What are electron microscopes?

Lecture Module #14

Introduction to Electron Microscopy
• Scientific instruments that use a focused beam of
electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale.
An overview

What is electron microscopy? Magnification

• Electron microscopy is the science and technology of
using an electron beam to form a magnified image. • Refers to how large an object can be made (and still
resolved).
• Advantages: magnification = size of image
size of object
– The use of electrons rather than light provides a nearly 1000
fold increase in resolving power (i.e., ability to focus fine
details) over light.
• Advantages:
– You get higher magnification with electron microscopes
• Disadvantages: techniques than you can with light.
– High cost – Smaller wavelength Æ higher resolving power.
– Time commitment
– Small areas of analysis
 Resolution is:
• The closest distance between two points that can
clearly be resolved as separate entities through the
microscope.

Consider light as
EM energy
transmitted as a
wave motion.

We can consider
Resolution is defined by: Intensity light as a series of
ro
↓ ripples impinging
upon an obstacle.
Abbe relationship
d 0.61λ 0.61λ
ro = 1 = = Distance
2 n sin α NA
λ = wavelength of illuminant d1
α = semi-angle
n = index of refraction
NA = numerical aperature B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

Important Terms
Depth of Field
• Depth of Field
• A measure of how much of the object that we are – Height above and below the plane of focus that an image
looking at remains in focus at the same time. remains sharp.
– DOF is a function of magnification, α, and probe size

• Advantages: BEAM
Scan
α
– You get higher depth of field with (many) electron
microscopy techniques than you do with light.
DOF Plane of focused image

– WHY?

Region of image
in focus
 SEM
TEM Other instruments we have or are getting

• DualBeam Focused Ion Beam (DB-FIB)

– Nano-machining platform

• X-ray photoelectron spectrometer / Auger (XPS/Auger)

EPMA
• ???

Comparison of Selected Characteristics of Light

What do we get out of electron and Electron Microscopes
microscopes?
FEATURE Light Microscope SEM TEM
Uses Surface morphology Surface morphology Sections (40-150 nm)
• Topography and sections (1-40 µm) or small particles on
thin membranes
– Surface features of an object. “How it looks.” Source of Visible light High-speed electrons High-speed electrons
Illumination
• Morphology Best resolution
Magnification range
200 nm
10-1,000×
3-6 nm
20-150,000×
0.2 nm
500-500,000×
– Size and shape of particles making up object. Depth of field 0.002-0.05 nm 0.003-1 mm 0.004-0.006 mm
(NA=1.5) (NA=10-3)
• Composition Lens type
Image ray-
Glass
On eye by lens
Electromagnetic
On CRT by scanning
Electromagnetic
On phosphorescent
– Relative amount of elements and compounds making up the formation spot
Phases
device
Topography
screen by lens
Crystal structure
Information
object. generated Reflectivity Composition Crystal orientation
Crystal orientation Defects
• Structure Composition
Limiting Factor Wavelength of light Brighness, Lens quality
– Crystallography. How atoms are arranged in the object signal/noise ratio,
emission volume

Adapted from: Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy, S. L. Flegler, J.W. Heckman Jr., K.L. Klomparens,
Oxford University Press, New York, 1993.
 History of electron microscopes
All of this information is related to
• Developed due to limitations of light optical
properties. microscopes (LOMs)
– LOM: ~1000x magnification; 0.2 µm (200 nm) resolution
properties
• Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) was
developed first.
– M. Knoll and E. Ruska, 1931
– Patterned “exactly” like a LOM. Uses electrons rather than
structure processing light.

performance • Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

– 1942

Mechanical, Physical, Thermal, Optical, Electrical, etc…

Goodhew, Humphreys & Beanland

Electron Microscopy and Microanalysis, 3rd Edition
70X
How do electron microscopes work?
Taylor & Francis, London, 2001

• Form a stream of electrons in the electron source

(thermionic emission) and accelerate them towards
the specimen using a positive electrical potential.
300X

Electron microscopy
provides significant • Use apertures and magnetic lenses to focus the
advantages over light stream into a thin focused monochromatic beam
optical microscopy in 1400X
terms of resolution • Focus the beam onto the sample using another
and depth of field magnetic lens.

