Report 2015

BOTTOM ASH FROM

WTE PLANTS
METAL RECOVERY AND
UTILIZATION

ISWA – the International Solid Waste Association is a global, independent

and non-profit making association, working in the public interest to promote
and develop sustainable and professional waste management worldwide

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 1
This report has been written for ISWA – Working group on energy recovery.

The front page picture shows non-ferrous metals heavier than aluminum (copper, brass, silver, gold…)
in the size 0.2 - 0.7 mm, recovered from municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash.

Authors and contributors are

Kristian Kahle, Ramboll

Bettina Kamuk, Ramboll, ISWA Chair
Jens Kallesøe, AFATEK
Edmund Fleck, MARTIN GmbH
Frans Lamers, DNV GL
Lars Jacobsson, Sysav
Jakob Sahlén, Avfall Sverige

Hannemanns Allé 53
DK-2300 Copenhagen S
Denmark
T +45 5161 1000
F +45 5161 1001
www.ramboll.com/energy

2 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
CONTENTS

1. Executive Summary 4
2. Introduction 5
3. Metals and incineration 6
3.1 Metal behavior during incineration 6
3.2 Bottom ash discharge 8
3.2.1 Wet bottom ash discharge 8
3.2.2 Dry bottom ash discharge 8
3.2.3 Bottom ash washing 10
4. Metals in bottom ash 11
4.1 Metal content and value 11
5. Metal Recovery Technology 13
5.1 Magnetic separation 13
5.2 Sieving 13
5.3 Eddy Current Separation 14
5.4 Sensor technology 15
5.4.1 Induction Sorting System 15
5.4.2 X-ray sorting 15
5.5 Crushing/milling 16
5.6 Other separation techniques 16
5.7 Examples of modern metal sorting systems 16
6. Bottom ash utilization 20
6.1 Mechanical properties 20
6.2 Weathering 20
6.3 Examples of utilization 21
6.4 Environmental considerations 22
7. Market volumes 23
8. Market Trends 26
9. Barriers for bottom ash utilization
and metal sorting 27
10. Works Cited 28

APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Estimated concentration of gold and silver in bottom ash

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 3
 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Figure 1
Circular economy concept.
When energy is recovered,
bottom ash utilized and
metals from bottom ash are
recycled, the material and
energy is reintroduced to
the economy. Reintroduc-
tion of material and energy
substitutes the consumption
of natural resources.

Seeking to better integrate Waste-to-Energy scribe basic concepts in bottom ash sorting tech-
(WtE) technology as part of a circular economy, nology and preparation for bottom ash utilization.
it is ​​beneficial to make use of the solid residues Furthermore, it is the goal to identify promising de-
and extract metals for recycling. By doing so, the velopments, as well as areas which could benefit
stream of materials and energy that are otherwise from further research.
landfilled, and thus not utilized, is minimized.
Recycling of extracted metals and utilization of The technical description of WtE or metal sorting
bottom ash will substitute the mining and manu- technology is brief. For detailed technical informa-
facturing of virgin material, thus lowering the bur- tion, the reader is referenced to suppliers of such
den on natural resources and serving as a valuable equipment.
complement to high quality material recycling.
The report is not considered as being a complete
The increased awareness on resource recovery technical evaluation. It is rather a compilation of in-
potential of the bottom ash has caused great formation gathered among the members of ISWAs
developments. Developments which include more Working Group on Energy Recovery, in order to
efficient separation techniques and alternative give a brief yet good understanding of the current
process solutions. capabilities, recent developments and expected
future trends.
The scope of this report is to give an overview of
the mechanisms occurring during incineration,
which influence metal recovery potential and de-

4 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
2 INTRODUCTION

The largest solid waste stream from WtE is the realization that bottom ash can be considered as a
inert fraction of the waste. The inert fraction high concentration metal ore. The energy con-
comprises of different materials and is collectively sumption of a sorting plant is very small compared
referred to as bottom ash. For each incoming to the energy savings from recycling. Hence, the
tonne of mixed Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), environmental impact of a sorting plant is almost
about 180-250 kg of bottom ash is generated. negligible. Furthermore, removal of the metal
Bottom ash consists of primarily Silicon, calcium, items, especially aluminum, improves the mechan-
iron, aluminum and sodium. Table 1 presents the ical properties of the bottom ash as a sub-base
approximate composition of bottom ash. material for road construction purposes.

It is important to note that the composition pre- Whether or not the mineral fraction of the bottom
sented in Table 1 is based on an elemental anal- ash is disposed or utilized varies in different coun-
ysis. An elemental analysis does not specify the tries. For example, in Denmark and the Nether-
chemical form in which each element occurs. This lands, the mineral fraction has primarily been used
is especially of importance when focusing on metal for construction purposes in roads and embank-
recovery, as a large part of the metals will naturally ments whereas Switzerland primarily landfills their
occur in an oxidized form. An example hereof is mineral fraction of the bottom ash.
aluminum, which, in oxidized form is one of the
most abundant materials on earth. Aluminum oxide Legislation ensures that the leachate of pollut-
is highly represented in waste fractions containing ants, such as salts and heavy metals, are kept at
ceramics, clay etc. acceptable levels to reduce environmental impact.
The fate of the bottom ash is usually a result of
The appearance of bottom ash is a mix of a very legislation.
fine grey porous material, inert components such Table 1
as fine gravel, rocks, glass, ceramics and metallic Element unit range average Approximate composition of
bottom ash, in mass percent-
items. Silicon g/kg 168-274 221 ages, sources: (ISWA, 2006),
(Astrup & Christensen, 2003).
Calcium g/kg 89.1-104 94.9 Silver and gold values esti-
The amount of metallic items that can be separat-
Iron g/kg 46.7-77.8 65.1 mated from results presented
ed from the bottom ashes vary, depending on the in (Morf, et al., 2013), see
incoming waste composition. In literature, ferrous Aluminum g/kg 45.0-56.1 50.3 Appendix 1.

metals account for 7-15 % of the bottom ash Sodium g/kg 33.3-39.2 35.4
weight, whereas non-ferrous account for 1-2 % Magnesium g/kg 10.5-11.2 10.7
of the bottom ash weight (Sabbas, et al., 2003),
Potassium g/kg 7.4-8.6 8.1
(Baun, Kamuk, & Avanzi, 2007). Such metals that
Copper g/kg 3.4-11.0 5.6
appear in the bottom ash in metallic form are often
removed from the bottom ash using various sepa- Zinc g/kg 2.0-4.8 3.1
ration techniques. Barium g/kg 1.1-2.4 1.5
Lead g/kg 0.6-2.6 1.4
Removal of ferrous metals has been carried
Silver mg/kg - 19.9
out for many years using magnets. Removal of
Gold mg/kg - 1.9
non-ferrous metals is currently practiced in some
countries, and the technology for recovery of
non-ferrous metals has undergone tremendous
development in recent years. The development
has been driven by rising metal prices and the

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 5
3 METALS AND INCINERATION

