CHp 1

Ch- 1 : Introduction to Research 4

1.What is Research? 3. Types of Business Research:
Research is the systematic and scientific process of
3.1 Applied Research:
inquiry into a problem with the purpose of finding a solution It is undertaken to resolve a problem currently faced by an
for it. organization. It is specifically focused on a current issue.
3.2 Basic Research or Fundamental Research:
1.1. The Excitement of research and Why The primary purpose of basic research is to generate more
Managers Should Know about Research: knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon of interest
and to create theories from research results. Results and
With good understanding of the research theories of basic research can then be applied to other
good computer skills, a manager can face decision situations.
situations involving many sophisticated variables. 4. Managers and Research
Through research managers can understand, predict
and control events and behaviors in their environment.

2 3 Introduction to Research
2. Business Research
Managers encounter problems that need solutions. Data Types:
Business research is a systematic and organized effort to (i) Quantitative Data (structured questionnaire),
investigate such problems. (ii) Qualitative Data (observation, interviews, open-ended
questionnaire).
2.1 Definition of Research
Business Research is defined as an organized, 2.2 Research and Manager
systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific
inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, Research investigation covers, accounting, finance,
undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or management, and marketing, or an interrelated issue.
solutions to it. Problems must be analyzed in the context of external
environment (economic, political, demographic,
The research is based on (i) Primary data: Gathered technological, competitive).
first hand for the given problem (ii) Secondary data:
Already available (company records, industry reports,
publications, or on the net).

5 6
4.1 Benefits of Research and Research
Methods for Managers: 5. The manager and the Consultant-
Because of research and research methods, managers can: Researcher
1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems. Managers are often required to engage consultants or
2. Differentiate between good and bad research. researchers to investigate more complex and time-
3. Understand the multiple influences and multiple effects of consuming problems.
complex factors in the environment. 5.1 How to Locate and Select a Researcher
4. Take calculated risk in decision making, based on known Sources of consultants and researchers;
probabilities of various outcomes. a. Consulting and Research companies (from business
5. Prevent influence of people with vested or personal interests. directories or the Internet)
6. Relate to hired consultants and researchers more effectively. b. Individual Consultants or Researchers (by reference)
7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge when making c. Universities (research faculties and departments)
decisions. d. Full-Service Advertising companies (for marketing
research)
 7 8
5.2 The Manager-Researcher Relationship
5.3 Values
The manager must take care of the following aspects when When engaging a researcher or consultant, the
dealing with researchers: manager should ensure that there is a congruence or match
a. The manager must inform the researcher of the relevant between the value systems of the organization and the
variables involved in the problem or issue at hand. consultant company. Specifically, the manager must ensure
b. The manager should provide insights into the problem. that:
c. The manager must clearly identify and explain the roles of a. The roles and expectations of both parties are made
the manager and the researcher in the assignment being explicit and understood.
undertaken. b. Relevant philosophies and value systems (organizational
d. The manager must clearly identify what kind of information culture) are clearly stated and any constraints or
will be made available to the researcher. limitations are clearly communicated.
e. The manager must identify what type of information and c. A good rapport is established between (i) the manager
records are confidential or classified and will not be and the researcher, and (ii) researcher and the employees.
provided to the researcher.

9
6.1 Internal Consultants/Researchers
Large organizations have their own research departments with 10
in-house capacity to undertake management research.
A. Advantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers 6.2 External Consultants/Researchers
a. The Internal Researchers are readily accepted by the employees. External consultants/researchers are members of the team hired from
b. The Internal Research Team already understands the outside.
organizational structure and culture, reducing the orientation time. A. Advantages of External Consultants/Researchers
c. Internal Researchers are available during implementation of the a. The External Research Team is more enriched in experience, brings
recommendations. an outside, independent perspective, and is open to a wider variety
d. The Internal Research Team costs much less. of alternatives.
B. Disadvantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers b. The External Research Team, will have knowledge of more
a. Internal Researchers may be inhibited in taking an independent sophisticated problem-solving techniques and trained in innovative
external perspective, and may miss fresh ideas. theories and technologies.
b. There may be internal coalitions to influence the Internal B. Disadvantages of External Consultants/Researchers
Researchers to conceal, distort, or misrepresent facts. a. The External Research Teams are very expensive.
c. Internal Researchers may be regarded in low esteem and their b. The External Research Team will take a considerable time in
conclusions may not get full value. understanding the structure and the culture of the organization.
d. The Internal Researchers may have their own biases because of c. External Researchers will charge additional fees for any help in the
being employees of the same organization. implementation process.

11 Ch- 1 : Introduction to Research

7. Knowledge About Research and 8. Ethics and Business Research
Managerial Effectiveness Ethics in business research refers to a code of conduct or
a. Manager becomes more observant and sensitive to internal expected social norms of behavior. Ethical conduct applies to:
and external factors. (i) the organization sponsoring the research, (ii) employees of the
b. Manager is more effective in dealing with consultants and sponsor organization, (iii) researchers and their staff, and, (iv) the
researchers. respondents who are required to provide data.
c. A Manager who fully understands the research process will In general, ethics in business research require everyone
be able to appreciate the use of modern research technology involved to show behavior in good faith, provide required level of
and research models, such as simulation. attention, subdue ego, and place organizational goals above the
d. Manager better understands the conclusions and personal goals.
recommendations of the researchers.
e. Manager is able to grasp the full scope and depth of the
managerial decision making process.
 CHP 2 :-
Scientific Investigation CH-2: Scientific Investigation
2. The Hallmarks or Main Characteristics of Scientific
1. Scientific Research Research

Definition: 1. Purposiveness: Scientific Research has a specific goal and

Scientific Research focuses on solving problems by well-defined purpose.
following a logical, organized, and rigorous method to identify 2. Rigor: It means the research involves a good theoretical
the problems, gather data, analyze that data, and draw valid base, a good methodology, and carefulness, scrupulousness,
conclusions from it. and exactitude.
Decisions based on scientific research are purposive, 3. Testability: Scientific Research can be used to test logically
rigorous and effective. developed hypotheses.
Scientific Research applies to both basic and applied
research.
4. Replicability: Means results or conclusions drawn are such
that they will withhold in other similar situations over and
over again.

3 4

5. Precision and Confidence: Precision refers to the

closeness of the findings to the “reality” based on the sample. 7. Generalizability: This means that the results of scientific
It reflects the degree of accuracy of results of research. investigation will also be applicable with same results to other
similar situation in other organizations.
Confidence refers to the probability that our results are
correct. The range in which the research results fall is known
as the Confidence Interval. The probability that a certain result 8. Parsimony: This implies that research design should be
will definitely be true at all times is known as the Confidence meaningful and simple. A more complex, elaborate and
Level. cumbersome research model is more difficult to handle in
scientific terms.
6. Objectivity: This implies that the conclusions drawn from
the collected data must be based only on the facts and should
not involve subjective or emotional values.

The Building Blocks of Scientific Research or

The Scientific Model
1.Observation
10. Refinement of
theory
(Pure Research)
Or
Implementation
5 (Applied Research)
3. Theoretical
Framework
9.
3. Obstacles in Conducting Management Research Interpretation
of Data
It is not possible to conduct 100% scientific research studies.
It is due to human behavior being studied. Data collection in the 4.Hypotheses
subjective areas of feelings, moods, attitudes and perceptions may
not be 100% accurate. Sometimes, the obstacle is due to lack of a
representative sample. 8. Analysis
5. Constructs
of Data
Concepts and
Operational
Definitions
7. Data 6. Research
Collection Design
 5. The Hypothetic-Deductive Method

1. Observation

2. Preliminary Information
Gathering

8
3. Theory Formulation

4.1 Deduction and Induction

Deduction and Induction are the two methods of drawing 4. Hypothesizing
conclusions.

a. Deduction: Deduction is a process of arriving at a 5. Further Scientific

conclusion by applying known facts or principles to a specific Data collection
situation.

b. Induction: Induction is a process in which certain 6. Data Analysis

observations are used to logically establish a general
proposition from which we draw a conclusion.
7. Deduction

9 CH-2: Scientific Investigation

5.1 Observation 5.4 Hypothesizing

Manager observes that changes are occurring in the work A hypothesis is a statement that proposes a possible
environment showing variation in behaviors, attitudes, feelings, relationship or conclusion that can be tested. The research
communication pattern and styles, work performance and many process is undertaken to test this hypothesis.
other variables. Inductive Research is used for hypotheses generation.
5.2 Preliminary Information Gathering Deductive Research is used for hypotheses testing.
This involves collecting of information in depth regarding the
5.5 Further Scientific Data Collection
observed critical change.
For each variable in the hypothesis, data needs to be
5.3 Theory Formulation collected scientifically, so that it is valid and reliable. Data on
It integrates all the information in a logical manner, so that every variable in the Theoretical Framework also needs to be
the factors responsible for the problem can be conceptualized and collected.
tested. The Theoretical Framework is designed to assess the
influence of the critical variables on the problem.

