OPTIMAL DESIGN OF REACTIVE

COMPENSATION CAPABILITY
OF A SOLAR PV PLANT
Likhith Krishna

SEPTEMBER 15, 2015

Table of Contents
List of Figures................................................................................................................. iii

1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Objectives and Scope ............................................................................................. 6
1.2 Project Description ................................................................................................ 6
1.3 Project Outline ....................................................................................................... 7

2 Technical Basics ................................................................................................... 9

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 9
2.2 Inverters ............................................................................................................... 11
2.3 Quantifying Plant Performance of PV Plant ........................................................ 12
2.4 Power in AC Circuits ........................................................................................... 14
2.5 Plant Planning Change if Reactive Power is required by the Grid Operator ....... 15
2.6 Reactive Impedances (Reactances) ...................................................................... 16
2.7 Reactive Power Effects on the Grid ..................................................................... 16

3 Reactive Power Impact on Inverter Sizing ...................................................... 18

3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 18
3.2 Input DC Voltage Limitations ............................................................................. 19
3.3 Energy Production Estimates ............................................................................... 20

4 Reactive Power Control Concepts .................................................................... 21

4.1 Voltage Control.................................................................................................... 21
4.2 Reactive Power Provision .................................................................................... 22
4.2.1 Reactive Power Provision during Night ........................................................... 23
4.3 Reactive Power Control with PV Plants in the MV Grid .................................... 25
4.3.1 Inverter Level Control using Equipment Compensation ................................. 26
4.3.2 Plant Level Central Control ............................................................................. 26
4.3.3 Comparison of Inverter Level Control and Plant Level Control...................... 28
4.3.4 Power Plant Controller Installation Schemes ................................................... 28
4.3.5 Decision Making for Selection of Control System .......................................... 30
4.4 Transmission (HV) level Interconnection............................................................ 31
4.5 Summary .............................................................................................................. 32

5 Reactive Power Compensation design of a PV Plant ...................................... 33

5.1 PV Plant Details ................................................................................................... 33
5.2 PV Plant Analysis ................................................................................................ 33
5.3 Reactive Power Flows within the PV Plant ......................................................... 34
5.4 Reactive Power Compensation Sizing ................................................................. 37
5.5 Summary .............................................................................................................. 39

6 Solar PV Plant Modelling.................................................................................. 40

6.1 PV Plant Configuration ........................................................................................ 40
6.2 DIgSILENT Simulation Model ........................................................................... 41
6.3 Reactive Capability Analysis using DPL script ................................................... 41

7 Reactive Compensation System Design Alternative ....................................... 44

7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 45
7.2 Inverter only Compensation Solution .................................................................. 45
7.3 Capacitor Banks Solution with Inverter Capability ............................................. 48
7.4 New Inverter Configuration Compensation Solution .......................................... 49
7.5 FACTS Devices Solution..................................................................................... 52
7.6 Summary .............................................................................................................. 53

8 Conclusions and Future Works ........................................................................ 54

Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 56

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... 57
List of Figures

Figure 1-1: PV Plant Model .............................................................................................. 7

Figure 2-1: Grid Connected PV Plants ............................................................................. 9
Figure 2-2 : Central Inverter ........................................................................................... 11
Figure 2-3 : String Inverter ............................................................................................. 12
Figure 2-4 : Power Waveforms in AC Circuits .............................................................. 14
Figure 2-5 : Pythagoras theorem ..................................................................................... 15
Figure 2-6 : Reactive Power Planning (Source: SMA [2]) ............................................. 16
Figure 3-1: PQ Curves of Inverters operating range [3] ................................................. 19
Figure 4-1: Voltage rise at distribution level due to integration of PV [3] ..................... 22
Figure 4-2: Q(V) Control [3] .......................................................................................... 23
Figure 4-3: Q at Night option (source SMA [4]) ............................................................ 24
Figure 4-4 : Typical Structure of PV Plant with POI at the MV Grid [5] ...................... 25
Figure 4-5: Typical operating range of a PV inverter and the PV Plant [5] ................... 25
Figure 4-6: Solution Concept for Equipment Compensation ......................................... 26
Figure 4-7: Closed Loop Control Scheme ...................................................................... 27
Figure 4-8: Plant Level Central Control System [6] ....................................................... 27
Figure 4-9: PPC inside the Plant Operator Station ......................................................... 29
Figure 4-10: PPC after the connection cable .................................................................. 29
Figure 4-11: Flow chart for Decision Making ................................................................ 30
Figure 4-12: HV Level Plant Interconnection ................................................................ 31
Figure 5-1: Typical Reactive Power Characteristics of PV Inverters [7] ....................... 35
Figure 5-2: Active and Reactive Power of PV Plant 50MWp ........................................ 37
Figure 5-3: Operational Quadrants of Electrical Powers ................................................ 38
Figure 6-1: PV Plant Configuration ................................................................................ 40
Figure 6-2: DIgSILENT Simulation Model.................................................................... 41
Figure 6-3: Reference Capability Curve ......................................................................... 42
Figure 6-4: DPL Script Command .................................................................................. 43
Figure 6-5: PQ Capability Curve .................................................................................... 43
Figure 7-1: Reactive Power requirements connected to the Jordan Grid ....................... 44
Figure 7-2: Reactive capability of SMA 900 CP-XT series ........................................... 46
Figure 7-3: Plant Capability with Inverters (SMA-900 CP-XT) .................................... 46
Figure 7-4: Power Limitation Point with the Inverter Compensation (SMA-900 CP-XT)
............................................................................................................................. 47
Figure 7-5: Energy shaving only with Inverters (SMA-900 CP-XT) ............................ 48
Figure 7-6: Plant Capability with Capacitor Banks ........................................................ 48
Figure 7-7: Reactive capability of SMA MVPS ............................................................. 49
Figure 7-8: Plant Capability with Inverters (SMA-MVPS) ............................................ 50
Figure 7-9: Power Limitation Point with the Inverter Compensation (SMA-MVPS) .... 51
Figure 7-10: Energy shaving only with Inverters (SMA-MVPS)................................... 51
Figure 7-11: Plant Reactive Capability with 3.3 MVAR Capacitor Banks .................... 52
Figure 7-12: Plant Reactive Capability with FACTS Devices ....................................... 53
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1 Introduction
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The application of Solar PV Plants has grown dramatically in the recent past. In an al-
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ternating current (AC) system of a linear source and purely resistive load both the cur-
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rent and voltage are sinusoidal and in phase, but in reality, the loads have resistive, in-
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ductive and capacitive load profiles which lead to shift of the phase between the current
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and voltage. When the voltage and current are not in phase, two power components (real
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and imaginary) are present: active power (measured in watts) and reactive power
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(measured in VARs). The reactive power does not transfer the energy but is required to
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maintain the voltage to deliver the active power. Previously Solar PV Plants have been
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smaller in size (less megawatts) per Plant, the amount of solar penetration was not an
issue.