Many countries practice separate collection of grade materials, to a somewhat simple mixture
clean metals for recycling. Separate collection is of reduced mass and volume. This reduction and
primarily done for relatively large objects, such as homogenization makes finding „the needle in the
metal lamps, cutlery, tin and aluminum cans. hay stack“ much easier.
As such, these metal items are not considered
as part of MSW for incineration. However, small The presence of metals in a metallic form in
amounts of these items are commonly seen in the bottom ash depends on various factors, as there
bottom ash as a result of lack of sorting or because are multiple parameters that affect the fate of the
it is difficult and resource demanding to separate. metal. Parameters of known influence and param-
eters that have yet to be quantified are described
Most of the metals mined from bottom ash origi- in this chapter.
nate from a composite product, where the me-
tallic material is troublesome or nearly impossible
to separate. Examples hereof are nails in wood, 3.1 METAL BEHAVIOR DURING
zippers from clothing, copper wire bits, stainless
INCINERATION
steel ball point pen tips, gold soldering in electronic
circuit boards, etc.
Many papers have investigated the behavior of
The metals present in the bottom ash originate volatile metals during the incineration process.
from the incoming waste composition. During the Mercury and cadmium are important examples of
incineration process, metals will evaporate, burn, volatile metals that have been thoroughly stud-
oxidize or, in most cases, remain in metallic form. ied in view of their influence on human health.
If the latter is the case, the metal can be recycled Only in recent years more focus on the behavior
using current recycling practice. of non-volatile metals suitable for recycling has
evolved. Examples of these metals suitable for re-
It is a common misconception that metals are of cycling are iron, aluminum, copper, tin, zinc, lead,
lesser value when they have gone through the silver, gold and various alloys.
incineration process. This is not the case for met-
als that remain in metallic form. Furthermore, tin Laboratory test show that, for aluminum, the most
cans containing food leftovers, a paper label and influential factors for metallic aluminum losses
plastic coating inside will have to undergo multiple are material thickness, combustion temperature,
process steps of purification when sent directly to residence time and salt contamination (Hu, Bakker,
recycling. In the incineration process the plastic, & de Heij, 2011).
paper and food will burn, turning into usable ener-
gy. The tin can thus undergoes a cleaning process A study of the behavior of different types of aluminum
that has a positive energy benefit, prior to being packaging in a full scale WtE facility has been carried
recycled. out in Northern Italy. The study found that the amount
of aluminum products going through the incineration
In general, an important reason for incinerating process without deteriorating, ranged from around
waste is the mass and volume reduction. A reduc- 40 % for very thin foils (10-42 μm) up to over 90 %
tion that results in less space necessary if the alter- for cans (90-25 μm) (Biganzoli, 2012). The aforemen-
native is landfilling. The mass and volume reduction tioned study was conducted at incineration plants
also plays an important role with regard to separa- with wet bottom ash discharge. The mass balance of
tion of metals. The incineration process converts the study was based on the input and output of the
the incoming waste from a complex mixture of low WtE line. Thus, the losses cannot be tied to a specific

6 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
process step, e.g. losses tied to the incineration
process or the wet bottom ash quench.

One of the main causes of losses of metals during

incineration is believed to be oxidation. For oxidation
to occur, it is required that the metals in the waste
are in contact with oxygen. Modern WtE facilities
carefully control the conditions at which the waste is
incinerated i.e. controlling the supplied combustion
air (primary/secondary air) and waste layer thickness.
By carefully controlling these parameters, it is
ensured that the processes that occur in the actual
waste layer are pyrolysis and gasification, and that
the complete combustion occurs above the waste
layer, following supply of secondary air. This means
that non-oxidizing conditions exist in the waste layer,
as the oxygen supplied by primary air (in the waste
layer) will react with the volatile organic matter prior
to reacting with metals.

Metals willingness to react and change form is in

Figure 2
basic chemistry ranked in a so-called reactivity Reactivity series showing
series. The reactivity series for metals is shown in base and noble metals.
Figure 2. The weakest base metals (K, Ca, Na) Noble metals will only react
with very strong acids. Base
will react with water whereas other base metals metals such as K, Ca and Na
will need to be in contact with acids. Only very will react with water whereas
Al and Mg will react with ac-
strong acids will react with Ag, Au and Cu. ids, e.g. Hydrochloric acid.

The reactivity series gives a good indication of which

metals will be most affected by the incineration
process. Another important factor is of course the
respective metals boiling point. Mercury (Hg) has a
boiling point of 357˚C, which is well below the tem-
perature in the furnace. Consequently, the amount
of mercury occurring in the bottom ash is negligible.

Figure 3 shows non-ferrous metals with a higher

Figure 3
density than aluminum (Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, Sn, Zn), Non-ferrous metals (with
in the size range 0.2 - 0.7 mm. The metals have a density higher than
been sorted from a dry bottom ash. There is very aluminum) from a bottom
ash sorting. The metals are
little sign of oxidation. As the items are of very fine extracted from dry bottom
size the (very high specific surface area) and the ash with a size range of
0.2 - 0.7 mm. The picture to
degree of oxidation is very low, there’s no reason the right shows the mixture
to believe that the incineration process significantly under a microscope. There
is no sign of excessive oxi-
deteriorates these metals. dation of the surface.

Metals with a low melting point, such as aluminum

or zinc, will experience melting and drip to the
lower layers of the waste where it will again solidify Figure 4
as the temperature drops. Figure 4 shows a lump Clean lump of aluminum
after incineration. Embedded
of aluminum from incineration. The lump has an glass shard and complex
embedded glass shard and a complex shape in- shape means that melting
occurred. Low degree of
dicating melting. The lump is the size of a golf ball oxidation can be concluded
and shows low degree of oxidation. due to the silvery and
smooth surface.

The metals in Figure 3 and Figure 4 both derive

from plants with dry bottom ash discharge, see
section 3.2.

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 7
 3.2 BOTTOM ASH DISCHARGE The water in the wet bottom ash discharge system
will be an alkaline environment. To what degree
Two main types of bottom ash discharge systems the alkaline environment effects metal recovery
exist – a wet and a dry. The two discharge systems potential has yet to be scientifically quantified. The
are described below. effect will vary for different metals/alloys as well as
the size and shape of the metal.

3.2.1 WET BOTTOM ASH DISCHARGE

The wet bottom ash discharge is the most com- 3.2.2 DRY BOTTOM ASH DISCHARGE
monly installed bottom ash discharge system. In dry bottom ash discharge, the slag is discharged
Two main designs exist, yet the basic principle is without the use of water. Consequently, the metals
the same. As the inert fraction reaches the end of are neither quenched nor introduced to an alkaline
the moving grate, it falls into a water bath. ​ environment. Furthermore, the mineral fraction of
The quenching ensures that burning lumps are the bottom ash will not ‚lump‘ together, making
extinguished, cools the bottom ash making later separation of metals and mineral fraction
later handling easier and minimizing dust issues. easier.
Furthermore, the water level can be set in an
appropriate height ensuring an air tight seal from Dry bottom ash discharge was the predominant
the surroundings to the furnace. The bottom ash slag extraction until the 1990‘s, where they were
is mechanically removed as needed, either by a replaced by wet systems to avoid dust problems.
pressure piston (Ram discharge) or by a chain Recently, the focus on metal recovery has revived
transport system. Figure 5 shows a sketch of a wet the dry system. However, careful considerations
bottom ash discharge system with a discharge ram. have to be made to prevent a dusty working
environment. In a dry system, it is necessary to
Figure 5 Principle sketch of
the wet bottom ash discharge handle the bottom ash in a fully enclosed system
1 Extractor shell
system with discharge ram. 2 Outlet chute with constant suction ensuring a slight vacuum. If
3 water level the enclosure is designed properly, it is possible to
4 Discharge ram
obtain a low-dust environment when the plant is
5 Drop-Off edge
6 Air sealing wall in operation. Challenges will inevitably exist when
the enclosure is opened and vacuum cannot be
achieved, such as during maintenance.