CH-2: Scientific Investigation 12

6. Other Types of Research
5.6 Data Analysis 6.1 Case Studies
The collected data are statistically analyzed to see if the data
Case studies involve in-depth, contextual analyses of similar
support the hypotheses. Qualitative data (narrative information
situations in other organizations, where the nature and definition of
through interviews, group discussions, observation etc.) and
the problem happen to be the same as experienced in the current
quantitative data (numerical information through structured
situation.
interviews, questionnaires, human and technology-based
observations, etc.). 6.2 Action Research
Action Research is used by trained and experienced consultants to
5.7 Deduction bring about a planned change. In Action Research, the researcher
Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions by
begins with a problem that is already identified, and gathers
interpreting the meaning of the results of the data analysis,
relevant data to provide a tentative problem solution. This solution
leading recommendations to solve the problem.
is then implemented, with the knowledge that there may be
unintended consequences as a result of this implementation. The
effects are then evaluated, defined, and diagnosed.
 CHP 3

Ch- 3 : TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH

Ch- 3: TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH
2. Commonly Used Technologies in Business Research
1. Information Needs of Business 2.1 The Internet
The Internet, is a vast global network of computers.
To run a business, useful, timely, accurate, reliable, and • We can easily download and print secondary data.
valid data are needed. When data in their raw from are • We can also conduct computer-interactive surveys very
evaluated, analyzed, and synthesized, useful information is efficiently with large global audiences.
generated for managers. • Specialized companies like Survey Online offer specialized
services to conduct Internet surveys for firms that need
The methods used to gather, analyze, and synthesize
information of a confidential nature.
information are becoming more sophisticated due to the
• The LAN enables employees with computers in close proximity
immense scope of technology.
to share information resources and files, and helps schedule,
monitor, and process data from remote locations.
• Search engines are software programs designed to help the
search on the World Wide Web.

Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH

Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH

2.2 Electronic Mail 2.4 Browsers

The wide use of the internet is possible due to the enabling
The Internet allows the exchange of electronic mail
features of the browser, which front-ends the web sites and web
(e-mail), which is the primary mode of business
applications. Browser software (like Microsoft’s Explorer and
communication. The easy global access to the Internet has
enabled all organizations to have access to e-mail. E-mail is Netscape) allows even the nontechnical user easy access to and
inexpensive, almost instantaneous, and has the added navigation through the web. In a sense, browsers ignited the
advantage of guaranteed delivery. “Internet revolution.”
2.5 Web Sites
Organizations create web sites to promote their image,
2.3 The Intranet communicate with customers, build relationships, share
The Intranet links internal data networks of the company, information, offer attractive inducements to prospective
but prevents access to others outside the company. It also customers, provide online purchases by customers. The built-in
facilitates data gathering from within the company. audit capability and push technology (using cookies) also
provides feedback.

Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH

3. Some Software Used in Business Research 3.3 CAM / CAD

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software helps engineers
3.1 Group Ware to design and manufacture components and products. Computer-
Groupware is software that runs on a network so that teams can aided design (CAD) software creates and displays complex
work on joint projects. This software is of immense use for drawings with precision enabling experimentation with different
efficient and effective completion of specific team projects. designs.

3.2 Neural Networks 3.4 Enterprise Resource Planning

Neural Networks are designed to trace patterns in a set of data Enterprise-Resource Planning (ERP) packages offer all-in-one
and generalize from them. This software enables sales forecasts, integrated business applications, slowly replacing traditional
stock market predictions, employee behavior assessments, etc. manufacturing, finance, and order entry applications. ERP
packages provide comprehensive solutions.
 Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH
Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH
4. Emerging Applications in Technology
3.5 Data Analytic Software Programs
Software programs are available to obtain, store, and analyze 4.1 Handheld Devices
raw data collected through surveys, using SPSS, SAS, Excel and The new computer technology using small, cost-effective,
the like. handheld devices like the Palm, eases data gathering and
Gathering data is facilitated through audit capabilities in immediate analysis. Critical data the wireless devices further
software that track and provide information on the extent of increase efficiency.
usage of any function or feature. 4.2 Interactive Voice Technology, CD-ROM,
Designing questionnaires, collecting data, data analysis, and web
and e-mail surveys are facilitated by software programs, and Relational Databases
including SumQuest or SQ, Survey Software, Professional Quest These technological advances help businesses to conduct
and Perseus. research. Relational databases can be linked in any desired
manner.

Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH

5. Information Systems and Managerial

Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH
Decision Making
4.3 Digital Whiteboards Organizations with expanded functions and growing in size,
Digital whiteboards allow contents on a board to be copied on to require good information system. Computerized information
the PC and transmitted electronically to others. systems enable the efficient operation of different subsystems in
4.4 Group Videoconferencing finance, transportation, marketing, or human resources.
Group videoconferencing reproduces the face-to-face meeting 5.1 Data Warehousing, Data Mining and
effect by using large TV monitors or multimedia projectors. Operations Research
4.5 Virtual Reality a. Data Warehousing
Virtual reality creates 3-D environments in which to create a A data warehouse that serves as the central repository of all data
product in a computer and show it to interested groups with collected from different sources, The data warehouse can be
details regarding price, materials, and other relevant accessed through various on-line analytical processing (OLAP)
information. tools to support decision making. Data warehousing can be
described as the process of extracting, transferring, and
4.6 Linkage of PCs to Electronic Devices integrating data from multiple external databases and operating
Latest technologies available from Microsoft and Sony link PCs systems.
and consumer electronic devices. Business transactions,
communication, and research can be accelerated many fold.
 Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH

b. Data Mining d. Management Information Systems

Data mining is a strategic tool for reaching new levels of Management Information Systems (MIS), Decision Support
business intelligence. Using algorithms to analyze data in a System, the Executive Information System, and the Expert
meaningful way, data mining more effectively leverages the data System, are good decision making aids.
warehouse by identifying hidden relations and pattern. 6. International Dimensions of Cyberspace
c. Operations Research Cyberspace is not free of geographical boundaries or cultural
Operations Research (OR) or management sciences (MS) is issues. Foreign governments can use the firewall and filtering
another sophisticated tool used to simplify and clarify complex technology to deter computer hackers. Unregulated cyberspace
problems by quantification. OR uses higher mathematics and is a mythical notion. Local laws do indeed govern what can and
statistics to solve intricate problems of great complexity relating cannot appear in cyberspace.
to inventory, queuing, sequencing, routing, etc. Copyright laws can also be deemed to be broken.

Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH Ch- 3 :TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS RESEARCH

7. Data Storage and Surveillance

7.1 Storage of Databases 8. Managerial Advantage of Technological
Data is the lifeblood of companies and should be mirrored live in Advancements
at least two other locations, or at least backed up on tape and It is important for managers to take full advantage of
stored in other remote locations. information technology and software developments. Software
technology can be used in the research process for problem
7.2 Data Security identification, theory building, data collection, data analysis, and
Increasingly, organizations and their information systems are presentation of results..
faced with security threats that include computer hacking,
computer viruses, Internet fraud, and sabotage.
To protect information digital IDs and firewalls are used.
Authentication, authorization, and encryption are some basic
security methodologies used for this purpose.

Ch- 3 :15

9. Ethics in Handling Information Technology

Use of technology also imposes certain obligations on the part of
its users:

1. It is important that the privacy of all individuals is protected.

2. Companies also need to ensure that confidential information
relating to individuals is protected.
3. Care should be taken to ensure that incorrect information is
not distributed in the company.
4. Researchers collecting data should be honest, trustworthy,
and careful in obtaining and recording the data in a timely
fashion.
 CHP 4

1
OBSERVATION
Broad area
of research
interest identified

3 4
THEORETICAL 6 7
PROBLEM
FRAMEWORK
5 SCIENTIFIC DATA
DEFINITION
GENERATION RESEARCH COLLECTION,
Research
OF DESIGN ANALYSIS, AND
Problem Variables clearly
HYPOTHESES INTERPRETATION
Identified and
Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS delineated
labeled

1. The Research Process for Applied and Basic 2 8

DEDUCTION
Research PRELIMINARY
Hypotheses
DATA GATHERING
Substantiated?
The hypothetico-deductive method has two distinct Interviewing
Research
Literature survey
aspects: (i) the process of developing the conceptual question
framework and the hypotheses; and, (ii) the design, including answered?
the planning of the actual study, location of the study, the
selection of the sample, and collection and analysis of the data.
Yes
NO
9 10 11
Report Report Managerial
Diagram 4.1: The research process Writing Presentation Decision
for basic and applied research. Making

5 3
Example 3: Conceptual Issue that Needs to be
1.1 Broad Problem Area Researched:
The broad problem area refers to the entire situation A researcher may undertake basic research to study the
where there is a possible need for research and problem phenomenon of punctuality so as to define that concept in
solving. The specific issue might pertain to (1) problems
precise terms.
currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be
solved, (2) areas that a manager believes need to be improved, Example 4: Empirical Answers:
(3) conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to be researched A researcher may want to find answers empirically to the
to understand certain phenomena, and (4) some research issue of perceived punctuality versus the actual punctuality and
questions that a basic researcher wants to answer empirically. its impact on the consequences for the individuals
(psychological stress) and for organizations (poor performance).
Such research is done by gathering data and testing the
relationships between variables.

Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

4
Further Examples of broad problems areas:
Example 1: Problem Currently Existing: 1. Training programs are perhaps not as effective as anticipated.
2. The sales volume of a product is not picking up.
A General Manager receives complaints from
3. Minority group members in organizations are not advancing in
Supervisory Managers that their subordinate staff is not
their careers.
punctual in attending office. From such statements the
General Manager becomes aware that a punctuality-related 4. The daily balancing of accounting ledgers is becoming a continuing
problem exists. Poor punctuality is a symptom, whereas the concern.
true underlying problem may not be known. Research 5. The newly installed information system is not being used by the
investigation is required to identify the problem and then fix managers.
it. 6. The introduction of flexible work hours has created more
problems.
Example 2: Situation Requiring Improvement: 7. The anticipated results of a recent merger have not been
If the company has already implemented measures to forthcoming.
ensure punctuality, and some complaints of poor punctuality 8. Inventory control is not effective.
continue to come in, then it is obvious that the policies are 9. The installation of an MIS keeps getting stalled.
not bringing the full results. Through research, such policies 10. The management of a complex, multidepartmental team project is
and procedures need to be redefined. getting out of hand in the R & D department of a firm.
 Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1.2 Preliminary Data Collection Secondary data are data that already exist and include
1.2.1 Nature of Data to be Gathered statistical bulletins, government publications, information
The nature of information needed by the researchers published or unpublished and available from either within or
outside the organization, data available from previous research,
may be broadly classified as:
case studies and library records, online data, web sites, and the
1. Background information of the organization—that is, the
internet.
contextual factors.
2. Managerial philosophy, company policies, and other Primary Data are the data collected first-hand by the
structural aspects. researcher. It includes gathering such information as the
perceptions and attitudes of employees by talking to them; by
3. Perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral responses of
observing events, people, and objects; or by administering
organization’s employees or customers.
questionnaires to individuals.

Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

a. Background Information on the Organization b. Information on Structural Factors and
It includes the contextual factors: Management Philosophy
1. The origin and history of the company. Information on company policies, structure, workflow,
2. Size in terms of employees, assets, etc. management philosophy, and the like can be obtained from
3. Charter—purpose and ideology. the management.
4. Location—regional, national, or other. Some of the structural factors are:
5. Resources—human and other. 1. Roles and positions in the organization and number of
6. Interdependent relationships with other institutions and the employees at each job level.
external environment. 2. Extent of specialization.
7. Financial position during the previous 5 to 10 years, and 3. Communication channels.
relevant financial data. 4. Control systems.
5. Coordination and span of control.
6. Reward systems.
7. Workflow systems.

Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

c. Perceptions, Attitudes, and Behavioral Responses (ii) Behavioral factors include actual work habits such as
Employees’ perceptions of the work and the work environment and their
attitudinal and behavioral responses can be recorded in the research industriousness, extent of absenteeism, performance on the
process. job, etc.
(i) Attitudinal factors comprise people’s beliefs about and reactions to the
following:
1. Nature of the work.
The main idea in gathering information on values, structures,
2. Workflow interdependencies. and processes is that these might often reveal the root of the
3. Superiors in the organization. real problem.
4. Participation in decision making. Once the interviews have been conducted, the various types of
5. Client systems.
6. Co-workers.
information that have been gathered during the interviews are
7. Rewards provided by the organization, such as pay raises and fringe tabulated to determine if there is a discernible pattern in the
benefits. responses.
8. Opportunities for advancement in the organization.
9. Organization’s attitudes toward employees’ family responsibilities.
10. Company’s involvement with community, civic, and other social groups.
11. Company’s tolerance of employees’ taking time off from the job.
 Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
A good literature survey thus ensures that:
1. Important variables that are likely to influence the problem
situation are not left out.
1.2.2 Literature Survey 2. A clearer idea emerges as to what variables would be most
Literature survey is the documentation of relevant important to consider (parsimony), why they would be
published and unpublished work from secondary sources. considered important, and how they should be investigated
to solve the problem. It helps the development of the
a. Reasons for the literature Survey theoretical framework and hypothesis for testing.
An effective literature survey leads to comprehensive 3. The Problem Statement can be made with precision and
theoretical framework . clarity.
4. Testability and replicability of the findings of the current
research are enhanced.
5. Efforts are not wasted in rediscovering something that is
already known.
6. The problem investigated is perceived by the scientific
community as relevant and significant.

Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Conducting the Literature Survey
The first step in this process involves identifying the various
Basically, three forms of databases are used when reviewing
published and unpublished materials. The second step is
the literature:
gathering the relevant information from a library or online
sources. The third step is writing up the literature review.
i. Identifying the Relevant Sources Bibliographic Databases display only the bibliographic
Global business information, published articles in citations, that is, the name of the author, the title of the article
newspaper and periodicals, and conference proceedings, are (or book), source of publication, year, volume, and page
available on data bases. Computerized databases include numbers.
bibliographies, abstracts, and full texts of articles on various Abstract Databases provide an abstract or summary of the
business topics. Statistical and financial databases are also articles.
easily accessible. Full-text Databases provide the full text of the articles.

Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Online searches provide a number of advantages. Besides iii. Writing Up the Literature Review
saving enormous amounts of time, they are comprehensive in The documentation of the relevant studies citing the
their listing and review of references, and the researcher can author and the year of the study is called literature review or
focus on materials most central to the research effort. literature survey. The literature survey is a clear and logical
ii. Extracting the Relevant Information presentation of the relevant research work done thus far in the
Bibliography: Accessing the online system and getting a area of investigation.
printout of all the published works in the area of interest from a
bibliographical index will provide a comprehensive A point to note is that the literature survey should bring
bibliography. together all relevant information in a clear and logical manner
Abstracts: The abstract of such articles that seem to be instead of presenting all the studies in chronological order. A
good literature survey also leads to a good problem statement.
relevant can then be obtained through the online system.
Full-Text: The full text of articles can then be printed out. There are several accepted methods of citing references in the
While reading these articles, details can be systematically literature survey.
noted.
 Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1.3 Problem Definition
Problem Definition or Problem Statement is a clear, A “problem” could simply indicate an interest in an issue where
precise, and succinct statement of the question or issue that finding the right answers might help to improve an existing
is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or situation.
solution. As mentioned earlier, problem definitions could Definition: A problem is defined as any situation where
pertain to (1) existing business problems where a manager is a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal
looking for a solution, (2) situations that may not pose any
current problem but which the manager feels have scope for states.
improvement, (3) areas where some conceptual clarity is It is very important that symptoms of problems are not
needed for better theory building, or (4) situations in which a defined as the real problem.
researcher is trying to answer a research question
empirically because of interest in the topic.
Antecedent conditions or symptoms lead to a problem;
whereas Consequences are the results of the problem.
 CHP 5

Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

2. Variables
A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.

2.1 Types of Variables

Four main types of variables are discussed in this chapter:

a. The dependent variable (also known as the criterion variable).

b. The independent variable (also known as the predictor variable).
c. The moderating variable.
d. The intervening variable.

Variables can be discrete (e.g., male/female) or continuous (e.g., the age of an

individual).

Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5 Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

Independent Dependent Managerial values Power distance

Variable Variable

Independent variable Dependent variable

Diagram 5.1: Variables Diagram 5.2: Variables

Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5 Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

Availability of
Independent Dependent Reference # of Rejects
Variable (IV) Variable (DV) Manuals

Moderating Interest
Variable &
(MV) Inclination

Diagram 5.3: Moderating Variable Diagram 5.3B: Moderating Variable

 Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5 Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

Willingness to learn
Workforce Organizational
diversity effectiveness

Independent Variable Dependent variable

Managerial
expertise
Training programs
Growth needs
Moderating Variable
Diagram 5.5 A: Influence of Independent
Diagram 5.4:Moderating Variable Variable on Dependent Variable

Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

Willingness to learn

Effects for those high

in growth needs

Effects for those

low
in growth needs

Training programs

Diagram 5.5 B: Influence of Interviewing

Variable

Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5 Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

Time t₁ t₂ t₃ Time t₁ t₂ t₃

Organization Organizatio
Workforce Creative al Workforce Creative nal
diversity synergy effectiveness
diversity synergy effectivenes
s

Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Managerial
expertise

Diagram 5.7: Relationship Between IV, DV, MV

Diagram 5.6: Relationship Between IV, DV & MV & Interviewing Variable
 Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5
Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5
3.1The Components of the Theoretical Framework

3. Theoretical Framework There are five basic features that should be incorporated in the theoretical
framework.
The theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire research project 1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified and
is based. It is a logically developed, described, and elaborated network of labeled in the discussions.
associations among the variables deemed relevant to the problem situation and 2. The discussions should state how two or more variables are related to one another.
identified through such processes as interviews, observations, and literature This should be done for the important relationships that are theorized to exist
survey. Experience and intuition also guide in developing the theoretical among the variables.
framework.
3. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized on the basis of the
findings of previous research, then there should be an indication in the discussions
The relationship between the literature survey and the theoretical framework
as to whether the relationships would be positive or negative.
4. There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect these relationships to
exist. The arguments could be drawn from the previous research findings.
5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the
reader can see and easily comprehend the theoretical relationships.

