Unit: 1 REFRIGERATION SYSTEM AND REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENTS

Properties of Pure Substance

A pure substance is one whose chemical composition does not change during thermodynamic
processes. Water and refrigerants are examples of pure substances. These days emphasis is on
the use mixture of refrigerants. The properties of mixtures also require understanding of the
properties of pure substances.

Water is a substance of prime importance in refrigeration and air-conditioning. It exists in three

states namely, solid ice, liquid water and water vapour and undergoes transformation from one
state to another. Steam and hot water are used for heating of buildings while chilled water is
used for cooling of buildings. Hence, an understanding of its properties is essential for air
conditioning calculations. Substances, which absorb heat from other substances or space, are
called refrigerants. These substances also exist in three states. These also undergo
transformations usually from liquid to vapour and vice-versa during heat absorption and
rejection respectively. Hence, it is important to understand their properties also.

If a liquid (pure substance) is heated at constant pressure, the temperature at which it

boils is called saturation temperature. This temperature will remain constant during heating until
all the
Liquid boils off. At this temperature, the liquid and the associated vapour at same temperature
are in equilibrium and are called saturated liquid and vapour respectively. The saturation
temperature of a pure substance is a function of pressure only. At atmospheric pressure, the
saturation temperature is called normal boiling point. Similarly, if the vapour of a pure substance
is cooled at constant pressure, the temperature at which the condensation starts, is called dew
point temperature. For a pure substance, dew point and boiling point are same at a given
pressure.

Similarly, when a solid is heated at constant, it melts at a definite temperature called melting
point. Similarly cooling of a liquid causes freezing at the freezing point. The melting point and
freezing point are same at same pressure for a pure substance and the solid and liquid are in
equilibrium at this temperature.

For all pure substances there is a temperature at which all the three phases exist in equilibrium.
This is called triple point.
. A liquid below the critical pressure when heated first becomes a mixture of liquid and vapour
and then becomes saturated vapour and finally a superheated vapour. At critical point there is
no distinction between liquid state and vapour state; these two merge together.

For water: Triple point: 0.1 oC, 0.006112 bar

3
Critical point: 221.2 bar, 647.3K and 0.00317 m /kg
For Dry Ice (CO2): Triple point: 5.18 bar, -56.6 oC
o
Critical point: 73.8 bar, 31 C

Heat transfer

Conduction heat transfer:

Conduction heat transfer takes place whenever a temperature gradient exists in a stationary
medium. Conduction is one of the basic modes of heat transfer. On a microscopic level,
conduction heat transfer is due to the elastic impact of molecules in fluids, due to molecular
vibration and rotation about their lattice positions and due to free electron migration in solids.

The fundamental law that governs conduction heat transfer is called Fourier’s law of heat
conduction, it is an empirical statement based on experimental observations and is given by:

dT
Qx =− k.A.
dx
In the above equation, Qx is the rate of heat transfer by conduction in x-direction, (dT/dx) is the
temperature gradient in x-direction, A is the cross-sectional area normal to the x-direction and
k is a proportionality constant and is a property of the conduction medium, called thermal
conductivity.
Radiation heat transfer:

Radiation is another fundamental mode of heat transfer. Unlike conduction and convection,
radiation heat transfer does not require a medium for transmission as energy transfer occurs due
to the propagation of electromagnetic waves.

The radiation energy emitted by a surface is obtained by integrating Planck’s equation over all
the wavelengths. For a real surface the radiation energy given by Stefan-Boltzmann’s law is:
Q =ε.σ.A.T4
r s
Where Qr = Rate of thermal energy emission
ε = Emissivity of the surface
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant, 5.669 X 10-8 W/m2.K4
A = Surface area, m2
Ts = Surface Temperature, K

Convection

Convection heat transfer takes place between a surface and a moving fluid, when they are at
different temperatures. In a strict sense, convection is not a basic mode of heat transfer as the
heat transfer from the surface to the fluid consists of two mechanisms operating simultaneously.
The first one is energy transfer due to molecular motion (conduction) through a fluid layer
adjacent to the surface, which remains stationary with respect to the solid surface due to no-slip
condition.