High penetration levels of PV generation on an electrical power grid present several

challenges and opportunities for grid operators. The reactive power compensation and
voltage regulation are the most important power quality issues, which have to be con-
sidered when connecting PV Plants to a grid. The provision of reactive power with re-
spect to grid code interconnection requirements at the Point of Common Coupling
(PCC) and optimization for its application in LV, MV and HV are one of the key issues
in the design. The grid operators have recommended specification of reactive power
capabilities which needs to be satisfied. The reactive power capability of each individu-
al PV inverter may not be sufficient to comply with the grid codes interconnection re-
quirements, due to active and reactive power losses in the connection cables and trans-
formers connecting to the grid. Hence, the external reactive compensation needs to be
provided to satisfy the reactive power capability of Solar PV Plant.

The capacitor banks can be used, provided the resulting reactive power of the Plant is
inductive, but the resulting reactive power can be capacitive too, then the reactors or
compensation coils must be used to consume excess reactive power. The PV Plant
should be capable of providing reactive power at any operating point as per the grid
code regulations to keep the power factor within the boundary at the PCC. The set-point
for reactive power control can be adjusted by grid operator by selecting the Reactive
Power Control Concepts. The provision of reactive power according to grid code regu-
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gions. The PV designers may need to oversize the inverter ratings [kW] due to reactive
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power impact such that to ensure all the active power is injected into the grid.
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1.1 Objectives and Scope
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The thesis work will investigate optimum compliant design alternatives to supply reac-
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tive power compensation support according to grid code requirements. It will also high-
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light the pros and cons from technical and commercial standpoint depending on the pro-
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ject specific conditions imposed by Grid Code requirements.
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The thesis will treat use cases based upon actual projects built by ET Solutions AG, in
order to answer practically relevant questions, such as:

 What are the effects on the distribution grid?

 Whether inverter only solution is sufficient or it is necessary to change the ca-
pacity of the inverter?
 When compensation does becomes inevitable for the inverters?
 What components need to be considered to implement Q@Night capability op-
eration in inverters?
 When there is need for Power Plant Controllers (PPC)?

1.2 Project Description

To fulfill the main goal of the thesis 50MWp PV project is considered. Modelling of the
PV Plant will be done in DIgSILENT Powerfactory simulation software. The Point of
Common Coupling (PCC) is considered at the HV side of the PV Plant as shown in
Figure 1.4. The PV Plant is configured based on the Jordanian Grid Code requirements
but many countries have similar requirements. The man aspects of the Grid Code being
discussed is Reactive capability but there are other aspects of the Grid Code which are
not discussed here but are still required for the full Grid Code compliance. The reactive
capability analysis is carried out using DIgSILENT Programming Language (DPL)
script by integrating it to the PV Plant model.
 Figure 1-1: PV Plant Model

1.3 Project Outline

The project studies the design of Reactive power compensation capability for a Solar
PV Plant and the presented report is structured in eight chapters.

 The first chapter may be seen as an introduction to Solar PV and discussion

about the technical challenges facing grid connection of Solar PV Plant’s. The
chapter is followed up by the problem formulation and the objectives of the the-
sis.

 The second chapter presents an overview of the Grid connected Solar PV plants
and its components. The chapter is followed up by the Electrical Power basics in
AC circuits and the plant planning change if reactive power is required by the
Grid operator.
 The third chapter provides a useful information related to selection of inverters
with reactive power requirements and impact of reactive power in the energy
yield of the plant.

 The fourth chapter describes the reactive power provision in the PV plant and it
compares the inverter level and plant level control system. It highlight why the
PPC is required for the PV plant

 The fifth chapter provides the basic guidelines for the application of reactive
compensation systems to be used as a part of solar PV plant. The fundamental
needs of why reactive compensation is required, and finally how to size the reac-
tive compensation.

 The sixth chapter provides the PV plant modelling using DIgSILENT Power
Factory simulation tool and the integration of DPL script to carry out effectively
the reactive capability analysis (P-Q).

 The seventh chapter describes the study cases obtained from the simulations per-
formed for all the three main approaches to provide reactive power requirements
of the grid code and it also shows how the inverter compensation results in En-
ergy shaving of the plant.

 In the eighth chapter the conclusions of the project are presented and also ideas
for future work are proposed.
2 Technical Basics

This section provides an overview of the Grid Connected Solar PV Plants and compo-
nents in a Utility scale PV Plant. Furthermore, it explains how the operational perfor-
mance of PV Plant is quantified, the Electrical Power basics in AC circuits, Reactive
Power effects on the grid and how does plant planning change if reactive power is re-
quired by the grid operator.

2.1 Introduction
Figure 2-1 gives an overview of a megawatt scale solar PV power plant connected to the
grid.

Figure 2-1: Grid Connected PV Plants

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The main components include:
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 Solar PV Modules – The PV modules convert solar radiation directly into elec-
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tricity through the principle of photovoltaic effect. The photovoltaic effect is a
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semiconductor effect whereby solar radiation falling (photons striking) onto the
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semiconductor PV cells generates electron movement. The output from a solar
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PV cell is direct current (DC) electricity. A PV plant contains many cells con-
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nected together to form the modules and many modules are connected together
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in strings1 to produce the required DC power output [1].
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 Module mounting (or tracking) systems – The module mounting/tracking sys-
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tems allow PV modules to be securely attached to the ground at a fixed tilt an-
gle, or on sun tracking frames [1].

 Inverters – The inverters are required to convert the DC electricity to alternat-

ing current (AC) for connecting it to the AC utility grid. Many modules in series
strings and parallel strings are connected to the inverters [1].

 Step-up transformers – The inverters are generated at the low voltage (LV) and
it is further step-up in voltage to reach the AC grid voltage level. The step-up
transformer takes the output from the inverters to the required grid voltage [1].

 The grid connection interface (PCC) – The electricity is exported into the grid
network at the PCC. The substation will also have the required grid interface
switchgear such as circuit breakers and disconnects for protection and isolation
of the PV power plant as well as generation and supply metering equipment [1].
The substation and metering point are often external to the PV power plant
boundary and are typically located on the network operator’s property [1].

1
Modules may be connected together in series to produce a string of modules. When connected in se-
ries the voltage increases. Strings of modules connected in parallel increase the current output.
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2.2 Inverters
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Inverters are solid state electronic devices. They convert DC electricity generated by the
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PV modules into AC electricity. Inverters can also perform a variety of functions to
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maximize the output of the plant [1]. These range from optimizing the voltage across
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the strings and monitoring string performance to logging data, and providing protection
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and isolation in case of irregularities in the grid or with the PV modules [1].
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There are two broad classes of inverters: central inverters and string inverters.
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Central Inverters
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The central inverter configuration shown in Figure 2-2 remains the first choice for many
medium and large scale solar PV plants. A large number of modules are connected in
series to form a string of very high voltage. Strings are then connected in parallel to the
inverter. The central inverters offer high reliability and simplicity of installation. How-
ever, they have disadvantages such as increased mismatch losses and absence of maxi-
mum power point (MPPT) for each string [1]. This may cause problems for arrays that
have multiple tilt and orientation angles, suffer from shading, or use different module
types [1].

