bans untouchability.
Understood in this sense, secularism
is not just an ideology of some parties
or persons. This idea constitutes one of
the foundations of our country.
Communalism should not be seen as a
threat to some people in India. It
threatens the very idea of India. That is
why communalism needs to be
combated. A secular Constitution like
ours is necessary but not sufficient to countered in every day life and religion
combat communalism. Communal based mobilisation needs to be
prejudices and propaganda needs to be countered in the arena of politics.
Caste and politics

We have seen two instances of the this system, hereditary occupational
expression of social divisions in the arena division was sanctioned by rituals.
of politics, one largely positive and the Members of the same caste group were
other largely negative. Let us turn to our supposed to form a social community
final case, that of caste and politics, that that practiced the same or similar
has both positive and the negative aspects. occupation, married within the caste
group and did not eat with members
Caste inequalities from other caste groups.
Unlike gender and religion, caste division Caste system was based on exclusion
is special to India. All societies have some of and discrimination against the
kind of social inequality and some form ‘outcaste’ groups. They were subjected
of division of labour. In most societies, to the inhuman practice of untouchability
occupations are passed on from one about which you have studied in Class
generation to another. Caste system is an IX. That is why political leaders and social
extreme form of this. What makes it reformers like Jotiba Phule, Gandhiji,
different from other societies is that in B.R. Ambedkar and Periyar Ramaswami
49
Social and Religious Diversity of India
The Census of India records the religion of each and every Indian after every ten
years. The person who fills the Census form visits every household and records the
religion of each member of that household exactly the way each person describes it.
If someone says she has ‘no religion’ or that he is an ‘atheist’, this is exactly how it is
recorded. Thus we have reliable information on the proportion of different religious
communities in the country and how it has changed over the years. The pie chart
below presents the population proportion of six major religious groups in the country.
Since Independence, the total population of each group has increased substantially
but their proportion in the country’s population has not changed much. In percentage
terms, the population of the Hindus, Jains and Christians has declined marginally since
1961. The proportion of Muslim, Sikh and Buddhist population has increased slightly.
There is a common but mistaken impression that the proportion of the Muslims in the
country’s population is going to overtake other religious groups. Expert estimates done
for the Prime Minister’s High Level Committee (popularly known as Sachar Committee)
show that the proportion of the Muslims is expected to go up a little, by about 3 to 4
per cent, in the next 50 years. It proves that in overall terms, the population balance
of different religious groups is not likely to change in a big way.
The same is true of the major caste groups. The Census of India counts two social
groups: the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. Both these broad groups
include hundreds of castes or tribes whose names are listed in an official Schedule.
Hence the prefix ‘Scheduled’ in their name. The Scheduled Castes, commonly known
as Dalits, include those that were previously regarded as ‘outcaste’ in the Hindu social
order and were subjected to exclusion and untouchability. The Scheduled Tribes, often
referred to as Adivasis, include those communities that led a secluded life usually in
hills and forests and did not interact much with the rest of society. In 2001, the
Scheduled Castes were 16.2 per
cent and the Scheduled Tribes were
8.2 per cent of the country’s Population of different religious
population. group in India, 2001
The Census does not yet count the
Other Backward Classes, the group Hindu
80.5%
we discussed in class IX. Hence
there are some differences about
Democratic Politics
their proportion in the country’s Muslim

population. The National Sample 13.4%
Survey of 2004-05 estimates their
population to be around 41 per Others 1.9%
cent. Thus the SC, ST and the Christian 2.3%
Others include Buddhist 0.8% Jain 0.4%
OBC together account for about All other religions 0.6% No religion 0.1%
two-thirds of the country’s Sikh 1.9%
Source: Census of India, 2001
population and about three-fourths
of the Hindu population.
50
Naicker advocated and worked to
establish a society in which caste I don’t care what Now you don’t like
inequalities are absent. my caste is. Why it! Didn’t you tell
are we discussing me that wherever
Partly due to their efforts and partly
all this in the there is domination,
due to other socio-economic changes, textbook? Are we we should discuss it
castes and caste system in modern India not promoting in Political Science?
have undergone great changes. With casteism by Will caste disappear
economic development, large scale talking about if we keep mum
URBANISATION, growth of literacy and caste? about it?
education, OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY and
the weakening of the position of
landlords in the villages, the old notions
of CASTE HIERARCHY are breaking down.
Now, most of the times, in urban areas
it does not matter much who is walking
along next to us on a street or eating at
the next table in a restaurant. The
Constitution of India prohibited any be closely linked to economic status.
caste-based discrimination and laid the (See Plus Box on Page 52.)
foundations of policies to reverse the
Caste in politics
injustices of the caste system. If a person
who lived a century ago were to return As in the case of communalism, casteism
to India, she would be greatly surprised is rooted in the belief that caste is the
at the change that has come about in sole basis of social community.
the country. According to this way of thinking,
people belonging to the same caste
Yet caste has not disappeared from
belong to a natural social community and
contemporary India. Some of the older
have the same interests which they do
aspects of caste have persisted. Even
not share with anyone from another caste. Urbanisation: Shift of
now most people marry within their
As we saw in the case of communalism, population from rural
own caste or tribe. Untouchability has
such a belief is not borne out by our areas to urban areas
not ended completely, despite
experience. Caste is one aspect of our Occupational
constitutional prohibition. Effects of mobility: Shift from
experience but it is not the only relevant
centuries of advantages and one occupation to
or the most important aspect.
disadvantages continue to be felt today. another, usually when a
The caste groups that had access to Caste can take various forms in politics: new generation takes up
education under the old system have z When parties choose candidates in occupations other than
done very well in acquiring modern elections, they keep in mind the caste those practiced by their
education as well. Those groups that did composition of the electorate and ancestors.
not have access to education or were nominate candidates from different Caste hierarchy: A
prohibited from acquiring it have naturally castes so as to muster necessary support ladder like formation in
lagged behind. That is why there is a to win elections. When governments are which all the caste
groups are placed from
disproportionately large presence of formed, political parties usually take care
the ‘highest’ to the
‘upper caste’ among the urban middle that representatives of different castes and
‘lowest’ castes.
classes in our country. Caste continues to tribes find a place in it.
51
Caste inequality today
Caste is an important source of economic inequality because it regulates access
to resources of various kinds. For example, in the past, the so-called
‘untouchable’ castes were denied the right to own land, while only the so-called
‘twice born’ castes had the right to education. Although this kind of explicit and
formalised inequality based on caste is now outlawed, the effects of centuries of
accumulated advantages and disadvantages continue to be felt. Moreover, new
kinds of inequalities have also developed.
The relationship between caste and economic status has certainly changed a lot.
Today, it is possible to find very rich and very poor people in every caste,
whether ‘low’ or ‘high’. This was not true even twenty or thirty years ago – it
was very rare indeed to find rich people among the ‘lowest’ castes. However, as
this evidence from the National Sample Survey shows, caste continues to be very
strongly linked to economic status in many important ways:
z The average economic status (measured by criteria like monthly consumption
expenditure) of caste groups still follows the old hierarchy – the ‘upper’ castes
are best off, the Dalits and Adivasis are worst off, and the backward classes are
in between.
z Although every caste has some poor members, the proportion living in
extreme poverty (below the official ‘poverty line’) is much higher for the lowest
castes and much lower for the upper castes, with the backward classes once
again in between.
z Although every caste has some members who are rich, the upper castes are
heavily over-represented among the rich while the lower castes are severely
under-represented.
Percentage of poulation living below the poverty line, 1999-2000

Caste and Community groups Rural Urban
Scheduled Tribes 45.8 35.6
Scheduled Castes 35.9 38.3
Other Backward Classes 27.0 29.5
Muslim Upper Castes 26.8 34.2
Democratic Politics
Hindu Upper Castes 11.7 9.9

Christian Upper Castes 9.6 5.4
Sikh Upper Castes 0.0 4.9
Other Upper Castes 16.0 2.7
All Groups 27.0 23.4
Note: ‘Upper Caste’ here means those who are not from SC, ST, or OBC. Below the poverty line
means those who spent Rs 327 or less per person per month in rural and Rs 454 or less per
person per month in urban areas.
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), Government of India, 55th Round, 1999-2000
52
z Political parties and candidates in Clearly, while caste matters in
elections make appeals to caste sentiment electoral politics, so do many other
to muster support. Some political parties factors. The voters have strong
are known to favour some castes and attachment to political parties which is
are seen as their representatives. often stronger than their attachment to
z Universal adult franchise and the their caste or community. People within
principle of one-person-one-vote the same caste or community have
compelled political leaders to gear up different interests depending on their
to the task of mobilising and securing economic condition. Rich and poor or
political support. It also brought new men and women from the same caste
consciousness among the people of often vote very differently. People’s
castes that were hitherto treated as assessment of the performance of the
inferior and low. government and the popularity rating of
the leaders matter and are often decisive
The focus on caste in politics can
in elections.
sometimes give an impression that
elections are all about caste and nothing Politics in caste
else. That is far from true. Just consider We have so far looked at what caste does
these: to politics. But it does not mean that there
z No parliamentary constituency in is only a one-way relation between caste
the country has a clear majority of one and politics. Politics too influences the
single caste. So, every candidate and party caste system and caste identities by
needs to win the confidence of more bringing them into the political arena.
than one caste and community to win
elections.
z No party wins the votes of all the
voters of a caste or community. When
people say that a caste is a ‘vote bank’
of one party, it usually means that a large
proportion of the voters from that caste
vote for that party.
© Ajith Ninan - India Today Book of Cartoons
z Many political parties may put up

candidates from the same caste (if that
caste is believed to dominate the
electorate in a particular constituency).
Some voters have more than one
candidate from their caste while many
voters have no candidate from their
caste.
z The ruling party and the sitting MP
or MLA frequently lose elections in our
country. That could not have happened
if all castes and communities were Do you think that political leaders are right to treat people belonging
frozen in their political preferences. to a caste as ‘vote banks’?
53
Thus, it is not politics that gets caste-
ridden, it is the caste that gets politicised.
This takes several forms:
z Each caste group tries to become
bigger by incorporating within it
neighbouring castes or sub-castes which
were earlier excluded from it.
z Various caste groups are required to
enter into a coalition with other castes or
communities and thus enter into a
dialogue and negotiation.
z New kinds of caste groups have
come up in the political arena like
‘backward’ and ‘forward’ caste groups.
Thus, caste plays different kinds of
roles in politics. In some situations,
expression of caste differences in politics
gives many disadvantaged communities
the space to demand their share of
power. In this sense-caste politics has
helped people from Dalits and OBC
castes to gain better access to decision
making. Several political and non-political
organisations have been demanding and
agitating for an end to discrimination
against particular castes, for more dignity
and more access to land, resources and
opportunities.
At the same time exclusive attention
to caste can produce negative results as
well. As in the case of religion, politics
based on caste identity alone is not very
healthy in a democracy. It can divert
attention from other pressing issues like
Democratic Politics
poverty, development and corruption. In

some cases caste division leads to
tensions, conflict and even violence.
54
1. Mention different aspects of life in which women are discriminated
or disadvantaged in India.
2. State different forms of communal politics with one example each.
3. State how caste inequalities are still continuing in India.
4. State two reasons to say that caste alone cannot determine
election results in India.
5. What is the status of women’s representation in India’s legislative
bodies?
6. Mention any two constitutional provisions that make India a
secular state.
Exercises
7. When we speak of gender divisions, we usually refer to:
(a) Biological difference between men and women
(b) Unequal roles assigned by the society to men and women
(c) Unequal child sex ratio
(d) Absence of voting rights for women in democracies
8. In India seats are reserved for women in
(a) Lok Sabha
(b) State legislative assemblies
(c) Cabinets
(d) Panchayati Raj bodies
9. Consider the following statements on the meaning of communal
politics. Communal politics is based on the belief that:
A. One religion is superior to that of others.
B. People belonging to different religions can live together happily
as equal citizens.
C. Followers of a particular religion constitute one community.
D. State power cannot be used to establish the domination of
one religious group over others.
Which of the statements is/are correct?
(a) A, B, C, and D (b) A, B, and D (c) A and C (d) B and D
10. Which among the following statements about India’s Constitution
is wrong? It
(a) prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.
(b) gives official status to one religion.
(c) provides to all individuals freedom to profess any religion.
(d) ensures equality of citizens within religious communities.
11. Social divisions based on _________ are peculiar to India.
55
12. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the Lists:
List I List II
1. A person who believes in equal rights
and opportunities for women and men A. Communalist
2. A person who says that religion is the
principal basis of community B. Feminist
3. A person who thinks that caste is the
principal basis of community C. Secularist
4. A person who does not discriminate
Exercises
others on the basis of religious beliefs D. Castiest
1 2 3 4
(a) B C A D
(b) B A D C
(c) D C A B
(d) C A B D
Democratic Politics
56
We use different materials and services in our expanded far and wide. Today, the world has
daily life. Some of these are available in our been converted into a large village with the help
immediate surroundings, while other of efficient and fast moving transport.
requirements are met by bringing things from Transport has been able to achieve this with
other places. Goods and services do not move the help of equally developed communication
from supply locales to demand locales on their system. Therefore, transport, communication
own. The movement of these goods and services and trade are complementary to each other.
from their supply locations to demand locations Today, India is well-linked with the rest of
necessitates the need for transport. Some people the world despite its vast size, diversity and
are engaged in facilitating these movements. linguistic and socio-cultural plurality.
These are known to be traders who make the Railways, airways, water ways, newspapers,
products come to the consumers by radio, television, cinema and internet, etc. have
transportation. Thus, the pace of development been contributing to its socio-economic
of a country depends upon the production of progress in many ways. The trades from local
goods and services as well as their movement to international levels have added to the vitality
over space. Therefore, efficient means of transport of its economy. It has enriched our life and
are pre-requisites for fast development. added substantially to growing amenities and
Movement of these goods and services can be facilities for the comforts of life.
over three important domains of our earth i.e. land, In this chapter, you will see how modern
water and air. Based on these, transport can also means of transport and communication serve
be classified into land, water and air transport. as life lines of our nation and its modern
Fig. 7.1
For a long time, trade and transport were economy. It is thus, evident that a dense and
restricted to a limited space. With the efficient network of transport and
development in science and technology, the communication is a pre-requisite for local,
area of influence of trade and transport national and global trade of today.
TRANSPORT Shah Suri Marg is called National Highway
No.1, between Delhi and Amritsar.
Roadways
India has one of the largest road networks in
the world, aggregating to about 2.3 million km
at present. In India, roadways have preceded
railways. They still have an edge over railways
in view of the ease with which they can be built
and maintained. The growing importance of
road transport vis-à-vis rail transport is rooted
in the following reasons; (a) construction cost of
roads is much lower than that of railway lines,
(b) roads can traverse comparatively more
dissected and undulating topography, (c) roads
can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as
such can traverse mountains such as the Fig.7.2: Ahmedabad- Vadodara Expressway
Himalayas, (d) road transport is economical in
transportation of few persons and relatively
Find out places linked by the National
smaller amount of goods over short distances,
Highway 2 and 3.
(e) it also provides door-to-door service, thus
the cost of loading and unloading is much lower,
(f) road transport is also used as a feeder to other
modes of transport such as they provide a link Do you know that National Highway-7
between railway stations, air and sea ports. is the longest and traverses 2, 369 km
In India, roads are classified in the following between Varanasi and Kanyakumari
six classes according to their capacity. Look at via Jabalpur, Nagpur, Hyderabad,
the map of the National Highways and find out Bangalore and Madurai. Delhi and
about the significant role played by these roads. Mumbai are connected by National
• Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways: Highway-8, while National Highway-15
The government has launched a major road covers most of Rajasthan.
development project linking Delhi-Kolkata-
Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane • State Highways: Roads linking a state
Super Highways. The North-South corridors capital with different district headquarters
linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and are known as State Highways. These roads
Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu), and East-West are constructed and maintained by the State
Corridor connecting Silcher (Assam) and Public Works Department (PWD) in State
Porbander (Gujarat) are part of this project. and Union Territories.
The major objective of these Super Highways • District Roads: These roads connect the
is to reduce the time and distance between district headquarters with other places of the
the mega cities of India. These highway district. These roads are maintained by the
projects are being implemented by the Zila Parishad.
National Highway Authority of India (NHAI). • Other Roads: Rural roads, which link rural
• National Highways: National Highways areas and villages with towns, are classified
link extreme parts of the country. These are under this category. These roads received
the primary road systems and are laid and special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri
maintained by the Central Public Works Grameen Sadak Yojana. Under this scheme
Department (CPWD). A number of major special provisions are made so that every village
National Highways run in North-South and in the country is linked to a major town in the
East-West directions. The historical Sher- country by an all season motorable road.
India: National Highways
LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 83

• Border Roads: Apart from these, Border concrete or even bitumen of coal, therefore,
Roads Organisation a Government of India these are all weather roads. Unmetalled roads
undertaking constructs and maintains go out of use in the rainy season.
roads in the bordering areas of the country.
This organisation was established in 1960 Road Density
for the development of the roads of strategic The length of road per 100 sq. km of area
importance in the northern and north- is known as density of roads. Distribution
eastern border areas. These roads have of road is not uniform in the country.
improved accessibility in areas of difficult Density of all roads varies from only 10 km
terrain and have helped in the economic in Jammu & Kashmir to 375 km in Kerala
development of these area. with the national average of 75 km
(1996-97). Road transportation in India
faces a number of problems. Keeping in view
the volume of traffic and passengers, the
road network is inadequate. About half of
the roads are unmettaled and this limits
their usage during the rainy season. The
National Highways are inadequate too.
Moreover, the roadways are highly congested
in cities and most of the bridges and culverts
are old and narrow.
Railways
Railways are the principal mode of
transportation for freight and passengers in
India. Railways also make it possible to
Fig. 7.3: Hilly Tracts
conduct multifarious activities like business,
sightseeing, pilgrimage along with
transportation of goods over longer distances.
Apart from an important means of transport
the Indian Railways have been a great
integrating force for more than 150 years.
Railways in India bind the economic life of
the country as well as accelerate the
development of the industry and agriculture.
The Indian Railway have a network of 7, 031
stations spread over a route length of 63, 221
km. with a fleet of 7817 locomotives, 5321
passenger service vehicles, 4904 other coach
vehicles and 228, 170 wagons as on 31
March 2004.
Fig. 7.4: Traffic on north-eastern border road
(Arunachal Pradesh)
The Indian Railways is the largest public

Roads can also be classified on the basis of
sector undertaking in the country. The first
the type of material used for their construction
train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane in
such as metalled and unmetalled roads.
1853, covering a distance of 34 km.
Metalled roads may be made of cement,
Table 7.1: India: Railway Track
The Indian Railway network runs on multiple gauge operations
extending over 63,221 route km
Gauge in metres Route (Km) Running Track(Km) Total Track (Km.)
Broad Gauge (1. 676) 46, 807 66, 754 88, 547
Metro Gauge (1.000) 13, 209 13, 976 16, 489
Narrow Gauge (0.762 & 0.610) 3, 124 3, 129 3, 450
Total 63, 221 83, 859 1, 08, 486

Source: India Yearbook 2006
The Indian Railway is now reorganised into Today, the railways have become more
16 zones. important in our national economy than all
other means of transport put together. However,
rail transport suffers from certain problems as
Find out the current Railway zones and their well. Many passengers travel without tickets.
headquarters. Also locate the headquarters Thefts and damaging of railway property has
of Railway zones on the map of India. not yet stopped completely. People stop the
trains, pull the chain unnecessarily and this
The distribution pattern of the Railway causes heavy damage to the railway. Think
network in the country has been largely over it, how we can help our railway in running
influenced by physiographic, economic and as per the scheduled time?
administrative factors. The northern plains with Pipelines
their vast level land, high population density
and rich agricultural resources provided the Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on
most favourable condition for their growth. the transportation map of India. In the past,
However, a large number of rivers requiring these were used to transport water to cities and
construction of bridges across their wide beds industries. Now, these are used for
posed some obstacles. In the hilly terrains of transporting crude oil, petroleum products and
the peninsular region, railway tracts are laid natural gas from oil and natural gas fields to
through low hills, gaps or tunnels. The refineries, fertilizer factories and big thermal
Himalayan mountainous regions too are power plants. Solids can also be transported
unfavourable for the construction of railway through a pipeline when converted into slurry.
lines due to high relief, sparse population and The far inland locations of refineries like
lack of economic opportunities. Likewise, it was Barauni, Mathura, Panipat and gas based
difficult to lay railway lines on the sandy plain fertilizer plants could be thought of only
of western Rajasthan, swamps of Gujarat, because of pipelines. Initial cost of laying
forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh, pipelines is high but subsequent running
Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Jharkhand. The costs are minimal. It rules out trans-shipment
contiguous stretch of Sahyadri could be crossed losses or delays.
only through gaps or passes (Ghats). In recent There are three important networks of
times, the development of the Konkan railway pipeline transportation in the country.
along the west coast has facilitated the • From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur
movement of passengers and goods in this most (Uttar Pradesh), via Guwahati, Barauni and
important economic region of India. It has also Allahabad. It has branches from Barauni to
faced a number of problem such as sinking of Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to
track in some stretches and land slides. Maurigram and Guwahati to Siliguri.

India: Railways
• From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Apart from these, India’s trade with foreign
Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and countries is carried from the ports located along
Sonipat. It has branches to connect Koyali the coast. 95 per cent of the country’s trade
(near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and volume (68 per cent in terms of value) is moved
other places. by sea.
• Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat
Major Sea Ports
connects Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh, via
Vijaipur in Madhya Pradesh. It has branches With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is
to Kota in Rajasthan, Shahajahanpur, dotted with 12 major and 181 medium and
Babrala and other places in Uttar Pradesh. minor ports. These major ports handle 95 per
cent of India’s foreign trade.
Waterways Kandla in Kuchchh was the first port
Since time immemorial, India was one of the developed soon after Independence to ease the
seafaring countries. Its seamen sailed far and volume of trade on the Mumbai port, in the
near, thus, carrying and spreading Indian wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan after
commerce and culture. Waterways are the the Partition. Kandla is a tidal port. It caters to
cheapest means of transport. They are most the convenient handling of exports and imports
suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods. of highly productive granary and industrial belt
It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly stretching across the states of Jammu and
mode of transport. India has inland navigation Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
waterways of 14,500 km in length. Out of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
these only 3,700 km are navigable by Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious
mechanised boats. The following waterways natural and well-sheltered harbour. The
have been declared as the National Waterways Jawaharlal Nehru port was planned with a view
by the Government. to decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a
Fig. 7.5: Inland waterways widely used in

north-eastern states
Fig. 7.6: Trucks being driven into the vessel at
• The Ganga river between Allahabad and Mumbai port
Haldia (1620 km)-N.W. No.1
• The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and hub port for this region. Marmagao port (Goa)
Dhubri (891 km)-N.W. No.2 is the premier iron ore exporting port of the
• The West-Coast Canal in Kerala country. This port accounts for about fifty per
(Kottapurma-Komman, Udyogamandal and cent of India’s iron ore export. New Mangalore
Champakkara canals-205 km) – N.W. No.3 port, located in Karnataka caters to the export
The other viable inland waterways include of iron ore concentrates from Kudremukh
the Godavari, Krishna, Barak, Sunderbans, mines. Kochi is the extreme south-western
Buckingham Canal, Brahmani, East-west port, located at the entrance of a lagoon with a
Canal and Damodar Valley Corporation Canal. natural harbour.
It can cover very difficult terrains like high
mountains, dreary deserts, dense forests and
also long oceanic stretches with great ease.
Think of the north-eastern part of the country,
marked with the presence of big rivers,
dissected relief, dense forests and frequent
floods and international frontiers, etc. in the
absence of air transport. Air travel has made
access easier.
Fig. 7.7: Tanker discharging crude oil at New
Mangalore port
Moving along the east coast, you would see

the extreme south-eastern port of Tuticorin, in
Tamil Nadu. This port has a natural harbour
and rich hinterland. Thus, it has a flourishing
trade handling of a large variety of cargoes to
even our neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka,
Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions of India.
Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of
the country. It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms
of the volume of trade and cargo.
Vishakhapatnam is the deepest landlocked and
well-protected port. This port was, originally,
conceived as an outlet for iron ore exports.
Why is air travel preferred in the north-
Paradip port located in Orissa, specialises in the eastern states?
export of iron ore. Kolkata is an inland riverine Fig. 7.9
port. This port serves a very large and rich
hinterland of Ganga- Brahmaputra basin. Being The air transport was nationalised in 1953.
a tidal port, it requires constant dredging of On the operational side, Indian Airlines,
Hoogly. Haldia port was developed as a Alliance Air (subsidiary of Indian Airlines),
subsidiary port, in order to relieve growing private scheduled airlines and non- scheduled
pressure on the Kolkata port. operators provide domestic air services. Air
India provides international air services.
Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. provides
helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas
Commission in its off- shore operations, to
inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the
north-eastern states and the interior parts of
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttaranchal. Indian Airlines operations also
extend to the neighbouring countries of South
and south-east Asia and the Middle east.
Find out the names of the countries connected
Fig. 7.8: Handling of oversize cargo at Tuticorin port by Indian Airlines.
Air travel is not within the reach of the
Airways common people. It is only in the north-eastern
The air travel, today, is the fastest, most states that special provisions are made to
comfortable and prestigious mode of transport. extend the services to the common people.
India: Major Ports and International Airports

Communication order to strengthen the flow of information
Ever since humans appeared on the earth, they from the grassroot to the higher level, the
have used different means of communication. government has made special provision to
But, the pace of change, has been rapid in extend twenty-four hours STD facility to
modern times. Long distance communication every village in the country. There is a uniform
is far easier without physical movement of the rate of STD facilities all over India. It has
communicator or receiver. Personal been made possible by integrating the
communication and mass communication development in space technology with
including television, radio, press, films, etc. are communication technology.
the major means of communication in the Mass communication provides
country. The Indian postal network is the largest entertainment and creates awareness among
in the world. It handles parcels as well as people about various national programmes and
personal written communications. Cards and policies. It includes radio, television,
envelopes are considered first–class mail and newspapers, magazines, books and films. All
are airlifted between stations covering both land India Radio (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety
and air. The second–class mail includes book of programmes in national, regional and local
packets, registered newspapers and periodicals. languages for various categories of people,
They are carried by surface mail, covering land spread over different parts of the country.
and water transport. To facilitate quick delivery Doordarshan, the national television channel of
of mails in large towns and cities, six mail India, is one of the largest terrestrial networks
channels have been introduced recently. They in the world. It broadcasts a variety of
are called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, programmes from entertainment, educational
Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail to sports, etc. for people of different age groups.
Channel and Periodical Channel. India publishes a large number of
newspapers and periodicals annually. They are
of different types depending upon their
In comparison with the other country, periodicity. Newspapers are published in
India has about 37,565 telephone about 100 languages and dialects. Did you
exchanges spread all over in the country. know that the largest number of newspapers
Make a comparison with any other published in the country are in Hindi, followed
country of your choice. by English and Urdu? India is the largest
producer of feature films in the world. It
produces short films; video feature films and
video short films. The Central Board of Film
Certification is the authority to certify both
Indian and foreign films.
International Trade
The exchange of goods among people, states
and countries is referred to as trade. The market
is the place where such exchanges take place.
T rade between two countries is called
international trade. It may take place through
sea, air or land routes. While local trade is
Fig.7.10 : Emergency call box on NH-8
carried in cities, towns and villages, state level
India has one of the largest telecom trade is carried between two or more states.
networks in Asia. Excluding urban places Advancement of international trade of a
more than two-thirds of the villages in India country is an index to its economic prosperity.
have already been covered with Subscriber It is, therefore, considered the economic
Trunk Dialling (STD) telephone facility. In barometer for a country.
As the resources are space bound, no coal, coke and briquettes (94.17 per cent),
country can survive without international machinery (12.56 per cent). Bulk imports as a
trade. Export and import are the components group registered a growth accounting for 39.09
of trade. The balance of trade of a country is per cent of total imports. This group includes
the difference between its export and import. fertilizers (67.01 per cent), cereals (25.23 per
When the value of export exceeds the value of cent), edible oils (7.94 per cent) and newsprint
imports, it is called a favourable balance of (5.51 per cent). International trade has under
trade. On the contrary, if the value of imports gone a sea change in the last fifteen years.
exceeds the value of exports, it is termed as Exchange of commodities and goods have been
unfavourable balance of trade. superseded by the exchange of information and
India has trade relations with all the major knowledge. India has emerged as a software
trading blocks and all geographical regions of giant at the international level and it is earning
the world. Among the commodities of export, large foreign exchange through the export of
whose share has been increasing over the last information technology.
few years till 2004-05 are agriculture and allied
products (2.53 per cent), ores and minerals Tourism as a Trade
(9.12 per cent), gems and jewellery (26.75 per Tourism in India has grown substantially over
cent) and chemical and allied products (24.45 the last three decades. Foreign tourist’s arrivals
per cent), engineering goods( 35.63 per cent) in the country witnessed an increase of 23.5
and petroleum products (86.12 per cent) per cent during the year 2004 as against the
The commodities imported to India include year 2003, thus contributing Rs 21,828 crore
petroleum and petroleum products (41.87 per of foreign exchange.
cent), pearls and precious stones (29.26 per Over 2.6 million foreign tourists visit India
cent), inorganic chemicals (29.39 per cent), every year. More than 15 million people are
Prepare a project on the heritage tourism in India

directly engaged in the tourism industry. Rajasthan, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir and
Tourism also promotes national integration, temple towns of south India are important
provides support to local handicrafts and destinations of foregin tourists in India. There
cultural pursuits. It also helps in the is vast potential of tourism development in the
development of international understanding north-eastern states and the interior parts of
about our culture and heritage. Foreign Himalayas, but due to strategic reasons these
tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco have not been encouraged so far. However,
tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism, there lies a bright future ahead for this
medical tourism and business tourism. upcoming industry.