Two modern dry slag extraction systems are

described in this report. Both of them are located
in Switzerland and have different designs.

The SATOM plant in Monthey, Switzerland, has

The discharge ram, depicted in Figure 5, pushes converted a wet discharge system as depicted
the quenched bottom ash batch wise out of the in Figure 5. The conversion means running the
discharge system and onto conveyor belts leading discharge system without water addition. As the
to a bottom ash bunker/silo. The cadence of the bottom ash leaves the discharger it enters a wind
discharge ram can be regulated by timer or by the sieve. The wind sieve is a vibrating conveyor,
height of bottom ash in the shaft using sensor tech- where the bottom ash falls across different levels
niques. Some installations use a chain belt conveyor with suction in the opposite direction of the move-
to continuously remove the quenched slag. ment. Please see Figure 6.

The water level can be set to ensure that there is

an air tight seal or can be kept even lower. The
latter case is commonly referred to as semi-dry
bottom ash extraction. The semi-dry solution is
usually chosen as to lower the water content of
the bottom ash leaving the extraction system.
Lowering the water content will lower transport
cost due to the reduced weight. Furthermore,
metal sorting may be slightly more efficient, de-
pending on the sorting system, as the extracted
bottom ash will have lower water content, making Figure 6 Bottom ash discharge system with
the bottom ash less lumpy. wind sieve installed.

8 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
 Figure 7 Principle imple-
mentation of dry bottom ash
discharge with wind sieve.

Figure 7 shows a simplified process flow diagram. This discharge system consists of a vibrating
The air suction through the wind sieve separates the conveyor where the bottom ash is cooled by
light airborne fraction of the bottom ash. The suction so-called tertiary air. The tertiary air is limited by
is caused by the secondary combustion air fan. vertical gates and driven by a slight vacuum in the
furnace. The flow of tertiary air is approximately
The dust is separated from the air stream using a 500 Nm3/tonne waste.
cyclone, prior to being used as secondary com-
bustion air. As part of the secondary combustion At the end of the vibrating conveyor, the bottom ash
air is drawn through the wind sieve, the air is is fractioned by a perforated floor, thus separating
preheated by the warm bottom ash. the bottom ash into fraction above and below 5
mm. The vibrating conveyor is shown in Figure 8.
The coarse bottom ash is removed by conveyor belts
and the remaining fraction is sent for further sorting. The fraction below 5 mm is fractioned at the end
of the vibrating table and sent for further sorting.
Another dry bottom ash discharge system is
installed at the KEZO plant in Hinwil, Switzerland.

Figure 8 Dry bottom ash

discharge system installed at
the KEZO plant in Hinwil

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 9
 3.2.3 BOTTOM ASH WASHING
The Belgian company Indaver offers a wet treat-
ment process, where the extracted bottom ash is
washed with excess water from flue gas cleaning
in a special washer barrel prior leaving the facility.
A simplified diagram of the process is shown in
Figure 9.

Figure 9 Simplified pro-

cess diagram of Indaver’s
washing process. Bottom
ash smaller than 50 mm is
washed in excess water
from the flue gas cleaning
process. Light organic
material released from the
washing process is reintro-
duced to the furnace.

The washing releases some organic material,

which is removed and re-introduced to the in-
cineration process. Metals in the bottom ash are
removed after the washing process using regular
wet separation technology, as described in section
5. The purpose of the washing process step is
to reduce trace element content and subsequent
leaching during landfilling/utilization. In the Indaver
process, the bottom ash below 2 mm does not
undergo metal separation. Consequently, in the
Indaver case the metal content in this fraction is
currently not recovered.

10 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
4 METALS IN BOTTOM ASH

4.1 METAL CONTENT AND In terms of mass, iron comprises most of the
VALUE metal present in bottom ash followed by especially
aluminum. In terms of value, however, precious
Determination of the metal recovery potential by metals present in small quantities are of high eco-
hand sorting has been standardized in the Euro- nomic importance.
pean Union by EN 1744-8. The standard specifies The amounts of some selected metals found in the
principle, necessary sample size, apparatus and before mentioned study, as well as the approxi-
procedure. The potential for metal recovery can mate scrap value of each selected metal, is listed
also be based on chemical analysis. However, in Table 2.
chemical analysis will typically show total content,
Table 2
thus not distinguishing between metals in a metallic,
Metal Amount Estimated Amount of selected metals
ionic or oxidized form. [kg/tonne] scrap price present in bottom ash, from
(Morf, et al., 2013). Scrap
[€/kg] prices are subject to variation
Only metals in metallic form have recycling value and thus approximate values.
using current metal recycling practice. Fe 31.4 0.12
Al 16.1 0.80
Larger ferrous metals are almost always sorted out
for recycling at the plant. Systems for recovery and Cu 2.2 4.00
recycling of non-ferrous metals, and small ferrous Zn 0.9 0.73
objects, is becoming increasingly common but Pb 0.3 1.07
have yet to reach its full potential. Ag 0.004 270
Au 0.0004 27600
Figure 10 shows the non-ferrous metals presence
in different size fractions. The recovered metal
types are generally found in all fractions. Gold is In a study performed at the KEZO plant in Swit-
primarily present in the small fractions, as gold in zerland, it was found that 32 kg of iron could be
MSW primarily arise from fine electronics, such as found per tonne of waste input whereas the gold
soldering on electronic circuit boards. content was about 0.4 grams per tonne (Morf, et
al., 2013). Even though iron content comprises
most of the recoverable metals, the economic
value of the iron is roughly 10 % of the total metal
value, whereas the small amount of gold compris-
es almost 30 % of the total metal value.

Figure 11 shows the mass and value distribution

of selected metals, based on metal content found
in the bottom ash of the KEZO WtE facility (Morf,
et al., 2013).

Figure 10 Non-ferrous metal yields in

different size fractions. Divided into alumi-
num and heavies (Cu, Au, Ag, Zn etc.).

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 11
Figure 11 Mass and
value distribution of the
metal present in bottom ash,
based amount and values
presented in Table 2.

As seen in Figure 11, it is quite evident that for

the KEZO plant, metals such as copper and gold
comprise a significant value, although present in
very small quantities. The gold is mostly present
in the very fine fractions. Generally, the majority of
copper and gold is expected to arise from waste
electronics.