Figure 2-2 : Central Inverter

String Inverters

The string inverter concept uses multiple inverters for multiple strings of modules as
shown in Figure 2-3. String inverters are increasingly being used as they can cover a
very wide power range and can be manufactured more cheaply in a production line than
central inverters [1] additionally, they provide MPPT on a string level with all strings
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specifications are being used, or when there are shading issues.
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String inverters, which are usually in single phase, also have other advantages such as it
can be serviced and replaced by non-specialist personnel and also it is practical to keep
spare string inverters on site. This makes it easy to handle unforeseen circumstances, as
in the case of an inverter failure. In comparison, the defect/failure of a large central in-
verters needs some time to repair and in turn can lead to significant yield loss before it
can be replaced [1].

2.3 Quantifying Plant Performance of PV Plant

The performance of a PV power plant is expected to fall during its lifetime, especially in
the second and third decade of its life as modules continue to degrade and plant compo-
nents age [1]. In addition to the quality of the initial installation, a high degree of re-
sponsibility for the performance of a PV plant lies with the O&M contractor. This sec-
tion discusses how the operational performance of a PV plant may be quantified [1].

Performance Ratio (PR)

The quality of a PV power plant may be described by its Performance Ratio (PR). The
PR, usually expressed as a percentage, can be used to compare PV systems independent
of size and solar resource. The PR may be expressed as:
By normalizing with respect to irradiation, the PR quantifies the overall effect of losses
on the rated output and allows a comparison between PV systems at different locations
[1]. A plant with a high PR is more efficient at converting solar irradiation into useful
energy [1]. The PR of a plant may be predicted using simulations, or alternatively may
be calculated for an operational plant by measuring irradiation, ambient temperature,
wind velocity, module temperature, voltage and current over a given time period [1].

As PV plant losses vary according to environmental conditions through the year, the PR
also varies [1]. Averages across the year, a PR in the upper seventies or lower eighties is
typical for a well-designed plant. This may be expected to reduce as the plant ages, de-
pendent on the module degradation rates [1].

Specific Yield

The “specific yield” (kWh/kWp) is the total annual energy generated per kWp installed.
It is often used to help determine the financial value of an array and compare operating
results from different technologies and systems. The specific yield of a plant depends on
[1]:

 The total annual irradiation falling on the collector plane. This can be increased
by optimally tilting the modules or employing tracking technology.
 The performance of the module, including sensitivity to high temperatures and
low light levels.
 System losses including inverter downtime.

Some module manufacturers claim much higher kWh/kWp energy yields for their prod-
ucts than those of their competitors. However, independent studies to determine the di-
vergence between actual peak power and nominal power and to correct for other tech-
nical distortions tend to show much less of a difference [1].
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2.4 Power in AC Circuits
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In the electricity grid, voltage and current have constantly changing values. They follow
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a sinusoidal shape with a frequency of 50 Hz. If exclusively ohmic loads are connected,
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voltage and current remain in phase, this means they reach their maximum and mini-
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mum values simultaneously. When voltage and current behave with a phase shift, reac-
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tive power occurs [2].
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The product of voltage and current is power. Pure active power is thus only available if
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exclusively ohmic loads are connected. However, in reality, this is a very rare occur-
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rence. In almost all loads there are capacitances as well as inductances present that
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cause reactive power [2]. Capacitances and inductances directly influence the phase
shift in our electricity grid. In the case of inductances, the current lags behind the volt-
age and with capacitances, the voltage lags behind the current: a phase shift occurs be-
tween voltage and current. As a result, voltage and current achieve their maximum and
minimum values at different times [2]. In the case of a phase shift of 90 degrees, the
average value of the power is zero - this means pure reactive power as shown in Figure
2-4 [2].

Figure 2-4 : Power Waveforms in AC Circuits

The active power and the reactive power make up the apparent power. Active and reac-
tive power are added geometrically: active and reactive power make up the sides of a
right-angled triangle, the hypotenuse of this triangle is the apparent power. 4 kW active
power and 3 KVAR reactive power make up 5 kVA apparent power [2].
 Figure 2-5 : Pythagoras theorem

The phase shift is specified in angular degrees; usually, with the power factor cosφ.
Since the phase shift can occur in two directions, there are also two types of reactive
power: lagging and leading. Accordingly, it also called as the power factor cosφ, lead-
ing or over-excited, and the power factor cosφ, lagging or under-excited [2].

2.5 Plant Planning Change if Reactive Power is required by the Grid

Operator

The provision of reactive power must be considered when designing the PV plant. The
desired or required displacement power factor plays the decisive role in that context: It
determines the amount of apparent power and consequently the required inverter power
[2]. Given a cos φ of 0.95, approximately 33 percent of additional reactive power re-
sults; this equals an apparent power of approximately 105 percent of the active power
provided by the PV generator in the geometric total. Consequently, an inverter with at
least 105 kVA of nominal apparent power will be required to feed in 100 kW of active
power with this phase shift (refer the example calculation as shown in Figure 2-6) [2].

The active power absorbed by the inverter will be fully preserved in the process. The
respective reactive power also occurs in the inverter, which is why it needs to be dimen-
sioned larger accordingly [2].
 Figure 2-6 : Reactive Power Planning (Source: SMA [2])

2.6 Reactive Impedances (Reactances)

Capacitor (capacity): A capacitor is the alternating current circuit delays the voltage as
opposed to the current. Or the other way round: It ensures that the current precedes the
voltage and consequently acts as leading reactive impedance [2].

Coil (inductance): A coil delays the current flow as opposed to the voltage and conse-
quently acts as lagging reactive impedance [2].

2.7 Reactive Power Effects on the Grid

Reactive power subjects the grid and the entire grid infrastructure to a load without con-
tributing to the energy transmission. In contrast to active power which is “consumed” as
usable power, i.e., transformed into motion, light, or heat, reactive power at first pro-
vides no visible use in the grid [2]. Nevertheless, all lines, switches, transformers, and
other components must take the additional reactive power into consideration. Specifical-
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and reactive power [2]. In addition, the ohmic losses during the energy transmission
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occur as a function of apparent power; any additional reactive power consequently
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causes bigger transmission losses.
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If one compensates the unavoidable phase shifts in the grid and at the consumers, one
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will also lower the transmission losses. In addition, the grid will only be subjected to the
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active power load anymore, the released line resources could consequently be used for
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the transmission of additional active power [2].
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However, reactive power (i.e., the deliberate shifting of the phases) can also be used to
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control the line voltage as a leading or lagging phase shift increases or lowers the volt-
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age in the grid [2]. In other words: Just as feeding in or consuming active power affects
the frequency, the provision or absorption of reactive power will affect the voltage ,
though depending on the design of the respective grid level (e.g., cable or overhead
line). The monitoring and control of the phase shift is consequently also of extraordi-
nary importance for the grid control [2].
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3 Reactive Power Impact on Inverter Sizing
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This section provides a useful information for PV plant designers related to qualifying
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inverters for use in projects with reactive power requirements and impact of reactive
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power service on the energy yield of a photovoltaic system.
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The typical utility scale PV inverters can absorb or generate reactive power at partial
or
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power output, doing so at full power necessarily requires additional inverter capacity to
handle the full active and reactive current. Considering that inverter cost is related to
current rating, provision of reactive power at full output means that the inverter needs to
be larger for the same plant MW rating, which comes at a higher cost compared to exist-
ing industry experience. PV inverter manufacturers have traditionally dedicated the de-
vice’s maximum current capacity to the production of real power. This is beginning to
change, however, due to evolving technical requirements. To avoid having to derate
inverters to meet interconnection requirements, manufacturers have begun to design PV
inverters that have additional reactive power capability at their real power rating [3].