(i) Which two of the following extreme locations are connected by the east-
west corridor?
(a) Mumbai and Nagpur (c) Mumbai and Kolkata
(b) Silcher and Porbandar (d) Nagpur and Siligudi
(ii) Which mode of transportation reduces trans-shipment losses and delays?
(a) Railways (c) Pipeline
(b) Roadways (d) Waterways
(iii) Which one of the following states is not connected with the H.V.J. pipeline?
(a) Madhya Pradesh (c) Gujarat
(b) Maharashtra (d) Uttar Pradesh
(iv) Which one of the following ports is the deepest land-locked and well-
protected port along the east coast?
(a) Chennai (c) Tuticorin
(b) Paradip (d) Vishakhapatnam
(v) Which one of the following is the most important modes of transportation
in India?
(a) Pipeline (c) Roadways
(b) Railways (d) Airways
(vi) Which one of the following terms is used to describe trade between two or
more countries?
(a) Internal trade (c) External trade
(b) International trade (d) Local trade

(i) State any three merits of roadways.
(ii) Where and why is rail transport the most convenient means of
transportation?
(iii) What is the significance of the border roads?
(iv) What is meant by trade? What is the difference between international
and local trade?
(i) Why are the means of transportation and communication called the lifelines
of a nation and its economy?
(ii) Write a note on the changing nature of the international trade in the last
fifteen years.
QUIZ DRIVE
1. Northern terminal of the North-south corridor.
2. The name of National Highway No.2.
3. The headquarter of the southern railway zone.
4. The rail gauge with a track width of 1.676 m.
5. The southern terminal of the National Highway No.7.
6. A Riverine Port.
7. Busiest railway junction in Northern India.
A CTIVITY
Start your search vertically, horizontally or diagonally and reach various
destinations across the country!
S H E R S H A H S U R I M A R G
A R T P R N X E L A T A D L A Y
J M M X I P O R A Y M P G H T X
Y C H E N N N A I I K M C A I M
O D C D A L M C S O T P O R C P
A P T R G S K J M J L E A N E R
R A E T A J P O R M W M A S X O
I L S B R O A D G A U G E L O T
A S N L C M E C U K Z M A A J E
L M U G H A L S A R A I B S N A
G O E T V R A Y F T O R E A J M
K Q A I P M N Y R Y A Y H L I N
Q K O L K A T A E U I T W B E A
N I T N K D E M O U R P N P J D

On the occassion of Diwali, Harish went to IMPORTANCE OF MANUFACTURING
a market with his parents. They purchased
Manufacturing sector is considered the backbone
shoes and clothes for him. His mother
of development in general and economic
purchased utensils, sugar, tea and diyas
development in particular mainly because–
(earthen lamps). Harish observed that the
shops in the market were flooded with • Manufacturing industries not only help in
items for sale. He wondered how so many modernising agriculture, which forms the
items could be made in such large backbone of our economy, they also reduce
quantities. His father explained that shoes, the heavy dependence of people on
clothes, sugar etc. are manufactured by agricultural income by providing them jobs
machines in large industries, some utensils in secondary and tertiary sectors.
are manufactured in small industries, while • Industrial development is a precondition for
items like diyas are made by individual eradication of unemployment and poverty
artisans in household industry. from our country. This was the main
philosophy behind public sector industries
Do you have some ideas about these
industries?
and joint sector ventures in India. It was also
aimed at bringing down regional disparities
by establishing industries in tribal and
backward areas.
Production of goods in large quantities after
• Export of manufactured goods expands
processing from raw materials to more
trade and commerce, and brings in much
valuable products is called manufacturing. Do
needed foreign exchange.
you know that paper is manufactured from
wood, sugar from sugarcane, iron and steel • Countries that transform their raw
from iron ore and aluminium from bauxite? materials into a wide variety of furnished
Do you also know that some types of clothes goods of higher value are prosperous.
are manufactured from yarn which itself is an India’s prosperity lies in increasing and
industrial product? diversifying its manufacturing industries as
People employed in the secondary activities quickly as possible.
manufacture the primary materials into Agriculture and industry are not exclusive
finished goods. The workers employed in steel of each other. They move hand in hand. For
factories, car, breweries, textile industries, instance, the agro-industries in India have given
bakeries etc. fall into this category. Some people a major boost to agriculture by raising its
are employed in providing services. In this productivity. They depend on the latter for raw
chapter, we are mainly concerned with materials and sell their products such as
manufacturing industries which fall in the irrigation pumps, fertilisers, insecticides,
secondary sector. pesticides, plastic and PVC pipes, machines and
The economic strength of a country is tools, etc. to the farmers. Thus, development and
measured by the development of competitiveness of manufacturing industry has
manufacturing industries. not only assisted agriculturists in increasing
their production but also made the production tend to come together to make use of the
processes very efficient. advantages offered by the urban centres known
In the present day world of globalisation, as agglomeration economies. Gradually, a
our industry needs to be more efficient and large industrial agglomeration takes place.
competitive. Self-sufficiency alone is not In the pre-Independence period, most
enough. Our manufactured goods must be at manufacturing units were located in places
par in quality with those in the international from the point of view of overseas trade such as
market. Only then, will we be able to compete Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, etc. Consequently,
in the international market. there emerged certain pockets of industrially
developed urban centres surrounded by a huge
Contribution of Industry to National agricultural rural hinterland.
Economy
Over the last two decades, the share of Industry – Market Linkage
manufacturing sector has stagnated at 17 per
cent of GDP – out of a total of 27 per cent for
the industry which includes 10 per cent for
mining, quarrying, electricity and gas.
This is much lower in comparison to some
East Asian economies, where it is 25 to 35 per
cent. The trend of growth rate in manufacturing
over the last decade has been around 7 per
cent per annum. The desired growth rate over
the next decade is 12 per cent. Since 2003,
manufacturing is once again growing at the
rate of 9 to 10 per cent per annum. With
appropriate policy interventions by the
government and renewed efforts by the
industry to improve productivity, economists
predict that manufacturing can achieve its
target over the next decade. The National
Manufacturing Competitiveness Council
(NMCC) has been set up with this objective. Fig. 6.1
Industrial Location The key to decision of the factory location

is the least cost. Government policies and
Industrial locations are complex in nature.
specialised labour also influence the location
These are influenced by availability of raw
of industry.
material, labour, capital, power and market,
etc. It is rarely possible to find all these factors
available at one place. Consequently,
manufacturing activity tends to locate at the
most appropriate place where all the factors of
industrial location are either available or can
be arranged at lower cost. After an industrial
activity starts, urbanisation follows. Sometimes,
industries are located in or near the cities.
Thus, industrialisation and urbanisation go
hand in hand. Cities provide markets and also
provide services such as banking, insurance,
transport, labour, consultants and financial
advice, etc. to the industry. Many industries Fig. 6.2
by the state and individuals or a group of
Classification of Industries
individuals. Oil India Ltd. (OIL) is jointly
List the various manufactured products you owned by public and private sector.
use in your daily life such as – transistors,
• Cooperative sector industries are owned
electric bulbs, vegetable oil, cement,
and operated by the producers or
glassware, petrol, matches, scooters,
suppliers of raw materials, workers or
automobiles, medicines and so on. If we
both. They pool in the resources and share
classify the various industries based on a
the profits or losses proportionately such
particular criterion then we would be able
as the sugar industry in Maharashtra, the
to understand their manufacturing better.
coir industry in Kerala.
Industries may be classified as follows:
Based on the bulk and weight of raw material
On the basis of source of raw materials
and finished goods:
used:
• Heavy industries such as iron and steel
• Agro based: cotton, woollen, jute, silk
textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee, • Light industries that use light raw
edible oil. materials and produce light goods such
as electrical industries.
• Mineral based: iron and steel, cement,
aluminium, machine tools,
petrochemicals.
According to their main role:

Classify the following into two groups on the
• Basic or key industries which supply their
basis of bulk and weight of raw material and
products or raw materials to manufacture
finished goods.
other goods e.g. iron and steel and copper
smelting, aluminum smelting. (i) Oil (vi) Sewing Machines
• Consumer industries that produce goods (ii) Knitting needles (vii) Shipbuilding
for direct use by consumers – sugar, (iii) Brassware (viii) Electric Bulbs
toothpaste, paper, sewing machines, (iv) Fuse wires (ix) Paint brushes
fans etc.
(v) Watches (x) Automobiles
On the basis of capital investment:
• A small scale industry is defined with Agro Based Industries
reference to the maximum investment
allowed on the assets of a unit. This limit Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and
has changed over a period of time. At edible oil, etc. industry are based on
present the maximum investment allowed agricultural raw materials.
is rupees one crore. If investment is more Textile Industry: The textile industry
than one crore on any industry then it is occupies unique position in the Indian
known as a large scale industry. economy, because it contributes significantly
to industrial production (14 per cent),
On the basis of ownership:
employment generation (35 million persons
• Public sector, owned and operated by directly – the second largest after agriculture)
government agencies – BHEL, SAIL etc. and foreign exchange earnings (about 24.6
• Private sector industries owned and per cent). It contributes 4 per cent towards
operated by individuals or a group of GDP. It is the only industry in the country,
individuals –TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd., which is self-reliant and complete in the value
Dabur Industries. chain i.e., from raw material to the highest
• Joint sector industries which are jointly run value added products.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 67
Fig. 6.3: Value addition in the textile industry
Cotton Textiles: In ancient India, cotton While spinning continues to be centralised

textiles were produced with hand spinning in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu,
and handloom weaving techniques. After the weaving is highly decentralised to provide
18th century, power -looms came into use. scope for incorporating traditional skills and
Our traditional industries suffered a setback designs of weaving in cotton, silk, zari,
during the colonial period because they embroidery, etc. India has world class
could not compete with the mill-made cloth production in spinning, but weaving supplies
from England. low quality of fabric as it cannot use much of
the high quality yarn produced in the country.
Weaving is done by handloom, powerloom and
• The first successful textile mill was
in mills.
established in Mumbai in 1854.
The handspun khadi provides large scale
• The two world wars were fought in Europe, employment to weavers in their homes as a
India was a British colony. There was a cottage industry.
demand for cloth in U.K. hence, they gave
a boost to the development of the cotton Why did Mahatma Gandhi lay emphasis on
spinning yarn and weaving khadi?
textile industry.
Table 5.1: Production of Fabric in India
by various sectors
Today, there are nearly 1600 cotton and
human made fibre textile mills in the country. Sector Share of Loomage
About 80 per cent of these are in the private Production
sector and the rest in the public and Mills 6.00 per cent 1.33 lakh
cooperative sectors. Apart from these, there
Power loom 54.17 per cent 14 lakh
are several thousand small factories with four
to ten looms. Hand loom 23.000 per cent NA
In the early years, the cotton textile
industry was concentrated in the cotton Note: 90 per cent of the weaving, cutting and
processing is in decentralised sector.
growing belt of Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Availability of raw cotton, market, transport
including accessible port facilities, labour, Study the figures above and note the share
moist climate, etc. contributed towards its of mills in the production of fabric.
localisation. This industry has close links
Why is it important for our country to keep
with agriculture and provides a living to
the mill sector loomage lower than power
farmers, cotton boll pluckers and workers
loom and handloom?
engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving,
dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and India exports yarn to Japan. Other
sewing. The industry by creating demands importers of cotton goods from India are
supports many other industries, such as, U.S.A., U.K., Russia, France, East European
chemicals and dyes, mill stores, packaging countries, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and
materials and engineering works. African countries.
India: Distribution of cotton, woollen and silk industries
India has the second largest installed Hugli river, in a narrow belt (98 km long and
capacity of spindles in the world, next to China, 3 km wide).
at around 34 million (2003-04). Since the mid-
eighties, the spinning sector has received a lot The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in
of attention. 1859 at Rishra. After Partition in 1947, the
We have a large share in the world trade jute mills remained in India but three-fourth
of cotton yarn, accounting for one fourth of of the jute producing area went to
the total trade. However, our trade in Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan).
garments is only 4 per cent of the world’s
total. Our spinning mills are competitive at Factors responsible for their location in
the global level and capable of using all the the Hugli basin are: proximity of the jute
fibres we produce. The weaving, knitting and producing areas, inexpensive water
processing units cannot use much of the high transport, supported by a good network of
quality yarn that is produced in the country. railways, roadways and waterways to
There are some large and modern factories facilitate movement of raw material to the
in these segments, but most of the mills, abundant water for processing raw
production is in fragmented small units, jute, cheap labour from West Bengal and
which cater to the local market. This adjoining states of Bihar, Orissa and Uttar
mismatch is a major drawback for the Pradesh. Kolkata as a large urban centre
industry. As a result, many of our spinners provides banking, insurance and port
export cotton yarn while apparel/garment facilities for export of jute goods.
manufactures have to import fabric. The jute industry supports 2.61 lakh
workers directly and another 40 lakhs small
and marginal farmers who are engaged in
Yarn is sold at Rs. 85 per kg. If it is sold as a
cultivation of jute and mesta. Many more
trouser it fetches Rs 800 per kg. Value is
people are associated indirectly.
added at every stage from fibre to yarn to Challenges faced by the industry include
fabric and to garment. stiff competition in the international market from
synthetic substitutes and from other
Why is it important for us to improve our competitors like Bangladesh, Brazil,
weaving sector instead of exporting yarn in Philippines, Egypt and Thailand. However, the
large quantities? internal demand has been on the increase due
to the Government policy of mandatory use of
Although, we have made significant
jute packaging. To stimulate demand, the
increase in the production of good quality long
products need to be diversified. In 2005,
staple cotton (9232 lakh bales in 2004-05),
National Jute Policy was formulated with the
the need to import is still felt. Power supply is objective of increasing productivity, improving
erratic and machinery needs to be upgraded quality, ensuring good prices to the jute farmers
in the weaving and processing sectors in and enhancing the yield per hectare. The main
particular. Other problems are the low output markets are U.S.A., Canada, Russia, United
of labour and stiff competition with the Arab Republic, U.K. and Australia. The growing
synthetic fibre industry. global concern for environment friendly,
biodegradable materials, has once again opened
Jute Textiles
the opportunity for jute products.
India is the largest producer of raw jute and
jute goods and stands at second place as an Sugar Industry
exporter after Bangladesh. There are about 70 India stands second as a world producer of
jute mills in India. Most of these are located in sugar but occupies the first place in the
West Bengal, mainly along the banks of the production of gur and khandsari. The raw
material used in this industry is bulky, and Iron and Steel Industry
in haulage its sucrose content reduces. Where The iron and steel Industry is the basic
should the mills be ideally located? There are industry since all the other industries — heavy,
over 460 sugar mills in the country spread medium and light, depend on it for their
over Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, machinery. Steel is needed to manufacture a
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and variety of engineering goods, construction
Gujarat along with Punjab, Haryana and material, defence, medical, telephonic, scientific
Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills are in equipment and a variety of consumer goods.
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. This industry is
seasonal in nature so, it is ideally suited to
Make a list of all such goods made of steel
the cooperative sector. Can you explain why
that you can think of.
this is so?
In recent years, there is a tendency for the Production and consumption of steel is often
mills to shift and concentrate in the southern regarded as the index of a country’s
and western states, especially in Maharashtra, development. Iron and steel is a heavy industry
This is because the cane produced here has a because all the raw materials as well as finished
higher sucrose content. The cooler climate goods are heavy and bulky entailing heavy
also ensures a longer crushing season. transportation costs. Iron ore, coking coal and
Moreover, the cooperatives ar e more lime stone are required in the ratio of
successful in these states. approximately 4 : 2 : 1. Some quantities of
Major challenges include the seasonal manganese, are also required to harden the steel.
nature of the industry, old and inefficient Where should the steel plants be ideally
methods of production, transport delay in located? Remember that the finished products
reaching cane to factories and the need to also need an efficient transport network for their
maximise the use of baggase. distribution to the markets and consumers.
Today with 32.8 million tons of steel
Mineral based Industries production, India ranks ninth among the world
Industries that use minerals and metals as raw crude steel producers. It is the largest producer
materials are called mineral based industries. of sponge iron. Inspite of large quantity of
Can you name some industries that would fall production of steel, per capita consumption per
in this category? annum is only 32 kg.
Processes of Manufacture of Steel
Fig. 6.4
India: Iron and Steel Plants
Table 5.2: Total finished steel production An integrated steel plant is large, handles
in India everything in one complex – from putting
together raw material to steel making, rolling
Year Production
and shaping.
(In million tons per annum)
1950-51 1.04
All public sector undertakings market their
1960-61 2.39
steel through, Steel Authority of India Ltd.
1970-71 4.64
(SAIL) while TISCO markets its produce
1980-81 6.82
through Tata Steel.
1990-91 13.53 In the 1950s China and India produced
1997-98 23.40 almost the same quantity of steel. Today, China
2004-05 32.60 is the largest producer. China is also the world’s
Represent the given data with a bar diagram. largest consumer of steel. In 2004, India was
the largest exporter of steel which accounted
for 2.25 per cent of the global steel trade.
Why is the per capita consumption of steel
so low in India? Chotanagpur plateau region has the maximum
concentration of iron and steel industries. It is
Presently, there are 10 primary integrated largely, because of the relative advantages this
and many mini steel plants in India. See the region has for the development of this industry.
Appendix and mark these on the map of India. These include, low cost of iron ore, high grade
raw materials in proximity, cheap labour and
Mini steel plants are smaller, have electric vast growth potential in the home market.
furnaces, use steel scrap and sponge iron. Though, India is an important iron and steel
They have re-rollers that use steel ingots as producing country in the world yet, we are not
well. They produce mild and alloy steel of able to perform to our full potential largely due
given specifications. to: (a) High costs and limited availability of coking
Fig. 6.5: Steel Production in India and China
coal (b) Lower productivity of labour (c) Irregular
supply of energy and (d) Poor infrastructure.
We also import good quality steel from other
countries. However, the overall production of
steel is sufficient to meet our domestic demand.
Liberalisation and Foreign Direct
Investment have given a boost to the industry
with the efforts of private entrepreneurs.
There is a need to allocate resources for
research and development to produce steel
more computatitively.
Fig. 6.6: Strip coasting mill at smelter of NALCO
Have you read about the Kalinganagar Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. In 2004, India
controversy? produced over 600 million tons of aluminium.
Bauxite, the raw material used in the
Aluminium Smelting smelters is a very bulky, dark reddish coloured
Aluminium smelting is the second most rock. The flow chart given below shows the
important metallurgical industry in India. It is process of manufacturing aluminium. Regular
light, resistant to corrosion, a good conductor supply of electricity and an assured source of
of heat, mallable and becomes strong when it is raw material at minimum cost are the two
mixed with other metals. It is used to prime factors for location of the industry.
manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires. It has
gained popularity as a substitute of steel,
copper, zinc and lead in a number of industries. A factory produces aluminium saucepans with
There are 8 aluminium smelting plants in plastic handles. It obtains aluminium from a
the country located in Orissa (Nalco and Balco), smelter and a plastic component from
West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Chattisgarh,
Fig. 6.7
Fig. 6.8
another factory. All the manufactured entirely imported as the country does not have
saucepans are sent to a warehouse: any reserves of commercially usable potash or
1. (a) Which raw material is likely to be most potassium compounds in any form. India is
expensive to transport and why? the third largest producer of nitrogenous
(b) Which raw material is likely to be fertilisers. There are 57 fertiliser units
the cheapest to transport and why? manufacturing nitrogenous and complex
nitrogenous fertilisers, 29 for urea and 9 for
2. Do you think the cost of transporting the
producing ammonium sulphate as a by-
finished products after packaging is likely
product and 68 other small units produce
to be cheaper or more expensive than the
cost of transporting aluminium and single superphosphate. At present, there are
10 public sector undertakings and one in
plastic? Why?
cooperative sector at Hazira in Gujarat under
the Fertiliser Corporation of India.
Chemical Industries After the Green Revolution the industry
The Chemical industry in India is fast growing expanded to several other parts of the country.
and diversifying. It contributes approximately Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab
3 per cent of the GDP. It is the third largest in and Kerala contribute towards half the fertiliser
Asia and occupies the twelfth place in the world production. Other significant producers are
in term of its size. It comprises both large and Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Bihar,
small scale manufacturing units. Rapid growth Maharashtra, Assam, West Bengal, Goa, Delhi,
has been recorded in both inorganic and Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.
organic sectors. Inorganic chemicals include
Cement Industry
sulphuric acid (used to manufacture fertilisers,
synthetic fibres, plastics, adhesives, paints, Cement is essential for construction activity
dyes stuffs), nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash (used such as building houses, factories, bridges,
to make glass, soaps and detergents, paper) roads, airports, dams and for other commercial
and caustic soda. These industries are widely establishments. This industry requires bulky
spread over the country. and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica,
Why do you think it is so? alumina and gypsum. Coal and electric power
are needed apart from rail transportation.
Organic chemicals include petrochemicals,
which are used for manufacturing of synthetic
Where would it be economically viable to
fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics, dye-stuffs,
set up the cement manufacturing units?
drugs and pharmaceuticals. Organic chemical
plants are located near oil refineries or
petrochemical plants. The industry has strategically located
The chemical industry is its own largest plants in Gujarat that have suitable access to
consumer. Basic chemicals undergo processing the market in the Gulf countries.
to further produce other chemicals that are
used for industrial application, agriculture or
directly for consumer markets. Make a list of Find out where the plants are located in other
the products you are aware of. States of India. Find their names.
Fertiliser Industry The first cement plant was set up in