Communication among
Cockpit members Communication among
Cockpit members

Communication between
Communication between
Ground control and cockpit
Ground control and cockpit
Air-safety
Air-safety
violations
violations
Decentralization Decentralization

Nervousness
Training of cockpit crew Training of cockpit crew And
diffidence
Independent Variables Dependent Variable
Independent variables Intervening variable Dependent variable
Diagram 5.8: Schematic diagram for the theoretical Diagram 5.9: Schematic diagram for the theoretical framework
framework in Example 5.13. including the intervening variable.

Communication among
Cockpit members

Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

Communication between Air-safety
Ground control and cockpit violations
4. Hypotheses Development

4.1 Definition of Hypothesis

Decentralization A hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two
or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement. Relationships
are conjectured on the basis of the network of associations established in the
theoretical framework formulated for the research study. By testing the
Training hypotheses and confirming the conjectured relationships, it is expected that
solutions can be found to correct the problem encountered.

Independent variables Moderating variable Dependent variable

Diagram 5.10: Schematic diagram for the theoretical framework

including a moderating variable.
 Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5
Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

4.2 Statement of Hypotheses: Formats

4.3 Directional and Nondirectional Hypotheses
If, in stating the relationship between two variables or comparing two
a. If—Then Statements groups, terms such as
To examine whether or not the conjectured relationships or differences exist, positive, negative, more than, less than, and the like are used, then these
these hypotheses can be set either as propositions or in the form of if—then hypotheses are
statements. The two formats can be seen in the following two examples. directional because the direction of the relationship between the variables
(positive/negative) is
indicated, as in Example 5.17 below, or the nature of the difference between
Example 5.15 Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave two groups on a
less frequently. variable (more than/less than) is postulated, as in example 5.18.
Example 5.16 If employees are more healthy, then they will take Example 5.17
sick leave less frequently. The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of
employees.

Example 5.18
Women are more motivated than men.

Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5 Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

4.4 Null and Alternate Hypotheses

On the other hand, nondirectional hypotheses are those that do postulate a The null hypotheses is a proposition that states a definitive, exact
relationship or difference, but offer no indication of the direction of these relationship between two variables. That is, it states that the population
relationships or differences. In other words, though it may be conjectured that correlation between two variables is equal to zero or that the difference in the
there would be a significant relationship between two variables, we may not be means of two groups in the population is equal to zero (or some definite
able to say whether the relationship would be positive or negative. number). In general, the null statement is expressed as no (significant)
relationship between two variables or no (significant) difference between two
Example 5.19 groups, as we will see in the various examples in this chapter. The alternate
There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction. hypothesis, which is the opposite of the null, is a statement expressing a
relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups.

Example 5.20
There is a difference between the work ethic values of American and Asian
employees.

Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5 Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

For the nondirectional hypothesis of the mean group differences in work ethic
The null hypothesis in respect of group differences stated in our Example 5.18 values in Example 5.20, the null hypothesis would be:
would be:
H0: µm = µw H0: Meanm = Meanw H0: AM = AS
or
H0: µm - µw = 0 H0: Meanm - Meanw = 0 or
H0: 0
The alternate for the above example would statistically be set as follows: AM - AS =

where H0 represents the null hypothesis, AM is the mean work ethic value of
HA: µM < µW H0: Meanm is less than Meanw
Americans and AS is the mean work ethic value of Asians.
which is the same as
The alternate hypothesis for the above example would statistically be set as:
HA: µW >µM H0: Meanw is greater than Meanm
HA: AM AS

where HA represents the alternate hypothesis and AM and AS are the mean work
ethic values of Americans and Asians, respectively.
 Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5 Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

The null hypothesis for the relationship between the two variables in Example
5.17 would be The alternate hypotheses for the above null, which has been expressed
directionally in Example 5.17, can be statistically expressed as
HO: There is no relationship between stress experienced on the job and the job HA: < 0 (The correlation is
satisfaction of employees. negative.)

This would be statistically expressed by For Example 5.19, which has been stated nondirectionally, while the null
H0: = 0 hypothesis would be statistically expresses as:
H0: = 0
where represents the correlation between stress and job satisfaction, which in
this case is equal to 0 (i.e., no correlation). The alternate hypothesis would be expressed as:
H0: 0

Ch- 5 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Steps 4 & 5

4.5 Steps in Hypothesis Testing

1. State the null and the alternate hypotheses.

2. Choose the appropriate statistical test depending on whether the data
collected are parametric or nonparametric (discussed in a later chapter).
3. Determine the level of significance desired (p= 05, or more, or less).
4. See if the output results from computer analysis indicate that the
significance level is met. If, as in the case of Pearson correlation analysis in
Excel software, the significance level is not indicated in the printout, look up
the critical values that define the regions of acceptance on the appropriate
table [(t, F, χ2)—see tables at the end of the book]. This critical value
demarcates the region of rejection from that of acceptance of the null
hypothesis.
5. When the resultant value is larger than the critical value, the null hypothesis
is rejected, and the alternate accepted. If the calculated value is less than
the critical value, the null is accepted and the alternate rejected.
 CHP 6

1 Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

OBSERVATION
Broad area Step 6: Elements of Research Design
of research
interest identified

4
Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
3
PROBLEM THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
5
6
SCIENTIFIC
7
DATA
Step 6: Elements of Research Design
DEFINITION
GENERATION RESEARCH COLLECTION,
Research
OF DESIGN ANALYSIS, AND
Problem Variables clearly
HYPOTHESES INTERPRETATION
delineated Identified and
labeled
1. The Research Design
2 8
DEDUCTION
PRELIMINARY
Hypotheses Having identified the variables in a problem situation and
DATA GATHERING
Interviewing
Substantiated? development the theoretical framework, the next step is to design the
Research research in a way that the requisite data can be gathered and analyze to
Literature survey
question
answered? arrive at a solution.

Yes
NO
9 10 11
Report Report Managerial
Diagram 6.1: The research process Writing Presentation Decision
Making

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 6: Elements of Research Design
DETAILS OF STUDY MEASUREMENT Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Purpose of the Types of Extent of researcher Study setting Measurement Step 6: Elements of Research Design
study investigation interference and measures
DATA
ANALYSIS
2. Purpose of the Study: Exploratory, Descriptive,
Operational
Exploration Establishing: Minimal: Studying Contrived definition
Description Causal relationships events Noncontrived Items (measure)
Hypothesis testing Correlations
Group differences,
as they normally occur
Manipulation and/or
Scaling
Categorizing
1. Feel for
data Hypothesis Testing
ranks, etc. control and/or Coding
(Analytical and Predictive), Case Study Analysis
PROBLEM STATEMENT

simulation

2. Goodness

2.1 Exploratory Study

of data

Unit of Sampling Time Data collection

analysis design horizon method
3. Hypotheses An exploratory study is undertaken when not much is known about the
testing
(population situation at hand, or no information is available on how similar problems or
to be studied)
research issues have been solved in the past. In such cases, extensive preliminary
Individuals Observation
Dyads Probability/ One-shot Interview work needs to be done to gain familiarity with the phenomena in the situation, and
Groups nonprobability (cross-sectional) Questionnaire
Organizations Sample Longitudinal Physical understand what is occurring, before we develop a model and set up a rigorous
Machines size (n) measurement
etc. Unobtrusive
design for comprehensive investigation.

Diagram 6.2: The research design.

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 6: Elements of Research Design Step 6: Elements of Research Design
Example 6.2
2.2 Descriptive Study A bank manager wants to have a profile of the individuals who have load
A descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to payments outstanding for 6 months and more. It would include details of
describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation. their average age, earnings, nature of occupation, full-time/part-time
employment status, and the like.
Descriptive studies are undertaken in organizations to learn about and Example 6.3
describe the characteristics of a group of employees, as for example, the A CEO may be interested in having a description of organizations in her
age, educational level, job status, and length of service of Hispanics or industry that follow the LIFO system. In this case, the report might include
Asians, working in the system. Descriptive studies are also undertaken to the age of the organizations, their locations, their production levels, assets,
understand the characteristics of organizations that follow certain common sales, inventory levels, suppliers, and profits.
practices. Descriptive studies thus become essential in many situations. Whereas
qualitative data obtained by interviewing individuals may help the
understanding of phenomena at the exploratory stages of a study,
qualitative data in terms of frequencies, or mean and standard deviations,
become necessary for descriptive studies.
 Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Step 6: Elements of Research Design

2.3. Hypotheses Testing

Studies that engage in hypotheses testing usually explain the nature of
certain relationships, or establish the differences among groups or the
independence of two or more factors in a situation. Hypothesis testing is
undertaken to explain the variance in the dependent variable or to predict
organizational outcomes.
Example 6.5
A marketing manager wants to know if the sales of the company will
increase if he doubles the advertising dollars. Here, the manager would like
to know the nature of the relationship that can be established between
advertising and sales by testing the hypothesis: If advertising is increased,
then sales will also go up.