PV system designers need to pay extra attention when specifying utility-scale inverters
to ensure that they meet all project needs. They must also account for any real power
losses due to apparent power limitations. Consider, for example, two inverters with
1,000 kW real power ratings: Inverter A has an apparent power rating of 1,111 kVA
with a power factor capability of 0.9 lag to lead at full power; Inverter B has an apparent
power rating of 1,000 kVA and no power factor capabilities at full power. If the solar
resource and array capacity are adequate to peak the inverter output, Inverter A is capa-
ble of producing 1,000 kW of real power in addition to 484 kVAR of reactive power
while operating at a power factor of 0.9, as shown in Figure 22. Under the same circum-
stances, Inverter B is capable of producing only 900 kW of real power while operating
at a power factor of 0.9 (1,000 kVA x 0.9 PF), as shown in Figure 3-1 [3].
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Figure 3-1: PQ Curves of Inverters operating range [3]

Note that at partial loading, both inverters have capacity available for reactive power
control. For example, at 50% loading, both Inverter A and Inverter B could produce 500
kW of real power, 240 kVAR of reactive power and 555 kVA of apparent power given
that both are capable of operating at a 0.90 power factor. Since inverters operate below
rated output the majority of the time, latent inverter capacity is generally available to
produce or consume reactive power. [3]

3.2 Input DC Voltage Limitations

When an inverter generates or consumes reactive power, there is a voltage drop across
the inductor in the output filter of the inverter that reduces or increases the voltage at the
output of the switching stage of the inverter. The inverters ability to effectively track the
maximum power point (MPPT) of the array will change as a result.

System designers need to be aware that these DC voltage impacts may affect source
circuit sizing. If the system operates an inverter at a lagging power factor to generate
reactive power, and the lower voltage limit of the DC input window increases as a re-
sult, this could limit string size options. System designers must account for any input
voltage window changes at different power factors when specifying an array. If they do
not, high temperatures may compromise the inverter’s ability to track the maximum
power point of the array, potentially leading to lost energy generation. Since these im-
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source of design guidance.
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3.3 Energy Production Estimates
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The supplying reactive power clearly has some effect on PV plant performance in terms
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of both energy production and levelized cost of energy these impacts are difficult to
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quantify. The PVsyst newer version, the de facto industry standard production modeling
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tool, can account for these effects. In the miscellaneous tab settings in PVsyst simula-
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tion tool the designer can select the power factor for the grid injection.
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The system designers could post process hourly output data from PVsyst to estimate
potential energy losses associated with providing reactive power support at times when
the inverter is operating at full load. System designers can also account for losses asso-
ciated with DC input voltage limitations by post processing hourly PVsyst data and
looking to see when the array VMP falls below the lower limit of the inverter’s DC input
window as modified by operation at a lagging power factor.

While there are conductive and iron losses associated with using an inverter to supply
reactive power, it is unlikely that the production model needs to account for these loss-
es. When supplying reactive power at full inverter loading, the decrease in inverter effi-
ciency is likely on the order of 0.1%. These losses decrease at lower power levels and
are not an issue when the inverter operates at unity power factor. Nevertheless, it is a
good idea for system designers to ask the inverter manufacturer to quantify these losses.
Designers can then determine whether to account for them or whether they have an in-
significant impact.

If the PV Plant is to be connected to the HV grid via HV transformers with a very high
impedance (Z = 20%) as in the case of Ketura PV plant. The reactive power provision
via Capacitor banks cause sudden changes in the system voltage which can create prob-
lems with voltage flicker and even cause excess stress on PV inverters, as a result to
avoid voltage to go beyond 1.1 p.u. at the inverter terminals, the power must be limited
from the Inverters and this results in energy shaving of the PV Plant.
Pr
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4 Reactive Power Control Concepts
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This chapter provides an overview of Reactive Power Control in the Solar PV Plants. It
si
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presents an overview of how voltage is controlled in transmission and distribution sys-
of
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F
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electrical power system voltage levels and discuss the evolving technical requirements
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for reactive power control. The inverter level versus plant level reactive power control
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4.1 Voltage Control

At very light loading the transmission system generates reactive power that must be ab-
sorbed, while at heavy loading the system consumes a large amount of reactive power
that must be replaced. The systems reactive power requirements also depends on the
generation and transmission configuration. Consequently, system reactive requirements
vary in time as load levels and generation patterns change [3].

Since the electric power system was not designed to take into account distributed gener-
ation and bidirectional flows, grid operators have generally treated distributed PV gen-
eration as a variable negative load. The integration of PV systems into the electric pow-
er system at low penetration level, worsen the voltage control challenges for grid
operators as PV penetration levels increase. The voltage rises when PV power is inject-
ed into the distribution system as shown in Figure 4-1. The relative impact of this volt-
age rise varies based on the location where PV power is injected, the amount of PV
generation relative to minimum and maximum daytime loads and solar irradiation. PV
inverters are intrinsically capable of absorbing reactive power to counteract voltage rise
at the POI, just as they are capable of injecting reactive power to support voltage sags
[3].

The rapidly varying irradiance conditions may cause voltage sags and swells that result
in degradation of power quality. The fast reacting VAR capable PV inverters may pro-
vide the necessary reactive power injection or consumption to maintain voltage regula-
tion under difficult transient conditions [3].
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od
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Figure 4-1: Voltage rise at distribution level due to integration of PV [3]

4.2 Reactive Power Provision

There are different methods available for the implementation of reactive power ex-
change with the grid. The reactive power set point can be either fixed or adjustable by a
signal from the grid operator [3]. The different operating modes are available:

The types of reactive power provision are:

Fixed Power Factor (Cosφ): The permanent reactive power exchange, independent of
the grid and generation.

Fixed Reactive Power (Q): The permanent reactive power exchange, independent of
the grid and generation.

Power dependent power factor (Cosφ (P)): The reactive power exchange with the
grid depends on the active power fed.

