What is a computer?

A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its
own memory, stores, and processes data to produce information
The forms of information processed
include:
▪ Data – e.g. invoices, payroll etc.
▪ Text – widely available in many offices
▪ Graphics – e.g. business graphs, symbols
▪ Images – e.g. pictures
▪ Voice – e.g. telephone

Why use computers?

The advantages include:

The following are the features that make a computer a good tool for
information processing.

a) Types of information: Computers can process many types of

information e.g. Data, texts, voice, pictorial etc.

b) Speed: It works at a very high speed in taking in data and outputting the
information.

c) Storage: It is able to store large amount of information in manageable

form.

d) Communications: Advances in telecommunications has made it possible

for computers to communicate with one another over long distances to
exchange information with seconds.

e) Accuracy: It is very accurate in its processing.

f) Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions, computers
will produce exactly the same answer every time that particular process is
repeated.

g) Retrieval: The information stored in the computer can be retrieved by

more than one person.

h) Updating of information: It is possible to change stored information

without having to retype.

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 Disadvantages of using computers

1. Job Displacement:
Use of computers mean atomization, which means loss of jobs especially
the ones involving routine tasks.
2. Workers health
Computer emits radioactive particles, which are very hazardous to human
health theory risking the lives of the users.
Computer VDU’s are not good for the eyes (eye strain). It is therefore
not advisable for a user to continuously stay in front of a computer for
more than two hours without stop.
Repetitive strain injury (RSI) – This is the disorder of the arms and wrists
caused by use of keyboard for long stretches of times without breaks.

4. Social activities: A high percentage of people who sit at their computer

for too long and some people lose reality as far as social activities and
learning social skills. Computers can distract a person so much they lose
contact with the reality around them such as taking time with family,
friends and children.
5. Creativity: Being on the computer too much takes away the imagination,
though some gain more imaginations as used in advertising, simulations
and digital imagery.
6. Immorality: the internet opens up to pornographic sites and other
information.
7. Crime: Internet crime has been reported to be on the increase and every
day more crime is committed through the Internet.
8. Misinformation: More misinformation by SOME people on the Internet
can cause problems for the younger generation.
9. Privacy: - It's possible to know someone well over the Internet. E.g on
www.facebook.com
10. Spam mail: - this is unsolicited mail which is often annoying.
11. Hackers can ruin your computer system and data over the internet.
12. Virus spreading hence leading to million looses.

COMPUTER VIRUSES
A computer virus is a program that has the ability to reproduce/replicate
itself without the user’s knowledge. For example, it may attach itself to
the program FORMAT and run every time you format a flash disk.

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 EFFECTS OF VIRUSES:
 A virus can destroy/delete or corrupt data e.g. those on specific
applications such as all Excel files or all word files e.g. Sircam worm
deletes data.
 Display irritating message, or otherwise disrupt computer operations.
Most viruses stay in your PC’s memory where they can cause problems
by interfering with other software you are trying to run.
 Disable hardware, making the computer unusable.
 It can perform dangerous operations like formatting the hard disk.
 It consumes the disk space, memory and wastes the processor time.
 Once you have a virus, it is very likely that you will pass it on to a
colleague or a customer, who may well lose confidence in you and your
company.

TYPES OF VIRUSES:
File viruses:
A file virus infects the executable program files on your computer
system. These usually, but not always, have COM or EXE file
extensions. When you run an infected program, your computer also runs
the attached virus instructions to replicate .
Boot Sector Viruses
These infect the system files your computer uses every time you turn it
on. The boot sector is the part of every hard disk, which is read by the
computer every time you start it up.
Companion Viruses
If you have a COM file and an EXE file of the same name, Dos always
runs the COM file in preference to the EXE file is not file extension is
given. Companion viruses make use of this fact by creating COM files
with the same name as the legitimate EXE files, thus ensuring they are
executed. They then pass control to the original EXE file which runs
normally.
Symptoms of the Viruses
 Your computer displays annoying messages such as “Gotcha! Arf Arf!
“You are stoned”
 Your computer develops unusual visual or sound effects. For example,
characters begin to disappear from your screen or the sound of a flushing
toilet comes for your computer’s speakers.
 You have difficulty saving files.
 Your computer suddenly seems to work very slowly.
 Files are mysteriously missing.
 Your computer reboots unexpectedly.
 Your executable files unaccountably increases in size.

Control/Avoidance and Detection

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  Avoid using high-risk disks programs e.g. disks containing public
domain software or shareware and on disks containing illegal copies of
computer programs downloaded form bulletin boards. You must use a
virus detection program to check for viruses before you run any
programs from such disks.
 Use of virus detection program/anti-virus programs which examines the
files stored on a disk to determine if they are infected with a virus, then
disinfects the disk, if necessary.
 Backups – make regular backups of your system.
 Write-protect all boot diskettes. Viruses cannot infect manually
protected diskette.

Computer application areas

S T U D YT E X T
Some of the areas that computers are used include:
• Communication – digital communication using computers is
popular and is being adopted worldwide as opposed to
analogue communication using the telephony system. Computers
have also enhanced communication through email
communication, electronic data interchange, electronic funds
transfer, Internet etc.