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Step 6: Elements of Research Design
Step 6: Elements of Research Design
2.4. Case Study Analysis
Example 6.7
The testing of a hypothesis such as: More men than women are inotivated, 2.5. Review of The purpose of the Study
establishes the difference between two groups—men and women—in It is not difficult to see that in exploratory studies, the researcher
regard to their inotivated behavior.
is basically interested in exploring the situational factors so as to
get a grip on the characteristics of the phenomena of interest.
Example 6.8 Also, pilot studies on a small scale, by interviewing individuals or
The independence between two variables that are qualitative in nature can gathering information from a limited number of occurrences, are
also be established through hypothesis testing. Consider the hypothesis: not uncommon in exploratory research.
Working the night shift (as opposed to the day shift) is related to whether or Descriptive studies are undertaken when the characteristics or the
not one is married. A chi-square test of independence will easily provide the phenomena to be tapped in a situation are known to exist, and
answer to this question. one wants to be able to describe them better by offering a profile
of the factors. Hypothesis testing offers an enhanced
understanding of the relationship that exists among variables.

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 6: Elements of Research Design Step 6: Elements of Research Design

3. Type of Investigation: Casual Versus

It could also establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Methodological rigor increases as we move progressively from an Correlational
exploratory study to a hypothesis-testing study, and with this, the costs of A correlational study is done when it is necessary to establish a definitive
research also increase. Increases in sample size, multiple methods of data cause-and-effect relationship. However, if all that the manager wants is a
collection, development of sophisticated measuring instruments, and the mere identification of the important factors “associated with” the problem,
like, add to research costs, though they contribute more to testability, then a correlational study is called for.
accuracy, precision, and generalizability. Example 6.9
A casual study question:
Does smoking cause cancer?
A correlational study question:
Are smoking and cancer related?
OR
Are smoking, drinking, and chewing tobacco associated with cancer? If so,
which of these contributes most to the variance in the dependent variable?
 Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Step 6: Elements of Research Design
Step 6: Elements of Research Design

Example 6.10
Fears of an earthquake predicted recently in the New Madrid fault zone were Example 6.12 Minimal Interference
instrumental (i.e., casual) in an unprecedented number of house owners in the A hospital administrator wants to examine the relationship between the
Midwest region taking out an earthquake insurance policy. perceived emotional support in the system and the stresses experienced by
4. Extent of Researcher Interference with the Study the nursing staff. (correlational study).
The extent of interference by the researcher with the normal flow
of work at the workplace has a direct bearing on whether the Here, the administrator/researcher will collect data from the nurses
study undertaken is casual or correlational. A correlational study is (perhaps through a questionnaire) to indicate hoe much emotional support
conducted in the natural environment of the organization with they get in the hospital and to what extent the experience stress. By
minimum interference by the researcher with the normal flow of correlating the two variables, the answer that is being sought can be found.
work. For example, if a researcher wants to study the factors
influencing training effectiveness (a correlational study), all that In this case, beyond administering a questionnaire to the nurses, the
the individual has to do is develop a theoretical framework, collect researcher has not interfered with the normal activities in the hospital. In
the relevant data, and analyze them to come up with the findings. other words, researcher interference has been minimal.

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 6: Elements of Research Design Step 6: Elements of Research Design
Example 6.14 Excessive Interference
The researcher feels that the results may or may not be valid since other external
Example 6.13 Moderate Interference factors might have influenced the stress levels experienced by the nurses. For
example, during the particular experimental week, the nurses in one or more
The researcher wants to demonstrate that if the nurses had emotional wards may not have experienced high levels of stress because there were no
support, this indeed would cause them to experience less stress. serious illnesses or deaths in the ward. Hence, the emotional support received
might not be related to the level of stresses experienced.
To test the cause-and-effect relationship, the researcher will measure the The researcher will want to make sure that such extraneous factors as might
stress and deliberately manipulate the extent of emotional support given to affect the cause-and-effect relationship are controlled. So she might take three
the three groups of nurses in the three wards for perhaps a weeks, and groups of medical students, put them in different rooms, and confront all of them
measure the amount of stress. For one group, the researcher will ensure with the same stressful task to describe in the minutest detail, the surgical
procedures in performing surgery on a patient and keep asking more and more
extensive emotional support.
question. One group might get help from a doctor who offers clarifications and
help when students stumble. In the second group, a doctor might offer
clarifications and help only if the group seeks it. In the third group, there is no
doctor present and no help is available.

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Step 6: Elements of Research Design
Step 6: Elements of Research Design
5. Study Setting: Contrived and Noncontrived
Organizational research can be done in the natural environment where proceeds Example 6.15 Field Study
normally (noncontrived Settings) or in artificial, contrived settings. Correlational A bank manager wants to analyze the relationship between interest rates
studies are invariably conducted in noncontrived settings, whereas most rigorous and bank deposit patterns of clients. She tries to correlate the two by
causal studies are done in contrived lab settings. looking at deposits into different kinds of accounts (such as savings,
certificates to deposit, golden passbooks, and interest-bearing checking
Correlational studies done in organizations are called field studies. Studies accounts) as interest rates changed.
conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationship using the same natural
environment in which employees normally function are called field experiments.

Experiments done to establish cause and effect relationship beyond the possibility
of the least doubt require the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in
which all the extraneous factors are strictly controlled. Similar subjects are
chosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli. These studies are
referred to as lab experiments.
 Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Step 6: Elements of Research Design Step 6: Elements of Research Design

Analysis of husband-wife interactions in families and supervisor-

Example 6.16 Field Experiment subordinate relationship at the workplace are good examples of dyads as
The bank manager now wants to determine the cause-and-effect
the unit of analysis. However, if the problem statement is related to group
relationship between interest rate and the inducement it offers to clients to
effectiveness, then the unit of analysis would be at the group level. Om
save and deposit money in the bank. She selects four branches within a 60-
other words, even though we may gather relevant data from all individuals
mile radius for the experiment. For 1 week only, she advertises the annual
comprising, say, six groups, we would aggregate the individual data into
rate for new certificates of deposit received during that week in the
group data so as to see the differences among the six groups. If we compare
following manner: the interest rate would be 9% in one branch, 8% in
different department in the organization, then the data analysis will be
another branch, and 10% in the third. In the fourth branch, the interest
done at the department level—that is, the individuals in the department
rate remains unchanged at 5%. Within the week, She would be able to
will be treated as one unit—and comparisons made treating the department
determine the effects, if any, of interest rates on deposit mobilization.
as the unit of analysis. Our research question determines the unit of
analysis.

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 6: Elements of Research Design Step 6: Elements of Research Design
6. Unit of analysis: Individuals, Dyads, Groups,
Example 6.17 Lab Experiment Organizations, Cultures
The banker in Example 6.16 may now want to establish the causal The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected
connection between interest rates and savings, beyond a doubt. Because of during the subsequent data analysis stage. If, for instance, the problem
this she wants to create an artificial environment and trace the true cause- statement focuses on how to raise the motivational levels of employees in
and effect relationship. She recruits 40 students who are all business majors general, then we are interested in individual employees in the organization
in their final years of study and are more or less of the same age. She splits and would have to find out what we can do to raise their motivation. Here
them into four groups and gives each one of them chips that count for the unit of analysis is the individual. We will be looking at the data gathered
$1.000, which they are told they might utilize to buy their needs or save for from each individual and treating each employee’s response as an
the future, or both. She offers them by way of incentive, interest on what individual data source. If the researcher is interested in studying two-
they save but manipulates the interest rates by offering a 6% interest rate person interactions, then several two-person groups, also known as dyads,
on savings for group 1, 8% for group 2, 9% for group 3, and keeps the will become the unit of analysis. Analysis of husband-wife interactions in
interest at the low rate of 1% for group 4. families and supervisor-subordinate relationship at the workplace are good
examples of dyads as the unit of analysis.