The fertiliser industry is centred around the Chennai in 1904. After Independence the
production of nitrogenous fertilisers (mainly industry expanded. Decontrol of price and
urea), phosphatic fertilisers and ammonium distribution since 1989 and other policy
phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilisers which reforms led the cement industry to make rapid
have a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate strides in capacity, process, technology and
(P), and potash (K). The third, i.e. potash is production. There are 128 large plants and
332 mini cement plants in the country. India generation. Upto 31 March 2005, the IT
produces a variety of cement. industry employed over one million persons.
Improvement in the quality has found the This number is expected to increase eight-fold
produce a readily available market in East in the next 3 to 4 years. It is encouraging to
Asia, Middle East, Africa and South Asia apart know that 30 per cent of the people employed
from a large demand within the country. This in this sector are women. This industry has
industry is doing well in terms of production been a major foreign exchange earner in the
as well as export. Efforts are being made to last two or three years because of its fast
generate adequate domestic demand and growing Business Processes Outsourcing
supply in order to sustain this industry. (BPO) sector. The continuing growth in the
hardware and software is the key to the success
Automobile Industry of IT industry in India.
Automobiles provide vehicle for quick
transport of good services and passengers.
Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters,
three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are
manufactured in India at various centres.
After the liberalisation, the coming in of new
and contemporary models stimulated the
demand for vehicles in the market, which led
to the healthy growth of the industry
including passenger cars, two and three-
wheelers. This industry had experienced a
quantum jump in less than 15 years. Foreign
Direct Investment brought in new technology
and aligned the industry with global Fig. 6.9: Cable manufacturing facilities at HCL,
developments. At present, there are 15 Rupnarainpur (West Bengal)
manufacturers of passenger cars and multi-
utility vehicles, 9 of commercial vehicles, 14
of the two and three-wheelers. The industry
is located around Delhi, Gurgaon, Mumbai,
Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore,
Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and Bangalore.
Information Technology and
Electronics Industry
The electronics industry covers a wide range
of products from transistor sets to television,
telephones, cellular telecom, pagers, telephone
exchange, radars, computers and many Fig. 6.10: Gas turbine rotor an assembly bed
other equipments required by the at BHEL, Hyderabad
telecommunication industry. Bangalore has
emerged as the electronic capital of India. Other Industrial Pollution and Environmental
important centres for electronic goods are Degradation
Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Although industries contribute significantly to
Kolkata, Lucknow and Coimbatore. 18 India’s economic growth and development, the
software technology parks provide single increase in pollution of land, water, air, noise
window service and high data communication and resulting degradation of environment that
facility to software experts. A major impact of they have caused, cannot be overlooked.
this industry has been on employment Industries are responsible for four types of
India: Software Technology Parks
pollution: (a) Air (b) Water (c) Land (d) Noise. machinery, factory equipment, generators,
The polluting industries also include thermal saws and pneumatic and electric drills also
power plants. make a lot of noise.
Air pollution is caused by the presence of high Control of Environmental Degradation
proportion of undesirable gases, such as
sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Air- Every litre of waste water discharged by our
borne particulate materials contain both solid industry pollutes eight times the quantity of
and liquid particles like dust, sprays mist and freshwater. How can the industrial pollution of
smoke. Smoke is emitted by chemical and paper fresh water be reduced? Some suggestions are-
factories, brick kilns, refineries and smelting (i) minimising use water for processing by
plants, and burning of fossil fuels in big and reusing and recycling it in two or more
small factories that ignore pollution norms. successive stages
Toxic gas leaks can be very hazardous with (ii) harvesting of rainwater to meet water
long-term effects. Are you aware of the Bhopal requirements
Gas tragedy that occurred? Air pollution
(iii) treating hot water and effluents before
adversely affects human health, animals, plants,
releasing them in rivers and ponds.
buildings and the atmosphere as a whole.
Treatment of industrial effluents can be
Water pollution is caused by organic and done in three phases
inorganic industrial wastes and affluents (a) Primary treatment by mechanical means.
discharged into rivers. The main culprits in this This involves screening, grinding,
regard are paper, pulp, chemical, textile and flocculation and sedimentation.
dyeing, petroleum refineries, tanneries and
electroplating industries that let out dyes, (b) Secondary treatment by biological process
detergents, acids, salts and heavy metals like (c) Tertiary treatment by biological,
lead and mercury pesticides, fertilisers, chemical and physical processes. This
synthetic chemicals with carbon, plastics and involves recycling of wastewater.
rubber, etc. into the water bodies. Fly ash, Overdrawing of ground water reserves by
phospo- gypsum and iron and steel slags are
industry where there is a threat to ground water
the major solid wastes in India.
resources also needs to be regulated legally.
Thermal pollution of water occurs when hot Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by
water from factories and thermal plants is fitting smoke stacks to factories with electrostatic
drained into rivers and ponds before cooling. precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers and
What would be the effect on aquatic life? inertial separators. Smoke can be reduced by
Wastes from nuclear power plants, nuclear using oil or gas instead of coal in factories.
and weapon production facilities cause Machinery and equipment can be used and
cancers, birth defects and miscarriages. Soil generators should be fitted with silencers.
and water pollution are closely related. Almost all machinery can be redesigned to
Dumping of wastes specially glass, harmful increase energy efficiency and reduce noise.
chemicals, industrial effluents, packaging, salts Noise absorbing material may be used apart
and garbage renders the soil useless. Rain from personal use of earplugs and earphones.
water percolates to the soil carrying the
pollutants to the ground and the ground water
also gets contaminated.
Noise pollution not only results in irritation
and anger, it can also cause hearing
impairment, increased heart rate and blood
pressure among other physiological effects.
Unwanted sound is an irritant and a source of Fig. 6.11: Sewage Treatment plant under Yamuna
stress. Industrial and construction activities, action paln at Faridabad
The challenge of sustainable development (d) Reducing environmental pollution through
requires integration of economic development ash pond management, ash water recycling
with environmental concerns. system and liquid waste management.
(e) Ecological monitoring, reviews and on-
NTPC shows the way
line database management for all its
NTPC is a major power providing corporation power stations.
in India. It has ISO certification for EMS
(Environment Management System) 14001.
The corporation has a pro-active approach
for preserving the natural environment and
resources like water, oil and gas and fuels
in places where it is setting up power plants.
This has been possible through-
(a) Optimum utilisation of equipment
adopting latest techniques and
upgrading existing equipment.
(b) Minimising waste generation by
maximising ash utilisation.
(c) Providing green belts for nurturing ecological
balance and addressing the question of Fig. 6.12: Ramagundam plant
special purpose vehicles for afforestation.

(i) Which one of the following industries uses limestone as a raw material.
(a) Aluminium (b) Cement (c) Sugar (d) Jute
(ii) Which one of the following agencies markets steel for the public sector plants?
(a) HAIL (b) SAIL (c) TATA Steel (d) MNCC
(iii) Which one of the following industries uses bauxite as a raw material?
(a) Aluminium (b) Cement (c) Jute (d) Steel
(iv) Which one of the following industries manufactures telephones, computer, etc.
(a) Steel (c) Aluminium
(b) Electronic (d) Information Technology
2. Answer the following briefly in not more than 30 words.

(i) What is manufacturing?
(ii) Name any three physical factors for the location of the industry.
(iii) Name any three human factors for the location of an industry.
(iv) What are basic industries? Give an example.
(v) Name the important raw materials used in the manufacturing of cement?
3. Write the answers of the following questions in 120 words.

(i) How are integrated steel plants different from mini steel plants? What
problems does the industry face? What recent developments have led to a
rise in the production capacity?
(ii) How do industries pollute the environment?
(iii) Discuss the steps to be taken to minimise environmental degradation
by industry?
ACTIVITY
Give one word for each of the following with regard to industry. The number of
letters in each word are hinted in brackets.
(i) Used to drive machinery (5) P...........................
(ii) People who work in a factory (6) W..........................
(iii) Where the product is sold (6) M..........................
(iv) A person who sells goods (8) R...........................
(v) Thing produced (7) P...........................
(vi) To make or produce (11) M..........................
(vii) Land, Water and Air degraded (9) P...........................
PROJECT WORK
Select one agro-based and one mineral based industry in your area.
(i) What are the raw materials they use?
(ii) What are the other inputs in the process of manufacturing that involve
transportation cost?
(iii) Are these factories following environmental norms?
A CTIVITY
Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the hidden
answers.
G G G P V A R A N A S I
U O J I P G X K M Q W V
K S U G A R C A N E E N
O T T O N O Z V O P T R
A U E L U B H I L A I U
T K O C R A Q N T R L N
E I R O N S T E E L S J
E N A N O E P I T L R Y
G A N U J D R A G D T A
N T A R P O A P U E P Y
A S N A E N J D I Y S K
S M H V L I A J H S K G
1. Textiles, sugar, vegetable oil and plantation industries deriving raw materials
from agriculture are called…
2. The basic raw material for sugar industry.
3. This fibre is also known as the ‘ Golden Fibre’.
4. Iron-ore, coking coal, and limestone are the chief raw materials of this industry.
5. A public sector steel plant located in Chhattisgarh.
6. Railway diesel engines are manufactured in Uttar Pradesh at this place.
Haban comes to Guwahati with his father A bright smile from toothpaste
from a remote village. and minerals
He sees people getting into strange Toothpaste cleans your teeth. Abrasive
house like objects which move along the minerals like silica, limestone, aluminium
road. He also sees a “kitchen” dragging a oxide and various phosphate minerals do the
number of house along with it. He is amazed cleaning. Fluoride which is used to reduce
and asked his father “Why don’t our houses cavities, comes from a mineral fluorite. Most
move like the one we saw in Guwahati, Ba?” toothpaste are made white with titanium
Ba replies, “These are not houses, they oxide, which comes from minerals called
are buses and trains. Unlike our houses these rutile, ilmenite and anatase. The sparkle in
are not made of bricks and stones, metal like some toothpastes comes from mica. The
iron and alluminium are used in making toothbrush and tube containing the paste are
these. They do not move on their own. They made of plastics from petroleum. Find out
are driven by an engine which needs energy where these minerals are found?
to work.”
Dig a little deeper and find out how many
We use different things in our daily life made minerals are used to make a light bulb?
from metal. Can you list a number of items
used in your house made of metals. Where do All living things need minerals
these metals come from?
Life processes cannot occur without minerals.
You have studied that the earth’s crust is
Although our mineral intake represents only
made up of different minerals embedded in the
about 0.3 per cent of our total intake of
rocks. Various metals are extracted from these
nutrients, they are so potent and so important
minerals after proper refinement.
that without them we would not be able to
Minerals are an indispensable part of our
utilise the other 99.7 per cent of foodstuffs.
lives. Almost everything we use, from a tiny pin
to a towering building or a big ship, all are
made from minerals. The railway lines and the Dig a little deeper and collect “Nutritional
tarmac (paving) of the roads, our implements Facts” printed on food labels.
and machinery too are made from minerals.
Cars, buses, trains, aeroplanes are What is a mineral?
manufactured from minerals and run on Geologists define mineral as a “homogenous,
power resources derived from the earth. Even naturally occurring substance with a definable
the food that we eat contains minerals. In all internal structure.” Minerals are found in
stages of development, human beings have varied forms in nature, ranging from the
used minerals for their livelihood, decoration, hardest diamond to the softest talc. Why are
festivities, religious and ceremonial rites. they so varied?
You have already learnt about rocks. Rocks commercially viable. The type of formation or
are combinations of homogenous substances structure in which they are found determines
called minerals. Some rocks, for instance the relative ease with which mineral ores may
limestone, consist of a single mineral only, but be mined. This also determines the cost of
majority of the rock consist of several minerals extraction. It is, therefore, important for us to
in varying proportions. Although, over 2000 understand the main types of formations in
minerals have been identified, only a few are which minerals occur.
abundantly found in most of the rocks. Minerals generally occur in these forms:
A particular mineral that will be formed (i) In igneous and metamorphic rocks
from a certain combination of elements minerals may occur in the cracks,
depends upon the physical and chemical crevices, faults or joints. The smaller
conditions under which the material forms. occurrences are called veins and the
This, in turn, results in a wide range of colours, larger are called lodes. In most cases,
hardness, crystal forms, lustre and density that they are formed when minerals in liquid/
a particular mineral possesses. Geologists use molten and gaseous forms are forced
these properties to classify the minerals. upward through cavities towards the
earth’s surface. They cool and solidify as
Study of Minerals by Geographers
they rise. Major metallic minerals like tin,
and Geologists
copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained
Geographers study minerals as part of the from veins and lodes.
earth’s crust for a better understanding of
(ii) In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals
landforms. The distribution of mineral
occur in beds or layers. They have been
resources and associated economic activities
formed as a result of deposition,
are of interest to geographers. A geologist,
accumulation and concentration in
however, is interested in the formation of
horizontal strata. Coal and some forms of
minerals, their age and physical and
iron ore have been concentrated as a result
chemical composition.
of long periods under great heat and
pressure. Another group of sedimentary
However, for general and commercial minerals include gypsum, potash salt and
purposes minerals can be classified as under.
Fig. 5.1
MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF MINERALS sodium salt. These are formed as a result

Where are these minerals found? of evaporation especially in arid regions.
Minerals are usually found in “ores”. The (iii) Another mode of formation involves the
term ore is used to describe an accumulation decomposition of surface rocks, and the
of any mineral mixed with other elements. The removal of soluble constituents, leaving a
mineral content of the ore must be in sufficient residual mass of weathered material
concentration to make its extraction containing ores. Bauxite is formed this way.
MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 51
(iv) Certain minerals may occur as alluvial Let us now study the distribution of a few
deposits in sands of valley floors and the major minerals in India. Always remember that
base of hills. These deposits are called the concentration of mineral in the ore, the ease
‘placer deposits’ and generally contain of extraction and closeness to the market play
minerals, which are not corroded by water. an important role in affecting the economic
Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most viability of a reserve. Thus, to meet the demand,
important among such minerals. a choice has to be made between a number of
possible options. When this is done a mineral
(v) The ocean waters contain vast quantities
‘deposit’ or ‘reserve’ turns into a mine.
of minerals, but most of these are too widely
diffused to be of economic significance. Ferrous Minerals
However, common salt, magnesium and
Ferrous minerals account for about three-
bromine are largely derived from ocean
fourths of the total value of the production of
waters. The ocean beds, too, are rich in metallic minerals. They provide a strong base
manganese nodules. for the development of metallurgical
industries. India exports substantial
quantities of ferrous minerals after meeting
her internal demands.
Rat-Hole Mining. Do you know that most
of the minerals in India are nationalised Iron Ore
and their extraction is possible only after Iron ore is the basic mineral and the backbone
obtaining due permission from the of industrial development. India is endowed
government? But in most of the tribal areas with fairly abundant resources of iron ore. India
of the north-east India, minerals are is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is
owned by individuals or communities. In the finest iron ore with a very high content of
Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal, iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic
iron ore, limestone and dolomite etc. Coal qualities, especially valuable in the electrical
mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee is done industry. Hematite ore is the most important
by family member in the form of a long industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity
narrow tunnel, known as ‘Rat hole’ mining. used, but has a slightly lower iron content than
magnetite. (50-60 per cent).
Dig a little deeper: What is the difference

between an open pit mine, a quarry and an
underground mine with shafts?
India is fortunate to have fairly rich and varied

mineral resources. However, these are unevenly
distributed. Broadly speaking, peninsular rocks
contain most of the reserves of coal, metallic
minerals, mica and many other non-metallic
minerals. Sedimentary rocks on the western and
eastern flanks of the peninsula, in Gujarat and
Assam have most of the petroleum deposits.
Rajasthan with the rock systems of the peninsula,
has reserves of many non-ferrous minerals. The
vast alluvial plains of north India are almost
devoid of economic minerals. These variations
exist largely because of the differences in the
geological structure, processes and time involved Fig. 5.2: Production of iron ore showing
in the formation of minerals. statewise share in per cent, 2003-04
• Maharashtra-Goa belt includes the state
Kudre in Kannada means horse. The of Goa and Ratnagiri district of
highest peak in the western ghats of Maharashtra. Though, the ores are not of
Karnataka resembles the face of a horse. very high quality, yet they are efficiently
The Bailadila hills look like the hump of exploited. Iron ore is exported through
an ox, and hence its name. Marmagao port.
Manganese
Manganese is mainly used in the
manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese
alloy. Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required
to manufacture one tonne of steel. It is also
used in manufacturing bleaching powder,
insecticides and paints.
Fig. 5.3: Iron ore mine
The major iron ore belts in India are:

• Orissa-Jharkhand belt: In Orissa high
grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar
mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar
districts. In the adjoining Singbhum
district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore is Fig. 5.4: Production of Manganese showing
mined in Gua and Noamundi. statewise share in per cent, 2003-2004
• Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt lies in
Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high Orissa is the largest producer of manganese
grade hematites are found in the famous ores in India. It accounted for one-third of the
Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district country’s total production in 2000-01.
of Chattisgarh. The range of hills comprise
of 14 deposits of super high grade hematite Dig a little deeper: Superimpose the maps
iron ore. It has the best physical properties showing distribution of iron ore, manganese,
needed for steel making. Iron ore from these coal and iron and steel industry. Do you see
mines is exported to Japan and South any correlation. Why?
Korea via Vishakapatnam port.
Non-Ferrous Minerals
• Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur
belt in Karnataka has large reserves of iron India’s reserves and production of non- ferrous
ore. The Kudermukh mines located in the minerals is not very satisfactory. However, these
Western Ghats of Karnataka are a 100 per minerals, which include copper, bauxite, lead,
cent export unit. Kudremukh deposits are zinc and gold play a vital role in a number of
known to be one of the largest in the world. metallurgical, engineering and electrical
The ore is transported as slurry through a industries. Let us study the distribution of
pipeline to a port near Mangalore. copper and bauxite.

India: Distribution of Iron Ore, Manganese, Bauxite and Mica
Copper
India is critically deficient in the reserve and
production of copper. Being malleable, ductile
and a good conductor, copper is mainly used
in electrical cables, electronics and chemical
Fig. 5.5: Copper mines at Malanjkhand Fig. 5.7: Production of Bauxite showing state-wise
share in per cent, 2003-04
industries. The Balaghat mines in Madhya
Aluminium is an important metal because
Pradesh produce 52 per cent of India’s copper.
it combines the strength of metals such as iron,
The Singbhum district of Jharkhand is also a
with extreme lightness and also with good
leading producer of copper. The Khetri mines
conductivity and great malleability.
in Rajasthan are also famous.
Fig.5.8: Bauxite Mine
Fig. 5.6: Production of Copper showing state-wise India’s bauxite deposits are mainly found
share in per cent, 2003-04 in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and
the plateau region of Bilaspur- Katni.
Bauxite Orissa is the largest bauxite producing
state in India with 45 per cent of the country’s
Though, several ores contain aluminium, it is total production in 2000-01. Panchpatmali
from bauxite, a clay-like substance that deposits in Koraput district are the most
alumina and later aluminium is obtained. important bauxite deposits in the state.
Bauxite deposits are formed by the
decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich Dig a little deeper: Locate the mines of
in aluminium silicates. Bauxite on the physical map of India.

Rock Minerals
Limestone is found in association with rocks
After the discovery of aluminium Emperor composed of calcium carbonates or calcium
Napoleon III wore buttons and hooks on and magnesium carbonates. It is found in
his clothes made of aluminium and served sedimentary rocks of most geological
food to his more illustrious guests in formations. Limestone is the basic raw material
aluminium utensils and the less for the cement industry and essential for
honourable ones were served in gold and smelting iron ore in the blast furnace.
silver utensils. Thirty years after this
incident aluminium bowls were most Dig a little deeper: Study the maps to explain
common with the beggars in Paris. why Chota Nagpur is a storehouse of minerals.
Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates
or leaves. It splits easily into thin sheets. These
sheets can be so thin that a thousand can be
layered into a mica sheet of a few centimeters
high. Mica can be clear, black, green, red yellow
or brown. Due to its excellent di-electric
strength, low power loss factor, insulating
properties and resistance to high voltage, mica
is one of the most indispensable minerals used
in electric and electronic industries.
Mica deposits are found in the northern
edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma
Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the
leading producer.
In Rajasthan, the major mica producing
area is around Ajmer. Nellore mica belt of
Andhra Pradesh is also an important producer Fig. 5.9: Production of Limestone showing state-
in the country. wise share in per cent, 2003-04
Hazards of Mining
Have you ever wondered about the efforts the miners make in making life comfortable
for you? What are the impacts of mining on
the health of the miners and the environment?
The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by
miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary
diseases. The risk of collapsing mine roofs,
inundation and fires in coalmines are a
constant threat to miners.
The water sources in the region get
contaminated due to mining. Dumping of waste
and slurry leads to degradation of land, soil, Fig. 5.10: Air pollution due to
and increase in stream and river pollution. generation of dust in mining areas
Stricter safety regulations and required millions of years to be created and
implementation of environmental laws are concentrated. The geological processes of
essential to prevent mining from becoming a mineral formation are so slow that the rates
“killer industry”. of replenishment are infinitely small in
comparison to the present rates of
CONSERVATION OF MINERALS consumption. Mineral resources are,
We all appreciate the strong dependence of therefore, finite and non-renewable. Rich
industry and agriculture upon mineral mineral deposits are our country’s extremely
deposits and the substances manufactured valuable but short-lived possessions.
from them. The total volume of workable Continued extraction of ores leads to
mineral deposits is an insignificant fraction increasing costs as mineral extraction comes
i.e. one per cent of the earth’s crust. We are from greater depths along with decrease
rapidly consuming mineral resources that in quality.

A concerted effort has to be made in order
to use our mineral resources in a planned and
sustainable manner. Improved technologies
need to be constantly evolved to allow use of
low grade ores at low costs. Recycling of metals,
using scrap metals and other substitutes are
steps in conserving our mineral resources for
the future.
Dig a little deeper: Make a list of items where

substitutes are being used instead of minerals.
Where are these substitutes obtained from?
Energy Resources Fig. 5.11 (a): A view from inside of a coal mine
Energy is required for all activities. It is needed
to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel
vehicles and to drive machinery in industries.
Energy can be generated from fuel minerals
like coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium and
from electricity. Energy resources can be
classified as conventional and non-
conventional sources. Conventional sources
include: firewood, cattle dung cake, coal,
petroleum, natural gas and electricity (both
hydel and thermal). Non-conventional sources
include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas
and atomic energy. Firewood and cattle dung
cake are most common in rural India. Fig. 5.11 (b): A view from outside of a coal mine
According to one estimate more than 70 per
cent energy requirement in rural households and the depth and time of burial. Decaying
is met by these two ; continuation of these is plants in swamps produce peat. Which has
increasingly becoming difficult due to a low carbon and high moisture contents
decreasing forest area. Moreover, using dung and low heating capacity. Lignite is a low
cake too is being discouraged because it grade brown coal, which is soft with high
consumes most valuable manure which could moisture content. The principal lignite
be used in agriculture. reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu and
are used for generation of electricity. Coal
Conventional Sources of Energy that has been buried deep and subjected to
Coal: In India, coal is the most abundantly increased temperatures is bituminous coal.
available fossil fuel. It provides a substantial It is the most popular coal in commercial
part of the nation’s energy needs. It is used for use. Metallurgical coal is high grade
power generation, to supply energy to industry bituminous coal which has a special value
as well as for domestic needs. India is highly for smelting iron in blast furnaces.
dependent on coal for meeting its commercial Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal.
energy requirements. In India coal occurs in rock series of two
As you are already aware that coal is main geological ages, namely Gondwana, a little
formed due the compression of plant over 200 million years in age and in tertiary
material over millions of years. Coal, deposits which are only about 55 million years
therefore, is found in a variety of forms old. The major resources of Gondwana coal,
depending on the degrees of compression which are metallurgical coal, are located in
India: Distribution of Coal, Oil and Natural Gas

Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand). Natural gas is considered an environment
Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important friendly fuel because of low carbon dioxide
coalfields. The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and emissions and is, therefore, the fuel for the
Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits. present century.
Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern Large reserves of natural gas have been
states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal discovered in the Krishna- Godavari basin.
Pradesh and Nagaland. Along the west coast the reserves of the Mumbai
Remember coal is a bulky material, which High and allied fields are supplemented by
loses weight on use as it is reduced to ash. finds in the Gulf of Cambay. Andaman and
Hence, heavy industries and thermal power Nicobar islands are also important areas
station are located on or near the coalfields. having large reserves of natural gas.
The 1700 km long Hazira-Bijaipur -
Petroleum Jagdishpur cross country gas pipeline links
Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major Mumbai High and Bassien with the fertilizer,
energy source in India after coal. It provides power and industrial complexes in western and
fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for northern India. This artery has provided an
machinery and raw materials for a number of impetus to India’s gas production. The power
manufacturing industries. Petroleum and fertilizer industries are the key users of
refineries act as a “nodal industry” for natural gas. Use of Compressed Natural Gas
synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous (CNG ) for vehicles to replace liquid fuels is
chemical industries. gaining wide popularity in the country.
Most of the petroleum occurrences in India
Electricity
are associated with anticlines and fault traps
in the rock formations of the tertiary age. In Electricity has such a wide range of
regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs applications in today’s world that, its per-
where oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold. capita consumption is considered as an index
of development. Elecctricity is generated mainly
The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or
in two ways: by running water which drives
sandstone through which oil may flow. The oil
hydro turbines to generate hydro electricity;
is prevented from rising or sinking by
and by burning other fuels such as coal,
intervening non-porous layers.
petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines
Petroleum is also found in fault traps
to produce thermal power. Once generated the
between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas,
electricity is exactly the same.
being lighter usually occurs above the oil.
About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum
production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent Name some river valley projects and write
from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam. the names of the dams built on these rivers.
From the map locate the 3 major off shore fields
of western India. Ankeleshwar is the most
Hydro electricity is generated by fast
important field of Gujarat. Assam is the oldest
flowing water, which is a renewable resource.
oil producing state of India. Digboi,
India has a number of multi-purpose projects
Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan are the
like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley
important oil fields in the state.
corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc.
Natural Gas producing hydroelectric power.
Natural gas is an important clean energy Thermal electricity is generated by using
resource found in association with or without coal, petroleum and natural gas. The thermal
petroleum. It is used as a source of energy as power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels
well as an industrial raw material in the for generating electricity. There are over 310
petrochemical industry. thermal power plants in India.
Rawat Bhata
India: Distribution of Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants

From the map identify a ther mal power
station in your state and also name the fuel
that is used there.
Nuclear or Atomic Energy is obtained by
altering the structure of atoms. When such an
alteration is made, much energy is released in
the form of heat and this is used to generate
electric power. Uranium and thorium, which
are available in Jharkhand and the Aravalli
ranges of Rajasthan are used for generating
atomic or nuclear power. The Monazite sands
of Kerala is also rich in thorium. Fig. 5.12: Solar operated electronic milk
testing equipment
Locate the 6 nuclear power stations and find
out the state in which they are located. Wind power
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy India now ranks as a “wind super power” in
the world. The largest wind farm cluster is
The growing consumption of energy has
resulted in the country becoming located in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to
increasingly dependent on fossil fuels such Madurai. Apart from these, Andhra Pradesh,
as coal, oil and gas. Rising prices of oil and Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and
gas and their potential shortages have raised Lakshadweep have important wind farms.
uncertainties about the security of energy Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well known for
supply in future, which in turn has serious effective use of wind energy in the country.
repercussions on the growth of the national
economy. Moreover, increasing use of fossil
fuels also causes serious environmental
problems. Hence, there is a pressing need to
use renewable energy sources like solar
energy, wind, tide, biomass and energy from
waste material. These are called non-
conventional energy sources.
India is blessed with an abundance of
sunlight, water, wind and biomass. It has the
largest programmes for the development of
these renewable energy resources.
Solar Energy Fig. 5.13: Wind mills – Nagarcoil
India is a tropical country. It has enormous
possibilities of tapping solar energy. Biogas
Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste
directly into electricity. Solar energy is fast are used to produce biogas for domestic
becoming popular in rural and remote areas. consumption in rural areas. Decomposition of
The largest solar plant of India is located at organic matter yields gas, which has higher
Madhapur, near Bhuj, where solar energy is thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosene,
used to sterlise milk cans. It is expected that dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants are set
use of solar energy will be able to minimise the up at municipal, cooperative and individual
dependence of rural households on firewood levels. The plants using cattle dung are know
and dung cakes, which in turn will contribute as ‘Gobar gas plants’ in rural India. These
to environmental conservation and adequate provide twin benefits to the farmer in the form
supply of manure in agriculture. of energy and improved quality of manure.
Biogas is by far the most efficient use of cattle at shallow depths. Groundwater in such areas
dung. It improves the quality of manure and absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot.
also prevents the loss of trees and manure due It is so hot that when it rises to the earth’s
to burning of fuel wood and cow dung cakes. surface, it turns into steam. This steam is used
to drive turbines and generate electricity.
There are several hundred hot springs in
India, which could be used to generate
electricity. Two experimental projects have been
set up in India to harness geothermal energy.
One is located in the Parvati valley near
Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the other
is located in the Puga Valley, Ladakh.
Conservation of Energy Resources

Energy is a basic requirement for economic
development. Every sector of the national
Fig. 5.14: Biogas Plant economy – agriculture, industry, transport,
commercial and domestic – needs inputs of
Tidal Energy energy. The economic development plans
Oceanic tides can be used to generate implemented since Independence necessarily
electricity. Floodgate dams are built across required increasing amounts of energy to
inlets. During high tide water flows into the remain operational. As a result, consumption
inlet and gets trapped when the gate is closed. of energy in all forms has been steadily rising
After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the all over the country.
water retained by the floodgate flows back to In this background, there is an urgent need
the sea via a pipe that carries it through a to develop a sustainable path of energy
power-generating turbine. development. Promotion of energy conservation
In India, the Gulf of Kuchchh, provides ideal and increased use of renewable energy sources
conditions for utilising tidal energy. A 900 mw are the twin planks of sustainable energy.
tidal energy power plant is set up here by the India is presently one of the least energy
National Hydropower Corporation. efficient countries in the world. We have to
adopt a cautious approach for the judicious
Geo Thermal Energy use of our limited energy resources. For
Geothermal energy refers to the heat and example, as concerned citizens we can do our
electricity produced by using the heat from the bit by using public transport systems instead
interior of the Earth. Geothermal energy exists of individual vehicles; switching off electricity
because, the Earth grows progressively hotter when not in use, using power-saving devices
with increasing depth. Where the geothermal and using non-conventional sources of energy.
gradient is high, high temperatures are found After all, “energy saved is energy produced”.
EXERCISES EXERCISES E XERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following minerals is formed by decomposition of rocks,
leaving a residual mass of weathered material?
(a) coal (b) bauxite (c) gold (d) zinc
(ii) Koderma, in Jharkhand is the leading producer of which one of the following
minerals?
(a) bauxite (b) mica (c) iron ore (d) copper
(iii) Minerals are deposited and accumulated in the stratas of which of the
following rocks?
(a) sedimentary rocks (c) igneous rocks
(b) metamorphic rocks (d) none of the above
(iv) Which one of the following minerals is contained in the Monazite sand?
(a) oil (b) uranium (c) thorium (d) coal
(i) Distinguish between the following in not more than 30 words.
(a) ferrous and non-ferrous minerals
(b) conventional and non-conventional sources of energy
(ii) What is a mineral?
(iii) How are minerals formed in igneous and metamorphic rocks?
(iv) Why do we need to conserve mineral resources ?
(i) Describe the distribution of coal in India.
(ii) Why do you think that solar energy has a bright future in India?
A CTIVITY
Fill the name of the correct mineral in the crossword below:
2 1
M
2
M
4 3
M
4
T
1 5 5
T
6
o
7
y
ACROSS DOWN
1. A ferrous mineral (9) 1. Found in placer deposit (4)
2. Raw material for cement industry (9) 2. Iron ore mined in Bailadila (8)
3. Finest iron ore with magnetic properties (9) 3. Indispensable for electrical industry (4)
4. Highest quality hard coal (10) 4. Geological Age of coal found in north east
5. Aluminium is obtained from this ore (7) India (8)
6. Khetri mines are famous for this mineral (6) 5. Formed in veins and lodes (3)
7. Formed due to evaporation (6)
Outcomes of
Democracy
Overview
Chapter 7
As we begin to wind up our tour of democracy, it is time to move
beyond our discussion of specific themes and ask a general set of
questions: What does democracy do? Or, what outcomes can we
reasonably expect of democracy? Also, does democracy fulfil these
expectations in real life? We begin by thinking about how to assess
the outcomes of democracy. After some clarity on how to think on
this subject, we proceed to look at the expected and actual outcomes
of democracy in various respects: quality of government, economic
well-being, inequality, social differences and conflict and finally
freedom and dignity. Our final verdict – positive but qualified –
leads us to think about the challenges to democracy in the next
and final chapter.
Outcomes of Democracy
89
How do we assess democracy’s outcomes?
Do you remember how students in in principle, but felt to be not so good in
Madam Lyngdoh’s class argued about its practice. This dilemma invites us to
democracy? This was in Chapter 2 of think hard about the outcomes of
Class IX textbook. It emerged from that democracy. Do we prefer democracy
conversation that democracy is a better only for moral reasons? Or are there
form of government when compared some prudential reasons to support
with dictatorship or any other alternative. democracy too?
Did we reach We felt that democracy was better Over a hundred countries of the
these because it: world today claim and practice some
conclusions in z Promotes equality among citizens; kind of democratic politics: they have
Madam Lyngdoh’s z Enhances the dignity of the formal constitutions, they hold elections,
class? I loved individual; they have parties and they guarantee rights
that class z Improves the quality of decision- of citizens. While these features are
because making; common to most of them, these
students were
z Provides a method to resolve democracies are very much different
not being
conflicts; and from each other in terms of their social
dictated any
z Allows room to correct mistakes. situations, their economic achievements
conclusions.
Are these expectations realised under and their cultures. Clearly, what may be
democracies? When we talk to people achieved or not achieved under each of
around us, most of them support these democracies will be very different.
democracy against other alternatives, But is there something that we can expect
such as rule by a monarch or military or from every democracy, just because it is
religious leaders. But not so many of democracy?
them would be satisfied with the Our interest in and fascination for
democracy in practice. So we face a democracy often pushes us into taking a
dilemma: democracy is seen to be good position that democracy can address all
socio-economic and political problems.
If some of our expectations are not met,
we start blaming the idea of democracy.
Or, we start doubting if we are living in
a democracy. The first step towards
thinking carefully about the outcomes
© RK Laxman - Brushing up the years
of democracy is to recognise that

democracy is just a form of government.
It can only create conditions for achieving
Democratic Politics
something. The citizens have to take

advantage of those conditions and
achieve those goals. Let us examine some
of the things we can reasonably expect
from democracy and examine the record
of democracy.
90
Accountable, responsive and legitimate government
There are some things that democracy Governmental Secrecy
must provide. In a democracy, we are
most concerned with ensuring that
people will have the right to choose their
rulers and people will have control over
© Mike Keefe - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

the rulers. Whenever possible and
necessary, citizens should be able to
participate in decision making, that affects
them all. Therefore, the most basic
outcome of democracy should be that
it produces a government that is
accountable to the citizens, and
responsive to the needs and expectations
of the citizens.
Before we go into this question, we
face another common question: Is the Now look at the other side – Can you think of what
and how the
democratic government efficient? Is it democracy ensures that decision making government knows
effective? Some people think that will be based on norms and procedures. about you and your
family (for example
democracy produces less effective So, a citizen who wants to know if a
ration cards and
government. It is, of course, true that decision was taken through the correct voter identity cards)?
non-democratic rulers do not have to procedures can find this out. She has the What are the sources
of information for you
bother about deliberation in assemblies or right and the means to examine the about the
worry about majorities and public opinion. process of decision making. This is government?
So, they can be very quick and efficient in known as transparency. This factor is
decision making and implementation. often missing from a non-democratic
Democracy is based on the idea of government. Therefore, when we are
deliberation and negotiation. So, some delay trying to find out the outcomes of
is bound to take place. Does that make democracy, it is right to expect
democratic government inefficient? democracy to produce a government
Let us think in terms of costs. that follows procedures and is
Imagine a government that may take accountable to the people. We can also
decisions very fast. But it may take expect that the democratic government
decisions that are not accepted by the develops mechanisms for citizens to hold
people and may therefore face problems. the government accountable and
In contrast, the democratic government mechanisms for citizens to take part in
will take more time to follow decision making whenever they think fit.
procedures before arriving at a decision. If you wanted to measure
But because it has followed procedures, democracies on the basis of this
its decisions may be both more expected outcome, you would look for
acceptable to the people and more the following practices and institutions:
effective. So, the cost of time that regular, free and fair elections; open
democracy pays is perhaps worth it. public debate on major policies and
91
legislations; and citizens’ right to population. The routine tales of
So, the best
information about the government and corruption are enough to convince us that
outcome of
democracy is
its functioning. The actual performance democracy is not free of this evil. At the
that it is a of democracies shows a mixed record same time, there is nothing to show that
democracy! That on this. Democracies have had greater non-democracies are less corrupt or
is what we have success in setting up regular and free more sensitive to the people.
discovered after elections and in setting up conditions for There is one respect in which
all this mental open public debate. But most democratic government is certainly
gymnastics? democracies fall short of elections that better than its alternatives: democratic
provide a fair chance to everyone and in government is legitimate government.
subjecting every decision to public debate. It may be slow, less efficient, not always
Democratic governments do not have a very responsive or clean. But a
very good record when it comes to democratic government is people’s own
sharing information with citizens. All one government. That is why there is an
can say in favour of democratic regimes overwhelming support for the idea of
is that they are much better than any democracy all over the world. As the
non-democratic regime in these respects. accompanying evidence from South
In substantive terms it may be Asia shows, the support exists in
reasonable to expect from democracy a countries with democratic regimes as
government that is attentive to the needs well as countries without democratic
and demands of the people and is largely regimes. People wish to be ruled by
free of corruption. The record of representatives elected by them. They
democracies is not impressive on these also believe that democracy is suitable
two counts. Democracies often frustrate for their country. Democracy’s ability
the needs of the people and often ignore to generate its own support is itself an
the demands of a majority of its outcome that cannot be ignored.
Democracy is preferred Very few doubt the suitability of democracy

over dictatorship for their own country
South Asia everywhere except How suitable is democracy for your country?
28
Pakistan Very suitable Suitable
South Asia 88
Those who agree with one of
Bangladesh 93
10 the statements
62 Sri Lanka 92
62 India 92
Pakistan 84
Nepal 79
0 50 100
Overwhelming support for democracy
Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Those who agree with the rule of leaders elected by the people
Democratic Politics
Democracy is Strongly agree Agree

preferable 69 70 62 37 71 South Asia 94
Sometimes dictatorship Sri Lanka 98
Bangladesh 96
is better 6 9 10 14 11 India 95
Doesn’t Nepal 94
matter to me 25 21 28 49 18 Pakistan 81
0 50 100
Source: SDSA Team, State of Democracy in South Asia, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007
92
Economic growth and development
If democracies are expected to produce cooperation from other countries,
good governments, then is it not fair to economic priorities adopted by the
expect that they would also produce country, etc. However, the difference in
development? Evidence shows that in the rates of economic development
practice many democracies did not fulfil between less developed countries with
this expectation. dictatorships and democracies is
If you consider all democracies and negligible. Overall, we cannot say that
all dictatorships for the fifty years between democracy is a guarantee of economic
1950 and 2000, dictatorships have slightly development. But we can expect
higher rate of economic growth. The democracy not to lag behind
inability of democracy to achieve higher dictatorships in this respect.
economic development worries us. But When we find such significant Cartoon on this page
this alone cannot be reason to reject difference in the rates of economic and next three pages tell
us about the disparities
democracy. As you have already studied growth between countries under between the rich and
in economics, economic development dictatorship and democracy, it is better poor. Should the gains
of economic growth be
depends on several factors: country’s to prefer democracy as it has several
evenly distributed? How
population size, global situation, other positive outcomes. can the poor get a voice
for a better share in a
nation? What can the
poor countries do to
The Rich Get Buff receive a greater share
in the world’s wealth?
© RJ Matson - Cagle Cartoons Inc.
93
Economic outcomes
ofdemocracy
Arguments about democracy tend to Poor Kids
be very passionate. This is how it
should be, for democracy appeals to
some of our deep values. These
debates cannot be resolved in a
© Jimmy Margulies - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

simple manner. But some debates
about democracy can and should be
resolved by referring to some facts
and figures. The debate about the
economic outcomes of democracy is
one such debate. Over the years
many students of democracy have
gathered careful evidence to see
what the relationship of democracy
with economic growth and economic
inequalities is. The tables and the
cartoon here present some of the evidences:
z Table 1 shows that on an average dictatorial regimes have had a slightly better record
of economic growth. But when we compare their record only in poor countries, there is
virtually no difference.
z Table 2 shows that within democracies there can be very high degree of inequalities. In
democratic countries like South Africa and Brazil, the top 20 per cent people take away
more than 60 per cent of the national income, leaving less than 3 per cent for the bottom
20 per cent population. Countries like Denmark and Hungary are much better in this respect.
z You can see in the cartoon, there is often inequality of opportunities available to the
poorer sections.
What would be your verdict on democracy if you had to base it purely on economic
performance of democratic regimes in terms of growth and equal distribution?
Table 2
Inequality of income in selected countries
Table 1
Name of the % share of national
Rates of economic growth for different countries,
Countries income
1950-2000
Top 20 % Bottom 20 %
Democratic Politics
Type of regimes and countries Growth Rate South Africa 64.8 2.9
All democratic regimes 3.95 Brazil 63.0 2.6
All dictatorial regimes 4.42 Russia 53.7 4.4
Poor countries under dictatorship 4.34 USA 50.0 4.0
Poor countries under democracy 4.28 United Kingdom 45.0 6.0
Source: A Przeworski, M E Alvarez, J A Cheibub and F Limongi, Democracy and Denmark 34.5 9.6
Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000. Hungary 34.4 10.0
94
Reduction of inequality and poverty
Perhaps more than development, it is Democracies are based on political
reasonable to expect democracies to equality. All individuals have equal weight
reduce economic disparities. Even when in electing representatives. Parallel to the
a country achieves economic growth, will process of bringing individuals into the
wealth be distributed in such a way that political arena on an equal footing, we
all citizens of the country will have a find growing economic inequalities. A
share and lead a better life? Is economic small number of ultra-rich enjoy a highly
growth in democracies accompanied by disproportionate share of wealth and Democracy is a
increased inequalities among the people? incomes. Not only that, their share in the rule of the
Or do democracies lead to a just total income of the country has been majority. The
distribution of goods and opportunities? increasing. Those at the bottom of the poor are in
majority. So
society have very little to depend upon.
Voice of the Poor democracy must
Their incomes have been declining.
be a rule of the
Sometimes they find it difficult to meet
poor. How can
their basic needs of life, such as food,
this not be the
clothing, house, education and health. case?
In actual life, democracies do not
appear to be very successful in reducing
economic inequalities. In Class IX
Economics textbook, you have already
studied about poverty in India. The
poor constitute a large proportion
of our voters and no party will
like to lose their votes. Yet
democratically elected
governments do not
appear to be as keen to
address the question of
poverty as you would
expect them to. The
© Ares - Best of Latin America, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
situation is much worse in

some other countries. In
Bangladesh, more than
half of its population lives

in poverty. People in
several poor countries are
now dependent on the rich
countries even for food
supplies.
95
World’s Wealth Owned by a Few
© Manny Francisco - The Phillippines, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Accommodation of social diversity
Do democracies lead to peaceful and social differences. Ability to handle social
harmonious life among citizens? It will differences, divisions and conflicts is thus
be a fair expectation that democracy a definite plus point of democratic
should produce a harmonious social life. regimes. But the example of Sri Lanka
All you are saying
We have seen in the earlier chapters how reminds us that a democracy must fulfil
is that
democracies accommodate various social two conditions in order to achieve this
democracy
divisions. We saw in the first chapter how outcome:
ensures that
people do not Belgium has successfully negotiated z It is necessary to understand that
break each differences among ethnic populations. democracy is not simply rule by majority
other’s head. Democracies usually develop a procedure opinion. The majority always needs to
This is not to conduct their competition. This reduces work with the minority so that
harmony. Should the possibility of these tensions becoming governments function to represent the
we be happy explosive or violent. general view. Majority and minority
about it? No society can fully and permanently opinions are not permanent.
Democratic Politics
resolve conflicts among different groups. z It is also necessary that rule by

But we can certainly learn to respect these majority does not become rule by
differences and we can also evolve majority community in terms of religion
mechanisms to negotiate the differences. or race or linguistic group, etc. Rule by
Democracy is best suited to produce this majority means that in case of every
outcome. Non-democratic regimes often decision or in case of every election,
turn a blind eye to or suppress internal different persons and groups may and
96
can form a majority. Democracy remains from being in majority on the basis of
democracy only as long as every citizen birth, then the democratic rule ceases
has a chance of being in majority at some to be accommodative for that person
point of time. If someone is barred or group.
Enemies
© Ares - Best of Latin America, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Greeting
The two images depict two different kinds of

effects democratic politics can have on social
divisions. Take one example for each image
and write a paragraph each on the outcome
of democratic politics in both situations.
Dignity and freedom of the citizens

Democracy stands much superior to any principle. This has been achieved in
other for m of government in various degrees in various democracies.
promoting dignity and freedom of the For societies which have been built for
individual. Every individual wants to long on the basis of subordination and
receive respect from fellow beings. domination, it is not a simple matter to
Often conflicts arise among individuals recognize that all individuals are equal.
because some feel that they are not Take the case of dignity of women.
treated with due respect. The passion for Most societies across the world were
respect and freedom are the basis of historically male dominated societies.
democracy. Democracies throughout the Long struggles by women have created
world have recognised this, at least in some sensitivity today that respect to and
97
equal treatment of women are necessary distinctive about democracy is that its
I am anxious ingredients of a democratic society. That examination never gets over. As
about my board does not mean that women are actually democracy passes one test, it produces
exams. But always treated with respect. But once the another test. As people get some benefits
democracy has
principle is recognised, it becomes easier of democracy, they ask for more and
so many exams.
for women to wage a struggle against want to make democracy even better.
And millions of
what is now unacceptable legally and That is why when we ask people about
examiners!
morally. In a non-democratic set up, this the way democracy functions, they will
unacceptability would not have legal basis always come up with more expectations,
because the principle of individual and many complaints. The fact that
freedom and dignity would not have the people are complaining is itself a
legal and moral force there. The same is testimony to the success of democracy:
true of caste inequalities. Democracy in it shows that people have developed
India has strengthened the claims of the awareness and the ability to expect and
disadvantaged and discriminated castes to look critically at power holders and
for equal status and equal opportunity. the high and the mighty. A public
There are instances still of caste-based expression of dissatisfaction with
inequalities and atrocities, but these lack democracy shows the success of the
the moral and legal foundations. Perhaps democratic project: it transforms people
it is the recognition that makes ordinary from the status of a subject into that of
citizens value their democratic rights. a citizen. Most individuals today believe
Expectations from democracy also that their vote makes a difference to the
function as the criteria for judging any way the government is run and to their
democratic country. What is most own self-interest.
Rosa Still Inspires
Belief in the efficacy of vote is placed above the

calculus of utility
Those who say that their vote makes a difference...
© Pat Bagley - Cagle Cartoons Inc.
South Asia 65
Bangladesh 66
India 67
Democratic Politics
Nepal 75
Pakistan 50
Sri Lanka 65
0 80
Source: SDSA Team, State of Democracy in South
Asia, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007.
The above cartoon and graph. Illustrates a point made in this section
(Dignity and freedom of the citizens). Underline the sentences from
this section which connect to the cartoon or graph.
98
1. How does democracy produce an accountable, responsive and
legitimate government?
2. What are the conditions under which democracies accommodate
social diversities?
3. Give arguments to support or oppose the following assertions:
z Industrialised countries can afford democracy but the poor
need dictatorship to become rich.
z Democracy can’t reduce inequality of incomes between
different citizens.
z Government in poor countries should spend less on poverty
reduction, health, education and spend more on industries and
Exercises
infrastructure.
z In democracy all citizens have one vote, which means that
there is absence of any domination and conflict.
4. Identify the challenges to democracy in the following descriptions.
Also suggest policy/institutional mechanism to deepen democracy
in the given situations:
z Following a High Court directive a temple in Orissa that had
separate entry doors for dalits and non-dalits allowed entry
for all from the same door.
z A large number of farmers are committing suicide in different
states of India.
z Following allegation of killing of three civilians in Gandwara in a
fake encounter by Jammu and Kashmir police, an enquiry has
been ordered.
5. In the context of democracies, which of the following ideas is
correct – democracies have successfully eliminated:
A. conflicts among people
B. economic inequalities among people
C. differences of opinion about how marginalised sections
are to be treated
D. the idea of political inequality
6. In the context of assessing democracy which among the following
is odd one out. Democracies need to ensure:
A. free and fair elections

B. dignity of the individual
C. majority rule
D. equal treatment before law
7. Studies on political and social inequalities in democracy show that
A. democracy and development go together.
B. inequalities exist in democracies .
C. inequalities do not exist under dictatorship.
D. dictatorship is better than democracy.
99
8. Read the passage below:
Nannu is a daily wage earner. He lives in Welcome Mazdoor
Colony, a slum habitation in East Delhi. He lost his ration
card and applied for a duplicate one in January 2004. He
made several rounds to the local Food & Civil Supplies office
for the next three months. But the clerks and officials would
not even look at him, leave alone do his job or bother to tell
him the status of his application. Ultimately, he filed an
application under the Right to Information Act asking for the
daily progress made on his application, names of the
officials, who were supposed to act on his application and
what action would be taken against these officials for their
inaction. Within a week of filing application under the Right to
Information Act, he was visited by an inspector from the
Exercises
Food Department, who informed him that the card had been
made and he could collect it from the office. When Nannu
went to collect his card next day, he was given a very warm
treatment by the Food & Supply Officer (FSO), who is the
head of a Circle. The FSO offered him tea and requested him
to withdraw his application under the Right to Information,
since his work had already been done.
What does Nannu’s example show? What impact did Nannu’s
action have on officials? Ask your parents their experiences
when they approach government officials to attend to their
problems.
Democratic Politics
100
Political Parties
Overview
In this tour of democracy we have come across political parties several
Chapter 6
times. In Class IX, we noticed the role of political parties in the rise of
democracies, in the formation of constitutional designs, in electoral
politics and in the making and working of governments. In this
textbook, we have glanced at political parties as vehicles of federal
sharing of political power and as negotiator of social divisions in the
arena of democratic politics. Before concluding this tour, let us take
a close look at the nature and working of political parties, especially
in our country. We begin by asking two common questions: Why do
we need parties? How many parties are good for a democracy? In the
light of these we introduce the national and regional political parties
in today’s India and then look at what is wrong with political parties
and what can be done about it.
Political Parties
71
Why do we need political parties?
Political parties are easily one of the most blame parties for all that is wrong with
So, you agree
visible institutions in a democracy. For our democracy and our political life.
with me. Parties
are partial,
most ordinary citizens, democracy is equal Parties have become identified with
partisan and lead to political parties. If you travel to remote social and political divisions.
to partitions. parts of our country and speak to the Therefore, it is natural to ask – do
Parties do less educated citizens, you could come we need political parties at all? About
nothing but across people who may not know hundred years ago there were few
divide people. anything about our Constitution or about countries of the world that had any
That is their real the nature of our government. But political party. Now there are few that
function! chances are that they would know do not have parties. Why did political
something about our political parties. At parties become so omnipresent in
the same time this visibility does not mean democracies all over the world? Let us
popularity. Most people tend to be very first answer what political parties are and
critical of political parties. They tend to what they do, before we say why we need
them.
Meaning
A political party is a group of people
© (1) M Govarthan (2) A Muralidharan (3) M Moorthy (4) T Singaravelou, The Hindu
who come together to contest elections

and hold power in the government. They
agree on some policies and programmes
for the society with a view to promote
the collective good. Since there can be
different views on what is good for all,
(1)
(3)
Democratic Politics
(2)
Election Commission has officially banned wall
writing by parties during election times. Most
political parties argue that was the cheapest way for
their campaign. These election times used to
create amazing graffiti on the walls. Here are some (4)
examples from Tamil Nadu.
72
© RK Laxman - Brushing up the years
parties try to persuade people why their among the candidates put up by political
policies are better than others. They seek parties. Parties select their candidates in
to implement these policies by winning different ways. In some countries, such
popular support through elections. as the USA, members and supporters
Thus, parties reflect fundamental of a party choose its candidates. Now
political divisions in a society. Parties are more and more countries are following
about a part of the society and thus this method. In other countries like India,
involve PARTISANSHIP. Thus a party is top party leaders choose candidates for
known by which part it stands for, which contesting elections.
policies it supports and whose interests
2 Parties put forward different
it upholds. A political party has three
components: policies and programmes and the
z the leaders, voters choose from them. Each of us
z the active members and may have different opinions and views Partisan: A person
z the followers on what policies are suitable for the who is strongly
Political Parties
society. But no government can handle committed to a party,

Functions
such a large variety of views. In a group or faction.
What does a political party do? Basically,
democracy, a large number of similar Partisanship is marked
political parties fill political offices and
opinions have to be grouped together by a tendency to take a
exercise political power. Parties do so
to provide a direction in which policies side and inability to take
by performing a series of functions:
can be formulated by the governments. a balanced view on an
1 Parties contest elections. In most This is what the parties do. A party issue.
democracies, elections are fought mainly reduces a vast multitude of opinions into
73
a few basic positions which it supports. responsive to people’s needs and
A government is expected to base demands. Otherwise people can reject
its policies on the line taken by the those parties in the next elections.
RULING PARTY.
Necessity
3 Parties play a decisive role in making
This list of functions in a sense answers
laws for a country. Formally, laws are
the question asked above: we need
debated and passed in the legislature. But
political parties because they perform all
since most of the members belong to a
these functions. But we still need to ask
party, they go by the direction of the
why modern democracies cannot exist
party leadership, irrespective of their
without political parties. We can
personal opinions.
understand the necessity of political
4 Parties form and run governments. parties by imagining a situation without
As we noted last year, the big policy parties. Every candidate in the elections
decisions are taken by political executive will be independent. So no one will be
that comes from the political parties. able to make any promises to the people
Parties recruit leaders, trains them and about any major policy changes. The
then make them ministers to run the government may be formed, but its
government in the way they want. utility will remain ever uncertain. Elected
5 Those parties that lose in the elections representative will be accountable to their
play the role of opposition to the parties constituency for what they do in the
in power, by voicing different views and locality. But no one will be responsible
criticising government for its failures or for how the country run.
Okay, granted wrong policies. Opposition parties also We can also think about it by looking
that we can’t live mobilise opposition to the government. at the non-party based elections to the
without political
parties. But tell
6 Parties shape public opinion. They panchayat in many states. Although, the
me how do we raise and highlight issues. Parties have parties do not contest formally, it is
live with the kind lakhs of members and activists spread generally noticed that the village gets split
of political parties all over the country. Many of the pressure into more than one faction, each of
we have? groups are the extensions of political which puts up a ‘panel’ of its candidates.
parties among different sections of This is exactly what the party does. That
society. Parties sometimes also launch is the reason we find political parties in
movements for the resolution of almost all countries of the world,
problems faced by people. Often whether these countries are big or small,
opinions in the society crystallise on the old or new, developed or developing.
Democratic Politics
lines parties take. The rise of political parties is directly

7 Parties provide people access to linked to the emergence of
government machinery and welfare representative democracies. As we have
schemes implemented by governments. seen, large scale societies need
For an ordinary citizen it is easy to representative democracy. As societies
approach a local party leader than a became large and complex, they also
Ruling Party: Political government officer. That is why they feel needed some agency to gather different
party that runs close to parties even when they do not views on various issues and to present
government. fully trust them. Parties have to be these to the government. They needed
74
some way to bring various make policies, justify or oppose them.
representatives together so that a Political parties fulfill these needs that
responsible government could be every representative government has.
formed. They needed a mechanism to We can say that parties are a necessary
support or restrain the government, condition for a democracy.
Categorise these photographs by the functions of political parties they

illustrate. Find one photograph or news clipping from your own area for
each of the functions listed above.
© (1) C V Subrahmanyan (2) K Gopinathan
2
(3) A Chakrabarty, The Hindu
1 3
1: Activists of BJP Mahila Morcha demonstrating against hike in prices of onions and LPG in
Visakhapatnam
2: Minister distributes Rs One lakh cheque to the hooch victims family at their houses.
3: Activists of CPI (M), CPI, OGP and JD (S) take out a rally in Bhubaneswar to protest against
POSCO, the Korean steel company for being permitted by the State Government to export iron
ore from Orissa to feed steel plants in China and Korea
How many parties should we have?