Metals from WtE plant with wet slag extraction will

be coated with a thin layer of solidified mineral ma-
terial (oxides of Silicon and Calcium). This coating
will not appear on slag from dry bottom ash. The
difference is shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12 Difference
between metals sorted from
a wet and dry bottom ash.
The mineral layer on metals
from wet bottom ash can be
removed by washing.

The mineral layer on metals from wet bottom ash

can be removed using acid. However, according to
experience gained at the SCANMETALS upgrading
plant in Denmark, this process step is not neces-
sary, as the value of metals does not increase if
cleaned prior to re-melting.

12 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
5 METAL RECOVERY TECHNOLOGY

5.1 MAGNETIC SEPARATION 5.2 SIEVING

Magnetic separation is one of the first steps in the A very important step in the removal of metals is
bottom ash sorting system. The magnetic sep- an accurate fractioning of the bottom ash. Having
aration removes ferrous metals. Although stain- accurately defined fractions allows to optimize the
less steel alloys main element is iron, the alloys sorting of metals.
available are practically speaking non-magnetic.
Therefore, stainless steel cannot be removed using The sieve type chosen in the sorting system de-
magnetic separation. pends on the sizing. For large oversized items, it is
common to install a simple finger sieve. The over-
There are many different types and setups of sized items are removed using a finger sieve are
magnetic separation. The most common in bottom typically manually sorted, as the metalling items in
ash sorting are magnetic drum and overhead this sizing are relatively rare and easily identified.
suspension magnets. The two types can be seen
in Figure 13. Drum sieves are used for intermediate size frac-
tioning, and consist of a rotating perforated steel
The setup of the magnets varies depending on the cylinder. Drum sieves are typically used early in the
material flow, particle size, magnet strength and size sieving.
and material velocity. The advantages and suggested
setup is beyond the scope of this report.

Figure 13
(A) Magnetic drum
(B) Overhead suspension
magnet. The overhead sus-
pension magnet is installed
orthogonally to the belt
conveyor moving the stream
of bottom ash.

A B

Figure 14
(A) Finger sieve at end of
vibrating table for removal of
oversized items.
(B) Drum sieve for intermedi-
ate fractioning.

A B

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 13
 Flip flow screens are commonly used for the fine In order to have an effective sorting of non-ferrous
fractioning of wet bottom ash. A flexible perforat- metals, it is vital to have a precise fractioning of
ed rubber screen moves in an oscillating manner, the bottom ash.
while the material travels across the screen. The
shaking ensures that the material is mixed and
allows the fine fraction to pass through the perfo- 5.3 EDDY CURRENT
rations.
SEPARATION
Similar to the flip flow screen is the vibrating screen,
where the sieve vibrates instead of oscillating. Eddy current separation is a technique for separat-
ing non-magnetic metals from a material stream.
Both the flip-flow screen and the vibrating screen The eddy current machine consists of a conveyor
can have multiple fractioning stacked above each with a non-magnetic drum. The drum is equipped
other, minimizing space requirement. Figure 15 with an internal rotating set of magnets. The
shows such a flip flow screen with multiple frac- magnets inside the drum create repulsive forces,
tioning steps and the principal movement of the pushing non-ferrous metals on a path away from
screen (oscillation). the drum. Please see Figure 16.

Figure 15
(A) Flip-Flow screen for
fractioning of wet bottom
ash. The depicted sieve has
multiple steps, enabling
fractioning into more than
one size.
(B) Cross sectional view of
the screen. The blue and red
arrows indicate the direction
and timing of the movement
of the screen. The yellow
sieve on top of the moving
bars is thus kept in a flipping
motion.
A

Figure 16 Working principle

of an eddy current separator

The ballistic curve of the non-metallic objects is

a result of the gravitational, centrifugal, friction
(with belt) and drag force (air resistance). Metallic
objects are, among the before mentioned forces,
affected by a magnetic deflecting force, that is
caused by interaction of eddy currents induced in
conductive materials. The eddy currents are cre-
B
ated by the internal rotating magnets. Metals will
have a more flat ballistic curve than the non-metallic
Sieving and transport of wet bottom ash can gen- material. Separation of the two types can thus be
erally be done in open systems, although this is done by a screen set in a proper distance.
not a fully dust free operation. Wet sorting systems
aim to ensure a water percentage of 10-12 %. The theoretical curve of different objects is hard
If the water percentage is higher, difficulties arise to predict. However, the magnitude of the mag-
when sieving due to lumping of the bottom ash. netic deflection force is highly related to the ratio
Lumping of bottom ash significantly affects the of electrical conductivity and density, hereinafter
subsequent metal sorting. This is especially the referred to as repulsiveness. The repulsiveness of
case for the fine fraction, where the high value different metals is presented in Table 3.
metals are present.

If the water percentage is lower than 10 %, the

working environment will begin to become too
dusty. Sieving can be carried out enclosed to
avoid dust. Enclosed vibrating screens are used in
the dry sorting system described in section 5.7.

14 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
 Metal Conductivity Density Repulsive-
5.4 SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
[1/Ωm] [kg/m3] ness
[m2/Ωkg]
5.4.1 INDUCTION SORTING SYSTEM
Aluminum 37000000 2700 13704 Stainless steel is practically speaking non-mag-
netic. Furthermore, the conductivity of steel is low,
Copper 59900000 8960 6685
resulting in a low repulsiveness, as presented in
Silver 62100000 10500 5914 Table 3. Consequently, stainless steel can in prac-
Zinc 16900000 7140 2367 tice not be sorted using magnets or eddy current
Gold 41700000 19320 2158 technology. Stainless steel can however be sorted
Iron 10300000 7870 1309 using sensor technology.

Bronze 7100000 8900 798 When using an Induction Sorting System (ISS),
Stainless 1400000 7800 179 metallic objects are detected using magnetic
Steel induction. When a metallic object is located on the
conveyor belt in the ISS, the object is removed
Table 3 Conductivity, density from the stream by a pulse of compressed air, as
and resulting repulsiveness of
different metals. the object is thrown over the conveyor belt edge.

The ISS will typically be installed as the last sorting

With the previously mentioned forces in play, the system after magnetic separation and Eddy Cur-
ballistic curves will be more predictable for equal rent Separation.
sizes. For this reason, a precisely defined interval
in the fractioning as well as a properly chosen di-
mension span is the most important factor on the 5.4.2 X-RAY SORTING
effectiveness of the Eddy Current Separation. The working principle of X-ray sorting is very
similar to the ISS sorting system as presented in
Furthermore, having multiple Eddy Current Separa- section 5.4.1. Instead of a sensor detecting metal-
tors in series will increase the overall effective- lic items and X-ray module is installed, recognizing
ness. Experiences at the ZAR facility showed, that specific shapes that most likely will be metallic,
two Eddy Current Separators in series installed such as flat round objects (coins, washers etc.).
in an inclined angle increased the overall sorting The recognized objects are mechanically removed
efficiency from 75 % to 82 % (Stiftung Zentrum Für from the stream using a pulse of compressed air.
Nachhaltige Abfall- Und Ressourcennutzung (ZAR),
2011). Modern ECS machinery can thus be very
effective.