Voltage dependent reactive power (Q (V)): The reactive power exchange depends on
the line voltage at the POI. The example of design is as shown in Figure 4-2.
 Figure 4-2: Q(V) Control [3]

4.2.1 Reactive Power Provision during Night

The Solar PV Plant generate energy during the day and it remains idle when sunlight is
not bright enough or during night [4]. The reactive power provision during night option
enables PV inverters to compensate reactive power available at night, where pure reac-
tive power is fed into the grid. It results in elimination of costs associated with the ex-
ternal sourcing of reactive power [4].

The inverter must be fitted with the Q at Night option in order for the PV plant to feed
in reactive power during night. The connection between inverter and the MV transform-
er must be adjusted [4].

Option Q at Night in the Inverter

The PV inverter with the Q at night option contains additional hardware components
that enable feed in operation even without DC voltage being present. The PV inverter
runs through another operating state and uses additional parameters with which the pro-
cedure and the limits of reactive power generation can be set. This option can be acti-
vated by via a parameter.
Inverter Behavior

Figure 4-3: Q at Night option (source SMA [4])

If the AC power generated by the inverter falls below five kilowatts, the inverter
switches from feed-in to “Q at night” operation and feeds in reactive power in accord-
ance with the parameters set. Since this status can also occur during the day, the DC
switch gear remains closed at first, in order to avoid unnecessary switching of the DC
switch gear. If the inverter is in the “Q at Night” mode for one hour or the DC current
falls below 60 A, the DC switch gear opens and the inverter continues to feed in reac-
tive power. If reactive power feed-in is interrupted after a grid fault and the AC contac-
tor was opened while the DC switch gear is open, the DC circuit is initially pre-charged,
which reduces stress on the electronic components. This procedure takes up to one mi-
nute. Once the DC circuit is sufficiently pre-charged, the AC contactor is closed and the
inverter monitors the grid limits. If all of the feed-in requirements are met, the inverter
starts reactive power feed-in again within one minute. While the inverter is feeding in
reactive power, it simultaneously monitors whether the conditions for active power
feed-in have been met. If the feed-in requirements are met, the inverter closes the DC
switch gear and changes to feed-in operation [4].

4.3 Reactive Power Control with PV Plants in the MV Grid

The PV Plants of less than 20MW are generally connected to the MV grid directly. The
POI provided by the grid operator at the MV levels is not usually located very close to
the PV Plant. The schematic diagram of such a PV plant structure with POI on the MV
grid can be seen in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4 : Typical Structure of PV Plant with POI at the MV Grid [5]

The requirements placed on the plant for the provision of the grid management services
apply at the POI. The necessary connection elements result in a shift between the oper-
ating point set on the inverter and the operating point of the entire plant at the POI. The
Figure 4-5 shows an example of the typical operating range of a PV inverter and the
resulting operating range at the POI.

Figure 4-5: Typical operating range of a PV inverter and the PV Plant [5]
These deviation depend on the voltage drops via the equipment and the current operat-
ing point of the inverters. This causes high deviation from the setpoint and can therefore
cannot be compensated without taking additional measures.

4.3.1 Inverter Level Control using Equipment Compensation

For smaller plants or any retrofitting measures in particular, it may be beneficial to im-
plement the reactive power control by taking the plant’s equipment into consideration
and allows for the implementation of the reactive power control (Q(V) plant control in
particular) through the inverters, without requiring any additional construction measures
[5]. The parameterization is required to implement based on a small number of plant
characteristics. Knowing these parameters, each inverter can compensate the influences
of the equipment within the plant based on the measured voltage at the inverters termi-
nals and its current fed-in power. The influences to be taken into consideration and the
required parameters are shown in Figure 4-6.

Figure 4-6: Solution Concept for Equipment Compensation

4.3.2 Plant Level Central Control

The Utility scale PV plants comprise multiple inverters, the plant level controllers allow
plant operators to coordinate these individual inverters and operate them in aggregate as
a single large generators. This capability is key to integrating variable energy resources
into the grid [5]. The plant controller implement plant level logic and closed loop con-
trol schemes with real time commands to the inverters to achieve fast and reliable regu-
lation as shown in Figure 4-7.
 Figure 4-7: Closed Loop Control Scheme

The commands to the plant controller can be provided through the SCADA HMI or
even through interface equipment, such as a substation RTU [6]. The Figure 4-8 pro-
vides a representative block diagram of plant level control system as it relates to other
devices in a PV plant [6]. The power plant controller monitors system level measure-
ments and determines the desired operating conditions of various plant devices to meet
the specified targets. It manages capacitor banks and/or reactor banks, if present. It
manages all of the inverters in the plant, ensuring that they are producing the real and
reactive power levels necessary to meet the desired settings at the POI [6].

Figure 4-8: Plant Level Central Control System [6]

4.3.3 Comparison of Inverter Level Control and Plant Level Control

4.3.4 Power Plant Controller Installation Schemes

Grid Operator Connection Point (Inside the Plant / ≤2km)

If the Grid operator Point of Connection is inside the PV Plant and MV Cable connec-
tion is less than 2km then the Plant Controller can be installed at the Plant Operator Sta-
tion (before the connection cable) as shown in the Figure 4-9.
 Figure 4-9: PPC inside the Plant Operator Station

Grid Operator Connection Point (Far Away from the Plant / ≥2km)

If the Grid operator Point of Connection is far away from the PV Plant and MV Cable
connection is greater than 2km then the Plant Controller must be installed after the con-
nection cable as shown in the Figure 4-10.

Figure 4-10: PPC after the connection cable

4.3.5 Decision Making for Selection of Control System

Figure 4-11: Flow chart for Decision Making

4.4 Transmission (HV) level Interconnection

The PV Plant of more than 20 MW connected to the HV grid as shown in Figure 4-12
must operate according to a voltage schedule and grid code power factor requirements
depending on the country. Due to reactive power losses within the inverter step up
transformers and the substation transformers that step up the voltage from MV to HV,
because of these two transformer stages, PV inverter reactive capability won’t be suffi-
cient to realize power factor requirements. The design engineers can conduct a reactive
study with DIgSILENT power flow modelling software whether the project can meet
the reactive power capability requirements using inverters.

Figure 4-12: HV Level Plant Interconnection

4.5 Summary

The Reactive Power control provision is an important step during the initial design
phase of the project. At the Inverter level, plant operators can set internal parameters in
the inverter software to allow the inverter to operate at a fixed power factor or to vary
reactive power depending upon the generation level or the voltage at the inverter termi-
nals. At the plant level, PPC controls the reactive power magnitude, power factor or
voltage at the POI, with a PPC, system designers also have the option of using other
equipment, such as capacitor banks, for reactive power control. Based on the length of
the connection cable we can also decide whether we need to install the PPC in the Plant
operator side or in the Grid operator side.

Depending on the plant type and structure, there exist suitable solutions for implement-
ing reactive power control with PV plants. In large-scale PV plants and for new installa-
tions, a good way of implementing Q (V) control is to add a PPC.
5 Reactive Power Compensation design of a PV Plant

This chapter provides the basic guidelines for the application of reactive compensation
systems to be used as part of a PV plant. It also highlights the importance of reactive
power regulation with the possible technical solution.