Methods of producing low temperatures

Sensible cooling by cold medium

If a substance is available at a temperature lower than the required refrigeration temperature,

then it can be used for sensible cooling by bringing it in thermal contact with the system to be
refrigerated. For example, a building can be cooled to a temperature lower than the
Surroundings by introducing cold air into the building. Cold water or brine is used for cooling
beverages, dairy products and in other industrial processes by absorbing heat from them. The
energy absorbed by the substance providing cooling increases its temperature, and the heat
transferred during this process

Endothermic mixing of substances

This is one of the oldest methods known to mankind. It is very well- known that low temperatures
can be obtained when certain salts are dissolved in water. This is due to the fact that dissolving
of these salts in water is an endothermic process, i.e., heat is absorbed from the solution leading
to its cooling. For example, when salts such as sodium nitrate, sodium chloride, calcium chloride
added to water, its temperature falls. By dissolving sodium chloride in water, it is possible to
achieve temperatures as low as –210C, while with calcium chloride a temperature of –510C could
be obtained. However, producing low temperature by endothermic mixing has several practical
limitations. These are: the refrigeration effect obtained is very small (the refrigeration effect
depends on the heat of solution of the dissolved substance, which is typically small for most of
the commonly used salts), and recovery of the dissolved salt is often uneconomical as this calls
for evaporation of water from the solution.

Phase change processes

Refrigeration is produced when substances undergo endothermic phase change processes such
as sublimation, melting and evaporation. For example, when ice melts it produces a refrigeration
effect in the surroundings by absorbing heat. The amount of refrigeration produced and the
temperature at which refrigeration is produced depends on the substance undergoing phase
change. It is well-known that pure water ice at 1 atmospheric pressure melts at a temperature
of about 00C and extracts about 335 kJ/kg of heat from the surroundings. At 1 atmospheric
pressure, dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) undergoes sublimation at a temperature of –78.50C,
yielding a refrigeration effect of 573 kJ/kg. Both water ice and dry ice are widely used to provide
refrigeration in several applications. However, evaporation or vaporization is the most commonly
used phase change process in practical refrigeration systems as it is easier to handle fluids in
cyclic devices. In these systems, the working fluid (refrigerant) provides refrigeration effect as it
changes its state from liquid to vapor in the evaporator.

By throttling:

Similar to liquids, gases can also be expanded from high pressure to low pressure either by using
a turbine (isentropic expansion) or a throttling device (isenthalpic process). Similar to throttling
of liquids, the throttling of gases is also an isenthalpic process. Since the enthalpy of an ideal gas
is a function of temperature only, during an isenthalpic process, the temperature of the ideal gas
remains constant. In case of real gases, whether the temperature decreases or increases during
the isenthalpic throttling process depends on a property of the gas called Joule-

Expansion of gases through a turbine:

Steady flow expansion of a high pressure gas through a turbine or an expansion engine results in
a network output with a resulting decrease in enthalpy. This decrease in enthalpy leads to a
decrease in temperature. In an ideal case, the expansion will be reversible adiabatic, however, in
an actual case, the expansion can be adiabatic but irreversibility exists due to fluid friction. Similar
to the case of liquids, it can be shown from the steady flow energy equation that expansion with
a network output reduces the exit enthalpy and hence temperature of the gas. If the changes in
potential and kinetic energy are negligible and the process is adiabatic, then:

Since wnet is positive, the outlet enthalpy h2 is less than inlet enthalpy h1; hence the outlet
temperature T2 will also be less than inlet temperature T1. Unlike isenthalpic expansion, an
approximately reversible adiabatic expansion with a network output always produces a
decrease in temperature irrespective of the initial temperature. However, one disadvantage
with adiabatic expansion through a turbine/expansion engine is that the temperature drop
decreases as the temperature decreases. Hence in practice a combination of adiabatic
expansion followed by isenthalpic expansion is used to liquefy gases. The adiabatic expansion
is used to pre-cool the gas to a temperature lower than the inversion temperature and then
throttling is used to produce liquid.

Thermoelectric Refrigeration

Thermoelectric refrigeration is a novel method of producing low temperatures and is based on

the reverse Seebeck effect. See beck effect an EMF, E is produced when the junctions of two
dissimilar conductors are maintained at two different temperatures T 1 and T2. This principle is
used for measuring temperatures using thermocouples.