In a democracy any group of citizens is parties are effectively in the race to win
Political Parties
free to form a political party. In this elections and form the government. So
formal sense there are a large number the question then is: how many major
of political parties in each country. More or effective parties are good for a
than 750 parties are registered with the democracy?
Election Commission of India. But not In some countries only one party is
all these parties are serious contenders in allowed to control and run the government.
the elections. Usually only a handful of These are called one-party systems.
75
A
moral force
in What did Kishenji mean by an alternative political formation? The
politics? question came up in a conversation between Sudha, Karuna,

Shaheen and Gracy. All four women had led very powerful people’s
movements in different parts of the country. They were meeting in
a village in Orissa, away from their day-to-day struggles, to think afresh the future of
people’s movements.
The discussion naturally turned to Kishenji, who was regarded as a friend, political
philosopher and moral guide by all the movement groups in the country. He had argued
that people’s movement should embrace politics openly. His argument was simple yet
powerful. Movements focused on a single issue are suitable as long as we wish to achieve
limited changes in a particular aspect of life. But if we wish to bring about a fundamental
social transformation, or basic change even in one aspect of life, we would need a political
organisation. People’s movement must establish a new political formation to act as a moral
force in politics. This was an urgent task, he said, because all the existing political parties
had become irrelevant for social transformation.
“But Kishenji never clarified what that organisation will be. He talked of an alternative
political formation or a third force in politics. But did he mean a political party?” said
Gracy. She felt that an old style political party was not the right instrument for social
change.
Sudha agreed with her. “I have thought about it several times. I agree that all the
struggles that we are involved with – the struggle against displacement, against
globalisation, against caste and gender oppression and for an alternative kind of
development – all this is political. But the moment we form a party, all the goodwill we
have earned all these years will be lost. People will think of us as no different from other
politicians.”
“Besides”, added Karuna, “we have seen that a lot
can be achieved by putting pressure on the
existing political parties. We tried putting up
candidates in panchayat elections, but the results
were not very encouraging. People respect our
work, they even adore us, but when it comes to
voting they go for the established political
parties.”
Shaheen did not agree with them: “Let us be very
Democratic Politics
clear. Kishenji wanted all the people’s movements

to forge a new political party. Of course he
wanted this party to be a different kind of a party.
He was not for political alternatives, but for an
alternative kind of politics.”
Kishenji is no more. What would be your
advice to these four activists? Should they
form a new political party? Can a political
© Zuban
party become a moral force in politics? What

should that party be like?
76
In Class IX, we noted that in China, only coalition. When several parties in a
the Communist Party is allowed to rule. multi-party system join hands for the
Although, legally speaking, people are purpose of contesting elections and
free to form political parties, it does not winning power, it is called an alliance
happen because the electoral system does or a front. For example, in India there
not permit free competition for power. were three such major alliances in 2004
We cannot consider one party system as parliamentary elections– the National
a good option because this is not a Democratic Alliance, the United
democratic option. Any democratic Progressive Alliance and the Left Front.
system must allow at least two parties The multi-party system often appears
to compete in elections and provide a very messy and leads to political
fair chance for the competing parties to instability. At the same time, this system
come to power. allows a variety of interests and
In some countries, power usually opinions to enjoy political
changes between two main parties. representation.
I don’t like so
Several other parties may exist, contest So, which of these is better? Perhaps many parties. It’s
elections and win a few seats in the the best answer to this very common such a mess. I
national legislatures. But only the two question is that this is not a very good wonder how the
main parties have a serious chance of question. Party system is not something politicians
winning majority of seats to form any country can choose. It evolves over manage these
government. Such a party system is called a long time, depending on the nature of coalitions. I can’t
two-party system. The United States of society, its social and regional divisions, even remember
America and the United Kingdom are its history of politics and its system of the names of all
examples of two-party system. elections. These cannot be changed very the parties.
If several parties compete for quickly. Each country develops a party

power, and more than two parties system that is conditioned by its special
have a reasonable chance of coming circumstances. For example, if India has
to power either on their own strength evolved a multi-party system, it is
or in alliance with others, we call it a because the social and geographical
multi-party system. Thus in India, we diversity in such a large country is not
have a multi-party system. In this easily absorbed by two or even three
system, the government is formed by parties. No system is ideal for all countries
various parties coming together in a and all situations.
Political Parties
Let us apply what we have learnt about party systems to the various
states within India. Here are three major types of party systems that
exist at the State level. Can you find the names of at least two States for each
of these types?
z Two-party system
z Multi-party system with two alliances
z Multi-party system
77
Popular
participation It is often said that political parties are facing
in a crisis because they are very unpopular and
political parties the citizens are indifferent to political parties.
The available evidence shows that this belief is only
partly true for India. The evidence, based on a series of
large sample surveys conducted over several decades, shows
that:
z Political parties do not enjoy much trust among the people in
South Asia. The proportion of those who say their trust in political
parties is ‘not much’ or ‘not at all’ is more than those who have
‘some’ or ‘great’ trust.
z The same is true of most other democracies as well. Political
parties are one of the least trusted institutions all over the world.
z Yet the level of participation in the activities of political parties
was fairly high. The proportion of those who said they were
members of some political party was higher in India than many
advanced countries like Canada, Japan, Spain and South Korea.
z Over the last three
decades the proportion of
those who report to be
members of political parties
in India has gone up
steadily.
z The proportion of those
who say they feel ‘close to
a political party’ has also
gone up in India in this
period.
Democratic Politics
Source: SDSA Team, State of Democracy in South Asia, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007
78
Crunching Numbers
Does the cartoonist reflect the data graphics shown in the

previous page?
National political parties

Democracies that follow a federal system facilities are ‘recognised’ by the Election
all over the world tend to have two kinds Commission for this purpose. That is
of political parties: parties that are present why these parties are called, ‘recognised
in only one of the federal units and political parties’. The Election
parties that are present in several or all Commission has laid down detailed
units of the federation. This is the case in criteria of the proportion of votes and
India as well. There are some country-
seats that a party must get in order to be
wide parties, which are called ‘national
a recognised party. A party that secures
parties’. These parties have their units in
at least 6 per cent of the total votes in an
various states. But by and large all these
election to the Legislative Assembly of a
units follow the same policies,
programmes and strategy that is decided State and wins at least two seats is
at the national level. recognised as a State party. A party that
secures at least six per cent of total votes
Every party in the country has to
in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly
Political Parties
register with the Election Commission.

While the Commission treats all parties elections in four States and wins at least
equally, it offers some special facilities to four seats in the Lok Sabha is recognised
large and established parties. These as a national party.
parties are given a unique symbol – only According to this classification, there
the official candidates of that party can were six national recognised parties in
use that election symbol. Parties that get the country in 2006. Let us learn
this privilege and some other special something about each of these parties.
79
Indian National Congress west and to urban areas, the party
(INC): Popularly known as expanded its support in the south, east,
the Congress Party. One of the north-east and to rural areas. Came
the oldest parties of the to power in 1998 as the leader of the
world. Founded in 1885 and has National Democratic Alliance including
experienced many splits. Played a several state and regional parties. Lost
dominant role in Indian politics at the elections in 2004 and is the principal
national and state level for several decades opposition party in the Lok Sabha.
after India’s Independence. Under the Bahujan Samaj
leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, the party Party (BSP): Formed
sought to build a modern secular in 1984 under the
democratic republic in India. Ruling leadership of Kanshi
party at the centre till 1977 and then from Ram. Seeks to represent and secure
1980 to 1989. After 1989, its support power for the bahujan samaj which
declined, but it continues to be present includes the dalits, adivasis, OBCs and
throughout the country, cutting across religious minorities. Draws inspiration
social divisions. A centrist party (neither from the ideas and teachings of Sahu
rightist nor leftist) in its ideological Maharaj, Mahatma Phule, Periyar
orientation, the party espouses Ramaswami Naicker and Babasaheb
secularism and welfare of weaker Ambedkar. Stands for the cause of
sections and minorities. Supports new securing the interests and welfare of the
economic reforms but with a human dalits and oppressed people. It has its
face. Emerged as the largest party with main base in the state of Uttar Pradesh
145 members in the Lok Sabha elections and substantial presence in neighbouring
held in 2004. Currently leads the ruling states like Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
United Progressive Alliance coalition Uttarakhand, Delhi and Punjab. Formed
government at the Centre. government in Uttar Pradesh several
Bharatiya Janata Party times by taking the support of different
(BJP): Founded in 1980 by parties at different times. In the Lok
Sabha elections held in 2004, it polled
reviving the erstwhile
about 5 per cent votes and secured 19
Bharatiya Jana Sangh.
seats in the Lok Sabha.
Wants to build a strong and modern
India by drawing inspiration from India’s Communist Party of
ancient culture and values. Cultural India - Marxist (CPI-M):
Democratic Politics
nationalism (or ‘Hindutva’) is an Founded in 1964.

important element in its conception of Believes in Marxism-
Indian nationhood and politics. Wants Leninism. Supports socialism, secularism
full territorial and political integration of and democracy and opposes imperialism
Jammu and Kashmir with India, a and communalism. Accepts democratic
uniform civil code for all people living elections as a useful and helpful means
in the country irrespective of religion, for securing the objective of socio-
and ban on religious conversions. Its economic justice in India. Enjoys strong
support base increased substantially in support in West Bengal, Kerala and
the 1990s. Earlier limited to north and Tripura, especially among the poor,
80
factory workers, farmers, agricultural Bengal, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and
labourers and the intelligentsia. Critical Tamil Nadu. Its support base had
of the new economic policies that allow gradually declined over the years. It
free flow of foreign capital and goods secured about 1.4 per cent votes and 10
into the country. Has been in power in seats in the 2004 Lok Sabha elections.
West Bengal without a break for 30 years. Advocates the coming together of all left
In 2004 elections, it won about 6 per parties to build a strong left front.
cent of votes and 43 seats in the Lok Currently supports UPA government
Sabha. Currently supports the UPA from outside.
government from outside, without
joining the government. Nationalist Congress
Party (NCP): Formed in
Communist Party of
1999 following a split in the
India (CPI): Formed
Congress party. Espouses
in 1925. Believes in
democracy, Gandhian secularism, equity,
Marxism-Leninism,
social justice and federalism. Wants that
secularism and democracy. Opposed to
the forces of secessionism and high offices in government be confined
communalism. Accepts parliamentary to natural born citizens of the country.
democracy as a means of promoting A major party in Maharashtra and has a
the interests of the working class, farmers significant presence in Meghalaya,
and the poor. Became weak after the Manipur and Assam. A coalition partner
split in the party in 1964 that led to the in the state of Maharashtra in alliance
formation of the CPI(M). Significant with the Congress. Since 2004, a member
presence in the states of Kerala, West of the United Progressive Alliance.
State parties
Other than these six parties, most of the Over the last three decades, the
major parties of the country are classified number and strength of these parties has
by the Election Commission as ‘State expanded. This made the Parliament of
parties’. These are commonly referred India politically more and more diverse.
to as regional parties. Yet these parties No one national party is able to secure
need not be regional in their ideology on its own a majority in Lok Sabha. As
or outlook. Some of these parties are a result, the national parties are compelled
all India parties that happen to have to form alliances with State parties. Since
Political Parties
succeeded only in some states. Parties like 1996, nearly every one of the State
the Samajwadi Party, Samata Party and parties has got an opportunity to be a
Rashtriya Janata Dal have national level part of one or the other national level
political organisation with units in several coalition government. This has
states. Some of these parties like Biju contributed to the strengthening of
Janata Dal, Sikkim Democratic Front federalism and democracy in our
and Mizo National Front are conscious country. (See the map on the next page
about their State identity. for details of these parties).
81
82
Democratic Politics
Challenges to political parties
We have seen how crucial political parties working of political parties. Political
are for the working of democracy. Since parties need to face and overcome these
parties are the most visible face of challenges in order to remain effective
democracy, it is natural that people blame instruments of democracy.
parties for whatever is wrong with the The first challenge is lack of
working of democracy. All over the internal democracy within parties. All
world, people express strong over the world there is a tendency in
dissatisfaction with the failure of political political parties towards the
parties to perform their functions well. concentration of power in one or few
This is the case in our country too. leaders at the top. Parties do not keep
Popular dissatisfaction and criticism has membership registers, do not hold
focussed on four problem areas in the organisational meetings, and do not
conduct internal elections regularly.
Berlusconi Puppet Theatre Ordinary members of the party do not
get sufficient information on what
happens inside the party. They do not
have the means or
the connections
needed to influence
the decisions. As a
result the leaders
assume greater
power to make
decisions in the
name of the party.
Since one or few
leaders exercise
paramount power
© Riber Hansson - Svenska Dagbladet, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
in the party, those

who disagree with
the leadership find it
Berlusconi was the Prime

Political Parties
Minister of Italy. He is also

one of the top business man
Why don’t parties
in Italy. He is the leader of the
Forza Italia founded in 1993. give enough
His company owns TV tickets to
channels, the most important women? Is that
publishing company, a foot
ball club (AC Milan) and a also due to lack
bank. This cartoon was of internal
made during the last democracy?
elections.
83
difficult to continue in the party. More The third challenge is about the
than loyalty to party principles and growing role of money and muscle
policies, personal loyalty to the leader power in parties, especially during
becomes more important. elections. Since parties are focussed only
The second challenge of dynastic on winning elections, they tend to use
succession is related to the first one. Since short-cuts to win elections. They tend to
most political parties do not practice nominate those candidates who have or
open and transparent procedures for can raise lots of money. Rich people and
their functioning, there are very few ways companies who give funds to the parties
for an ordinary worker to rise to the top tend to have influence on the policies and
in a party. Those who happen to be the decisions of the party. In some cases,
leaders are in a position of unfair parties support criminals who can win
advantage to favour people close to elections. Democrats all over the world
them or even their family members. In are worried about the increasing role of
many parties, the top positions are always rich people and big companies in
controlled by members of one family. democratic politics.
This is unfair to other members of that The fourth challenge is that very
party. This is also bad for democracy, often parties do not seem to offer a
since people who do not have adequate meaningful choice to the voters. In
experience or popular support come to order to offer meaningful choice, parties
occupy positions of power. This must be significantly different. In recent
tendency is present in some measure all years there has been a decline in the
over the world, including in some of ideological differences among parties in
the older democracies. most parts of the world. For example,
the difference between the Labour Party
and the Conservative Party in Britain is
very little. They agree on more
fundamental aspects but differ
only in details on how policies
are to be framed and
implemented. In our country
too, the differences among all the
major parties on the economic
policies have reduced. Those
who want really different policies
Democratic Politics
have no option available to them.

© Huffaker - Cagle Cartoons Inc.
Sometimes people cannot even

elect very different leaders either,
because the same set of leaders
keep shifting from one party to
another.
84
© Manjul - DNA
Most cartoons caricature politicians. From the cartoons (on page 83 to 85), can
you identify which of the challenges described in this section is being highlighted
in these cartoons. They relate to Italy, US and India.
How can parties be reformed?

In order to face these challenges, political them do not wish to reform, how can
parties need to be reformed. The anyone force them to change?
question is: Are political parties willing Let us look at some of the recent
to reform? If they are willing, what has
efforts and suggestions in our country
prevented them from reforming so far?
to reform political parties and its leaders:
Political Parties
If they are not willing, is it possible to

force them to reform? Citizens all over z The Constitution was amended to
prevent elected MLAs and MPs from Defection: Changing
the world face this question. This is not
changing parties. This was done because party allegiance from
a simple question to answer. In a
many elected representatives were the party on which a
democracy, the final decision is made by
indulging in DEFECTION in order to person got elected (to a
leaders who represent political parties.
legislative body) to a
People can replace them, but only by become ministers or for cash rewards.
different party.
another set of party leaders. If all of Now the law says that if any MLA or
85
clear if this step has led to greater internal
democracy in political parties.
Besides these, many suggestions are
often made to reform political parties:
z A law should be made to regulate
the internal affairs of political parties. It
should be made compulsory for political
parties to maintain a register of its
members, to follow its own constitution,
to have an independent authority, to act
as a judge in case of party disputes, to
© Keshav - The Hindu
hold open elections to the highest posts.

z It should be made mandatory for
political parties to give a minimum
number of tickets, about one-third, to
women candidates. Similarly, there should
Do you agree that this form of reforming political parties will be be a quota for women in the decision
acceptable to them?
making bodies of the party.
MP changes parties, he or she will lose
z There should be state funding of
the seat in the legislature. This new law
elections. The government should give
has helped bring defection down. At the
same time this has made any dissent even parties money to support their election
more difficult. MPs and MLAs have to expenses. This support could be given in
accept whatever the party leaders decide. kind: petrol, paper, telephone etc. Or it
could be given in cash on the basis of
z The Supreme Court passed an order
the votes secured by the party in the last
to reduce the influence of money and
election.
criminals. Now, it is mandatory for every
candidate who contests elections to file These suggestions have not yet been
an AFFIDAVIT giving details of his property accepted by political parties. If and when
and criminal cases pending against him. these are accepted these could lead to
The new system has made a lot of some improvement. But we must be
information available to the public. But very careful about legal solutions to
there is no system of check if the political problems. Over-regulation of
information given by the candidates is political parties can be counter-
Democratic Politics
true. As yet we do not know if it has led productive. This would force all parties
to decline in the influence of the rich and to find ways to cheat the law. Besides,
the criminals. political parties will not agree to pass a
Affidavit: A signed z The Election Commission passed an law that they do not like.
document submitted to order making it necessary for political There are two other ways in which
an officer, where a parties to hold their organisational political parties can be reformed. One,
person makes a sworn elections and file their income tax returns. people can put pressure on political
statement regarding her The parties have started doing so but parties. This can be done through
personal information. sometimes it is mere formality. It is not petitions, publicity and agitations.
86
Ordinary citizens, pressure groups and The quality of democracy depends on
movements and the media can play an the degree of public participation. It is
important role in this. If political parties difficult to reform politics if ordinary
feel that they would lose public support citizens do not take part in it and simply
by not taking up reforms, they would criticise it from the outside. The problem
become more serious about reforms. of bad politics can be solved by more
Two, political parties can improve if and better politics. We shall return to this
those who want this join political parties. theme in the final chapter.
1. State the various functions political parties perform in a

democracy.
2. What are the various challenges faced by political parties?
3. Suggest some reforms to strengthen parties so that they perform
Exercises
their functions well?
4. What is a political party?
5. What are the characteristics of a political party?
6. A group of people who come together to contest elections and
hold power in the government is called a _____________________.
7. Match List I (organisations and struggles) with List II and select
the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List I List II
1. Congress Party A. National Democratic
Alliance
2. Bharatiya Janata Party B. State party
3. Communist Party of India C. United Progressive
(Marxist) Alliance
4. Telugu Desam Party D. Left Front
1 2 3 4
(a) C A B D
(b) C D A B
(c) C A D B
(d) D C A B
8. Who among the following is the founder of the Bahujan Samaj Party?
A. Kanshi Ram
Political Parties
B. Sahu Maharaj
C. B.R. Ambedker
D. Jotiba Phule
9. What is the guiding philosophy of the Bharatiya Janata Party?
A. Bahujan Samaj
B. Revolutionary democracy
C. Integral humanism
D. Modernity
87
10. Consider the following statements on parties.
A. Political parties do not enjoy much trust among the people.
B. Parties are often rocked by scandals involving top party leaders.
C. Parties are not necessary to run governments.
(a) A, B, and C (b) A and B (c) B and C (d) A and C
11. Read the following passage and answer the questions given below:
Muhammad Yunus is a famous economist of Bangladesh. He
received several international honours for his efforts to
promote economic and social development for the benefit of
the poor. He and the Grameen Bank he started jointly,
received the Nobel Peace Prize for the 2006. In February
Exercises
2007, he decided to launch a political party and contest in the
parliamentary elections. His objective was to foster proper
leadership, good governance and build a new Bangladesh. He
felt that only a political party different from the traditional
ones would bring about new political culture. His party would
be democratic from the grassroots level.
The launching of the new party, called Nagarik Shakti
(Citizens’ Power), has caused a stir among the Bangladeshis.
While many welcomed his decision, some did not like it. “Now I
think Bangladesh will have a chance to choose between good
and bad and eventually have a good government,” said
Shahedul Islam, a government official. “That government, we
hope, would not only keep itself away from corruption but also
make fighting corruption and black money a top priority.”
But leaders of traditional political parties who dominated
the country’s politics for decades were apprehensive. “There
was no debate (over him) winning the Nobel, but politics is
different – very challenging and often controversial,” said a
senior leader of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party. Some others
were highly critical. They asked why he was rushing into
politics. “Is he being planted in politics by mentors from
outside the country,” asked one political observer.
Democratic Politics
Do you think Yunus made a right decision to float a new political

party?
Do you agree with the statements and fears expressed by various
people? How do you want this new party organised to make it
different from other parties? If you were the one to begin this
political party how would you defend it?
88
Popular
Struggles and
Movements
Overview
In the earlier chapters we discussed why power sharing is important
in a democracy and how different tiers of government and various
social groups share power. In this chapter we will carry this discussion
further and see how those who exercise power are constrained by the
influence and pressure exerted on them. Democracy almost invariably
involves conflict of interests and viewpoints. These differences are Chapter 5
P o p u l a r St r u g g l e s a n d Mo v e m e n t s
often expressed in organised ways. Those who are in power are required
to balance these conflicting demands and pressures. We begin this
chapter with a discussion of how struggles around conflicting demands
and pressures shape democracy. This leads to an analysis of the
different ways and organisations through which ordinary citizen can
play a role in democracy. In this chapter, we look at the indirect ways
of influencing politics, through pressure groups and movements.
This leads us in the next chapter to the direct ways of controlling
political power in the form of political parties.
57
Popular struggles in Nepal and Bolivia
Do you remember the story of the king formally remained the head of the
triumph of democracy in Poland? We state, the real power was exercised by
studied it last year in the first chapter popularly elected representatives. King
of class IX. The story reminded us Birendra, who has accepted this transition
about the role played by the people from absolute monarchy to constitutional
in the making of democracy. Let us monarchy, was killed in a mysterious
read two recent stories of that kind massacre of the royal family in 2001.
and see how power is exercised in King Gyanendra, the new king of Nepal,
democracy. was not prepared to accept democratic
rule. He took advantage of the weakness
Movement for democracy in and unpopularity of the democratically
Nepal elected government. In February 2005,
Nepal witnessed an extraordinary the king dismissed the then Prime Minister
popular movement in April 2006. The and dissolved the popularly elected
movement was aimed at restoring Parliament. The movement of April
democracy. Nepal, you might recall, was 2006 was aimed at regaining popular
one of the ‘third wave’ countries that had control over the government from
won democracy in 1990. Although the the king.
Democratic Politics
58
© Min Bajarachya
Political parties and people of Nepal in a rally demanding restoration of democracy in their country
All the major political parties in the restoration of parliament, power to

parliament formed a Seven Party an all-party government and a new
Alliance (SPA) and called for a four day constituent assembly.
strike in Kathmandu, the country’s capital. On 24 April 2004, the last day of
This protest soon turned into an the ultimatum, the king was forced to
indefinite strike in which M AOIST concede all the three demands. The SPA
insurgents and various other chose Girija Prasad Koirala as the new
organisations joined hands. People defied Prime Minister of the interim
curfew and took to the streets. The government. The restored parliament
security forces found themselves unable met and passed laws taking away most
to take on more than a lakh people who of the powers of the king. The SPA and
gathered almost every day to demand the Maoists came to an understanding Maoists: Those
restoration of democracy. The number about how the new Constituent communists who believe
in the ideology of Mao, the
of protesters reached between three to Assembly was going to be elected. This leader of the Chinese
five lakhs on 21 April and they served struggle came to be known as Nepal’s revolution. They seek to
an ultimatum to the king. The leaders second movement for democracy. The overthrow the government
of the movement rejected the half- struggle of the Nepali people is a source through an armed
revolution so as to
hearted concessions made by the king. of inspiration to democrats all over establish the rule of the
They stuck to their demand for the world. peasants and workers.
59
Bolivia’s Water War Democracy and popular
The story of Poland and that of Nepal struggles
apply to the struggle for establishing or These two stories are from very different
restoring democracy. But the role of contexts. The movement in Nepal was
popular struggles does not come to an to establish democracy, while the struggle
end with the establishment of democracy. in Bolivia involved claims on an elected,
People’s successful struggle against democratic government. The popular
struggle in Bolivia was about one specific
privatisation of water in Bolivia reminds
policy, while the struggle in Nepal was
us that popular struggles are integral to
about the foundations of the country’s
the working of democracy.
politics. Both these struggles were
Bolivia is a poor country in Latin successful but their impact was at
America. The World Bank pressurised the different levels.
government to give up its control of Despite these differences, both the
municipal water supply. The government stories share some elements which are
sold these rights for the city of relevant to the study of the past and
Cochabamba to a multi-national future of democracies. Both these are
company (MNC). The company instances of political conflict that led to
immediately increased the price of water popular struggles. In both cases the
by four times. Many people received struggle involved mass mobilisation.
monthly water bill of Rs 1000 in a Public demonstration of mass support
country where average income is around clinched the dispute. Finally, both
Rs 5000 a month. This led to a instances involved critical role of political
spontaneous popular protest. organisations. If you recall the first
chapter of class IX textbook, this is how
In January 2000, a new alliance of
democracy has evolved all over the
labour, human rights and community world. We can therefore draw a few
leaders organised a successful four-day conclusions from these examples:
general strike in the city. The government
z Democracy evolves through
agreed to negotiate and the strike was
popular struggles. It is possible that some
called off. Yet nothing happened. The significant decisions may take place
police resorted to brutal repression when through consensus and may not involve
Are you the agitation was started again in February. any conflict at all. But that would be an
suggesting that
Another strike followed in April and the exception. Defining moments of
strike, dharna,
Democratic Politics
government imposed martial law. But the democracy usually involve conflict
bandh and
demonstration
power of the people forced the officials between those groups who have
are a good thing? of the MNC to flee the city and made exercised power and those who aspire
I thought it the government concede to all the for a share in power. These moments
happened only in demands of the protesters. The contract come when the country is going through
our country, with the MNC was cancelled and water transition to democracy, expansion of
because we are supply was restored to the municipality democracy or deepening of democracy.
not a mature
at old rates. This came to be known as z Democratic conflict is resolved
democracy yet.
Bolivia’s water war. through mass mobilisation. Sometimes
60
it is possible that the conflict is resolved based on new political organisations.
True, there is an element of spontaneity Does it mean that
by using the existing institutions like the
in all such historic moments. But the whichever side
parliament or the judiciary. But when
spontaneous public participation manages to
there is a deep dispute, very often these mobilise a bigger
becomes effective with the help of
institutions themselves get involved in the crowd gets away
organised politics. There can be many
dispute. The resolution has to come with whatever it
agencies of organised politics. These
from outside, from the people. include political parties, pressure groups wants? Are we
and movement groups. saying that ‘Might
z These conflicts and mobilisations are
is Right’ in a
democracy?
In 1984, the Karnataka government set up a company called Karnataka Pulpwood