5.1 PV Plant Details

Firstly the actual design and sizing of the reactive compensation can begin with re-
quirements known. The details of the PV Plant will need to include the following items:

 Minimum and maximum short-circuit levels with associated X/R ratios at the
PCC.
 Make, model, MW rating and number of Inverters.
 Control mode(s) at the PCC; (i.e. voltage control, power factor control, along
with the acceptable tolerances, dead bands, slopes, or other measures of dynamic
response for these items.
 Inverter power factor capability, control modes available (i.e., power factor,
voltage, or reactive power).
 Inverter step-up transformer details (MVA, percent impedance, X/R ratio, and
available taps).
 Collector cable schedules, which includes cable types, sizes, and lengths.
 Details of collector substation transformer(s) (MVA, X/R ratio, percent imped-
ance and available taps).

5.2 PV Plant Analysis

It is necessary to perform more detailed studies to further define the actual components
of the reactive power compensation system. Some of the standard studies are also done
in parallel with the reactive compensation system design are steady-state load flow, dy-
namic, and harmonic analysis. The studies will incorporate the PV Plant grid code re-
quirements and the actual details of the PV Plant. The type of reactive compensation
system could be any combination of the inverters, mechanically-switched devices such
as capacitor banks/reactor banks, STATCOMS, SVCs, etc. The actual devices chosen
will have to comply with requirements of PV Plant.

The steady state load flow studies typically require a detailed model of the grid with the
actual cables and routing taken into account. The PCC should be clearly defined and in
accordance with the interconnection requirements. This may be on the high side (HV) or
low side (MV) of the main substation transformer, or it is even located miles away if a
transmission line was added for the PV Plant. Some PV Plants have on-load tap chang-
ers (OLTCs) on the main substation transformer. The inverter reactive capability must
be taken into account. Note some inverters have the ability to vary power factor while
others maintain a constant power factor.

Typically the power factor/reactive power range is required at nominal voltage, but it
may also be required if the PCC voltage is varied up to ±10% while maintaining re-
quired power factor range. The reactive compensation system is required to be opera-
tional between ±10% voltages at the PCC, but the available reactive power range may
have a comparatively reduced range during this condition. The reactive power require-
ment may also change as a function of the generation level. The PV Plant does have
auxiliary station load that should be included in the analysis for reactive Power at night
operation.

5.3 Reactive Power Flows within the PV Plant

The Complete PV Plant has several elements which influence the final behavior of reac-
tive power from installation point of view. It is very important to take into account the
following components effects in the consideration.

Inverters

There are large variety of different variety of products from SMA, ABB, Free Sun is
available considering its way of providing reactive power. The low output part of the
generation causes problem of reactive power balance. At no-load running the output LC
filter dominates which is capacitive at nominal frequency [7]. Experiences have also
shown that higher reactive capacitive power is provided by inverters during start/stop
process as shown in the Figure 5-1 (pink curve) [7].

Figure 5-1: Typical Reactive Power Characteristics of PV Inverters [7]

Low Voltage Cables

Low voltage cables are connecting inverters and inverter transformers. They are very
little of capacitive behavior during no-load state. However this capacitive power is es-
sential only in case of long distances which is in the case of decentralized power Plants.

Transformers

Transformers are inductive in no-load state and inductive reactance grows by loading.
The reactive power can be calculated using equation.

MV Cables

MV cables connect plant to the supply system. They are strongly capacitive and in case
of higher distances they are dominant considering reactive power of power plant.
MV Overhead Lines

MV lines are capacitive too. However compared with MV cables it is much less capaci-
tive.

Compensating Reactive Power Losses

The capacitors banks must be installed with the aim to compensate inductive power loss
of transformer. Installation of the capacitor banks is very frequent and sometimes it is
contra productive solution. The main reason is that PV system designers do not take into
account general power balance of PV Plant. The resulting reactive power can be capaci-
tive behavior also if the PV plant interconnection is more than 5 km distance is connect-
ed through cables, then capacitor banks will make the situation even worse as we need
reactor banks for the compensation.

Total Reactive Power Balance

The total reactive power is obtained by summing up mentioned power elements with
appropriate sign. The final value corresponds with no-load state. Particular reactive
power elements within PV plant installation change by increase of electricity produc-
tion. The final reactive power of PV plant at PCC changes with active power variations.

Cables become less capacitive by loading and from specific point natural loading of the
overhead lines is inductive. The transformers inductive behavior increases by the load-
ing. The typical characteristics of centralized PV plant of 50 MWp is shown on Figure
5-2.
 Figure 5-2: Active and Reactive Power of PV Plant 50MWp

5.4 Reactive Power Compensation Sizing

The realization of Power Factor compensation is based on two key steps:

1. Measurement of reactive power characteristics.

2. Consideration of grid code requirements (For ex. Cos φ = 0.95).

The process of designing of compensation unit should be started by simulating PV plant

model in the DIgSILENT simulation tool. The technical requirements for power factor
control of PV plant underlies to operational rules of distribution network in particular
countries.

The Figure 5-3 below refers to possible operational modes of PV plant.

 Figure 5-3: Operational Quadrants of Electrical Powers

The aim of design process is to determine the needed compensating reactive powers:
inductive and capacitive. The process should be as following:

At first it is important to get reactive power balance by mathematically using formulas

for all the equipment’s like cables, transformers. However it is more reliable to use sim-
ulated data which better describe power characteristics as shown in Figure 3-2 using
DIgSILENT Power factory simulation tool. For designing the key parameters we need
maximum active power (Pmax) with associated maximum reactive power (Qpmax) and
maximum reactive power during the energy consumption (during night) Q0.

The next step is calculation of needed reactive power of compensating unit.

From the Figure 5-2 the maximum reactive power consumed by plant (Qplant) is 6.5
MVAR (inductive).

5.5 Summary

Reactive power compensation is an important step to reach voltage demand in PCC of

the PV plant. It is one of the ways that make integration of PV plant more performable.
Compensation unit has to be based on the reactive power characteristics of PV plant.
The mathematical method to obtain reactive power balance can also be realized. How-
ever the best solution is to simulate powers using simulation tool and calculate the
needed powers according the grid connection conditions.
6 Solar PV Plant Modelling

This section provides an overview of modelling and simulation analysis of PV Plant

using DIgSILENT PowerFactory simulation tool and integrating a DPL script to carry
out the reactive capability analysis with which we can easily decide whether do we need
external reactive power compensation equipment like Capacitor banks/Reactors to sat-
isfy the grid reactive power requirements.