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 6: Elements of Research Design Step 6: Elements of Research Design
Example 6.18 Individuals as the Unit Analysis
He Chief Financial Officer of a manufacturing company wants to know
However, if the problem statement is related to group effectiveness, then the how many of the staff would be interested in attending 3-day seminar on
unit of analysis would be at the group level. Om other words, even though making appropriate investment decisions. For this purpose, data will have
we may gather relevant data from all individuals comprising, say, six to be collected from each individual staff member and the unit of analysis is
groups, we would aggregate the individual data into group data so as to see the individual.
the differences among the six groups. If we compare different department
in the organization, then the data analysis will be done at the department
level—that is, the individuals in the department will be treated as one Example 6.19 Dyads as the Unit of Analysis
unit—and comparisons made treating the department as the unit of Having ready about the benefits of mentoring, a human resources manager
analysis. Our research question determines the unit of analysis. wants to first identify the number of employees in three departments of the
organization who are in mentoring relationships, and then find out what
the jointly perceived benefits (i.e., by both the mentor and the one
mentored) of such a relationship are.
 Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Step 6: Elements of Research Design
Step 6: Elements of Research Design
Example 6.22 Industry as the Unit of Analysis
Am employment survey specialist wants to see the proportion of the
Example 6.20 Groups as the unit of Analysis workforce employed by the health care, utilities, transportation, and
A manager wants to see the patterns of usage of the newly installed manufacturing industries. In the case, the researcher has to aggregate the
information system (IS) by the production, sales, and operations personnel. data relating to each of the subunits comprised in each of the industries and
Here three groups of personnel are involved ad information on the number report the proportions of the workforce employed at the industry level. The
of times the (IS) is used by each member in each of the three groups as well health care industry, for instance, includes hospitals, nursing homes,
as other relevant issues will be collected and analyzed. The final results will mobiles units, small and large clinics, and other health care providing
indicate the mean usage of the system per day or month for each group. facilities.
Here the unit of analysis is the group.

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 6: Elements of Research Design Step 6: Elements of Research Design

6. Time Horizon: Cross-Sectional Versus

Example 6.23 Countries as the Unit of Analysis
The Chief Financial Officer (CFO) of a multinational corporation Longitudinal Studies
wants to know the profits made during the past 5 years by each of the
subsidiaries in England, Germany, France, and Spain. It is possible that
there are many regional offices of these subsidiaries in each of these
7.1 Cross-Sectional Studies
countries. The profits of the various regional centers for each country have A study can be done in which data are gathered just once, perhaps over a
to be aggregated and the profits for each country for the past 5 years period pf days or weeks or months, in order to answer a research question.
provided to the CFO. In other words, the data will now have to be Such studies are called one-shot or crosssectional studies.
aggregated at the country level. Example 6.24
Data were collected from stock brokers between April and June of last year
to study their concerns in a turbulent stock market. Data with respect to
this particular research had not been collected before, nor will they be
collected again from them for this research.

Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 6: Elements of Research Design Step 6: Elements of Research Design

7.2 Longitudinal Studies

In some cases, however, the researcher might want to study people or
Example 6.25 phenomena at more than one point in time in order to answer the research
A drug company desirous of investing in research for a new obesity question. For instance, the researcher might want to study employees’
(reduction) pill conducted a survey among obese people to see how many of behavior before and after the change in the top management, so as to know
them would be interested in trying the new pill. This is a one-shot or cross- what effects the change accomplished. Here, because data are gathered at
sectional study to assess the likely demand for the new product. two different points in time, the study is not cross-sectional or of the one-
shot kind, but is carried longitudinally across a period of time. Such
studies, as when data on the dependent variable are gathered at two or
more points in time to answer the research question, are called longitudinal
studies.
 Ch- 6 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Step 6: Elements of Research Design

Example 6.27
A marketing manager is interested in tracing the pattern of sales of a
particular product in four different regions of the country on a quarterly
basis for the next 2 years. Since data are collected several times to answer
the same issue (tracing pattern of sales), the study falls under the
longitudinal category.

Longitudinal Studies take more time and efforts and cost more than cross-
sectional studies. However, well-planned longitudinal studies could, among
other things, help to identify cause-and-effect relationships.
 CHP 8

Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables: Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:

Operational Definition and Scales Operational Definition and Scales
Certain variables are easily measured by using appropriate
1. How Variables Are Measured measuring instruments, as for example, blood pressure, pulse rates, body
temperature, height and weight. But when we get into the realm of
Data representing several demographic characteristics of the office
people’s subjective feelings, attitudes, and perceptions, the measurement
personnel are easily obtained by asking employees simple, straightforward
of these factors or variables becomes difficult.
questions, as for example:
There are at least two types of variables: One lends itself to objective
and precise measurement; the other is more nebulous and does not lend
How long have you been working in this organization?
itself to accurate measurement because of its subjective nature. One
How long have you been working on this particular assignment?
technique is to reduce the abstract notions, or concepts such as
What is your Job title?
motivation, involvement, satisfaction, buyer behavior, stock market
What is your marital status?
exuberance, and the like, to observable behavior and characteristics.
Reduction of abstract concepts to render them measureable in a tangible
One can use company records to obtain data on the absenteeism
way is called operationalizing the concepts.
performance.etc. However, even such objective data might, in some cases,
call for careful interpretation while making managerial decisions.

Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables: Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:

Operational Definition and Scales Operational Definition and Scales
2. Operational Definition: Dimensions and They would be driven by work.
Elements Many of them would generally be in no mood to relax.
Operationalizing, or operationally defining a concept to render it Because they want always to be achieving, they prefer to work on their own.
measureable, is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or They would rather engage in challenging jobs rather than easy, hum-drum
properties denoted by the concept. These are then translated into ones.
observable and measureable elements so as to develop an index of They would like to get frequent feedback in direct and subtle ways from their
measurement of the concept. superiors, colleagues, and even sub-ordinates, to know how they are
Example 8.1 Operationalizing the Concept of progressing.
Achievement Motivation Although breaking the concept into these five dimensions has somewhat
reduced its level of abstraction, we have still not operationalized the
Let us try to operationally define achievement motivation. What concept into measureable elements of behavior. This could be done by
behavioral dimensions or facets or characteristics would we expect to find examining each of the five dimensions and breaking each further into its
in people with high achievement motivation? They would probably have the elements. These should be quantitatively measureable so that we can
following five typical broad characteristics, which we will call dimensions.
distinguish those who have high motivation from those with less.


Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables: Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:

Operational Definition and Scales Operational Definition and Scales

i. Elements of Dimension 1
Thus, if we can measure how many hours per week individuals spend
on work-related activities, how persevering they are in completing their
A person who is driven by work will (1) be at work all the time, (2) be reluctant
daily tasks, and how frequently and for what reasons they take time off
to take time off from work, and (3) persevere even in the face of some
from their jobs, we would have a measure of the extent to which employees
setbacks. These types of behavior can be measured.
are driven by work.
For instance, we can count the number of hours employees engage themselves
in work-related activities. It would be an index of the extent to work
“drive” them. Diagram 8.1schematically diagrams the dimensions (the main
characteristics) and the elements (representative behaviors) for the concept
Achievement-motivated individuals would not usually want to give up on their
of achievement motivation.
tasks even when confronted by initial failures.

Finally, in order to measure the reluctance to take time off, we need only know
how frequently people take time off from their jobs, and for what reasons.
 Diagram 8.1
C
Dimensions (D) and elements (E) of the Achievement
concept (C) learning. motivation

D₁ D₂ D D D

Driven by work Unable to relax

₃
Impatience with
₄
Seeks moderate
₅
Seeks feedback
Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:
ineffectiveness challenge
Operational Definition and Scales
E E
E E E ii. Elements of Dimension 2
Constantly Swears under one’s Opts to do Opts to take
working Persevering Breath when even a challenging moderate, rather
The degree of unwillingness to relax can be measured by asking
despite Small mistakes rather than a than persons such questions as (1) how often do you think about work while you
setbacks occur routine job overwhelming
challenges are away from the workplace? (2) what are your hobbies? And (3) how do
you spend your time when you are away from the workplace?
Thus we can place employees on a continuum ranging from those who relax
E
vary well to those who relax very little.
Very reluctant E
to take time
off for anything Does not like iii. Elements of Dimension 3
to
work with Individuals with high achievement motivation have no patience with
E E
slow or ineffective people and are reluctant to work with others. Thus impatience
inefficient
Asks for Is impatient for with ineffectiveness an also be measured by observing behavior.
E E people
feedback on immediate
Thinks of Constantly how the job feedback
work even working has been done
at home

Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:

Operational Definition and Scales

iv. Elements of Dimension 4

A measure of how excited people are at seeking challenging jobs can be had
by asking employees what kinds of jobs they prefer. Employee preferences
for different types of jobs could then be placed on a continuum ranging
from those who prefer fairly routine jobs to those who prefer jobs with a
progressive increase in challenge.
v. Elements of Dimension 5
Those who desire feedback would seek it from their superiors, co-workers,
and sometimes even from their subordinates. Feedback, both positive and
negative, would indicate to them how much they are achieving and
accomplishing. Employees can be placed on a continuum ranging from
those who seek extensive feedback from all sources to those who never seek
any feedback from anyone at any time.

Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:

Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:
Operational Definition and Scales
Operational Definition and Scales
Example 8.3 Operationalizing the Concept of Learning
Operationally defining the concept, nevertheless, is the best way to Learning is an important concept in the educational setting. E need to
measure it and instead of actually observing the behaviors of individuals, define the concept operationally and break it down to observable and
we could ask them to report their own behavior patterns by asking them measureable behaviors. In other words, we should delineate the dimensions
appropriate questions, which they can respond to on some scale that we and elements of the concept of learning. The dimensions of learning may
provide. well be as follows:
2.1 What an Operational Definition Is Not Understanding
Retention
An operational definition does not describe the correlates of the Application
concept. Operationally defining a concept does not consist of delineating the In other words, we can be reasonably certain that a student in the class is
reasons, antecedents, consequences, or correlates of the concept. I f we “learning” when the individual (1) understands what is taught (2) retains
either operationalize the concepts incorrectly or confuse them with other and remembers what is understood, and (3) applies whatever has been
concepts, then we will not have valid measures. This means that we will not understood.
have “good” data, and our research will not be scientific. It is necessary to break these three dimensions into elements so that we can
measure the concept of learning.
 Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:
Operational Definition and Scales Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:
Diagram 8.2 Operational Definition and Scales
Dimensions (D) and elements (E) C
2.2. Review of Operational Definition
of the concept © learning. Learning Operational definitions are necessary to measure abstract concepts such as those
that usually fall into the subjective areas of feelings and attitudes. More
objective variables such as age or educational level are easily measured through
D D D
simple straightforward questions and do not have to be operationally defined.
Understanding Retention Application
Measures for many concepts that are relevant in the organizational context have
already been developed by researchers.
3. Scales
After operationalizing concepts, we need to measure them. We will examine the
types of scales that can be applied to measure different variables.
E E E E E
A scale is a toll or mechanism, by which individuals are distinguished as to how
Solve problems Integrate
Answer Give appropriate Recall material applying with other they differ from one another on the variables of interest.
questions examples after some lapse concepts relevant There are four basic types of scales are fine-tuned increases progressively as we
correctly of time understood and material
recalled move from the nominal to the ratio scale. As the calibration or fine-tuning of the
scale increases in sophistication, so does the power of the scale. With more
powerful scales, increasingly sophisticated data analyses can be performed.

Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:

Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:
Operational Definition and Scales
Operational Definition and Scales

3.1 Nominal Scale Example 8.4

A variable that lends itself to nominal scaling is the nationality of individuals.
A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain
We could nominally scale this variable in the following mutually exclusive and
categories or groups. For example, wit respect to the variable of gender,
collectively exhaustive categories.
respondent can be grouped into two categories—male and female. Thus,
nominal scales categorize individuals or objects into mutually exclusive groups.
Indian Pakistan
3.2 Ordinal Scale
An ordinal scale not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote
differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in
some meaningful way. The preference would be ranked (e.g., from best to worst;
first to last) and numbered 1, 2, and so on. For example, respondents might be
asked to indicate their preferences by ranking the importance they attach to five
distinct characteristics in a job.

Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables: Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:

Operational Definition and Scales Operational Definition and Scales
Example 8.5
Example 8.4 Rank the following five characteristics in a job in terms of how important they
A variable that lends itself to nominal scaling is the nationality of individuals. are for you. You should rank the most important item as 1, the next in
We could nominally scale this variable in the following mutually exclusive and importance as 2, and so on, until you have ranked each of them 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.
collectively exhaustive categories.
Job Characteristic Ranking of Importance
Indian Pakistan The opportunity provided by the job to:
3.2 Ordinal Scale
An ordinal scale not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote 1. Interact with others ____
differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in 2. Use a number of different skills ____
some meaningful way. The preference would be ranked (e.g., from best to worst; 3. Complete a whole task from beginning to end ____
first to last) and numbered 1, 2, and so on. For example, respondents might be 4. Serve others. ____
asked to indicate their preferences by ranking the importance they attach to five 5. Work independently ____
distinct characteristics in a job.
 Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:
Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables: Operational Definition and Scales
Operational Definition and Scales
Example 8.5 The ordinal scale helps the researcher to determine the percentage of
Rank the following five characteristics in a job in terms of how important they respondents who consider interaction with others as most important, those who
are for you. You should rank the most important item as 1, the next in consider using a number of different skills as most important, and so on.
importance as 2, and so on, until you have ranked each of them 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.

Job Characteristic Ranking of Importance

3.3 Interval Scale
An interval scale allows us to perform certain arithmetical operations on the
The opportunity provided by the job to: data collected from the respondents. The interval scale lets us measure the
distance between any two points on the scale. This helps us to compute the
1. Interact with others ____ means and the standard deviations of the responses on the variables. In other
2. Use a number of different skills ____ words, the interval scale not only groups individuals according to certain
3. Complete a whole task from beginning to end ____ categories and taps the order of these groups, it also measures the magnitude of
4. Serve others. ____
the differences in the preferences among the individuals.
5. Work independently ____

Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables: Ch-8: Measurement Of Variables:

Operational Definition and Scales Operational Definition and Scales

The interval scale, then, taps the differences, the order, and the equality of the magnitude of the
Example 8.6 differences in the variable. As such, it is a more powerful scale than the differences in the variable.
Indicate the extent to which you agree with the following statements as they relate to your job, by As such, it is a more powerful scale than the nominal and ordinal scales, and has for its measure of
circling the appropriate number against each, using the scale given below.
central tendency the arithmetic mean,. Its measures of dispersion are the range, the standard
_________________________________________________________________________________
deviation, and the variance.
Strongly Neither Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Nor Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4 5 3.4 Ratio Scale
_________________________________________________________________________________ The ratio scale overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin point of the interval scale, in that
it has an absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero point, which is a meaningful measurement point.
The following opportunities by the job are very important to me: Thus the ration scale not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale
Interacting with others 1 2 3 4 5 but also taps the proportions in the differences. It is the most powerful of the four scales because it
Using a number of different skills 1 2 3 4 5 has a unique zero origin (not an arbitrary origin) and subsumes all the properties of the other three
Completing a task from beginning to end 1 2 3 4 5 scales.
Serving others 1 2 3 4 5
Working Independently 1 2 3 4 5
_________________________________________________________________________________
 CHP 9

Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity
Chapter 9:
1.1 Dichotomous Scale
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity The dichotomous scale is used to elicit a Yes or No answer, as in example
below. Note that a nominal scale is used to elicit the response.
Example 9.1
Do you own a car? Yes No
1. Rating Scales
Dichotomous scale 1.2 Category Scale
Category scale The category scale uses multiple items to elicit a single response as per the
Likert scale following example. This also uses nominal scale.
Numerical scales
Semantic differential scale
Itemized rating scale Example 9.2
Fixed or constant sum rating scale Where in northern California do you reside? ____North Bay
Stapel scale ____ South Bay
Graphic rating scale ____East Bay
Consensus scale ____Peninsula
____Other

Chapter 9: Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity

1.3. Likert Scale 1.4 Semantic Differential Scale

The Likert scale is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree Several bipolar attributes at the identified at the extremes of the scale, and
or disagree with statements on a 5-point scale with the following anchors: respondents are asked to indicate their attitudes, on what may be called a
semantic space, toward a particular individual, object, or event on each of the
attributes. The bipolar adjectives used, for instance, would employ such terms
as Good---Bad; Strong—weak; Hot—Cold. The responses can be plotted to
obtain a good idea of their perceptions. This is treated as an interval scale.
Example 9.4
The responses over a number of items tapping a particular concept or
variable (as per the following example) are then summated for every
respondent. This is an interval scale and the differences in the responses
between any two points on the scale remain the same.

Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity
Chapter 9: 1.6 Itemized Rating Scale
A 5-point or 7-point scale with anchors, as needed, is provided for each item and
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity the respondent states the appropriate number on the side of each item, or circles
the relevant number against each item. The responses to the items are then
1.5. Numerical Scale summated. This uses an interval scale.
The numerical scale is similar to the semantic differential scale, with the Example 9.6 (i)
difference that numbers on a 5-point or 7-point scale are provided, with bipolar Respond to each item using the scale below, and indicate your response number
adjectives at both ends, as illustrated below. This is also an interval scale. on the line by each item.