• Interactions occur inside the irradiated area of the

2800X
sample. Collect results of interactions in a suitable
detector and transform them into an image (or
whatever you are interested in).
 The Electron Gun Electron Source
(i.e., electron gun)
• The electron gun provides an intense beam of high
Thermionic electron gun
energy electrons.
most widely used (~$70K-$150K)
• There are two main types of gun. The thermionic
gun, which is the most commonly used, and the field Electrons are emitted W Filament

emission gun. from a heated Wehnelt cap

Bias
resistor
filament and (negative potential)

accelerated towards –
• Electrons are generated and emitted from a filament an anode
Space charge
10-1000 kV
by thermionic emission (W or LaB6) or from a sharp Electron
Beam
+

tip by field emission (single crystal of W).

Crossover
Anode Plate
(positive potential)
• The electrons are accelerated through a potential Ground
difference.

Filament

Wehnelt
Made from a high Tmp material
with a low work function (φ) in Operation of thermionic gun
A biased grid with a potential that is order to emit as many electrons
a few hundred volts different than as possible. The work function
the filament (cathode). This helps is the energy needed by an • Apply a positive electrical potential to the anode
to accelerate the electrons and electron to overcome the barrier
causes their paths to cross over. that prevents it from leaking out
of the atom. φW = 4.5 eV, φLaB6 =
W Filament 3.0 eV.
• Heat the cathode (filament) until a stream of electrons is
Bias
produced
Wehnelt cap
(negative potential)
resistor – >2700 K for W
Crossover
The effective source of
illumination for the
microscope. The size
Space charge – • Apply a negative electric potential to the Wehnelt
10-1000 kV
is critical for high Electron + – electrons are repelled by the Wehnelt towards the optic axis
resolution Beam
applications.
Crossover
Anode Plate
• Electrons accumulate within the region between the filament tip
(positive potential) and the Wehnelt. This is known as the space charge.
Ground

Anode • Electrons near the hole exit the gun and move down the column
Positively charged metal plate to the target (in this case the sample) for imaging.
at earth potential with a hole in
it. It accelerates the electron
beam to the high tension
potential.
 Other Types of Electron Sources
(i.e., electron guns)
The function of the electron gun is:

To provide an intense beam of high

Lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6) energy electrons

Higher brightness than W. More $$$ (~$500K) There are two main types of gun. The
thermionic gun, which is the most
commonly used, and the field emission
gun.

Field emission source Brightness, B, is the beam

current density per unit solid
Highest brightness. Even more $$$ (~$750K) angle.

B = jcπβ2
ADVANTAGES
jc = current density
Provide higher current density → Higher brightness β = convergence angle

http://www.matter.org.uk/tem/electron_gun/electron_sources.htm

Beam-Specimen Interaction Interaction Volume

• Represents the region penetrated by electrons
• This is what makes electron microscopy possible. – Signals must escape the sample to be detected
• Electrons strike the sample leading to a variety of reactions.
Incident high kV beam of
electrons
Secondary e- Incident electron beam
Characteristic
Backscattered (SE)
x-rays
e- (BSE)

Auger e- Visible light

Bulk (SEM)
Absorbed e- e- - hole pairs Secondary electrons
Foil (TEM) Backscattered electrons
Bremsstrahlung
x-rays
Interaction Volume (noise) X-rays
Elastically Inelastically
scattered e- scattered e-
Direct
(transmitted)
beam

• Use results of reactions to form image or generate other

information.
Different signals come from INCIDENT BEAM
different depths in the target
(sample) Interaction Volume
~5–50 nm
~50 nm
Secondary electrons ~1 nm – Auger electrons
• X-rays:
TEM
specimen – most escape
thickness ~300 nm
Backscattered – sampling volume ≈ interaction volume
electrons