6.1 PV Plant Configuration

The Solar PV Plant considered for the investigation is of the capacity 50MWp (DC)
with a Nominal Power Ratio (NPR) of 115%, to satisfy this 48 SMA 900 CP XT invert-
ers are used with a maximum capability of 990kVA at unity Power Factor [refer appen-
dices] and it provide/absorb a reactive power up to Power Factor 0.9. The inverter pro-
duces a power at the voltage level (LV) 0.4kV and it is stepped up to voltage level (MV)
20kV using step-up transformers there are 48 Transformers used with an impedance of
6%. The PV Plant must be connected to the HV voltage level 110kV. The Step up trans-
former of capacity of 60MVA with an impedance of 12% and on load tap changer
(OLTC) is used.

Figure 6-1: PV Plant Configuration

6.2 DIgSILENT Simulation Model

The Solar PV Plant is modelled based on the PV Plant configuration using the DIg-
SILENT simulation tool. The equivalent model is shown in the Figure 6-2 and external
reactive compensation equipment must be connected to the LV side of HV Transformer
i.e. 20kV side (MV).

Figure 6-2: DIgSILENT Simulation Model

6.3 Reactive Capability Analysis using DPL script

The DPL script is used to investigate the reactive power capability of a PV Plant. It
must be integrated properly into the Power Factory PV plant model by properly aligning
all the feeders. The script determines the PV inverters of the PV plant by means of a
feeder element or boundary element which must be located at the PCC with orientation
in direction of the PV Plant.
The active power is swept from 0% to max power in a defined number of steps. The
sweep is executed two times: First time with the minimum reactive power (under-
excited) and the second time with maximum reactive power (over-excited). The PV in-
verter works therefore one time at maximum under-excited border and one time at max-
imum over-excited border.

The Power Plant Controller can also be included to control the reactive power and this
can be enabled by setting the “iParkCtrl” to 1 as shown in Figure 6-4. The external reac-
tive power compensation equipment like Capacitor banks/reactors can also be selected
in addition. The external reactive power compensation equipment will work one time on
maximum step setting and other time on minimum step settings. Figure 6-3 shows the
definition of reference capability curve.

Figure 6-3: Reference Capability Curve

The Command button to enter Plant Details and Grid Code Power Factor requirements
is as shown in the Figure 6-4.
 Figure 6-4: DPL Script Command

A P-Q diagram with two capability curve is plotted once the script is executed; one
curve for the reactive power capability of Solar PV Plant (red curve) and one reference
curve (blue curve) which is grid code requirements as shown in Figure 6-5.

Figure 6-5: PQ Capability Curve

7 Reactive Compensation System Design Alternative

This section will show the reactive capability of the various alternatives and compare
them specifically to the relevant grid code. It also investigate the cost effective equip-
ment alternative and technical capability of the grid to which it is connected.

The Grid code requirements is based on the Jordan Transmission Grid Code but many
countries have similar requirements. The main aspects of the Grid code discussed is Re-
active Capability.

The Figure 7-1 gives the basic requirements for reactive capability of a PV plant accord-
ing to the Grid code. The Plant connected to the HV grid must satisfy the reactive power
requirements of 0.85 leading Power Factor and 0.95 lagging Power Factor [8].

Figure 7-1: Reactive Power requirements connected to the Jordan Grid

7.1 Introduction

If the reactive capability of the PV inverters is insufficient to meet the Grid Code re-
quirements then it is often necessary to provide additional substation based reactive
compensation equipment. It is possible to design a system to meet the steady state and
dynamic requirements of PV plant using several design alternatives. Solutions can be
built using the Inverter reactive capability or using additional reactive compensation
equipment.

The following four design alternatives are considered:

i. Inverter only compensation solution with a maximum reactive capability of 0.9

Power Factor.

ii. Inverter only compensation solution along with the shunt capacitor banks for the
switched operations during over-excited state.

iii. New Inverter Configuration compensation solution with a maximum reactive

capability of 0.8 Power Factor.

iv. Inverter only compensation with FACTS devices like SVC and STATCOM for
dynamic reactive compensation solution.

The important thing to note about these four solutions is that they can all provide the
necessary reactive power to meet grid code compliance, the main difference between
them being that of cost savings. Substation engineering design, approvals in site, and
installation costs are part of the consideration in the overall PV plant design, in addition
to the equipment purchase cost.

7.2 Inverter only Compensation Solution

In this application, inverters with a maximum reactive capability of 0.9 Power factor is
considered. At full PV plant (MW) output the reactive power requirement is 26.46
MVAR at the over-excited operation and -14 MVAR at the under-excited operation.
Figure 7-2 shows the SMA 900 CP-XT Inverter reactive capability curve.
 Figure 7-2: Reactive capability of SMA 900 CP-XT series

The PV Inverters with a maximum reactive power capability of 0.9 Power factor can
provide ±431 KVAR per inverter. Figure 7-3 shows the Plant reactive capability with
Inverters capability.

Figure 7-3: Plant Capability with Inverters (SMA-900 CP-XT)

Cos φ = 0.85 Over-excited at PCC:

At Full power output reactive power requirement is 26.46 MVAR, but the inverter reac-
tive capability is 13.09 MVAR. The missing reactive power requirement is 13.4
MVAR.

Cos φ = 0.95 under-excited at PCC:

At Full power output reactive power requirement is 14 MVAR, but with the inverter
capability and plant inductive behavior this can be easily satisfied.

If the grid operators decide to operate the PV plant using inverter only compensation
then he needs to limit the power from the inverters because the over-excited operation
cannot be fulfilled and the maximum active power (MW) which can be obtained is
27MW as shown in Figure 7-4.

Figure 7-4: Power Limitation Point with the Inverter Compensation (SMA-900 CP-XT)

The reactive power requirement at over-excited mode only with inverter compensation
leads to energy shaving of 12.5% per year if the plant needs to operate in over-excited
mode as shown in Figure 7-5. The cost of solar energy for the year 2014 is 3.33
cent/kwh [9]. The energy shaved is 10,829 MWh/year and the total cost of Energy
shaved is 360,610 €/kWh/year.
 Figure 7-5: Energy shaving only with Inverters (SMA-900 CP-XT)

7.3 Capacitor Banks Solution with Inverter Capability

In this application, inverters with a maximum reactive capability of 0.9 Power factor is
considered. At full PV plant MW output the reactive power requirement is 26.46
MVAR and with 15 (3x5) MVAR Capacitor Banks this can be easily satisfied. Figure 7-
6 shows the plant reactive capability.

Figure 7-6: Plant Capability with Capacitor Banks

7.4 New Inverter Configuration Compensation Solution

In this application, inverters with a maximum reactive capability of 0.8 Power factor is
considered i.e. SMA MVPS [see the section Appendix].

Figure 7-7 shows the SMA MVPS Inverter reactive capability curve.

Figure 7-7: Reactive capability of SMA MVPS

The PV Inverters with a maximum reactive power capability of 0.8 Power factor which
can provide ±1248 KVAR per inverter. Figure 7-8 shows the Plant reactive capability
with Inverters compensation.
 Figure 7-8: Plant Capability with Inverters (SMA-MVPS)

Cos φ = 0.85 Over-excited at PCC:

At Full power output reactive power requirement is 26.46 MVAR, but the inverter reac-
tive capability is 23.65 MVAR. The missing reactive power requirement is 2.82
MVAR.