Figure 17 Working concept

of an Induction Sorting
System (ISS).

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 15
 5.5 CRUSHING/MILLING jet stream. The light components (mineral fraction)
will fall down to the first conveyor belt exiting the
apparatus. The heavy components (rocks and
Some sorting plants boost their metal separation metals) will experience a more flat ballistic curve
performance by crushing/milling the bottom ash. and therefore land on the second conveyor belt.
By doing so, mineral fractions sticking to metals The air jet separation is repeated to increase purity
lumps are removed and large lumps of minerals of the separated stream. The fine, light and soft
are pulverized. components and the hard and heavy components
will thus be separated. The ADR works most effi-
The drawback of crushing and milling is the cient following a precise size fractioning and prior
change to the mechanical characteristics of the to ECS separators.
bottom ash. Crushing and milling is therefore rarely
seen, or only done to a small extent, if the mineral The INASHCO company handles metal extraction
fraction is used for road construction. for some European WtE installation. The company
claims high sorting efficiencies, albeit documenta-
tion has yet to be disclosed to the public.
5.6 OTHER SEPARATION
Other unique sorting systems exists that are not
TECHNIQUES
described in this report, e.g. LAB Geodur.

The Dutch company INASHCO has in collabora-

tion with the Delft University of Technology (TU 5.7 EXAMPLES OF MODERN
Delft) developed a separation technique, in which
METAL SORTING SYSTEMS
ballistic separation is used to separate the fine,
soft and light minerals with the hard and heavy
metals/rocks. The separation apparatus is called This section gives two examples of some modern
Advanced Dry Recovery (ADR) sorting systems, using some of the described
technology.
The ADR used by INASHCO deals with the fraction
in the 0 - 2 mm size. The principle of the ADR is Wet sorting system
depicted in Figure 18. The apparatus lets the The central bottom ash treatment plant AFATEK
bottom ash stream fall onto a turning bladed in Copenhagen, Denmark, will in 2015 realize a
drum. As the bottom ash is struck by the drum new modern wet sorting system with multiple
blades, the different components of the bottom processing steps. The raw bottom ash from in-
ash (mineral fraction, rocks and metals) will obtain cineration plants will undergo sorting and 1 to 2
different ballistic paths. Furthermore, the different months of weathering, before being used in road
ballistic paths are assisted by a downward blowing construction.

Figure 18 Working principle

of the separation technique
used by INASHCO. Bottom
ash falls onto a rotating
bladed drum, separating
hard heavy objects from the
porous mineral fraction. Air
jets assist the separation.

16 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
The sorting system is designed to handle bottom Figure 19 shows a process flow diagram of the
ash with a water content of 10-15 %. AFATEK has planned facility, which is a development of an
experienced that monitoring water content is of existing facility.
importance, as it affects the downstream sorting
process performance. Low water content in bot-
tom ashes makes sieving easier. However, more
care must be taken with regard to dust handling as
the water content is lowered.

Figure 19 shows AFATEKs

modern wet sorting facility
which will be realized in
2015. The raw bottom
ash undergoes presorting,
ferrous metal recovery and
non-ferrous metal recovery.
The mineral fractions are
reintroduced into the sorting
systems to boost metal re-
covery. AFATEK expects that
90 % of the metallic items in
the raw bottom ash will be
recovered and sent for re-
cycling. All the streams sent
for recycling are marked with
bold lettering.

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 17
 As seen in Figure 19, the raw bottom ash enters Dry sorting system
the sorting facility and, at first, undergoes pre-sort- Figure 20 shows the sorting system installed at
ing. In pre-sorting, bulky and oversized objects the ZAR sorting facility, treating fine bottom ash
(> 300 mm) are removed from the stream and from the KEZO plant, which have a modern dry ex-
manually sorted. Large inert objects larger than traction system installed. The coarse bottom ash,
50 mm are crushed and reintroduced into the larger than 5 mm, is wetted and treated externally,
sorting system. Organic material recovered is sent similarly to the process described in section 5.7.
back to incineration for energy recovery.
As depicted in Figure 20, magnetic iron is first
Large ferrous metal objects are recovered in separated from the discharged bottom ash
pre-sorting using magnets. (< 5 mm) before temporary storage in a collecting
silo. The purpose of the storage silo is to act as a
If the water content of the bottom ash is higher buffer in the system.
than 10-15 %, interim storage/weathering is nec-
essary to lower the water content. The bottom ash is first sieved in an enclosed
vibrating screen into the fractions 0.7 - 5 mm and
Ferrous metals recovered in pre-sorting are sent 0.2 - 0.7 mm. The 0.7 - 5 mm fraction first under-
for a series of upgrading processes, in which any goes removal of fine magnetic iron by use of a
mineral material attached is mechanically removed. magnet. The removed iron is disposed of along
The upgraded items are sent for recycling, where- with the bottom ash. After removal of the magnetic
as the mineral fraction is reintroduced into the iron, the stream undergoes two steps of ECS sep-
sorting system. aration for removal of non-ferrous metals. The min-
eral fraction of the bottom ash is led to a silo. The
The bottom ash fraction smaller than 50 mm, with stream of non-ferrous metals, separated by the
most ferrous objects removed, is sent for non-fer- ECS, is further divided into 0.7 - 3 mm and 3 - 5 mm
rous metal sorting. In non-ferrous metal sorting, fractions using a sieve. Each of these two streams
the bottom ash in sieved into 5 size fractions are fed into separating tables, which are able to
(18 - 50 mm, 9 - 18 mm, 4 - 9 mm, 1.6 - 4 mm and separate the non-ferrous metal into aluminum and
0.5 - 1.6 mm). Each fraction passes a magnet, a mixture of other non-ferrous metals (primarily Cu
for additional removal of ferrous metals, and two and some Zn, Au, Ag etc.). The separation tables
steps of ECS removing non-ferrous metals. separate the metals based on their density.

After the ECS, the fraction from 4-50 mm is sent The 0.2 - 0.7 mm fraction separated in the first
through an ISS, removing stainless steel. Recov- sieving undergoes a secondary sieving. This is
ered stainless steel is sent for upgrading. done to ensure a precise cut, making subsequent
metal extraction more efficient. The stream un-
The existing plant recovers about 75 % of the met- dergoes one step of magnetic separation and two
al items present in the raw bottom ash. The new stages of ECS prior to separation into aluminum
plant, depicted in Figure 19, expected to recover and a mixture of other non-ferrous metals. The
90 % of the metal items present in the raw bottom mineral fraction is, after the ECS separation, led to
ash. The removed metals are sent to recycling, the same silo as the 0.7 mm fraction.
whereas the remaining mineral fraction weathered,
prior to being utilized. Utilization in Denmark is cur- The sorting system is fully enclosed and kept in a
rently primarily in road construction. slight vacuum, ensuring that the working environ-
ment is virtually dust free.
 

18 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
 Figure 20 shows the
sorting system at the ZAR
facility, treating dry bottom
ash from the KEZO plant.
The course bottom ash
(> 5 mm) is wetted and
handled externally.