~1.5 µm • Backscattered electrons:

X-rays
– originate further from the incident beam (some fraction of a µm)

• Secondary electrons:
– escape from a region slightly larger than the incident beam
~1.0 µm
X-ray
(several µm)
resolution – yield the best spatial resolution

Z = 29 (Cu), Accelerating voltage = 20kV

Backscattered electrons (BSE) Secondary Electrons (SE)

• Formation
– Caused when an incident electron “knocks” and inner shell
• Formation electron (e.g., k-shell) out of its site.
– Caused when incident electrons collide with an atom in a specimen – This causes a slight energy loss and path change in the
that is nearly normal to the path of the incident beam.
incident electron and ionization of the electron in the
– Incident electron is scattered backward (“reflected”). specimen.
– The ionized electron leaves the atom with a small kinetic
• Use energy (~5 eV)
– Imaging and diffraction analysis in the SEM. • Use
– Production varies with atomic number (Z). – IMAGING!
– Higher Z elements appear brighter than lower Z elements.
– Production is related to topography. Due to low energy, only
– Differentiate parts of specimen having different atomic number SE near the surface can exit the sample.
– Any change in topography that is larger than the sampling
depth will change the yield of SE.

Backscattered electrons are not as numerous as others. However, More abundant than other types of electrons. They are electrons
they generally carry higher energies than other types of electrons. that escape the specimen with energies below ~50eV
 Auger Electrons (AE) X-rays
• Formation
– De-energization of the atom after a secondary electron is
• Formation
produced. – Same as AE. Difference is that the electron that fills the
inner shell emits energy to balance the total energy of the
– During SE production, an inner shell electron is emitted from
atom.
the atom leaving a vacancy.
– Higher energy electrons from the same atom can fall into the
lower energy hole. This creates an energy surplus in the • Use
atom which is corrected by emission of an outer shell (low – X-rays will have characteristic energies that are unique to
energy) electron the element(s) from which it originated.
– Collect and sort signals according to energy to yield
• Use compositional information.
– AE have characteristic energies that are unique to each – Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS)
element from which they are emitted.
– Collect and sort AE according to energy to determine
composition. Foundation of XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy). XPS can
– AE have very low energy and are emitted from near surface be used to determine the “state” of an atom and to identify chemical
regions. compounds.

Specimen Interaction Volume

Transmitted electrons
• Volume where electron beam - specimen interactions
• Can be used to determine: occur.
– thickness
– crystallographic orientation • Depends upon:
– atomic arrangements – Z of material being examined
– phases present • higher Z materials absorb more electrons and have smaller
– etc. interaction volume

– Accelerating Voltage
• Foundation for Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) • higher voltages penetrate further into the specimen and
generate larger interaction volumes

– Angle of incidence of electron beam

• larger angle leads to a smaller interaction volume
 INCIDENT BEAM INCIDENT BEAM

~5–50 nm ~100 Å
Secondary electrons ~1 nm – Auger electrons Secondary electrons 10 Å - 30 Å – Auger electrons

~50 nm ~50 nm
TEM ~300 nm TEM <1µm - 2µm
specimen Backscattered specimen Backscattered
thickness electrons thickness electrons

~1.5 µm ~5 µm
X-rays X-rays

??? ~1.0 µm
X-ray resolution X-ray resolution

Z = 29 (Cu), Accelerating voltage = 20kV Z = 28 (Ni), Accelerating voltage = 20kV

Increasing incident energy (E0)

“Instruments of the trade”

~50 nm
• Primary Instruments
– Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
Z1 – Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Z2 • Variants
– Electron Probe Microanalyzer (EPMA)
Z1 < Z2 < Z3 Z3
– Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM)
Increasing atomic number (Z)
– Environmental SEM (ESEM)
– High Resolution TEM (HRTEM)
– High Voltage TEM (HVTEM)
• Interaction volume is larger for materials that have – etc...
lower atomic numbers and for higher incident beam
energies!
 The TEM is analogous to the transmission LOM
TEM LOM
TEM Electron gun Source Light source

Condenser
Vacuum Apertures
• Patterned after transmission light optical microscopes column
system
z z
y y
+ Tilt & rotation Stage
• Yield Following Information: x x

– Morphology Objective
lens
• Size shape and arrangement of particles, precipitates, etc.