Limited. About 30,000 hectares of land was given virtually free to this company for 40
years. Much of this land was used by local farmers as grazing land for their cattle.
However the company began to plant eucalyptus trees on this land, which could be used
for making paper pulp. In 1987, a movement called Kittiko-Hachchiko (meaning, pluck and
plant) started a non-violent protest, where people plucked the eucalyptus plants and
planted saplings of trees that were useful to the people.
Suppose you belong to any of the following groups, what arguments would you put
forward to defend your side: a local farmer, an environmental activist, a government
official working in this company or just a consumer of paper.
Mobilisation and organisations
Let us go back to our two examples and party was involved in an armed struggle
look at the organisations that made these against the Nepali government and had
struggles successful. We noted that the established its control over large parts
call for indefinite strike was given by the of Nepal.
SPA or the Seven Party Alliance in Nepal. The strug gle involved many
This alliance included some big parties organisations other than political parties.
that had some members in the All the major labour unions and their
Parliament. But the SPA was not the only federations joined this movement. Many
organisation behind this mass upsurge. other organisations like the organisation
The protest was joined by the Nepalese of the indigenous people, teachers,
Communist Party (Maoist) which did not lawyers and human rights groups
believe in parliamentary democracy. This extended support to the movement.
61
The protest against water their role in two ways. One obvious way
privatisation in Bolivia was not led by of influencing the decisions in a
any political party. It was led by an democracy is direct participation in
organisation called FEDECOR. This competitive politics. This is done by
organisation comprised of local creating parties, contesting elections and
professionals, including engineers and forming governments. But every citizen
environmentalists. They were supported does not participate so directly. They
by a federation of farmers who relied may not have the desire, the need or
I don’t like this
on irrigation, the confederation of the skills to take part in direct political
word
factory workers’ unions, middle class activity other than voting.
‘mobilisation’.
students from the the University of There are many indirect ways in
Makes it feel as if
people are like
Cochabamba and the city’s growing which people can get governments to
sheep. population of homeless street children. listen to their demands or their point of
The movement was supported by the view. They could do so by forming an
Socialist Party. In 2006, this party came organisation and undertaking activities to
to power in Bolivia. promote their interest or their viewpoint.
From both these examples we can These are called interest groups or
see that in a democracy several different pressure groups. Sometimes people
kinds of organisations work behind any decide to act together without forming
big struggle. These organisations play organisations.
Democratic Politics
© Keshav - The Hindu
Governments initiate schemes and programme to alleviate the suffering of the poor
and meet their basic needs. But poverty remains in the country? What could be the
reasons for such a situation?
62
Can you identify the
Pressure groups and movements pressure groups
functioning in the news
clippings given here?
Pressure groups are organisations that people’s movement to describe many What demand are they
forms of collective action: Narmada making?
attempt to influence government
policies. But unlike political parties, Bachao Andolan, Movement for Right
pressure groups do not aim to directly to Information, Anti-liquor Movement,
control or share political power. These Women’s Movement, Environmental
organisations are formed when people Movement. Like an interest group, a
movement also attempts to influence
with common occupation, interest,
politics rather than directly take part in
aspirations or opinions come together
electoral competition. But unlike the
in order to achieve a common objective.
interest groups, movements have a
In the course of the discussion loose organisation. Their decision
above we came across entities that are making is more informal and flexible.
not quite an organisation. The struggle They depend much more on
in Nepal was called a movement for spontaneous mass participation than an
democracy. We often hear the word interest group.
63
Sectional interest groups and
public interest groups
Usually interest groups seek to promote
the interests of a particular section or
group of society. Trade unions, business
associations and professional (lawyers,
doctors, teachers, etc.) bodies are some
examples of this type. They are sectional
because they represent a section of
society: workers, employees, business-
persons, industrialists, followers of a
religion, caste group, etc. Their principal
concern is the betterment and well being
of their members, not society in general.
Sometimes these organisations are
not about representing the interest of one
section of society. They represent some
common or general interest that needs
to be defended. The members of the
organisation may not benefit from the
cause that the organisation represents. The
Bolivian organisation FEDECOR is an
example of that kind of an organisation.
In the context of Nepal, we noted the
participation of human rights
organisations. We read about these
organisations in class IX.
These second type of groups are
called promotional groups or public
interest groups. They promote collective
rather than selective good. They aim to
help groups other than their own
members. For example, a group fighting
against bonded labour fights not for itself
Democratic Politics
but for those who are suffering under

such bondage. In some instances the
© wikipedia.com
members of a public interest group may

undertake activity that benefits them as
well as others too. For example,
Land rights protest: farmers of West Java, Indonesia. On June 2004,
BAMCEF (Backward and Minorities
about 15,000 landless farmers from West Java, travelled to Jakarta, Community Employees Federation) is an
the capital city. They came with their families to demand land reform, to organisation largely made up of
insist on the return of their farms. Demonstrators chanted, “No land, No
vote” declaring that they would boycott Indonesia’s first presidential government employees that campaigns
election if no candidate backed land reform. against caste discrimination. It addresses
64
the problems of its members who suffer the specific issue of the people displaced
discrimination. But its principal concern by the creation of Sardar Sarovar
is with social justice and social equality dam on the Narmada river. Its objective
for the entire society. was to stop the dam from being
constructed. Gradually it became a
Movement groups
wider movement that questioned all
As in the case of interest groups, the such big dams and the model of
groups involved with movements also development that required such dams.
include a very wide variety. The various Movements of this kind tend to have a
examples mentioned above already clear leadership and some organisation.
indicate a simple distinction. Most of But their active life is usually short.
the movements are issue specific
These single-issue movements can
movements that seek to achieve a single
be contrasted with movements that are
objective within a limited time frame.
long term and involve more than one
Others are more general or generic
issue. The environmental movement and
movements that seek to achieve a broad
the women’s movement are examples
goal in the very long term.
of such movements. There is no single
The Nepalese movement for organisation that controls or guides such
democracy arose with the specific movements. Environmental movement
objective of reversing the king’s orders is a label for a large number of
Social movements and
that led to suspension of democracy. In organisations and issue-specific pressure groups try to
India, Narmada Bachao Andolan is a movements. All of these have separate mobilise citizens in
good example of this kind of many ways. The collage
organisation, independent leadership here show some of
movement. The movement started with and often different views on policy them.
65
National Alliance for Peoples’
Movements (NAPM) is an organisation
of organisations. Various movement
groups struggling on specific issues are
constituents of this loose organisation
which coordinates the activities of a
large number of peoples’ movements
in our country.
© Surendera - The Hindu
How do they influence politics?

Pressure groups and movements exert
influence on politics in a variety of ways:
z They try to gain public support and
sympathy for their goals and their activity
by carrying out information campaigns,
The Right to Information
related matters. Yet all of these share a organising meetings, file petitions, etc.
Act is one of the recent
legislations passed by broad objective and have a similar Most of these groups try to influence
Parliament? Who is
approach. That is why they are called a the media into giving more attention to
shown as obstructing the
implementation of the movement. Sometimes these broad these issues.
legislation? movements have a loose umbrella z They often organise protest activity
organisation as well. For example, the like strikes or disrupting government
Democratic Politics
What are the social movements listed in these news clippings? What efforts are they
making? Which sections are they trying to mobilise?
66
programmes. Workers’ organisations, z Sometimes political parties grow out
employees’ associations and most of the of movements. For example, when the
movement groups often resort to these Assam movement led by students against
tactics in order to force the government the ‘foreigners’ came to an end, it led to
to take note of their demand. the formation of the Asom Gana
z Business groups often employ Parishad. The roots of parties like the
professional lobbyists or sponsor DMK and the AIADMK in Tamil Nadu
expensive advertisements. Some persons can be traced to a long drawn social
from pressure groups or movement reform movement during the 1930 and
groups may participate in official bodies 1940s.
and committees that offer advice to the z In most cases the relationship
government. between parties and interest or
While interest groups and movements movement groups is not so direct. They
do not directly engage in party politics, often take positions that are opposed to
they seek to exert influence on political each other. Yet they are in dialogue and
parties. Most of the movement groups negotiation. Movement groups have
take a political stance without being a party. raised new issues that have been taken
They have political ideology and political up by political parties. Most of the new
position on major issues. The relationship leadership of political parties comes
between political parties and pressure from interest or movement groups.
groups can take different forms, some Is their influence healthy?
direct and others very indirect: It may initially appear that it is not healthy
z In some instances the pressure for groups that promote interest of one
groups are either formed or led by the section to have influence in democracy.
leaders of political parties or act as A democracy must look after the interest
extended arms of political parties. For of all, not just one section. Also, it may
example, most trade unions and students’ seem that these groups wield power
organisations in India are either without responsibility. Political parties
established by or affiliated to one or the have to face the people in elections, but
other major political party. Most of the these groups are not accountable to the
leaders of such pressure groups are people. Pressure groups and movements
usually activists and leaders of party. may not get their funds and support
Follow the news on any news TV channel for one week. Make a note of news related
to pressure groups or movements representing the following sectors or sections: farmers,
traders, labour, industry, environment and women. Which of these are mentioned most on
television news? Which sections or interests get mentioned the least? You may follow a
newspaper if you don’t have TV at home.
67
The Green Belt Movement has planted 30 million trees across Kenya. Its
leader Wangari Maathai is very disappointed with the response of government
officials and politicians:
“In the 1970s and 1980s, as I was encouraging farmers to plant trees on their
land, I also discovered that corrupt government agents were responsible for much
of the deforestation by illegally selling off land and trees to
well-connected developers. In the early 1990’s, the
livelihoods, the rights and even the lives of many Kenyans in
the Rift Valley were lost when elements of President Daniel
Arap Moi’s government encouraged ethnic communities to
attack one another over land. Supporters of the ruling party
got the land, while those in the pro-democracy movement
were displaced. This was one of the government’s ways of
retaining power; if communities were kept busy fighting over
land, they would have less opportunity to demand democracy.”
In the above passage what relationship do you see between
democracy and social movements? How should this movement
respond to the government?
© Alen Lauzan Falcon - Cagle Cartoons Inc.
from the people. Sometimes, pressure the government of the needs and
groups with small public support but lots concerns of ordinary citizens.
of money can highjack public discussion Even the sectional interest groups
in favour of their narrow agenda. play a valuable role. Where different
On balance, however, pressure groups function actively, no one single
groups and movements have deepened group can achieve dominance over
democracy. Putting pressure on the rulers society. If one group brings pressure on
is not an unhealthy activity in a democracy government to make policies in its
as long as everyone gets this opportunity. favour, another will bring counter
Governments can often come under pressure not to make policies in the way
undue pressure from a small group of
Democratic Politics
the first group desires. The government

rich and powerful people. Public gets to hear about what different sections
interest groups and movements of the population want. This leads to a
perform a useful role of countering rough balance of power and
this undue influence and reminding accommodation of conflicting interests.
This cartoon is called ‘News-no-news’.

Who is most often visible in the media?
Whom are we most likely to hear about
in newspapers?
68
1. In what ways do pressure groups and movements exert influence
on politics?
2. Describe the forms of relationship between pressure groups and
political parties?
3. Explain how the activities of pressure groups are useful in the
functioning of a democratic government.
4. What is a pressure group? Give a few examples.
5. What is the difference between a pressure group and a
political party?
6. Organisations that undertake activities to promote the interests
Exercises
of specific social sections such as workers, employees, teachers,
and lawyers are called _____________________ groups.
7. Which among the following is the special feature that
distinguishes a pressure group from a political party?
(a) Parties take political stances, while pressure groups do not
bother about political issues.
(b) Pressure groups are confined to a few people, while parties
involve larger number of people.
(c) Pressure groups do not seek to get into power, while political
parties do.
(d) Pressure groups do not seek to mobilise people, while parties
8. Match List I (organisations and struggles) with List II and select
the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:do.
List I List II
1. Organisations that seek to promote A. Movement
the interests of a particular section
or group
2. Organisations that seek to promote B. Political parties

common interest
3. Struggles launched for the resolution C. Sectional interest

of a social problem with or without groups
an organisational structure
4. Organisations that mobilise people D. Public interest
with a view to win political power groups
1 2 3 4
(a) C D B A
(b) C D A B
(c) D C B A
(d) B C D A
69
9. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the lists:
List I List II
1. Pressure group A. Narmada Bachao Andolan
2. Long term movement B. Asom Gana Parishad
3. Single issue movement C. Women’s movement
4. Political party D. Fertilizer dealers’ association
1 2 3 4
(a) D C A B
Exercises
(b) B A D C
(c) C D B A
(d) B D C A
10. Consider the following statements about pressure groups and

parties.
A. Pressure groups are organised expression of the interests and
views of specific social sections.
B. Pressure groups take positions on political issues.
C. All pressure groups are political parties.
(a) A, B, and C (b) A and B (c) B and C (d) A and C
11. Mewat is one of the most backward areas in Haryana. It used to
be a part of district Gurgaon and Faridabad. The people of Mewat
felt that the area will get better attention if it were to become a
separate district. But political parties were indifferent to this
sentiment. The demand for a separate district was raised by
Mewat Educational and Social Organisation and Mewat Saksharta
Samiti in 1996. Later Mewat Vikas Sabha was founded in 2000 and
carried out a series of public awareness campaigns. This forced
both the major parties, Congress and the Indian National Lok Dal,
to announe their support for the new district before the assembly
elections held in February 2005. The new district came into
existence in July 2005.
Democratic Politics
In this example what is the relationship that you observe among

movement, political parties and the government? Can you think of an
example that shows a relationship different from this one?
70
Power sharing
Overview
Chapter I
With this chapter we resume the tour of democracy that we started
last year. We noted last year that in a democracy all power does not
rest with any one organ of the state. An intelligent sharing of power
among legislature, executive and judiciary is very important to the
design of a democracy. In this and the next two chapters we carry
this idea of power sharing forward. We start with two stories from
Belgium and Sri Lanka. Both these stories are about how democracies
handle demands for power sharing.The stories yield some general
conclusions about the need for power sharing in democracy. This
allows us to discuss various forms of power sharing that will be taken
up in the following two chapters.
Po w e r sh a r i n g
1
Belgium and Sri Lanka
Belgium is a small country in Europe, and education much later. This led to
smaller in area than the state of tensions between the Dutch-speaking
Haryana. It has borders with and French-speaking communities
Netherlands, France and Germany. It during the 1950s and 1960s. The
has a population of a little over one tension between the two communities
crore, about half the population of was more acute in Brussels. Brussels
Haryana. The ETHNIC composition of presented a special problem: the
I have a simple
this small country is very complex. Of Dutch-speaking people constituted a
equation in mind.
Sharing power = the country’s total population, 59 per majority in the country, but a minority
dividing power = cent lives in the Flemish region and in the capital.
weakening the speaks Dutch language. Another 40 per Let us compare this to the situation
country. Why do we cent people live in the Wallonia region in another country. Sri Lanka is an
start by talking of and speak French. Remaining 1 per cent island nation, just a few kilometres off
this? of the Belgians speak German. In the the southern coast of Tamil Nadu. It
capital city Brussels, 80 per cent people has about 2 crore people, about the
speak French while 20 per cent are same as in Haryana. Like other nations
Dutch-speaking. in the South Asia region, Sri Lanka has
The minority French-speaking a diverse population. The major social
community was relatively rich and groups are the Sinhala-speakers (74 per
powerful. This was resented by the cent) and the Tamil-speakers (18 per
Dutch-speaking community who got cent). Among Tamils there are two sub-
the benefit of economic development groups. Tamil natives of the country
Communities
and
regions of
Belgium
© Wikipedia
Ethnic: A social
Democratic Politics
division based on
shared culture. People
belonging to the same
ethnic group believe in Brussels-Capital Region
their common descent
Walloon (French-speaking)
because of similarities
of physical type or of Flemish (Dutch-speaking)
culture or both. They
need not always have German-speaking
Look at the maps of Belgium and Sri Lanka. In which
the same religion or
region do you find concentration of different
nationality. communities?
2
are called ‘Sri Lankan Tamils’ (13 per Dutch community could take
cent). The rest, whose forefathers came advantage of its numeric majority and
from India as plantation workers during force its will on the French and
colonial period, are called ‘Indian German-speaking population. This
Tamils’. As you can see from the map, would push the conflict among
Sri Lankan Tamils are concentrated in communities further. This could lead
the north and east of the country. Most to a very messy partition of the
of the Sinhala-speaking people are country; both the sides would claim
Buddhist, while most of the Tamils are control over Brussels. In Sri Lanka, the
Hindus or Muslims. There are about 7 Sinhala community enjoyed an even
per cent Christians, who are both Tamil bigger majority and could impose its
and Sinhala. will on the entire country. Now, let us
Just imagine what could happen look at what happened in both these
in situations like this. In Belgium, the countries.
Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka emerged as an independent and government policies denied them
country in 1948. The leaders of the equal political rights, discriminated
Sinhala community sought to secure against them in getting jobs and other
dominance over government by virtue opportunities and ignored their
of their majority. As a result, the interests. As a result, the relations
democratically elected government
adopted a series of MAJORITARIAN Ethnic Communities
measures to establish Sinhala supremacy. of Sri Lanka
In 1956, an Act was passed to Sinhalese
Sri Lankan Tamil
recognise Sinhala as the only official Indian Tamil
Muslim
language, thus disregarding Tamil. The
governments followed preferential
policies that favoured Sinhala
applicants for university positions and
government jobs. A new constitution
stipulated that the state shall protect
and foster Buddhism.
All these government measures,
coming one after the other, gradually Majoritarianism: A

increased the feeling of alienation belief that the majority
among the Sri Lankan Tamils. They felt community should be
able to rule a country in
that none of the major political parties whichever way it wants,
led by the Buddhist Sinhala leaders by disregarding the
were sensitive to their language and wishes and needs of the
culture. They felt that the constitution minority.
3
between the Sinhala and Tamil The distrust between the two
What’s wrong if
communities strained over time. communities turned into widespread
the majority
community The Sri Lankan Tamils launched conflict. It soon turned into a CIVIL WAR.
rules? If Sinhalas parties and struggles for the recognition As a result thousands of people of both
don’t rule in Sri of Tamil as an official language, for the communities have been killed. Many
Lanka, where regional autonomy and equality of families were forced to leave the country
else will they opportunity in securing education and as refugees and many more lost their
rule? jobs. But their demand for more livelihoods. You have read (Chapter 1
autonomy to provinces populated by of Economics textbook, Class X) about
the Tamils was repeatedly denied. By Sri Lanka’s excellent record of economic
1980s several political organisations development, education and health. But
were formed demanding an the civil war has caused a terrible setback
independent Tamil Eelam (state) in to the social, cultural and economic life
northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka. of the country.
Accommodation in Belgium
The Belgian leaders took a different single community can make decisions
path. They recognised the existence of unilaterally.
regional differences and cultural z Many powers of the central
diversities. Between 1970 and 1993, government have been given to state
they amended their constitution four governments of the two regions of the
times so as to work out an arrangement country. The state governments are not
that would enable everyone to live subordinate to the Central Government.
together within the same country. The z Brussels has a separate government
arrangement they worked out is in which both the communities have
different from any other country and equal representation. The French-
is very innovative. Here are some of speaking people accepted equal
the elements of the Belgian model: representation in Brussels because the
Civil war: A violent
conflict between z Constitution prescribes that the Dutch-speaking community has
opposing groups within number of Dutch and French-speaking accepted equal representation in the
a country that becomes ministers shall be equal in the central Central Government.
so intense that it appears
like a war.
government. Some special laws require
the support of majority of members
from each linguistic group. Thus, no
Democratic Politics
© Wikipedia
What kind of a solution is

this? I am glad our
Constitution does not say The photograph here is of a street
which minister will come from address in Belgium. You will notice that
which community. place names and directions in two
languages – French and Dutch.
4
Apart from the Central and
the State Government, there is a
third kind of government. This
‘community government’ is elected by
people belonging to one language
community – Dutch, French and
German-speaking – no matter where
they live. This government has the
power regarding cultural, educational
and language-related issues.
You might find the Belgian model
very complicated. It indeed is very
complicated, even for people living in
Belgium. But these arrangements have
worked well so far. They helped to
avoid civic strife between the two European Union Parliament in Belgium
major communities and a possible
division of the country on linguistic
lines. When many countries of Europe Union, Brussels was chosen as its
came together to form the European headquarters. So you are
saying that
sharing of power
makes us more
powerful. Sounds
odd! Let me
think.
Read any newspaper for one week and make clippings of
news related to ongoing conflicts or wars. A group of five
students could pool their clippings together and do the following:
z Classify these conflicts by their location (your state, India,
outside India).
z Find out the cause of each of these conflicts. How many of
these are related to power sharing disputes?
z Which of these conflicts could be resolved by working out power
sharing arrangements?
What do we learn from these two stories regions. Such a realisation resulted in
of Belgium and Sri Lanka? Both are mutually acceptable arrangements for
democracies. Yet, they dealt with the sharing power. Sri Lanka shows us a
question of power sharing differently. contrasting example. It shows us that
In Belgium, the leaders have realised if a majority community wants to force
that the unity of the country is possible its dominance over others and refuses
only by respecting the feelings and to share power, it can undermine the
interests of different communities and unity of the country.
5
The cartoon at the left refers to the
problems of running the Germany’s grand
coalition government that include the two
major parties of the country, namely the
Christian Democratic Union and the
Social Democratic Party. The two parties
are historically rivals to each other. They

have to form a coalition government
because neither of them got clear majority
of seats on their own in the 2005
elections. They take divergent positions
on several policy matters, but still jointly
run the government.
Tyranny of the majority is not just

oppressive for the minority; it often
brings ruin to the majority as well.
There is a second, deeper reason
why power sharing is good for
democracies. Power sharing is the very
spirit of democracy. A democratic rule
Why power sharing is desirable? involves sharing power with those
Thus, two different sets of reasons can affected by its exercise, and who have
be given in favour of power sharing. to live with its effects. People have a
Firstly, power sharing is good because right to be consulted on how they are
it helps to reduce the possibility of to be governed. A legitimate
conflict between social groups. Since government is one where citizens,
social conflict often leads to violence through participation, acquire a stake
and political instability, power sharing in the system.
is a good way to ensure the stability of Let us call the first set of reasons
political order. Imposing the will of PRUDENTIAL and the second moral. While
majority community over others may prudential reasons stress that power
look like an attractive option in the sharing will bring out better outcomes,
short run, but in the long run it moral reasons emphasises the very act
undermines the unity of the nation. of power sharing as valuable.
Democratic Politics
Annette studies in a Dutch medium school in the