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 19
6 BOTTOM ASH UTILIZATION

After removal of metals, bottom ash is either grain size distribution. For sorting processes that
landfilled or utilized for construction purposes. As include crushing/milling the grain size distribution
a construction material, bottom ash has especially curve will be affected. The options for utilization
been used as a sub base material in road con- of the bottom ash typically dictate whether or not
struction, substituting virgin gravel material. Other crushing/milling is performed.
forms of utilization can be used in low-tensile
strength concrete products, decreasing demand Research has also shown that increased content
for energy intensive concrete production. of iron and aluminum oxides increases the me-
This section presents some uses, process steps chanical strength of bottom ashes (Weng, Lin, &
for use and some environmental considerations. Ho, 2010).

6.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 6.2 WEATHERING

The mechanical properties of bottom ash have Weathering (or aging) is a relatively simple treatment
been thoroughly studied in several countries. done prior to or after metal separation. Weathering
Generally speaking, the quality of the bottom ash is the combination of CO2 uptake from the atmos-
is high, making the ash suitable as a substitute for phere and chemical reactions following contact
sand and gravel as a sub-base material. with water. Contact with water due to the wet slag
extraction or wetting after dry slag extraction.
The grain size distribution plays an important
role for the utilization possibilities of bottom ash. Proper weathering can effectively be achieved by
Experience has shown that utilization suitability is, storing the bottom ashes with good access to air,
among other factors, correlated to its grain size water and occasional turning. Figure 22 shows
distribution curve. Figure 21 shows a typical grain stockpiles of bottom ash during weathering.
size distribution curve, taken from bottom ash to
be utilized in road construction. By ensuring weathering is done prior to utilization
or landfilling, the reactivity of the bottom ash and
the leaching of metals are reduced. This is due to:
Figure 21 shows a typical
grain size distribution for
bottom ash. • Mineralogical and geochemical changes due to
uptake of CO2 (carbonation) and thereby lower-
ing of pH (typical from pH 11 - 12 to pH 8 - 10)
• Hydration and other changes in the mineral
phases in the bottom ash
• Binding/sorption of dissolved elements (espe-
cially heavy metals) to the matrix of the bottom
ash
• Removal or transformation of available organ-
ic ligands, e.g. by evaporation, leaching, or
changes in the binding characteristics
Following fractioning for metal separation, as • Leaching of highly dissolvable salts
described in section 5, it is vital to re-combine and
mix the fractions and to systematically test the Research has shown that the concentration of

20 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
 Figure 22 Examples of
stockpiles of bottom ash for
open air weathering.

various components in leachate follows the pH of functional specifications has been standardized
value of the leachate (Zhang, He, Shao, & Li, in EN 13285 and EN 13242.
2008). Concentration of Copper in leachate has
also been shown to be strongly correlated to the When used as a sub base material, it is usually
amount of dissolved organic carbon (van Zomeren ensured that there is no hydraulic contact with the
& Comans, 2004). surface, keeping the amount of leaching possible
to a minimum.
Leachate collected during weathering has a rela-
tively high concentration of soluble salts and minor Denmark has for many years used bottom ash as
amounts of metals. Primarily copper chlorides a sub-base material in road construction. Expe-
and sulphates. Typically, the bottom ashes are rience has shown that virgin gravel from Danish
weathered until the chemical reaction with water mines is more resistant to abrasion than bottom
goes from strongly alkaline to somewhat neutral. ash. However, experience has also shown that
It takes 6 - 20 weeks of weathering before the ash bottom ash is capable of supporting a heavier load
is chemically stable and suitable for utilization or than virgin gravel. This is believed to be due to the
landfilling (Astrup & Christensen, 2003) (Hjelmar, non-uniform surface, compared to gravel which
Holm, Lehmann, Asmussen, & Rose, 1998). has a more uniform, almost fully round surface.
Non-uniform surfaces allow normal forces from
At the AFATEK facility, collected leachate from loading to dissipate as normal and shear forces,
weathering is reused at the facility in a closed loop thus distributing the load in multiple directions.
manner. Hence, there is no need for treatment of
leachate or discharge of wastewater. Water for With the realization above, Danish legislation has
weathering comes solely from rainwater. since 2012 allowed for incineration ashes to be
used in roads with a high load. Research is being
Besides improving the leaching properties of the carried out, aiming to allow for incineration ashes
bottom ash, weathering improves the mechanical to be used in road construction without load
properties as the bottom ash becomes chemically restrictions.
stable.
France, Germany and the Netherlands are exam-
To facilitate the chemical reactions occurring, and ples of European countries that also utilize bottom
to avoid dust during weathering, it is necessary ash from waste incineration as a sub-base material
that the bottom ash is wet. Consequently, the for road construction. In all countries, the degree
dry system as described 3.2.2 would have to be of contamination of the leachate is tested prior to
wetted after the metal sorting process, prior to utilization. The limits for utilization and test method
weathering. vary by country, why a direct comparison is not
possible. However, the degree of utilization is high
in all cases. Interested readers are referred to
6.3 EXAMPLES OF (ISWA, 2006).
UTILIZATION
In Switzerland bottom ash is generally landfilled
and thus not utilized. However, the finer fraction of
Weathered bottom ash has primarily been used as bottom ashes is in some cases utilized in fly ash
a sub-base material for road construction, sub- stabilization. In fly ash stabilization, cement and
stituting virgin gravel and sand material. For this water is mixed with the fly ash, creating a solid
application, the material specification and testing chemically inert concrete block. By mixing the fine

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 21
 fraction of the bottom ash with the fly ash, less 6.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSID-
cement must be added in order for the mixture to ERATIONS
solidify and stabilize the fly ash. The demand for
virgin produced cement is thereby lowered.
With regard to toxicity to water and soil, the
Concrete products with low tensile strength can also environmental impact of using bottom ash in road
be produced using bottom ashes. Figure 23 shows construction has been shown to be comparable
concrete tiles produced using wet bottom ash. with disposal of bottom ash in controlled land-
fills. The saving of natural aggregates as well as
The concrete tiles shown in Figure 23 are from fossil fuels as a result of utilizing the bottom ash
tests carried out at a Danish factory, producing favors utilization over landfilling. Utilization does
various concrete products. The bottom ash con- slightly affect the available groundwater resources.
crete tiles shown in Figure 23 have yet to be com- However, according to the study, the environmen-
mercialized. In Denmark, roughly 3 million tonne tal impact of leaching of sodium- and chloride
of concrete products are produced annually. It is ions shows an environmental impact of 7 and 3%,
estimated that for this amount of concrete prod- respectively, compared to the impact following
ucts, 1.3 million tonne of virgin cement production salting of icy roads, which for example is done
can be avoided by utilizing bottom ash (Kallesøe, in Denmark (Birgisdóttir, Bhander, Hauschild, &
2012). Christensen, 2007).