Final imaging
– Crystallographic information system
• Atomic arrangement
Phosphor Eyepiece or TV
screen; film; Observation and screen; film;
digital recording recording system digital recording
– Compositional Information system system
• If proper detector is present
1 in 1020 electrons <1 in 106 photons are
are collected collected

Components of the TEM Condensor Lenses

• Source – filament plus anode plates with
Electron gun
applied accelerating voltage.
OPTICAL LENS MAGNETIC LENS
• Condenser Lenses – electromagnetic lenses Electron Source
Vacuum Light Source
column
z
adjusted by lens currents not position. ELECTROMAGNETIC Soft Fe
pole
+ Tilt & rotation
y
• Specimen Stage – allows translations and tilts. lenses focus the pieces
x
electron beam to as N N
• Objective Lens – usually <50X. small a spot as is S S

• Imaging System – multiple electromagnetic possible. They are

lenses below the objective: set magnification, equivalent to convex
focal plane (image vs. diffraction pattern). lenses in optical lens Cu coils

Phosphor • Observation – fluorescent screen, plate film, systems.

screen; film;
digital recording CCD camera.
system

1 in 1020 electrons Adapted from

are collected Adapted from
B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

 Electron Lenses Electrons in Magnetic Fields
• Use electrostatic or electromagnetic fields to focus A. Electrons moving through a perpendicular magnetic field experience
beams of charged electrons. perpendicular forces.
B. Electrons moving parallel to a magnetic field are unaffected.
C. Electrons moving nearly parallel to a magnetic field take a helical
• ELECTROMAGNETIC – Most lenses are of this type.
path around the magnetic field direction (i.e., the microscope axis).
Consist of Cu wire coils around soft Fe cores.
Sometimes an Fe pole-piece is used to “shape” the A B C
field. unaffected
electron Nearly
aligned
electron
• ELECTROSTATIC – Unusual. Only common Force on
Magnetic
electron is
example is the Wehnelt aperture in the electron gun. out of plane
field

No Force
Electrons
follow a
helical path

Adapted from
B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

Trajectories in Electromagnetic Lenses Beam Tilting and Translation

• The electron beam can be positioned for fine
• When you adjust the magnification (and the focal length), measurements (spot modes) or scanning (SEM, STEM)
you modify the lens strength by adjusting the current in the
electromagnetic lens coils. BEAM TILTING BEAM TRANSLATION
• Since the magnetic field is changed, MAGNETIC LENS
APPARENT
ORIGIN
APPARENT
ORIGIN
so are the helical trajectories.
Electron Source
• This ultimately leads to image
Soft Fe pole Upper scan
rotation which must be corrected pieces coil

for or calibrated. N N

S S Lower scan
coil

Object
Cu coils

Rotated Image is inverted

image and rotated
 Condenser Alignment Condenser Astigmatism

• Astigmatism in the condenser lenses distorts the beam to an

• In TEM it is important to center the condenser aperture about elliptical shape either side of focus and prevents the beam
the optical axis. being fully focused. It is corrected by applying two
• If the aperture is off center, the beam is displaced away from orthogonal correction fields in the x and y directions.
the axis when the condenser lens is focused. • You can try stigmator adjustment at:
• You can try condenser alignment at: http://www.matter.org.uk/tem/condenser_astigmatism.htm
http://www.matter.org.uk/tem/condenser_alignment.htm

Objective Aperture

• Depending upon where you position the objective aperture

and whether or not you tilt the beam, a bright field image, a
dark field (i.e., scattered) image, or a diffraction pattern can
be collected.
• You can look at this in more detail at:
http://www.matter.org.uk/tem/dark_field.htm
B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005) AND http://www.matter.org.uk/tem/stem_images.htm
B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)
B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)
B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