northern region of Belgium. Many French-speaking students in
Prudential: Based on her school want the medium of instruction to be French. Selvi
prudence, or on careful studies in a school in the northern region of Sri Lanka. All the
calculation of gains and students in her school are Tamil-speaking and they want the
losses. Prudential decisions
medium of instruction to be Tamil.
are usually contrasted with
those decisions based If the parents of Annette and Selvi were to approach
purely on moral respective governments to realise the desire of the child
considerations. who is more likely to succeed? And why?
6
Khalil’s As usual, Vikram’s was driving the motorbike under a vow
of silence and Vetal was the pillion rider. As usual, Vetal
dilemma started telling Vikram a story to keep him awake while

driving. This time the story went as follows:
“In the city of Beirut there lived a man called Khalil. His parents
came from different communities. His father was an Orthodox Christian and mother a
Sunni Muslim. This was not so uncommon in this modern, cosmopolitan city. People
from various communities that lived in Lebanon came to live in its capital, Beirut. They
lived together, intermingled, yet fought a bitter civil war among themselves. One of
Khalil’s uncles was killed in that war.
At the end of this civil war, Lebanon’s leaders came together and agreed to some basic
rules for power sharing among different communities. As per these rules the country’s
President must belong to the Maronite sect of Catholic Christians. The Prime Minister
must be from the Sunni Muslim community. The post of Deputy Prime Minister is fixed for
Orthodox Christian sect and that of the Speaker for Shi’a Muslim. Under this pact, the
Christians agreed not to seek French protection and the Muslim agreed not to seek
unification with the neighbouring state of Syria.When the Christians and Muslims came to
this agreement, they were nearly equal in population. Both sides have continued to
respect this agreement though now the Muslims are in clear majority.
Khalil does not like this system one bit. He is a popular man with political ambition. But
under the present system the top position is out of his reach barred from him. He does
not practice either his father’s or his mother’s religion and does not wish to be known
by either. He cannot understand why Lebanon can’t be like any other ‘normal’
democracy. “Just hold an election, allow everyone to contest and whoever wins
maximum votes becomes the president, no matter which community he comes from.
Why can’t we do that, like in other democracies of the world?” he asks. His elders, who
have seen the bloodshed of the civil war, tell him that the present system is the best
guarantee for peace…”
The story was not finished, but they had reached the TV
tower where they stopped every day. Vetal
wrapped up quickly and posed his
customary question to Vikram: “If you had
the power to rewrite the rules in Lebanon,
what would you do? Would you adopt the
‘regular’ rules followed everywhere, as Khalil
suggests? Or stick to the old rules? Or do
something else?” Vetal did not forget to

remind Vikram of their basic pact: “If you
have an answer in mind and yet do not speak
up, your mobike will freeze, and so
will you!”
Can you help poor Vikram in answering Vetal?
7
Forms of power sharing
The idea of power sharing has power should be distributed among
emerged in opposition to the notions as many citizens as possible.
of undivided political power. For a In modern democracies, power
long time it was believed that all power sharing arrangements can take many
of a government must reside in one forms. Let us look at some of the most
person or group of persons located common arrangements that we have
at one place. It was felt that if the or will come across.
power to decide is dispersed, it would
1 Power is shared among different
not be possible to take quick decisions
organs of government, such as the
and to enforce them. But these
legislature, executive and judiciary. Let
notions have changed with the
us call this horizontal distribution of
emergence of democracy. One basic
power because it allows different organs
principle of democracy is that people
of government placed at the same level
are the source of all political power.
to exercise different powers. Such a
In a democracy, people rule
separation ensures that none of the
themselves through institutions of
organs can exercise unlimited power.
self-governance. In a good democratic
Each organ checks the others. This
government, due respect is given to
results in a balance of power among
diverse groups and views that exist in
various institutions. Last year we studied
a society. Everyone has a voice in the
that in a democracy, even though
shaping of public policies. Therefore,
ministers and government officials
it follows that in a democracy political
exercise power, they are responsible to
Reigning Reins the Parliament or State Assemblies.
Similarly, although judges are appointed
by the executive, they can check the
functioning of executive or laws made
© Olle Johansson - Sweden, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
by the legislatures. This arrangement is

called a system of checks and balances.
2 Power can be shared among
governments at different levels – a
general government for the entire
country and governments at the
Democratic Politics
provincial or regional level. Such a

general government for the entire
country is usually called federal
government. In India, we refer to it
as the Central or Union Government.
The governments at the provincial or
Recently some new laws were made in Russia giving more powers to
its president. During the same time the US president visited Russia. regional level are called by different
What, according to this cartoon, is the relationship between democracy names in different countries. In India,
and concentration of power? Can you think of some other examples to
illustrate the point being made here?
8
we call them State Governments. This would feel alienated from the
system is not followed in all countries. government. This method is used to
There are many countries where there give minority communities a fair share
are no provincial or state in power. In Chapter 3, we shall look
governments. But in those countries at various ways of accommodating
like ours, where there are different social diversities.
levels of gover nments, the 4 Power sharing arrangements can
constitution clearly lays down the also be seen in the way political
powers of different levels of parties, pressure groups and
government. This is what they did in movements control or influence those
Belgium, but was refused in Sri Lanka. in power. In a democracy, the citizens
This is called federal division of must have freedom to choose among
power. The same principle can be various contenders for power. In
extended to levels of government contemporary democracies this takes
lower than the State government, such the form of competition among
as the municipality and panchayat. Let different parties. Such competition
us call division of powers involving ensures that power does not remain in
higher and lower levels of one hand. In the long run power is
government vertical division of shared among different political parties
power. We shall study these at some that represent different ideologies and
length in the next chapter. social groups. Sometimes this kind of
3 Power may also be shared among sharing can be direct, when two or
different social groups, such as the more parties form an alliance to
religious and linguistic groups. contest elections. If their alliance is
‘Community government’ in Belgium elected, they for m a coalition
is a good example of this arrangement. government and thus share power. In
In some countries there are a democracy, we find interest groups
constitutional and legal arrangements such as those of traders, businessmen,
whereby socially weaker sections and industrialists, farmers and industrial
women are represented in the workers. They also will have a share in
legislatures and administration. Last governmental power, either through In my school, the
year we studied the system of ‘reserved participation in governmental class monitor
constituencies’ in assemblies and the committees or bringing influence on changes every
month. Is that
parliament of our country. This type the decision making process. In
what you call a
of arrangement is meant to give space Chapter 4, we shall study the working
power sharing
in the government and administration of political parties, pressure groups and
arrangement?
to diverse social groups who otherwise social movements.
9
Here are some examples of power sharing. Which of the four types of power
sharing do these represent? Who is sharing power with whom?
z The Bombay High Court ordered the Maharashtra state government to immediately
take action and improve living conditions for the 2,000-odd children at seven
children’s homes in Mumbai.
z The government of Ontario state in Canada has agreed to a land claim settlement with
the aboriginal community. The Minister responsible for Native Affairs announced that
the government will work with aboriginal people in a spirit of mutual respect and
co-operation.
z Russia’s two influential political parties, the Union of Right Forces and the Liberal
Yabloko Movement, agreed to unite their organisations into a strong right-wing
coalition. They propose to have a common list of candidates in the next
parliamentary elections.
z The finance ministers of various states in Nigeria got together and demanded that
the federal government declare its sources of income. They also wanted to know the
formula by which the revenue is distributed to various state governments.
Exercises
1. What are the different forms of power sharing in modern

democracies? Give an example of each of these.
2. State one prudential reason and one moral reason for power
sharing with an example from the Indian context.
3. After reading this chapter, three students drew different
conclusions. Which of these do you agree with and why? Give
your reasons in about 50 words.
Thomman - Power sharing is necessary only in societies which
have religiousm, linguistic or ethnic divisions.
Mathayi – Power sharing is suitable only for big countries that
Democratic Politics
have regional divisions.

Ouseph – Every society needs some form of power sharing even
if it is small or does not have social divisions.
4. The Mayor of Merchtem, a town near Brussels in Belgium, has
defended a ban on speaking French in the town’s schools. He
said that the ban would help all non-Dutch speakers integrate
in this Flemish town. Do you think that this measure is in
keeping with the spirit of Belgium’s power sharing
arrangements? Give your reasons in about 50 words.
10
5. Read the following passage and pick out any one of the
prudential reasons for power sharing offered in this.
“We need to give more power to the panchayats to realise the
dream of Mahatma Gandhi and the hopes of the makers of our
Constitution. Panchayati Raj establishes true democracy. It
restores power to the only place where power belongs in a
democracy – in the hands of the people. Giving power to
Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption and increase
administrative efficiency. When people participate in the planning
and implementation of developmental schemes, they would
naturally exercise greater control over these schemes. This would
eliminate the corrupt middlemen. Thus, Panchayati Raj will
strengthen the foundations of our democracy.”
Exercises
6. Different arguments are usually put forth in favour of and against
power sharing. Identify those which are in favour of power sharing
and select the answer using the codes given below? Power sharing:
A. reduces conflict among different communities
B. decreases the possibility of arbitrariness
C. delays decision making process
D. accommodates diversities
E. increases instability and divisiveness
F. promotes people’s participation in government
G. undermines the unity of a country
(a) A B D F
(b) A C E F
(c) A B D G
(d) B C D G
7. Consider the following statements about power sharing

arrangements in Belgium and Sri Lanka.
A. In Belgium, the Dutch-speaking majority people tried to impose
their domination on the minority French-speaking community.
B. In Sri Lanka, the policies of the government sought to ensure the
dominance of the Sinhala-speaking majority.
C. The Tamils in Sri Lanka demanded a federal arrangement of
power sharing to protect their culture, language and equality of
opportunity in education and jobs.
D. The transformation of Belgium from unitary government to a
federal one prevented a possible division of the country on
linguistic lines.
(a) A, B, C and D (b) A, B and D (c) C and D (d) B, C and D
11
8. Match List I (forms of power sharing) with List II (forms of government)
and select the correct answer using the codes given below in the lists:
List I List II
1. Power shared among different

organs of government A. Community government
2. Power shared among governments
at different levels B. Separation of powers
3. Power shared by different social
groups C. Coalition government
Exercises
4. Power shared by two or more
political parties D. Federal government
1 2 3 4
(a) D A B C
(b) B C D A
(c) B D A C
(d) C D A B
9. Consider the following two statements on power sharing and

select the answer using the codes given below:
A. Power sharing is good for democracy.
B. It helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups.
Which of these statements are true and false?
(a) A is true but B is false

(b) Both A and B are true
(c) Both A and B are false
(d) A is false but B is true
Democratic Politics
12
The process of transformation of things
Can you identify and name the various items
available in our environment involves an
used in making life comfortable in our
villages and towns. List the items and name inter - dependent relationship between
the material used in their making. nature, technology and institutions. Human
beings interact with nature through
technology and create institutions to
Everything available in our environment accelerate their economic development.
which can be used to satisfy our needs, Do you think that resources are free gifts
provided, it is technologically accessible, of nature as is assumed by many? They
economically feasible and culturally are not. Resources are a function of human
acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’. activities. Human beings themselves are
essential components of resources. They
transform material available in our
environment into resources and use them.
These resources can be classified in the
following ways –
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable
and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual,
community, national and international
Fig. 1.1: Interdependent relationship between (d) On the basis of status of development –
nature, technology and institutions potential, developed stock and reserves.
Fig. 1.2: Classification of resources

playgrounds in urban areas are de facto
Identify at least two resources from each accessible to all the people living there.
category. National Resources: Technically, all the
resources belong to the nation. The country
TYPES OF RESOURCES has legal powers to acquire even private
property for public good. You might have seen
On the Basis of Origin roads, canals, railways being constructed on
Biotic Resources: These are obtained from fields owned by some individuals. Urban
biosphere and have life such as human beings, Development Authorities get empowered by the
flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc. government to acquire land. All the minerals,
water resources, forests, wildlife, land within
Abiotic Resources: All those things which are the political boundaries and oceanic area upto
composed of non-living things are called abiotic 12 nautical miles (19.2 km) from the coast
resources. For example, rocks and metals. termed as territorial water and resources
therein belong to the nation.
On the Basis of Exhaustibility
Renewable Resources: The resources Inter national Resources: There are
which can be renewed or reproduced by international institutions which regulate some
physical, chemical or mechanical processes resources. The oceanic resources beyond 200
are known as renewable or replenishable km of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to
open ocean and no individual country can
resources. For example, solar and wind
utilise these without the concurrence of
energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc. The
international institutions.
renewable resource may further be divided
into continuous or flow (Fig.1.2).
Non-Renewable Resources: These occur over
a very long geological time. Minerals and fossil Do you know that India has got the right to
fuels are examples of such resources. These mine manganese nodules from the bed of
resources take millions of years in their the Indian Ocean from that area which lies
formation. Some of the resources like metals beyond the exclusive economic zone. Identify
are recyclable and some like fossil fuels cannot some other resources which are international
be recycled and get exhausted with their use. in nature.
On the Basis of Ownership On the Basis of the Status of Development

Individual Resources: These are also owned Potential Resources: Resources which are
privately by individuals. Many farmers own found in a region, but have not been utilised.
land which is allotted to them by government For example, the western parts of India
against the payment of revenue. In villages particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat have
there are people with land ownership but there enormous potential for the development of wind
are many who are landless. Urban people own and solar energy, but so far these have not been
plots, houses and other property. Plantation, developed properly.
pasture lands, ponds, water in wells etc. are Developed Resources: Resources which are
some of the examples of resources ownership surveyed and their quality and quantity have
by individuals. Make a list of resources owned been determined for utilisation. The
by your household. development of resources depends on
Community Owned Resources: There are technology and level of their feasibility.
resources which are accessible to all the Stock: Materials in the environment which
members of the community. Village commons have the potential to satisfy human needs but
(grazing grounds, burial grounds, village human beings do not have the appropriate
ponds, etc.) public parks, picnic spots, technology to access these, are included among
stock. For example, water is a compound of An equitable distribution of resources has
two inflammable gases; hydrogen and oxygen, become essential for a sustained quality of life
which can be used as a rich source of energy. and global peace. If the present trend of resource
But we do not have the required technical depletion by a few individuals and countries
‘know-how’ to use them for this purpose. continues, the future of our planet is in danger.
Hence, it can be considered as stock. Therefore, resource planning is essential for
Reserves are the subset of the stock, which sustainable existence of all forms of life.
can be put into use with the help of existing Sustainable existence is a component of
technical ‘know-how’ but their use has not sustainable development.
been started. These can be used for meeting
future requirements. River water can be used Sustainable development
for generating hydroelectric power but Sustainable economic development means
presently, it is being utilised only to a limited ‘development should take place without
extent. Thus, the water in the dams, forests etc. damaging the environment, and development
is a reserve which can be used in the future. in the present should not compromise with the
needs of the future generations.’
Prepare a list of stock and reserve, resources
that you are familiar with from your local area.
Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992
DEVELOPMENT OF RESOURCES In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states
met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for the first
Resources are vital for human survival as well
International Earth Summit. The Summit was
as for maintaining the quality of life. It was
convened for addressing urgent problems of
believed that resources are free gifts of nature.
environmental protection and socio-
As a result, human beings used them
economic development at the global level.
indiscriminately and this has led to the
The assembled leaders signed the
following major problems.
Declaration on Global Climatic Change and
• Depletion of resources for satisfying the Biological Diversity. The Rio Convention
greed of few individuals. endorsed the global Forest Principles and
• Accumulation of resources in few hands, which, adopted Agenda 21 for achieving
in turn, divided the society into two segments Sustainable Development in the 21st century.
i.e. haves and have nots or rich and poor.
Agenda 21
• Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has
led to global ecological crises such as, global It is the declaration signed by world leaders
warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental in 1992 at the United Nations Conference
pollution and land degradation. on Environment and Development (UNCED),
which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It
aims at achieving global sustainable
1. Imagine, if the oil supply gets exhausted development. It is an agenda to combat
one day, how would this affect our life style? environmental damage, poverty, disease
2. Plan a survey in your colony/village to through global co-operation on common
investigate people’s attitude towards interests, mutual needs and shared
recycling of the domestic/agricultural responsibilities. One major objective of the
wastes. Ask questions about : Agenda 21 is that every local government
(a) What do they think about resources should draw its own local Agenda 21.
they use?
(b) What is their opinion about the
RESOURCE PLANNING
wastes, and its utilisation?
(c) Collage your results. Planning is the widely accepted strategy for
judicious use of resources. It has importance
RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 3
in a country like India, which has enormous The availability of resources is a necessary
diversity in the availability of resources. There condition for the development of any region, but
are regions which are rich in certain types of mere availability of resources in the absence of
resources but are deficient in some other corresponding changes in technology and
resources. There are some regions which can institutions may hinder development. There are
be considered self sufficient in terms of the many regions in our country that are rich in
availability of resources and there are some resources but these are included in economically
regions which have acute shortage of some vital backward regions. On the contrary there are
resources. For example, the states of some regions which have a poor resource base
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya but they are economically developed.
Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits. Can you name some resource rich but
Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water economically backward regions and some
resources but lacks in infrastructural resource poor but economically developed
development. The state of Rajasthan is very well regions? Give reasons for such a situation.
endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks
The history of colonisation reveals that rich
in water resources. The cold desert of Ladakh
resources in colonies were the main attractions
is relatively isolated from the rest of the
for the foreign invaders. It was primarily the
country. It has very rich cultural heritage but
higher level of technological development of the
it is deficient in water, infrastructure and some
colonising countries that helped them to
vital minerals. This calls for balanced resource
exploit resources of other regions and establish
planning at the national, state, regional and
their supremacy over the colonies. Therefore,
local levels.
resources can contribute to development only
when they are accompanied by appropriate
technological development and institutional
Prepare a list of resources found in your state
changes. India has experienced all this in
and also identify the resources that are
different phases of colonisation. Therefore, in
important but deficit in your state.
India, development, in general, and resource
development in particular does not only involve
Resource Planning in India the availability of resources, but also the
Resource planning is a complex process which technology, quality of human resources and
involves : (i) identification and inventory of the historical experiences of the people.
resources across the regions of the country. Conservation of Resources: Resources are
This involves surveying, mapping and vital for any developmental activity. But
qualitative and quantitative estimation and irrational consumption and over-utilisation
measurement of the resources. (ii) Evolving a of resources may lead to socio-economic and
planning structure endowed with appropriate environmental problems. To overcome these
technology, skill and institutional set up for problems, resource conservation at various
implementing resource development plans. (iii) levels is important. This had been the main
Matching the resource development plans with concern of the leaders and thinkers in the
overall national development plans. past. For example, Gandhiji was very apt in
India has made concerted efforts for achieving voicing his concern about resource
the goals of resource planning right from the First conservation in these words: “There is enough
Five Year Plan launched after Independence. for everybody’s need and not for any body’s
greed.” He placed the greedy and selfish
individuals and exploitative nature of modern
What resources are being developed in your technology as the root cause for resource
surroundings by the community/village depletion at the global level. He was against
panchayats/ward level communities with the mass production and wanted to replace it with
help of community participation? the production by the masses.
At the international level, the Club of Rome LAND UTILISATION
advocated resource conservation for the first
Land resources are used for the following
time in a more systematic way in 1968.
purposes:
Subsequently, in 1974, Gandhian philosophy
was once again presented by Schumacher 1. Forests
in his book Small is Beautiful. The seminal 2. Land not available for cultivation
contribution with respect to resource (a) Barren and waste land
conservation at the global level was made (b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g.
by the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987. buildings, roads, factories, etc.
This report introduced the concept of
‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated 3. Other uncultivated land (excluding
it as a means for resource conservation, fallow land)
which was subsequently published in a book (a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
entitled Our Common Future. Another (b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops
significant contribution was made at the Earth groves (not included in net sown area),
Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. (c) Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated
for more than 5 agricultural years).
LAND RESOURCES 4. Fallow lands
We live on land, we perform our economic (a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation for
activities on land and we use it in different ways. one or less than one agricultural year),
Thus, land is a natural resource of utmost (b) Other than current fallow-(left
importance. It supports natural vegetation, wild uncultivated for the past 1 to 5
life, human life, economic activities, transport agricultural years).
and communication systems. However, land is 5. Net sown area
an asset of a finite magnitude, therefore, it is Area sown more than once in an
important to use the available land for various
agricultural year plus net sown area is
purposes with careful planning.
known as gross cropped area.
India has land under a variety of relief
features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains
and islands. About 43 per cent of the land area
LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA
is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture The use of land is determined both by physical
and industry. Mountains account for 30 per factors such as topography, climate, soil types
cent of the total surface area of the country and as well as human factors such as population
ensure perennial flow of some rivers, provide density, technological capability and culture
facilities for tourism and ecological aspects. and traditions etc.
About 27 per cent of the area of the country is Total geographical area of India is 3.28
the plateau region. It possesses rich reserves million sq km Land use data, however, is
of minerals, fossil fuels and forests. available only for 93 per cent of the total area
because the land use reporting for most of the
north-east states except Assam has not been
done fully. Moreover, some areas of Jammu
and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China
have also not been surveyed.
Try to do a comparison between the two pie

charts (Fig. 1.4 ) given for land use and find
out why the net sown area and the land
under forests have changed from 1960-61
Fig 1.3: India : Land under important Relief Features to 2002-03 very marginally.

Fig. 1.4
The land under permanent pasture has Policy (1952). It was considered essential for
also decreased. How are we able to feed our maintenance of the ecological balance. The
huge cattle population on this pasture land livelihood of millions of people who live on
and what are the consequences of it? Most of the fringes of these forests depends upon it.
the other than the current fallow lands are either A part of the land is termed as waste land
of poor quality or the cost of cultivation of such and land put to other non-agricultural uses.
land is very high. Hence, these lands are Waste land includes rocky, arid and desert
cultivated once or twice in about two to three areas and land put to other non-agricultural
years and if these are included in the net sown uses includes settlements, roads, railways,
area then the percentage of NSA in India comes industry etc. Continuous use of land over a
to about 54 per cent of the total reporting area. long period of time without taking
The pattern of net sown area varies greatly appropriate measures to conserve and
from one state to another. It is over 80 per cent manage it, has resulted in land degradation.
of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and less This, in turn, has serious repercussions on
than 10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, society and the environment.
Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
L AND D EGRADATION AND C ONSERVATION
Find out reasons for the low proportion of MEASURES
net sown area in these states.
We have shared our land with the past
Forest area in the country is far lower than generations and will have to do so with the
the desired 33 per cent of geographical area, future generations too. Ninety-five per cent of
as it was outlined in the National Forest our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing
are obtained from land. Human activities have alkalinity in the soil. The mineral processing like
not only brought about degradation of land grinding of limestone for cement industry and
but have also aggravated the pace of natural calcite and soapstone for ceramic industry
forces to cause damage to land. generate huge quantity of dust in the
At present, there are about 130 million atmosphere. It retards the process of infiltration
of water into the soil after it settles down on the
hectares of degraded land in India.
land. In recent years, industrial effluents as
Approximately, 28 per cent of it belongs to the
waste have become a major source of land and
category of forest degraded area, 56 per cent
water pollution in many parts of the country.
of it is water eroded area and the rest is affected
There are many ways to solve the problems
by saline and alkaline deposits. Some human of land degradation. Afforestation and proper
activities such as deforestation, over grazing, management of grazing can help to some extent.
mining and quarrying too have contributed Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on
significantly in land degradation. over grazing, stabilisation of sand dunes by
growing thorny bushes are some of the
methods to check land degradation. Proper
management of waste lands, control of mining
activities, proper discharge and disposal of
industrial effluents and wastes after treatment
can reduce land and water degradation in
industrial and suburban areas.
SOIL AS A RESOURCE
Soil is the most important renewable natural
resource. It is the medium of plant growth and
supports different types of living organisms on
Top soil
the upper soil layer
Subsoil weathered
rocks sand and
silt clay
Fig. 1.5 Substratum

weathered parent
rock material
Mining sites are abandoned after excavation
work is complete leaving deep scars and traces
of over-burdening. In states like Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa
deforestation due to mining have caused severe
land degradation. In states like Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra Unweathered
overgrazing is one of the main reasons for land parent bed rock
degradation. In the states of Punjab, Haryana,
western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is
responsible for land degradation due to water
logging leading to increase in salinity and Fig. 1.6: Soil Profile

the earth. The soil is a living system. It takes reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place of
millions of years to form soil upto a few cm in the break of slope, the soils are coarse. Such
depth. Relief, parent rock or bed rock, climate, soils are more common in piedmont plains
vegetation and other forms of life and time are such as Duars, Chos and Terai.
important factors in the formation of soil. Apart from the size of their grains or
Various forces of nature such as change in components, soils are also described on the
temperature, actions of running water, wind and basis of their age. According to their age alluvial
glaciers, activities of decomposers etc. contribute soils can be classified as old alluvial (Bangar)
to the formation of soil. Chemical and organic and new alluvial (Khadar). The bangar soil has
changes which take place in the soil are equally higher concentration of kanker nodules than
important. Soil also consists of organic (humus) the Khadar. It has more fine particles and is
and inorganic materials (Fig. 1.6). more fertile than the bangar.
On the basis of the factors responsible for Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile.
soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion
chemical and physical properties, the soils of of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are
India can be classified in different types. ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat
Classification of Soils and other cereal and pulse crops. Due to its high
fertility, regions of alluvial soils are intensively
India has varied relief features, landforms, cultivated and densely populated. Soils in the
climatic realms and vegetation types. These drier areas are more alkaline and can be
have contributed in the development of various productive after proper treatment and irrigation.
types of soils.
Black Soil
Alluvial Soils
These soils are black in colour and are also
This is the most widely spread and important known as regur soils. Black soil is ideal for
soil. In fact, the entire northern plains are made growing cotton and is also known as black
of alluvial soil. These have been deposited by cotton soil. It is believed that climatic condition
three important Himalayan river systems – the along with the parent rock material are the
Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These important factors for the formation of black soil.
soils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap
through a narrow corridor. Alluvial soil is also (Basalt) region spread over northwest Deccan
found in the eastern coastal plains particularly plateau and is made up of lava flows. They
in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra,
the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
Fig. 1.7: Alluvial Soil
The alluvial soil consists of various

proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move
inlands towards the river valleys, soil particles
appear some what bigger in size. In the upper Fig. 1.8: Black Soil
India: Major Soil Types

Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and the soil is low because most of the micro
extend in the south east direction along the organisms, particularly the decomposers, like
Godavari and the Krishna valleys. bacteria, get destroyed due to high
The black soils are made up of extremely temperature. Laterite soils are suitable for
fine i.e. clayey material. They are well-known cultivation with adequate doses of manures
for their capacity to hold moisture. In addition, and fertilizers. These soils are mainly found in
they are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya
carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime. These Pradesh, and the hilly areas of Orissa and
soils are generally poor in phosphoric contents. Assam. After adopting appropriate soil
They develop deep cracks during hot weather, conservation techniques particularly in the hilly
which helps in the proper aeration of the soil. areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu,
These soils are sticky when wet and difficult to this soil is very useful for growing tea and
work on unless tilled immediately after the first coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for crops
shower or during the pre-monsoon period.
like cashew nut.
Red and Yellow Soils
Arid Soils
Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks
Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They
in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and
are generally sandy in texture and saline in
southern parts of the Deccan plateau. Yelllow
nature. In some areas the salt content is very
and red soils are also found in parts of Orissa,
high and common salt is obtained by evaporating
Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle
the water. Due to the dry climate, high
Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of
temperature, evaporation is faster and the soil
the Western Ghats. These soils develop a
lacks humus and moisture. The lower horizons
reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in
of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of
crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks
the increasing calcium content downwards. The
yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form. Kankar layer formations in the bottom horizons
Laterite Soil restrict the infiltration of water. After proper
irrigation these soils become cultivable as has
Laterite has been derived from the Latin word
been in the case of western Rajasthan.
‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil
develops in areas with high temperature and
heavy rainfall. This is the result of intense
leaching due to heavy rain. Humus content of
Fig. 1.10: Arid Soil
Forest Soils
These soils are found in the hilly and
mountainous areas where sufficient rain
Fig. 1.9: Laterite Soil forests are available. The soils texture varies
according to the mountain environment where
they are formed. They are loamy and silty in
valley sides and coarse grained in the upper
slopes. In the snow covered areas of
Himalayas, these soils experience denudation
and are acidic with low humus content. The
soils found in the lower parts of the valleys
particularly on the river terraces and alluvial
fans are fertile.
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

The denudation of the soil cover and
subsequent washing down is described as soil
erosion. The processes of soil formation and
Fig. 1.12: Gully Erosion
erosion, go on simultaneously and generally
there is a balance between the two. Sometimes,
water flows as a sheet over large areas down a
this balance is disturbed due to human
slope. In such cases the top soil is washed away.
activities like deforestation, over-grazing,
This is known as sheet erosion. Wind blows
construction and mining etc., while natural
loose soil off flat or sloping land known as wind
forces like wind, glacier and water lead to soil
erosion. Soil erosion is also caused due to
erosion. The running water cuts through the
defective methods of farming. Ploughing in a
clayey soils and makes deep channels as
wrong way i.e. up and down the slope form
gullies. The land becomes unfit for cultivation
channels for the quick flow of water leading to
and is known as bad land. In the Chambal
soil erosion.
basin such lands are called ravines. Sometimes
Ploughing along the contour lines can
decelerate the flow of water down the slopes.
This is called contour ploughing. Steps can be
cut out on the slopes making terraces. Terrace
cultivation restricts erosion. Western and
central Himalayas have well developed terrace
farming. Large fields can be divided into strips.
Strips of grass are left to grow between the
crops. This breaks up the force of the wind.
This method is known as strip cropping.
Planting lines of trees to create shelter also
works in a similar way. Rows of such trees are
called shelter belts. These shelter belts have
contributed significantly to the stabilisation of
sand dunes and in stabilising the desert in
Fig. 1.11: Soil Erosion western India.
State of India’s Environment

• The village of Sukhomajri and the district of Jhabua have shown that it is possible
to reverse land degradation. Tree density in Sukhomajri increased from 13 per
hectare in 1976 to 1,272 per hectare in 1992;
• Regeneration of the environment leads to economic well-being, as a result
of greater resource availability, improved agriculture and animal care, and

consequently, increased incomes. Average annual household income in
Sukhomajri ranged from Rs 10,000-15,000 between 1979 and 1984;
• People’s management is essential for ecological restoration. With people
being made the decision-makers by the Madhya Pradesh government, 2.9
million hectares or about 1 per cent of India’s land area, are being greened
across the state through watershed management.
Source: The citizens’ Fifth Report,1999 Centre of Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi

(i) Which one of the following type of resource is iron ore?
(a) Renewable (c) Flow
(b) Biotic (d) Non-renewable
(ii) Under which of the following type of resource can tidal energy be put?
(a) Replenishable (c) Abiotic
(b) Human-made (d) Non-recyclable
(iii) Which one of the following is the main cause of land degradation in Punjab?
(a) Intensive cultivation (c) Over irrigation
(b) Deforestation (d) Overgrazing
(iv) In which one of the following states is terrace cultivation practised?
(a) Punjab (c) Haryana
(b) Plains of Uttar Pradesh (d) Uttaranchal
(v) In which of the following states is black soil found?
(a) Jammu and Kashmir (c) Rajasthan
(b) Gujarat (d) Jharkhand
(i) Name three states having black soil and the crop which is mainly grown in it.
(ii) What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Give three
main features of this type of soil.
(iii) What steps can be taken to control soil erosion in the hilly areas?
(iv) What are the biotic and abiotic resources? Give some examples.

(i) Explain land use pattern in India and why has the land under forest not
increased much since 1960-61?
(ii) How have technical and economic development led to more consumption of
resources?
P ROJECT /A CTIVITY
1. Make a project showing consumption and conservation of resources in your locality.
2. Have a discussion in the class – how to conserve various resources used in
your school.
3. Imagine if oil supplies get exhausted, how will this affect our life style?
4. Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the
hidden answers.
S F G S F O B R O M S U A P J
Q G A F F O R E S T A T I O N
P N R E C P R S L D M I L N F
S N A T Q X U O V A I O L A L
O D E I D R J U J L D B N B D
T G H M I N E R A L S A X M W
B V J K M E D C R U P F M H R
L A T E R I T E M V A Z T V L
A B Z O E N M F T I S D L R C
C G N N S Z I O P A X T Y J H
K J G K D T D C S L S E G E W
(i) Natural endowments in the form of land, water, vegetation and minerals.
(ii) A type of non-renewable resource.
(iii) Soil with high water retaining capacity.
(iv) Intensively leached soils of the monsoon climate.
(v) Plantation of trees on a large scale to check soil erosion.
(vi) The Great Plains of India are made up of these soils.

You already know that three-fourth of the Water: Some facts and figures
earth’s surface is covered with water, but only • 96.5 per cent of the total volume of world’s
a small proportion of it accounts for freshwater water is estimated to exist as oceans and
that can be put to use. This freshwater is mainly only 2.5 per cent as freshwater. Nearly
obtained from surface run off and ground water 70 per cent of this freshwater occurs as
that is continually being renewed and ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica,
recharged through the hydrological cycle. All Greenland and the mountainous regions
water moves within the hydrological cycle of the world, while a little less than 30
ensuring that water is a renewable resource. per cent is stored as groundwater in the
You might wonder that if three-fourth of world’s aquifers.
the world is covered with water and water is a • India receives nearly 4 per cent of the
renewable resource, then how is it that global precipitation and ranks 133 in the
countries and regions around the globe suffer world in terms of water availability per
from water scarcity? Why is it predicted that person per annum.
by 2025, nearly two billion people will live in • The total renewable water resources of India
absolute water scarcity? are estimated at 1,897 sq km per annum.
• By 2025, it is predicted that large parts of associate it with regions having low rainfall
India will join countries or regions having or those that ar e dr ought pr one. We
absolute water scarcity. instantaneously visualise the deserts of
Source: The UN World Water Development Rajasthan and women balancing many
Report, 2003 ‘matkas’ (earthen pots) used for collecting and
storing water and travelling long distances to
get water. True, the availability of water
WATER SCARCITY AND THE NEED FOR WATER
resources varies over space and time, mainly
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT due to the variations in seasonal and annual
Given the abundance and renewability of precipitation, but water scarcity in most cases
water, it is difficult to imagine that we may is caused by over- exploitation, excessive use
suffer from water scarcity. The moment we and unequal access to water among different
speak of water shortages, we immediately social groups.
Water, Water Everywhere, not a drop to drink:

After a heavy downpour, a boy collects drinking
water in Kolkata. Life in the city and its adjacent
districts was paralysed as incessant overnight rain,
meaning a record 180 mm, flooded vast area and
disruted traffic.
A Kashmiri earthquake survivor carries water in

the snow in a devastated village.
Fig. 3.1: Water Scarcity
requirements but have further aggravated the
According to Falken Mark, a Swedish expert, problem. If you look into the housing
water stress occurs when water availability societies or colonies in the cities, you would
is less than 1,000 cubic metre per person find that most of these have their own
per day. groundwater pumping devices to meet their
water needs. Not surprisingly, we find that
fragile water resources are being over -
Where is then water scarcity likely to exploited and have caused their depletion in
occur? As you have read in the hydrological several of these cities.
cycle, freshwater can be obtained directly So far we have focused on the quantitative
from precipitation, surface run off and aspects of water scarcity. Now, let us consider
groundwater. another situation where water is sufficiently
Is it possible that an area or region may available to meet the needs of the people,
have ample water resources but is still facing but, the area still suffers from water scarcity.
water scarcity? Many of our cities are such This scarcity may be due to bad quality of
examples. Thus, water scarcity may be an water. Lately, there has been a growing
outcome of large and growing population and concern that even if there is ample water to
consequent greater demands for water, and meet the needs of the people, much of it may
unequal access to it. A large population means be polluted by domestic and industrial
more water not only for domestic use but also wastes, chemicals, pesticides and fertilisers
to produce more food. Hence, to facilitate used in agriculture, thus, making it
higher food-grain production, water resources hazardous for human use.
are being over-exploited to expand irrigated
areas and dry-season agriculture. You may
India’s rivers, especially the smaller ones,
have seen in many television advertisements
have all turned into toxic streams. And even
that most farmers have their own wells and
the big ones like the Ganga and Yamuna
tube-wells in their farms for irrigation to
are far from being pure. The assault on
increase their produce. But have you ever
India’s rivers – from population growth,
wondered what this could result in? That it
agricultural modernisation, urbanisation and
may lead to falling groundwater levels,
industrialisation – is enormous and growing
adversely affecting water availability and food
by the day….. This entire life stands
security of the people.
threatened.
Post-independent India witnessed
intensive industrialisation and urbanisation, Source: The Citizens’ Fifth Report, CSE, 1999.
creating vast opportunities for us. Today,
large industrial houses are as commonplace You may have already realised that the
as the industrial units of many MNCs need of the hour is to conserve and manage
(Multinational Corporations). The ever - our water resources, to safeguard ourselves
increasing number of industries has made from health hazards, to ensure food security,
matters worse by exerting pressure on continuation of our livelihoods and
existing freshwater resources. Industries, productive activities and also to prevent
apart from being heavy users of water, also degradation of our natural ecosystems. Over
require power to run them. Much of this exploitation and mismanagement of water
energy comes from hydroelectric power. resources will impoverish this resource and
Today, in India hydroeclectric power cause ecological crisis that may have
contributes approximately 22 per cent of the profound impact on our lives.
total electricity produced. Mor eover,
multiplying urban centres with large and
dense populations and urban lifestyles have From your everyday experiences, write a short
not only added to water and energy proposal on how you can conserve water.
WATER RESOURCES 25
MULTI-PURPOSE RIVER PROJECTS AND What are dams and how do they help us
INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT in conserving and managing water? Dams
were traditionally built to impound rivers and
But, how do we conserve and manage water? rainwater that could be used later to irrigate
Archaeological and historical records show that agricultural fields. Today, dams are built not
from ancient times we have been constructing just for irrigation but for electricity generation,
sophisticated hydraulic structures like dams water supply for domestic and industrial
built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, uses, flood control, recreation, inland
embankments and canals for irrigation. Not navigation and fish breeding. Hence, dams are
surprisingly, we have continued this tradition now referred to as multi-purpose projects
in modern India by building dams in most of where the many uses of the impounded water
our river basins. are integrated with one another. For example,
in the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra –
Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India Nangal project water is being used both for
• In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura hydel power production and irrigation.
near Allahabad had sophisticated water Similarly, the Hirakud project in the
harvesting system channelling the flood Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of
water of the river Ganga. water with flood control.
• During the time of Chandragupta Maurya,
dams, lakes and irrigation systems were
A dam is a barrier across flowing water that
extensively built.
obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often
• Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment.
have also been found in Kalinga, (Orissa), “Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the
Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh), structure. Most dams have a section called a
Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur spillway or weir over which or through which
(Maharashtra), etc. it is intended that water will flow either
• In the 11th Century, Bhopal Lake, one of the intermittently or continuously. Dams are
largest artificial lakes of its time was built. classified according to structure, intended
• In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas, purpose or height. Based on structure and
Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for the materials used, dams are classified as
supplying water to Siri Fort area. timber dams, embankment dams or masonry
Source: Dying Wisdom, CSE, 1997.
dams, with several subtypes. According to
the height, dams can be categorised as large
dams and major dams or alternatively as low
dams, medium height dams and high dams.
Multi-purpose projects, launched after

Independence with their integrated water
resources management approach, were
thought of as the vehicle that would lead the
nation to development and progress,
overcoming the handicap of its colonial past.
Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed the
dams as the ‘temples of modern India’; the
reason being that it would integrate
development of agriculture and the village
economy with rapid industrialisation and
Fig. 3.2: Hirakud Dam growth of the urban economy.
Find out more about any one traditional Narmada Bachao Andolan or Save
method of building dams and irrigation works. Narmada Movement is a Non
Governmental Organisation (NGO) that
mobilised tribal people, farmers,
We have sown the crops in Asar environmentalists and human rights
We will bring Bhadu in Bhadra activists against the Sardar Sarovar Dam
Floods have swollen the Damodar being built across the Narmada river in
Gujarat. It originally focused on the
The sailing boats cannot sail environmental issues related to trees that
Oh! Damodar, we fall at your feet would be submerged under the dam
Reduce the floods a little water. Recently it has re-focused the
Bhadu will come a year later aim to enable poor citizens, especially
the oustees (displaced people) to get
Let the boats sail on your surface
full rehabilitation facilities from
(This popular Bhadu song in the Damodar valley the government.
region narrates the troubles faced by people
People felt that their suffering would not
owing to the flooding of Damodar river known
as the river of sorrow.) be in vain… accepted the trauma of
displacement believing in the promise of
irrigated fields and plentiful harvests. So,
often the survivors of Rihand told us that they
In recent years, multi-purpose projects and
accepted their sufferings as sacrifice for the
large dams have come under great scrutiny
sake of their nation. But now, after thirty bitter
and opposition for a variety of reasons.
years of being adrift, their livelihood having
Regulating and damming of rivers affect their
even being more precarious, they keep
natural flow causing poor sediment flow and
asking: “Are we the only ones chosen to
excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the
make sacrifices for the nation?”
reservoir, resulting in rockier stream beds and
poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life. Dams Source: S. Sharma, quoted in In the Belly of the
River. Tribal conflicts over development in Narmada
also fragment rivers making it difficult for
valley, A. Baviskar, 1995.
aquatic fauna to migrate, especially for
spawning. The reservoirs that are created on
the floodplains also submerge the existing Irrigation has also changed the cropping
vegetation and soil leading to its decomposition pattern of many regions with farmers shifting
over a period of time. to water intensive and commercial crops. This
Multi-purpose projects and large dams has great ecological consequences like
have also been the cause of many new social salinisation of the soil. At the same time, it has
movements like the ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ transformed the social landscape i.e.
and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan’ etc. Resistance increasing the social gap between the richer
to these projects has primarily been due to the landowners and the landless poor. As we can
large-scale displacement of local communities. see, the dams did create conflicts between
Local people often had to give up their land, people wanting different uses and benefits from
livelihood and their meagre access and control the same water resources. In Gujarat, the
over resources for the greater good of the Sabarmati-basin farmers were agitated and
nation. So, if the local people are not benefiting almost caused a riot over the higher priority
from such projects then who is benefited? given to water supply in urban areas,
Perhaps, the landowners and large farmers, particularly during droughts. Inter-state water
industrialists and few urban centres. Take the disputes are also becoming common with
case of the landless in a village – does he really regard to sharing the costs and benefits of the
gain from such a project? multi-purpose project.
WATER RESOURCES 27
India: Major Rivers and Dams
triggered floods due to sedimentation in the
reservoir. Moreover, the big dams have mostly
Do you know that the Krishna-Godavari been unsuccessful in controlling floods at the
dispute is due to the objections raised by time of excessive rainfall. You may have seen
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh or read how the release of water from dams
governments? It is regarding the diversion during heavy rains aggravated the flood
of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra situation in Maharashtra and Gujarat in 2006.
government for a multipurpose project. This The floods have not only devastated life and
would reduce downstream flow in their property but also caused extensive soil erosion.
states with adverse consequences for Sedimentation also meant that the flood plains
agriculture and industry. were deprived of silt, a natural fertiliser, further
adding on to the problem of land degradation.
It was also observed that the multi-purpose
projects induced earthquakes, caused water-
Make a list of inter-state water disputes. borne diseases and pests and pollution
resulting from excessive use of water.
Most of the objections to the projects arose
due to their failure to achieve the purposes for RAINWATER HARVESTING
which they were built. Ironically, the dams that Many thought that given the disadvantages
were constructed to control floods have and rising resistance against the multi-
Collect information about flood prone areas of the country
WATER RESOURCES 29
purpose projects, water harvesting system
was a viable alternative, both socio-
economically and environmentally. In ancient
India, along with the sophisticated hydraulic
structures, there existed an extraordinary
tradition of water-harvesting system. People
had in-depth knowledge of rainfall regimes
and soil types and developed wide ranging
techniques to harvest rainwater, groundwater,
river water and flood water in keeping with
the local ecological conditions and their water
needs. In hill and mountainous regions,
people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’
or ‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas for
agriculture. ‘Rooftop rain water harvesting’
was commonly practised to store drinking
water, particularly in Rajasthan. In the flood
plains of Bengal, people developed inundation
channels to irrigate their fields. In arid and (a) Recharge through Hand Pump
semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were
converted into rain fed storage structures that
allowed the water to stand and moisten the
soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’
in other parts of Rajasthan.
(b) Recharge through Abandoned Dugwell
Fig 3.4: Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
• Roof top rain water is collected using a PVC pipe

• Filtered using sand and bricks
• Underground pipe takes water to sump for
immediate usage
• Excess water from the sump is taken to the well
• Water from the well recharges the underground
Fig. 3.3 • Take water from the well (later)
rainfall in the world, yet the state capital
Shillong faces acute shortage of water.
Nearly every household in the city has a
roof top rain water harvesting structure.
Nearly 15-25 per cent of the total water
requirement of the household comes from
roof top water harvesting.
Find out other rainwater harvesting systems

A kul leads to a circular village tank, as the above
in the Kaza village, from which water is released as
existing in and around your locality.
and when required.
Today, in western Rajasthan, sadly the
Fig 3.5: Traditional method of rain water harvesting
practice of rooftop rainwater harvesting is on the
decline as plenty of water is available due to the
In the semi-arid and arid regions of
perennial Rajasthan Canal, though some houses
Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and
still maintain the tankas since they do not like
Barmer, almost all the houses traditionally had
the taste of tap water. Fortunately, in many parts
underground tanks or tankas for storing
of rural and urban India, rooftop rainwater
drinking water. The tanks could be as large as
harvesting is being successfully adapted to store
a big room; one household in Phalodi had a tank
and conserve water. In Gendathur, a remote
that was 6.1 metres deep, 4.27 metres long and
backward village in Mysore, Karnataka, villagers
2.44 metres wide. The tankas were part of the
have installed, in their household’s rooftop,
well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting
rainwater harvesting system to meet their water
system and were built inside the main house or
needs. Nearly 200 households have installed this
the courtyard. They were connected to the
system and the village has earned the rare
sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe. Rain
distinction of being rich in rainwater. See Fig. 3.6
falling on the rooftops would travel down the
for a better understanding of the rooftop
pipe and was stored in these underground
‘tankas’. The first spell of rain was usually not
collected as this would clean the roofs and the
pipes. The rainwater from the subsequent
showers was then collected.
The rainwater can be stored in the tankas
till the next rainfall making it an extremely
reliable source of drinking water when all other
sources are dried up, particularly in the
summers. Rainwater, or palar pani, as
commonly referred to in these parts, is
considered the purest form of natural water.
Many houses constructed underground rooms
Rooftop harvesting was common across the towns
adjoining the ‘tanka’ to beat the summer heat and villages of the Thar. Rainwater that falls on
as it would keep the room cool. the sloping roofs of houses is taken through a pipe
into an underground tanka (circular holes in the
ground). built in the main house or in the courtyard.
The picture above shows water being form a
Roof top rain water harvesting is the most neighbour’s roof through a long pipe. Here the
common practice in Shillong, Meghalaya. neighbour’s rooftop has been used for collection of
It is interesting because Cherapunjee and rainwater. The picture shows a hole through which
rainwater flows down into an underground tanka.
Mawsynram situated at a distance of 55
km. from Shillong receive the highest Fig. 3.6
WATER RESOURCES 31
BAMBOO DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
In Meghalaya, a 200-year-old system of tapping stream
and spring wate by using bamboo pipes, is prevalent. About
18-20 litres of water enters the bamboo pipe system, gets
transported over hundreds of metres, and finally reduces
to 20-80 drops per minute ate the site of the plant.
Picture 1: Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs on

the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity.
Picture 2 and 3: The channel sections, made of bamboo, divert water Picture 4: If the pipes pass a road,
to the plant site where it is distributed into branches, again made and they are taken high above the land.
laid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. The flow of water into
the pipes is controlled by manipulating the pipe positions.
Picture 5 and 6
Reduced channel sections
and diversion units are
used at the last stage of
water application. The last
channel section enables
water to be dropped near
the roots of the plant.
Fig 3.7
rainwater harvesting system which is adapted

here. Gendathur receives an annual precipitation
of 1,000 mm, and with 80 per cent of collection Tamil Nadu is the first and the only state
efficiency and of about 10 fillings, every house in India which has made roof top rainwater
can collect and use about 50,000 litres of water harvesting structure compulsory to all the
annually. From the 20 houses, the net amount houses across the state. There are legal
of rainwater harvested annually amounts to provisions to punish the defaulters.
1,00,000 litres.
1. Collect information on how industries are polluting our water resources.
2. Enact with your classmates a scene of water dispute in your locality.

(i) Based on the information given below classify each of the situations as
‘suffering from water scarcity’ or ‘not suffering from water scarcity’.
(a) Region with high annual rainfall.
(b) Region having high annual rainfall and large population.
(c) Region having high annual rainfall but water is highly polluted.
(d) Region having low rainfall and low population.
(ii) Which one of the following statements is not an argument in favour of multi-
purpose river projects?
(a) Multi-purpose projects bring water to those areas which suffer from
water scarcity.
(b) Multi-purpose projects by regulating water flow helps to control floods.
(c) Multi-purpose projects lead to large scale displacements and loss of
livelihood.
(d) Multi-purpose projects generate electricity for our industries and our
homes.
(iii) Here are some false statements. Identify the mistakes and rewrite them
correctly.
(a) Multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban
lifestyles have helped in proper utilisation of water resources.
(b) Regulating and damming of rivers does not affect the river’s natural
flow and its sediment flow.
(c) In Gujarat, the Sabarmati basin farmers were not agitated when higher
priority was given to water supply in urban areas, particularly during
droughts.
(d) Today in Rajasthan, the practice of rooftop rainwater water harvesting
has gained popularity despite high water availability due to the
Rajasthan Canal.

(i) Explain how water becomes a renewable resource.
(ii) What is water scarcity and what are its main causes?
(iii) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of multi-purpose river projects.

(i) Discuss how rainwater harvesting in semi-arid regions of Rajasthan is
carried out.
(ii) Describe how modern adaptations of traditional rainwater harvesting
methods are being carried out to conserve and store water.
WATER RESOURCES 33

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India is an agriculturally important country.

through natural processes; land productivity

Can you name the type of farming Rinjha’s

Intensive Subsistence Farming

Can you name some of the states of India

Fig. 4.5: Wheat Cultivation

Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are the

Fig. 4.12: Apricots, apple and pomegranate

Fig. 4.13: Cultivation of vegetables – peas, cauliflower, tomato and bringal

Fig. 4.15: Cotton Cultivation

consolidation of holdings, cooperation and programmes for farmers were introduced on

Organise a debate on food security of India, its need and efforts

Infact organic farming is much in vogue

1. Multiple choice questions.

2. Answer the following questions in 30 words.

3. Answer the following questions in about 120 words.

1. Group discussion on the necessity of literacy among farmers.

1. The two staple food crops of India.

challenges in all the various examples and

Mubarak Re-elected Seeing the democracy

© Ares - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

new government fails to

US, Guantanamo Bay:

Any other category

Any other category

Priority Challenges to Example Reasons for preference

Doctors’ absenteeism Political funding

Any other problem of your choice

corruption and wrong practices like appeals to caste and community.

that these rights are not limited to the right to vote,

democracy should offer to its citizens.

(Write your name here) ________________________ ’s definition of good

Africans who were

brought into America as

Some Dalit groups decided to participate in the UN Conference

We have different identities in different

A cartoon like this can be read by different

Can you list the various kinds of identities Imrana has?

Politics of social divisions

social divisions, it can make social Protestants were represented by

they are Dutch or German-speaking.

as Indian as well as belonging to a state

© Dario Castillejos - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

1. Discuss three factors that determine the outcomes of politics of

(a) D, B, C, A (b) D, B, A, C (c) D, A, C, B (d) A, B, C, D

PACIFIC OCEAN Brazil OCEAN INDIAN

What makes India a federal country?

z Has your village or town

stop in 1965. However, many non-

© Kutty - Laughing with Kutty

© Ajith Ninan - India Today Book of Cartoons

partners of government satisfied? suggesting that

making. This helps to inculcate a habit

This new system of local increased women’s representation and

(a) State government State List

12. Consider the following two statements.

depleted our forests and wildlife. The greatest

Are colonial forest policies