Example 9.5
How pleased are you with your new real estate agent?
1. I will be changing my job within the next 12 months. -------
Extremely Extremely 2. I will take on new assignments in the near future. --------
Pleased 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Displeased 3. It is possible that I will be out of this organization within
the next 12 months. --------

Note that the above is a balanced rating scale with a neutral point.
 Chapter 9: Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity
Example 9.6 (ii) 1.7 Fixed or Constant Sum Scale
Circle the number that is closest to how you feel for item below. The respondents are here asked to distribute a given number of points
across various items as per the example below. This is more in the nature of
an ordinal scale.
Example 9.7
In choosing a toilet soap, indicate the importance you attach to each of the
following five aspects by allotting points for each to total 100 in all.
How would you rate your interest in 1 2 3 4 Fragrance ____
Changing current organizational policies? Color ____
Shape ____
Size ____
This is an unbalanced rating scale which does not have a neutral point. Texture of lather ____
______________________
Total Points 100

Chapter 9: Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity

1.9 Graphic Rating Scale

A graphical representation helps the respondents to indicate on this
1.8 Stapel Scale scale their answers to a particular question by placing a mark at the
This scale simultaneously measures both the direction and intensity
appropriate point on the line, as in the following example. This is an
of the attitude toward the items under study. The characteristic of interest
ordinal scale, though it might appear to make it look like an interval
to the study is placed at the corner and a numerical scale ranging, say, from
scale.
+3 to -3, on either side of the item as illustrated below. This gives an idea of
how close or distant the individual response to the stimulus is, as shown in
the example below. Since this does not have an absolute zero point, this is Example 9.9
an interval scale. 10 Excellent
On a scale of 1 to 10,
how would you rate 5 All right
your supervisor?
1 Very bad

Chapter 9: Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity

Example 9.8 1.10. Consensus Scale

Scales are also developed by consensus, where a panel of judges selects
certain items, which in its view measure the relevant concept. The items are
State how you would rate your supervisor’s abilities with respect to
chosen particularly based on their pertinence or relevance to the concept. One
each of the characteristics mentioned below, by circling the appropriate
number. such consensus scale is the Thurstone Equal Appearing Interval Scale,
+3 +3 +3 where a concept is measured by a complex process followed by a panel of
+2 +2 +2 judges. Using a pile of cards containing several descriptions of the concept, a
+1 +1 +1 panel of judges offers inputs to indicate how close or not the statements are to
Adopting Modern Product Interpersonal the concept under study. The scale is then developed based on the consensus
Technology Innovation Skills reached.
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
 Chapter 9: Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity

1.11. Other Scales 2.1 Paired Comparison

There are also some advanced scaling methods such as multidimensional The paired comparison scale is used when, among a small number of
objects, respondents are asked to choose between two objects at a time. This
scaling, where objects, people, or both, are visually scaled, and a conjoint helps to assess preferences. If, for instance, in the previous example, during
analysis is performed. This provides a visual image of the relationships in the paired comparisons, respondents consistently show a preference for
space among the dimensions of a construct. product one over products two, three, and four, the manager reliably
2. Ranking Scales understands which product line demands his utmost attention. However, as
Ranking scales are used to tap preferences between two or among more the number of objects to be compared increases, so does the number of
objects or items (ordinal in nature). paired comparisons. Hence paired comparison is a good method if the
number of stimuli presented is small.

Chapter 9: Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity
2.2 Forced Choice 2.3 Comparative Scale
The forced choice enables respondents to rank objects relative to one The comparative scale provides a benchmark or a point of reference to
another, among the alternatives provided. This is easier for the respondents, assess attitudes towards the current object, event, or situation under study.
particularly if the number of choices to be ranked is limited in number. An example of the use of comparative scale follows.
Example 9.10 Example 9.11
Rank the following magazines that you would like to subscribe to in the In a volatile financial environment, compared to stocks, how wise or useful is
order of preference, it to invest in Treasury bonds? Please circle the appropriate response.
assignment 1 for the most preferred choice and 5 for the least preferred. ________________________________________________________________
More Useful About the Same Less Useful
Fortune ____ 1 2 3 4 5
Playboy ____ ________________________________________________________________
Time ____ Rating scales are used to measure most behavioral concepts. Ranking scales
People ____ are used to make comparisons or rank the variables that have been tapped on
Prevention ____ a nominal scale.

Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity
3. Goodness of Measures
It is important to make sure that the instrument that the instrument that we
develop to measure a particular concept is instrument that we develop to
4. Reliability
measures a particular concept is indeed accurately measuring the variable,
The reliability of a measure indicates the extent to which it is without bias
and that in fact, we are actually measuring the concept that we set out to (error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across
measure. This ensures that in operationally defining perceptual and the various items in the instrument. In other words, the reliability of a
attitudinal variables, we have not overlooked some important dimensions and measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with which the
elements or included some irrelevant ones. instrument measures the concept and helps to assess the “goodness” of a
3.1. Item Analysis measure.
Item analysis is done to see if the items in the instrument belong there or not. 4.1 Stability of Measures
Each item is examined for its ability to discriminate between those subjects The ability of a measure to remain the same over time—despite uncontrollable
whose total scores are high, and those will low scores. In item analysis, the testing conditions or the state of the respondents themselves—is indicative of
means between the high-score group and the low-score group are tested to its stability and low vulnerability to changes in the situation. This attests to its
detect significant differences through the t-values. The items with a high t- “goodness” because the concept is stably measured, no matter when it is done.
value (test which is able to identify the highly discriminating items in the Two tests of stability are test-retest reliability and parallel-form reliability.
instrument) are then included in the instrument.
Diagram 9.1
Testing Goodness of Measures: Forms of Reliability and Validity.
Test-retest reliability
Chapter 9:
Stability Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity
Parallel-form reliability
Reliability
(accuracy in
measurement) Interitem consistency reliability

Goodness
Consistency 4.2 Test-Retest Reliability
Split-half reliability
of data The reliability coefficient obtained with a repetition of the same measure on
a second occasion is called test-retest reliability. That is, when a
Validity questionnaire is administered to a set of respondents now, and again to the
(are we same respondents, says several weeks to 6 months later, then the correlation
measuring
the right between the scores obtained at the two different times from one and the
thing?) same set of respondents is called the test-retest coefficient. The higher it is,
the better the test-retest reliability, and consequently, the stability of the
measure across time.
Logical validity Criterion-related Congruent validity
(content) validity (construct)

Face validity Predictive Concurrent Convergent Discriminant

Chapter 9: Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity
4.3 Parallel-Form Reliability a. Interitem Consistency Reliability
When responses on two comparable sets of measures tapping the same This is a test of the consistency of respondents’ answers to all the items in a
construct are highly correlated, we have parallel-form reliability. Both forms measure. To the degree that items are independent measures of the same
have similar items and the same response format, the only changes being the concept, they will be correlated with one another. The most popular test of
wordings and the order or sequence of the questions. What we try to interitem consistency reliability is the Cronbach’s coefficient alpha
establish here is the error variability resulting from wording and ordering of (Cronbach’s alpha; Cronbach, 1946), which is used for multipoint-scaled
the questions. If two such comparable forms are highly correlated the items, and the Kuder-Richardson formulas (Kuder & Richardson, 1937),
used for dichotomous items. The higher the coefficients, the better the
measures are reasonably reliable.
measuring instrument.
4.4 Internal Consistency of Measures b. Split-Half Reliability
The internal consistency of measures is indicative of the homogeneity of the
Split-half reliability reflects the correlations between two halves of an
items in the measure that tap the construct. In other words, the items should
instrument. The estimates would vary depending on how the items in the
“hang together as a set,” and be capable of independently measuring the measure are split into two halves. Split-half reliabilities could be higher than
same concept so that the respondents attach the same overall meaning to Cronbach’s alpha only in the circumstance of there being more than one
each of the items. This can be seen by examining if the items and the subsets underlying response dimension tapped by the measure and when certain
of items in the measuring instruments are correlated highly. Consistency can other conditions are met as well. Hence, in almost all cases, Cronbach’s alpha
be examined through the inter-item consistency reliability and split-half can be considered a perfectly adequate index of the interitem consistency
reliability tests. reliability.

Chapter 9:
Chapter 9: Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity
5.2 Criterion-Related Validity
5. Validity Criterion-related validity is established when the measure differentiates
Several types of validity tests are used to test the goodness of measures and individuals on a criterion it is expected to predict. This can be done by
writers use different terms to denote them. For the sake of clarity, we may establishing con-current validity or predictive validity, as explained below.
Concurrent validity is established when the scale discriminates individuals who
content validity,
group validity tests under three broad headings: are known to be different; that is, they should score differently on the
criterion-related validity, and construct validity. instrument as in the example that follows.
5.1 Content Validity 5.3 Construct Validity
Content validity ensures that the measure includes an adequate and Construct validity testifies to how well the results obtained from the use of the
representative set of items that tap the concept. The more the scale items measure fit the theories around which the test is designed. This is assessed
represent the domain or universe of the concept being measured, the greater through convergent and discriminant validity, which are explained below.
the content validity. To put it differently, content validity is a function of how Convergent validity is established when the scores obtained with two different
instruments measuring the same concept are highly correlated.
well the dimensions and elements of a concept have been delineated.
Discriminant Validity is established when, based on theory, two variables are
Face validity is considered by some as a basic and a very minimum index of
predicted to be uncorrelated, and the scores obtained by measuring them are
content validity. Face validity indicates that the items that are intended to
indeed empirically found to be so.
measure a concept, do on the face of it look like they measure the concept.
 Chapter 9:
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability, Validity

Table 9.1 Types of Validity

Validity Description
Content validity Does the measure adequately measure the concept?
Face validity Do “experts” validate that the instrument measures what its
name suggests it measure?
Criterion-related validity Does the measure differentiate in a manner that helps to
predict a criterion variable?
Concurrent validity Does the measure differentiate in a manner that helps to
predict a criterion variable currently?
Predictive validity Does the measure differentiate individuals in a manner as to
help predict a future criterion?
Construct validity Does the instrument tap the concept as theorized?
Convergent validity Does the measure have low correlation with a variable
That is supposed to be unrelated to this variable?