Cos φ = 0.95 under-excited at PCC:

At Full power output reactive power requirement is 14 MVAR, but with the inverter
capability and plant inductive behavior this can be easily satisfied.

If the grid operators decide to operate the PV plant using inverter only compensation
then he needs to limit the power from the inverters and the maximum active power
(MW) which can be obtained is 40 MW as shown in Figure 7-9.
 Figure 7-9: Power Limitation Point with the Inverter Compensation (SMA-MVPS)

The reactive power requirement at over-excited mode only with inverter compensation
leads to energy shaving of 0.04% per year if the plant needs to operate in over-excited
mode as shown in Figure 7-10. The cost of solar energy for the year 2014 is 3.33
cent/kwh [9]. The energy shaved is 35 MWh/year and leads to the total cost of Energy
shaved is 1,154 €/kWh/year.

Figure 7-10: Energy shaving only with Inverters (SMA-MVPS)

If the grid operators doesn’t want to lose the energy due to power limitation then PV
plant designer need to install the 3.3 MVAR capacitor banks to satisfy the over-excited
operation requirement and the plant reactive capability is as shown in Figure 7-11.

Figure 7-11: Plant Reactive Capability with 3.3 MVAR Capacitor Banks

7.5 FACTS Devices Solution

The FACTS devices such as SVC and STATCOM can be used to meet the continuous
operation requirements as it provides a system higher response and at a higher system
cost. STATCOM is high dynamic performance with very fast response time and it re-
quires less space than the SVC devices and it is more preferred if the grid is very weak.
Figure 7-12 shows the reactive capability of the plant with Inverter compensation and
FACTS devices.
 Figure 7-12: Plant Reactive Capability with FACTS Devices

7.6 Summary

This summary shows that there are a number of ways of providing reactive
compensation to meet the various grid code requirements. The solution chosen will
depend on the size of PV plant, the PV inverters chosen and the strength of the system
to which the PV plant is connected.

It can be clearly seen from the summary that Inverter only compensation can provide
reactive power very quickly but leads to some amount of Energy Shaving due to PV
plant inductive behavior and it leads to huge amount of energy loss. The inverter based
solution along with the capacitor banks is cheaper solution but if the grid is very weak
then capacitor bank switching causes voltage transients. The new inverter configuration
with a higher power factor capability is an good option because with this PV plant is
able to satisfy the grid code requirements and it also leads to very negligible energy
shaving, but the cost of SMA MVPS the new inverter configuration is very higher. If
the Grid is very weak and the grid operators demands for the fast dynamic response,
then fully co-ordinated system with FACTS devices and the PV inverters is preferred.
The control system needs to be carefully designed to ensure consistent operation. The
Inverter and FACTS devices solution is of very higher cost but technically it is very
suitable for the PV plant as it provides the continous amount of reactive power.
8 Conclusions and Future Works

This thesis project has been an attempt to address the importance of the reactive power
compensation for the PV plant. The role and the impact of having an external devices
for reactive power compensation is analyzed with regards to chosen grid codes.

Most of the objectives stated in the initial phase of the project were fulfilled. The inves-
tigation of ancillary service requested from PV plant in terms of reactive power genera-
tion/absorption was performed. For me, as a master student it was completely a new
research topic. It is shown that grid codes from different grid operators are becoming
more and more demanding in term of grid voltage support. Modelling and simulation
implementation of the proposed system was completed successfully.

The utility scale PV plant incorporates advanced capabilities essential to support the
grid stability and reliability. It includes features such as voltage regulation, active power
controls, and fault ride through, frequency controls and Q at Night operation. These ca-
pabilities provide the intrinsic benefits of reliable plant operation in the grid, which in
turn results in additional plant yield and potential additional revenue. Such capabilities
are essential for successful deployment of PV plant.

A key component of such a PV plant is a PPC specifically engineered to regulate real

and reactive power output of the solar facility such that it behaves as a single large con-
ventional generator, although within the limit dictated by the intermittent nature of the
solar resources. In cases where the plant output is constrained but the plant has addi-
tional generation capability, this controller can reduce the impact of cloud passage and
increase overall yield.

Historically, PV plant operators have employed mechanically switched capacitor banks

to regulate voltage at the point of utility interconnection. The capacitor banks typically
offer the cheapest option for the supply of reactive power, and will undoubtedly remain
a central equipment of almost every PV plant reactive compensation system. The PV
plant is variable, capacitor banks are able to switch only the fixed amounts of reactive
power and typically once they have been switched off they must wait for few minutes
until it can be re-energized again. Hence, it is often difficult to maintain the optimal
amounts of reactive compensation for any length of time using switched capacitor banks
alone, secondly the switching capacitor banks can cause sudden voltage transients and
can even cause excess stress on the PV Inverters.

Optimizing the reactive power compensation system for PV plants merits a wider per-
spective that addresses the physical interconnection with utility grids, specific grid in-
terconnection regulatory requirements, and the cost of operation and ownership of the
PV plant equipment. In extreme cases, especially in the weaker section of the grid, the
deficient interconnection schemes can also even affect a PV plant’s stability and put at
risk the revenues of the grid operators by forcing the PV plants to go off-line. Hence,
the reactive compensation system must be designed after careful detailed analysis of the
grid dynamics at the PCC during the initial design phase of the project.

As future work, a number of points can be paid attention to, in order to further demon-
strate the implementation of reactive compensation devices in PV plant applications:

 Different Inverter model and Inverter configuration from the different PV in-
verter manufacturer to be considered for investigation.

 Adding long transmission cable for the large scale PV plant at the Point of Inter-
connection and analyze the plant behavior.

 Investigate through simulations, the impact of changing the Short Circuit Ratio
(SCR) of the grid.

 Investigate various grid disturbances and observe how reactive compensation

system can assist the PV plant regards to voltage ride through requirements stat-
ed in the grid codes.
Bibliography

[1] Corporation, International Finance. “Utility Scale Solar Power Plants - A Guide
for Developers and Investors.“

[2] SMA. PV Grid Integration. Germany: SMA, 2012.

[3] Solar Pro Magazine. “Reactive Power Control in Utility Scale PV”.

[4] SMA Q at Night Document.“

[5] ”Reactive Power Control of PV Plants to increase the grid hosting capacity”:
Wiki Cleantech.Com

[6] Mahesh Morjaria, Dmitriy Anichkov, vladmir Chadliev, and Sachin Soni. “A
Grid Friendly Plant”

[7] F. Bernath, P. Mastny. “Power Factor Compensation of Photovoltaic Power

Plant.“

[8] FICHTNER. “Technical Requirements and Evaluation of Grid Code Compliance

for Photovoltaic Power Plants connected to the high voltage level in Jordan.“
May 2014.

[9] http://www.netztransparenz.de/de/Marktwerte.htm.
APPENDICES

SMA 900 CP-XT Series Inverter Datasheet

SMA MVPS DATASHEET