BF TEM Micrograph and SADP

NiAl-1.0Hf [111] zone axis

Grain structure
Crystallographic information

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

 BF TEM Micrographs
NiAl-1.0Hf Defect Structures

β′

NiAl-1.0Hf 100 nm
250 nm
1hr 4hr Dislocations imaged in NiAl-0.5Zr single crystals deformed at elevated temperatures.
Precipitate distribution
Defect structures

Nano-scale X-ray Analysis HAADF (Z-contrast imaging) analysis

As-deposited Annealed 1000°C/1h

1
2
Hf rich region

β′ Ni2AlHf

NiAl-1.0Hf 200 nm NiAl-1.0Hf 20 nm

β′ -NiAl
EDX spectrum • Hf segregates to GB’s in as-deposited & annealed coatings.
β′ -precipitate • Hf precipitates as β´-Ni2AlHf phase after annealing.
 How does a TEM work? Electron Beam

• Pass a focussed beam of electrons through a thin foil

Thin Foil
• As beam passes through sample, it is scattered < 500 nm thick

• Project the transmitted (scattered) beam onto a

phosphor screen to form an enlarged image

• Modes:
– Bright Field/Dark Field modes for visualization of structure
and defects
– Selected Area Diffraction/Convergent Beam Diffraction
for crystallographic information

Schematic Electron Gun Technical Details

Representation Anode Plate • Produce a stream of monochromatic electrons in the electron gun

of optics in a First Condenser Lens (C1)

• Focus the stream into a small coherent beam using C1 and C2
TEM Second Condenser Lens (C2)
– C1 determines the “spot size” (i.e., size of electron probe)
– C2 changes intensity or brightness
Condenser Aperture

• Use condenser aperture to restrict the beam

Sample
• Part of the beam is transmitted through the sample
Objective Lens
Objective Aperture • Focus transmitted portion using the objective lens to form an image
Selected Area Aperture

First Intermediate Lens • Objective and selected area apertures are used to restrict the beam further
– allows examination of diffraction from specific atoms, crystals, features…
Used to
Second Intermediate Lens
magnify image. – SAD, CBD

Projector Lens
• Enlarge image with intermediate and projector lenses
Phosphor Screen
 TEM SEM
SEM
Electron gun Electron gun
• Patterned after reflecting light optical microscopes
Vacuum Condenser system
Condenser lens

column
• Yield Following Information: z
y Scan coils
Time
– Topography Also tilts and rotates
Stage
base
x
• Surface features of an object. Detectable features limited to a
few nanometers depth. Objective lens Probe lens

– Morphology z
y
Signal
amplifier
Final imaging system Stage
• Size shape and arrangement of particles, precipitates, etc x
Also tilts and rotates Detector and
Observation processing
– Compositional Information and recording system
system
• Elements and compounds the sample is composed of
CRT

– Crystallographic information
• Possible using new techniques (OIM/BKD)
In the SEM you use secondary signals to acquire images.

Components of an SEM Schematic Electron Gun

• Source: Electron gun

Representation Anode Plate

– same as TEM but lower V of the optics in First Condenser Lens (C1)

• Condenser:
Condenser lens
an SEM Condenser Aperture

Second Condenser Lens (C2)

– same as TEM Scan coils
Time
base
• Scan Coils: Objective Aperture

– raster the probe Probe lens Scan Coils

• Probe Lens:
z Signal
– lens that forms a spot at the y
Stage
amplifier
specimen surface x Objective (probe) Lens
Detector and
tor
Also tilts and rotates Detec
• Detector & Processing System: processing
system

– collects signals such as X-rays and

electrons as a function of time and CRT
Sample
position.
– Provides digital images for real-time
viewing, processing, and storage.
 SEM: Technical Details
• Produce a stream of monochromatic electrons in the electron gun

• Focus the stream using the first condenser lens

– Coarse probe current knob

• The beam is constricted by the condenser aperture (eliminates high-angle electrons)

• Second condenser lens is used to form electrons into a thin, tight, coherent beam.
– Use fine probe current knob

• Use objective aperture to limit beam (i.e., eliminate high-angle electrons)

• Scan coils raster the beam across the sample, dwelling on the points for a
predetermined period of time (selected using scan speed)

• Final objective lens focuses beam on desired region.