Bottom ash from incineration can also be used as The grain size distribution curve, as presented
highway embankments/noise barriers. Along the in Figure 21, influences the permeability and
A12 highway in the Netherlands, bottom ashes thus the leaching rate. If the fine fraction of the
from Dutch incineration plants are the primary bottom ash is sieved from the mixture, water will
material for more than 1 km of noise barrier. pass through the bottom ash layer more easily.
The grain size distribution curve thus also play a
For all possible types of utilization, it is benefi- role for the practical leaching from bottom ash.
cial for the mechanical properties that the metal Furthermore, by choosing to use bottom ashes in
sorting prior to utilization is as efficient as possible. areas with an already low permeability, environ-
Removing all metals creates a very homogenous mental concerns are brought to a minimum.
and mechanically strong material.

Figure 23 Concrete tiles

produced from bottom
ashes.

Figure 24 Construction of
noise barrier along the A12
highway in The Netherlands.

22 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
7 MARKET VOLUMES

Figure 25 shows the

circular economy concept.
When energy is recovered,
bottom ash utilized and
metals from bottom ash are
recycled the material and
energy is reintroduced to
the economy. Reintroduc-
tion of material and energy
substitutes the consumption
of natural resources.
Furthermore, hazardous
components in residual
waste, such as mercury or
arsenic, are to a very high
degree isolated from the
biosphere instead of rein-
troduced into new products
or foods.

There is a global trend to move away from a linear material. Also, metals recovered from the bottom
economy, where used biogenic and non-biogenic ash are primarily arise from a composite material,
matter are disposed of, towards a circular econ- e.g. nails in wood, zippers from clothing, copper
omy, where efforts are made to re-introduce this wire bits, stainless steel ball point pen tips and
matter back into society. By re-introducing the gold soldering in electronic circuit boards. These
matter to the economy, the demand for virgin mat- metals are also recycled, causing a decrease in
ter is lowered, thus lowering the overall resource demand for virgin metal mining.
consumption and ecological footprint.
Figure 25 depicts the concept of circular econ-
Wastes which are not eligible for reuse or recycling omy, with incinerations contribution with energy
should be sent for incineration with energy recov- recovery and utilization of minerals and recycling
ery, as opposed to being lost in landfilling. The of metals included.
energy recovery from incineration will, just as any
recycled material, be re-introduced to society. The As Figure 25 also depicts, an important benefit of
produced energy will offset another source of fuel, waste-to-energy is that hazardous components in
e.g. fossil or nuclear fuels. Hence, energy recov- the waste are isolated from the biosphere, instead
ery from waste incineration causes a decrease in of being reintroduced in new products or foods.
demand for fossil fuels. This benefit is due to the highly efficient flue gas
cleaning systems seen in modern Waste-to-Energy
Furthermore, the mineral fraction can, as de- facilities.
scribed earlier, be utilized substituting virgin gravel

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 23
 With all the incineration plants in operation and The recent and expected future increase in
being implemented worldwide, it becomes increas- recovery of ferrous and non-ferrous metals are
ingly important to use circular economy thinking primarily due to the ability to effectively sort the
when seeking to increase the environmental per- fine fractions of the bottom ash. Not only does this
formance of incineration. increase the amount of metals sorted for recycling,
the fine fraction of bottom ash has a high occur-
The AFATEK facility in Copenhagen has experi- rence of very valuable metals such as gold and
enced an increased separation of metals from silver. The future abilities depicted in Figure 27
bottom ash, and expects an increase with their are based on the goal to sort down to 0.5 mm.
new facility planned to be put into operation in
2015. Figure 26 depicts the separated Iron and Roughly 450 incineration plants exist in Europe,
non-ferrous metal from 600.000 tonne of bottom recovering the energy of nearly 70 million tonne
ash. Figure 27 depicts the total metal separation of waste per year. This corresponds to a total
and corresponding value using 2014 secondary of approximately 16 million tonne of bottom ash
metal prices. per year. Using the metal content and prices as

Figure 26 Recovered
metals from bottom ash in
Denmark. From treatment of
600.000 tonne/year.

Figure 27 Previous, current

and estimated future amount
and value of metals recov-
ered from the Danish bottom
ash sorting plant, AFATEK.

24 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
presented in Figure 26 and Figure 27, the total
metal value in bottom ash from all incinerators in
Europe could very well reach beyond 550 million €
per year. Thus, a valuable market in continuing the
technical development and expanding the recovery
of metals from bottom ashes exists.

As described in section 6, bottom ash has shown

to be well suited as a fill material in construction
such as road construction and highway embank-
ments etc. Furthermore, other uses are being
investigated. An example of other use is in low
tensile strength concrete products, such as out-
door tiles. The use of concrete products in modern
society is quite substantial; hence, large markets
for bottom ash utilization may exist.

Due to bottom ash being the most significant

product from incineration (in terms of mass) utiliza-
tion is an important element in circular economy.

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 25
8 MARKET TRENDS

The market for separation of metals from bottom As flue gas cleaning technology has become very
ashes has shown great developments during effective, it is environmentally sound to incinerate
recent years. The recovery equipment has become fractions such as automotive shredder residue
more advanced and efficient, as has the knowl- (ASR), as opposed to landfilling such fractions.
edge regarding the importance of precise fraction- ASR has a high calorific value and relatively high
ing, monitoring moisture content etc. metal content. Consequently, re-routing such
waste fractions from landfills to incinerators will
The development in recent years, as well as the benefit in terms of energy and metal recycling.
expected development in the near future, have and However, consideration has to be given to the op-
will primarily be due to the ability to sort the very eration of the plant as well as potential increased
fine fractions of the bottom ash. Additionally, a dust build-up in the convective part of the boiler.
wider range of valuable metals is being recovered.
Bottom ash upgrading is around Europe being
Experience has shown that sorting on the very carried out in various ways. Different technical
fine fractions has great value, as very valuable setups are seen as well as organizational differ-
metals are present in the fine fraction, e.g. gold ence. Centralized sorting plants owned by multiple
from soldering on circuit boards. Although metal incinerators are common, avoiding the need for
prices are subject to short-term variation, the long individual investments and exploiting economy of
term trend has historically been increasing. Metal scale affects. Some plants have their own bottom
prices are therefore expected to continue to rise. ash treatment plant installed as an integral part of
Consequently, the economic importance of metal their process. Examples hereof are Emmenspitz in
recovery is expected to increase over time. Switzerland and SYSAV in Sweden.

In relation to the widespread political trend of in- Contractors supplying sorting equipment and per-
creased focus on resource recovery, it is important sonnel are also commonly seen in Europe. Such
to recover as many metals as possible. Separate contractors operate in agreement of a treatment
collection schemes usually focus on larger objects price per tonne of bottom ash treated. Some
such as aluminum cans, tin cans and cutlery. companies even claim to operate as a net payer,
However, metal will still indeed be present in the following the high income generated by metal
residual waste, as a significant amount of the met- recycling.
al recovered in bottom ash treatment arise from
composite materials or of very little dimensions.