Reversed Carnot cycle employing a gas

Reversed Carnot cycle is an ideal refrigeration cycle for constant temperature external heat
source and heat sinks. Below Figure shows the schematic of a reversed Carnot refrigeration
system using a gas as the working fluid along with the cycle diagram on T-s and P-v coordinates.
As shown, the cycle consists of the following four processes:

Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic compression in a compressor

Process 2-3: Reversible, isothermal heat rejection in a compressor
Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a turbine
Process 4-1: Reversible, isothermal heat absorption in a turbine
 Schematic of a reverse Carnot refrigeration system

Reverse Carnot refrigeration system in P-v and T-s coordinates

The heat transferred during isothermal processes 2-3 and 4-1 are given by:
3
q2−3 =∫T.ds=Th (s3 −s2 )
2
1
q4−1 =∫T.ds =Tl (s1 −s4 )
4
s = s and s = s , hence s -s = s- s
1 2 3 4 2 3 1 4

Applying first law of thermodynamics to the closed cycle,

∫δq =(q4−1 + q2−3 ) =∫δw =(w 2−3 − w 4−1 ) =− w net

The work of isentropic expansion, w3-4 compression w1-2.

The COP of the Carnot system is given by:

= q4-1 / w net work done

= T1 / (T H - T1 )

Where, q4-1 heat absorption at turbine

TH temperature at heat rejection to surrounding

T1 temperature at refrigeration area

 1. Reciprocating Compressor

Reciprocating compressors consist of a piston moving back and forth in a cylinder, with suction
and discharge valves to achieve suction and compression of the refrigerant vapor. Its
construction and working are somewhat similar to a two-stroke engine, as suction and
compression of the refrigerant vapor are completed in one revolution of the crank. The
suction side of the compressor is connected to the exit of the evaporator, while the
discharge side of the compressor is connected to the condenser inlet. The suction (inlet) and
the discharge (outlet) valves open and close due to pressure differences between the cylinder
and inlet or outlet manifolds respectively. The pressure in the inlet manifold is equal to or
slightly less than the evaporator pressure. Similarly the pressure in the outlet manifold is equal
to or slightly greater than the condenser pressure. The purpose of the manifolds is to provide
stable inlet and outlet pressures for the smooth operation of the valves and also provide a
space for mounting the valves.
2. Rolling Piston Type, Rotary Compressor

Positive displacement rotary compressors based on sliding vane and rolling piston types are
used in small to medium capacity applications all over the world. These compressors offer the
advantages of compactness, efficiency, low noise etc. However, these compressors require very
close manufacturing tolerances as compared to reciprocating compressors. The low pressure
refrigerant from the evaporator enters into the compressor from the port on the right hand
side, it gets compressed due to the rotation of the rolling piston and leaves the compressor
from the discharge valve on the left hand side
 3. Semi-Hermetic, Single-Screw Compressor

The scroll compressor is one of the more recent but important types of positive displacement
compressors. It uses the compression action provided by two intermeshing scrolls - one fixed
and the other orbiting. This orbital movement draws gas into the compression chamber and
moves it through successively smaller “pockets” formed by the scroll’s rotation, until it reaches
maximum pressure at the center of the chamber. There, it’s released through a discharge port
in the fixed scroll. During each orbit, several pockets are compressed simultaneously, so
operation is virtually continuous.
4. Centrifugal compressor.
Cut-view of a two-stage, semi-hermetic centrifugal compressor.

Centrifugal compressors (also known as turbocompressors) belong to the class of dynamic type
of compressors, in which the pressure rise takes place due to the exchange of angular
momentum between the rotating blades and the vapour trapped in between the blades.
Centrifugal were initially used for compressing air.

Classification of condensers
a) Air cooled condensers
b) Water cooled condensers
c) Evaporative condensers

Air cooled condensers

Natural convection

In natural convection type, heat transfer from the condenser is by buoyancy induced
natural convection and radiation. Since the flow rate of air is small and the radiation heat
transfer is also not very high, the combined heat transfer coefficient in these condensers is
small. As a result a relatively large condensing surface is required to reject a given amount of
heat. Hence these condensers are used for small capacity refrigeration systems like household
refrigerators and freezers. The natural convection type condensers are either plate surface
type or finned tube type. The finned type condensers are mounted either below the
refrigerator at an angle or on the backside of the refrigerator. In case, it is mounted below,
then the warm air rises up and to assist it an air envelope is formed by providing a jacket on
backside of the refrigerator. The fin spacing is kept large to minimize the effect of fouling by
dust and to allow air to flow freely with little resistance.