• When beam strikes the sample, interactions occur. We detect what comes out of the
sample.

Substrate γ' γ + γ'

80

70 Ni
60
Ni-AD
50 Ni-Annealed
40
40
Substrate IDZ Coating Al-AD Al
30
Al-Annealed
20

Composition (at%)
10

0
40

30 Pt-AD Pt
Pt-Annealed
20

Secondary electron mode

γ+γ′ γ γ′ γ+γ′ 10

0
1.0
10 µm 0.8
Hf-AD
Hf
0.6 Hf-Annealed
0.4
Could get 0.2

additional 0.0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
information in Distance (µm)
backscattered or
mixed mode Figure 4.8. Composition profiles of the major elements
measured by WDS in an EPMA.
 X-ray Analysis in the SEM
EDS or WDS Useful things to remember about
Al2O3 + ???
SEM operation
• Change magnification by changing the scan area

• Focus by changing the objective lens current

???
Ni O O Hf
• The probe current/spot size are controlled by the
Al Hf
Pt Pt Al Ni condenser lens current

Elemental diffusion profile NiAlPtHf coatings on CMSX-4 substrates

for a temperature of 1150°C and times from (a) 20 hrs and (b) 100 hrs.

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

 B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005) B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

Microanalysis in Electron Microscopy WDS

• Yields best discrimination of emitted X-ray signal
• Characteristic X-rays are always generated by
interactions between the incident electron beam and • Use a series of bent crystals to cover the range of
the sample. They constitute a fingerprint of the local wavelengths of interest
chemistry.
• Scan wavelengths within each range by rotating the
• Collect X-ray signal to determine local chemistry crystal and moving the detector while keeping the
position of the crystal fixed.
• Common Techniques:
– Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometry/Spectroscopy (WDS) • X-rays are collected from the sample at a fixed angle.
– Energy-Dispersive Spectrometry/Spectroscopy (EDS) The angle at the collecting crystal will vary with 2θ
and the diameter of the focusing circle will change
 WDS
Bent crystal
Radius = 2R
WDS continued

• All peaks are scanned sequentially. You cannot

record more than one characteristic line at once
Focusing Circle unless there are multiple spectrometers available.

• EPMA!
Specimen
Receiving slits
R • Data is collected sequentially. Takes more time but
X-ray Detector
the results are much more precise than EDS.

EDS vs. WDS

• Pulse height is recorded by the detector. It is related
to the energy of the photon responsible for the pulse.

• Solid-state detectors are generally used.

• EDS is faster than WDS

• Problems with EDS:

– Poor discrimination or energy resolution. WDS systems are
much better, particularly when characteristic lines from
Resolution of M lines in a WDS spectrum of a superalloy different elements overlap.
(Oxford Instruments)
– Need a windowless or thin window detector to pick up light
elements.
– WDS is more quantitative
Can use BSE signal in conjunction with SE signal to yield enhanced topographical
information Images

• Topography and atomic number influence signal.

• Backscatter coefficient:
– η = -0.254 + 0.016Z - 1.86x10-4Z2 + 8.3x10-7Z3
SE image Multiple elements of BSE
detector
“Overlapping shadows” • Atomic number contrast:
Reduced resolution
– C = (η1 - η2)/ η1
Single segment of BSE
detector

The BSE sampling volume is large which limits resolution

TOPOGRAPHIC
CONTRAST

TOPOGRAPHIC
CONTRAST
Signals from 2
detectors

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005) B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

 B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)
B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)

B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)
B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005) B.D. Huey, MMAT322 Lecture Notes, University of Connecticut (2005)