Metals in the residual waste can be recovered by

mechanical sorting prior to incineration. Mechan-
ical sorting involves shredding and the same type
of sorting technology as described in section 5.
Such sorting plants face the challenge of dealing
with a very inhomogeneous stream of materials.
The incineration process is a cheap and effective
way to homogenize this stream of material making
sorting for metals easier (as all organic material is
combusted during incineration). Furthermore, the
incineration process will produce energy, whereas
a presorting plant will consume energy.

26 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
9 BARRIERS FOR BOTTOM ASH
UTILIZATION AND METAL SORTING

The barriers for utilization of bottom ash in con- comes with an energy benefit, as opposed to a
struction, such as in road construction, are very cost if liberated mechanically (shredding/crushing
much tied to the general barriers for incineration. of the waste).
Although more than 1000 WtE facilities exist
worldwide in more than 40 countries, incineration Energy efficiency of a WtE plant is in the European
only account for roughly 10 % of global municipal Union defined by the R1 formula. Expansion of
solid waste processing. The remaining waste is such formula to include bottom ash utilization and
primarily landfilled, in which neither the energy nor metal sorting would increase focus on this great
materials are utilized. The lacking WtE capacity is resource conservation opportunity and spur devel-
believed to, primarily, be due to an outdated and opment even further.
negative perception of the environmental impact of
incineration technology. Modern incinerators that
conform to the European Union’s Waste Inciner-
ation Directives emission standards, DIRECTIVE
2000/76/EC, bring positive environmental gains as
opposed to alternative landfilling of waste (David-
son, 2014). Furthermore, with regard to emissions,
such incinerators are able to perform favourably
compared to coal power plants (Institut for Miljøvi-
denskab, 2013).

Dialog with the public and government bodies

is crucial to succeed with incineration as well as
bottom ash utilization. As described in section 6,
bottom ash as such can be an excellent building
material that shows an acceptable environmental
impact. Furthermore, making use of bottom ash
shows resource savings in virgin materials and
fossil fuels.

The environmental cost of extracting metals from

bottom ash is almost negligible, when compared
to the environmental gain of recycling. Further-
more, extracting metals improves mechanical
properties of the bottom ash and is of increasing
economic importance. Regardless if the bottom
ash is landfilled or utilized, metal sorting should
always be carried out.

A general perception that metals are destroyed

during the incineration exists. While the loss of
some metals in the incineration process does
occur, the amount is miniscule compared to that
made available by liberating the metals from the
surrounding organic material. Liberation, that

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 27
10 WORKS CITED

Astrup, T., & Christensen, T. H. (2003). Slagge fra Sabbas, T., Polettini, R., Astrup, T., Hjelmar, O.,
affaldsbehandling – Status og udviklingsmuligheder år Mostbauer, P., Cappai, G., et al. (2003). Manage-
2003. Miljø & Ressourcer DTU. ment of municipal solid waste incineration residues.
Waste Management, 61-88.
Baun, D., Kamuk, B., & Avanzi, P. (2007). Treatment
of bottomash from Waste to Energy plants: overview and Stiftung Zentrum Für Nachhaltige Abfall- Und
experiences. Sardinia Eleventh International Waste Mana- Ressourcennutzung (ZAR). (2011). Annual Report.
gament and Landfill Symposium. Cagliari, Italy.
van Zomeren, A., & Comans, R. N. (2004). Con-
Biganzoli, L. (2012). Aluminum Recovery from MSWI tribution of natural organic matter to copper leaching.
Bottom Ash. Milano: Politecnico Di Milano. Environmental Science & Technology 38, 3927-3932.

Birgisdóttir, H., Bhander, G., Hauschild, M., & Weng, M.-C., Lin, C.-L., & Ho, C.-I. (2010).
Christensen, T. (2007). Life cycle assessment of dis- Mechanical properties of incineration bottom ash: the
posal of residues from municipal solid. Waste Manage- influence of composite species. Waste management,
ment, 75-84. 30(7), 1303-1309.

Davidson, P. (2014, November). Mapping and Zhang, H., He, P.-J., Shao, L.-m., & Li, X.-J.
influencing global perceptions of waste to energy. Waste (2008). Leaching behavior of heavy metals from munici-
Management World, pp. 20-24. pal solid waste incineration bottom ash and its geochem-
ical modeling. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 10, 7-13.
Hjelmar, O., Holm, P. E., Lehmann, N. K., Asmus-
sen, O., & Rose, N. (1998). Grundlag for nyttiggørelse
af forurenet jord og restprodukter, Miljøprojekt, nr. 415.
Miljøstyrelsen.

Hu, Y., Bakker, M., & de Heij, P. (2011). Recovery

and distribution of incinerated aluminum packaging
waste. Waste Management (pp. 2422-2430). Elsevier.

Institut for Miljøvidenskab. (2013). Emission factors

for stationary combustion greenhouse gases and main
pollutants for the year 2013.

ISWA. (2006). Management of Bottom Ash from WTE

Plants.

Kallesøe, J. (2012). Recovery of resources in bottom ash.

Morf, L. S., Gloor, R., Haag, O., Haupt, M.,

Skutan, S., Lorenzo, F. D., et al. (2013). Precious
metals and rare earth elements in municipal solid waste –
Sources. Waste Management 33, 634-644.

28 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization
APPENDIX 1

ESTIMATED CONCENTRATION OF GOLD AND SILVER IN BOTTOM ASH

From (Morf, et al., 2013)

Average value in waste Table 3, the concentration
(mg/kg waste) of gold and silver in bot-
tom ash is found to be
Silver 5.3
Gold 0.4

According to (Morf, et al.,

Bottom ash Non-ferrous Ferrous Treated Micro- Boiler ESP- 2013) table 5, the distribu-
> 5 mm metal fraction metal bottom ash bottom ash ash tion of gold and silver to
bottom ashes and boiler/
< 5 mm fraction < 5 mm ash
ESP ash is found to be
< 5 mm < 0.7 mm
Silver 0.41 0.094 0.02 0.064 0.162 0.033 0.218
Gold 0.719 0.066 0.019 0.071 0.078 0.004 0.044

Summarized, the distri-

To all bottom ash bution to all bottom ash
fractions fractions are (sum of first 5
columns above)
Silver 0.75
Gold 0.953

Combining the concentration

To bottom ash in waste and the distribution
(mg/kg waste) to all bottom ash fractions,
the estimated value of
Silver 3.975 gold and silver in bottom
ash per kg waste treated
Gold 0.3812 is found to be

Assuming that one kg waste

Concentration in bottom ash generates 0.2 kg of bottom
(mg/kg) ash, the concentration of
gold and silver in bottom
Silver 19.875 ash is found to be.

Gold 1.906

ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization 29
 ISWA – THE INTERNATIONAL SOLID WASTE
ASSOCIATION IS A GLOBAL, INDEPENDENT
AND NON-PROFIT MAKING ASSOCIATION,
WORKING IN THE PUBLIC INTEREST TO
PROMOTE AND DEVELOP SUSTAINABLE
AND PROFESSIONAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
WORLDWIDE

ISWA General Secretariat

Auerspergstrasse15/41,
A-1080 Vienna, Austria
[email protected]
www.iswa.org

30 ISWA Report Bottom ash from WtE plants – Metal recovery and utilization