Refrigerant in & out

Forced convection type

In forced convection type condensers, the circulation of air over the condenser surface is
maintained by using a fan or a blower. These condensers normally use fins on air-side for good
heat transfer. The fins can be either plate type or annular type.
Water Cooled Condensers:
Depending upon the construction, water cooled condensers can be further classified into:

1. Double pipe or tube-in-tube type

2. Shell-and-coil type
3. Shell-and-tube type

Double pipe condensers

Double pipe condensers are normally used up to 10 TR capacity. Figure 22.4 shows the schematic
of a double pipe type condenser. As shown in the figure, in these condensers the cold water flows
through the inner tube, while the refrigerant flows through the annulus in counter flow. Headers
are used at both the ends to make the length of the condenser small and reduce pressure drop.
The refrigerant in the annulus rejects a part of its heat to the surroundings by free convection
and radiation. The heat transfer coefficient is usually low because of poor liquid refrigerant
drainage if the tubes are long.

Refrigerant in

Coolant in

Coolant out

Refrigerant out
Shell-and-tube type:

This is the most common type of condenser used in systems from 2 TR up to thousands of TR
capacity. In these condensers the refrigerant flows through the shell while water flows through
the tubes in single to four passes. The condensed refrigerant collects at the bottom of the shell.
The coldest water contacts the liquid refrigerant so that some sub cooling can also be obtained.
The liquid refrigerant is drained from the bottom to the receiver. There might be a vent
connecting the receiver to the condenser for smooth drainage of liquid refrigerant. The shell
also acts as a receiver. Further the refrigerant also rejects heat to the surroundings from the
shell.
Evaporative Condensers

In evaporative condensers, both air and water are used to extract heat from the condensing
refrigerant. Evaporative condensers combine the features of a cooling tower and water-cooled
condenser in a single unit. In these condensers the water is sprayed from top part on a bank of
tubes carrying the refrigerant and air is induced upwards. There is a thin water film around the
condenser tubes from which evaporative cooling takes place. The heat transfer coefficient for
evaporative cooling is very large. Hence, the refrigeration system can be operated at low
condensing temperatures (about 11 to 13 K above the wet bulb temperature of air). The water
spray countercurrent to the airflow acts as cooling tower. The role of air is primarily to increase
the rate of evaporation of water. The required air flow rates are in the range of 350 to 500 m 3/h
per TR of refrigeration capacity.

Schematic diagram of evaporative condenser

Flooded Evaporator

This is typically used in large ammonia systems. The refrigerant enters a surge drum through a
float type expansion valve. The compressor directly draws the flash vapour formed during
expansion. This vapour does not take part in refrigeration hence its removal makes the
evaporator more compact and pressured drop due to this is also avoided. The liquid refrigerant
enters the evaporator from the bottom of the surge drum. This boils inside the tubes as heat is
absorbed. The mixture of liquid and vapour bubbles rises up along the evaporator tubes. The
vapour is separated as it enters the surge drum. The remaining unevaporated liquid circulates
again in the tubes along with the constant supply of liquid refrigerant from the expansion valve

Flooded Type Shell-and-Tube Evaporator

a flooded type of shell and tube type liquid chiller where the liquid (usually brine or water) to
be chilled flows through the tubes in double pass just like that in shell and tube condenser. The
refrigerant is fed through a float valve, which maintains a constant level of liquid refrigerant in
the shell. The shell is not filled entirely with tubes as shown in the end view . This is done to
maintain liquid refrigerant level below the top of the shell so that liquid droplets settle down
due to gravity and are not carried by the vapour leaving the shell. If the shell is completely filled
with tubes, then a surge drum is provided after the evaporator to collect the liquid refrigerant
Shell-and-Coil type evaporator
These are of smaller capacity than the shell and tube chillers. These are made of one or more
spiral shaped bare tube coils enclosed in a welded steel shell. It is usually dry-expansion type
with the refrigerant flowing in the tube and chilled liquid in the shell. In some cases the chiller
operates in flooded mode also with refrigerant in the shell and chilled water flowing thorough
the spiral tube.