• Banking – the banking sector has incorporated computer

systems in such areas as credit analysis, fund transfers,
customer relations, automated teller machines, home banking,
and online banking.
• Science, research and engineering – Computers are used:
o as research tools and in carrying out
complex computations
o for simulation e.g. outer-space
simulations, flight simulations
o as diagnostic and monitoring tools.
o for computerized maps using global positioning satellite (GPS) technology
o for modern mass production methods in the auto industry
using computer driven technology.
• Education – computers incorporate databases of information
that are useful in organising and disseminating educational
resources. Such e-learning and virtual or distributed
classrooms have enabled the teaching industry to have a global
reach to students. Computers are also used for marking uniform
tests done in schools, school administration and computer aided
instructions.

• Manufacturing and production – computer aided design

(CAD), computer integrated manufacturing (CIM), process

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 control systems among other technologies are among computer
systems that have revolutionised the production industry. CAD
and CIM are generic terms applied to the development and
design of systems to support design work and to control
manufacturing operations.

• Entertainment – use of computers in the entertainment industry

has increased tremendously over the years. Computers enable
high-quality storage of motion pictures and music files using
high-speed and efficient digital storage devices such as CDs,
VCDs and DVDs. The Internet is also a great source of
entertainment resources. Computer games have also become a
major source of entertainment.

• Retailing – computers are used in point of sale systems and

credit card payment systems as well as stock inventories.

• Home appliances – computers (especially embedded computers

or microprocessors) are included in household items for reasons
of economy and efficiency of such items. Major appliances such
as microwave ovens, clothes washers, refrigerators and sewing
machines are making regular use of microprocessors.

• Reservation systems – guest booking, accommodation and

bills accounting using computers in hotels have made the
process to be more efficient and faster. Airline computer
reservation systems have also enhanced and streamlined air
travel across major airlines. Major players in the industry
have also adopted online reservation systems.

• Health care and medicine – computers have played such an

important role in the growth and improvement of health care that
the use of computers in medicine has become a medical
specialty in itself. Computers are used in such areas as
maintenance of patient records, medical insurance systems,
medical diagnosis and patient monitoring.

History of Computers

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 • 1870s: Development of the typewriter allows speedier
communication and less copying.

• 1920s: Invention of the telephone enables both Wide Area

Networks (WAN) and Local Area Networks (LAN)
communication in real time. This marks the beginning of
telecommunication.

• 1930s: Use of scientific management is made available to

analyse and rationalise data.

• 1940s: Mathematical techniques developed in World War II

(operations research) are applied to the decisionmaking process.

• 1950s: Introduction of copying facilitates cheap and faster

document production, and the (limited) introduction of
Electronic Data Processing (EDP) speeds up large scale
transaction processing.

• 1960s: Emergence of Management Information Systems (MIS)

provides background within which office automation can
develop.

• 1970s: Setting up of telecommunication networks to allow for

distant communication between computer systems. There is
widespread use of word processors in text editing and formatting,
advancement in personal computing - emergence of PCs.
Use of spreadsheets.

• 1980s: Development of office automation technologies that

combine data, text, graphics and voice. Development of DSS,
EIS and widespread use of personal productivity software.

• 1990s: Advanced groupware; integrated packages, combining

most of the office work- clerical, operational as well as
management.

• 2000s: Wide spread use of Internet and related technology

in many spheres of organisations including electronic
commerce (e-commerce), e-learning, and e-health

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 Classification of computers

Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:

Classification by processing

This is based on how the computer represents and processes the data:

a) Digital computers are computers which process data that is

represented in the form of discrete values by operating on it in
steps. Digital computers process data represented in the form of
discrete values like 0, 1, 2. They are used for both business data
processing and scientific purposes since digital computation
results in greater accuracy.

b) Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and

process-controlled purposes. Outputs are represented in the form

S T U D Y
of graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by
physical variables and output physical magnitudes in the form
of smooth graphs.

c) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined

features of digital and analog computers. They offer an efficient
and economical method of working out special problems in
science and various areas of engineering.

Classification by purpose
This is a classification based on the use to which the computer is put.

a) Special purpose computers are used for a certain specific

function e.g. in medicine, engineering and manufacturing.

b) General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of

tasks e.g. accounting and word processing

Classification by generation
This is a time-based classification coinciding with technological advances.
The computers are categorised as First generation through to Fifth generation.

a) First generation. These were computers of the early 1940s.

They used a circuitry of wires and were vacuum tubes.

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 Produced a lot of heat, took a lot of space, were very slow and
expensive. Examples are LEO 1 and UNIVAC
b) Second generation. These were computers of the early 1950s.
Made use of transistors and thus were smaller and faster.
(200KHz). Examples include the IBM system 1000.

c) Third generation. These were computers of the 1960s. They

made use of Integrated Circuits. They had speeds of up to
1MHz. Examples include the IBM system 360.

d) Fourth generation. These were computers of the 1970s and

1980s. They used Large Scale Integration (LSI) technology. They
had speeds of up to 10MHz. Examples include the IBM 4000
series.

e) Fifth generation. These were computers of the 1990s. They

used very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology and had
speeds of up to 400MHz and above.

Classification by power and size/ configuration

a) Supercomputers. These are the largest and most powerful.
Used to process large amounts of data very quickly. Useful for
meteorological or astronomical applications. Examples include
Cray and Fujitsu.

b) Mainframe computers. Large computers in terms of price,

power and size. Require a carefully controlled environment
and specialist staff to operate them. Used for centralised
processing for large commercial organisations. Manufacturers
include International Business Machine (IBM).

c) Minicomputers. Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere

between mainframes and microcomputers. Used as
S T U D Y

departmental computers in large organisations or as the main

computer in medium-sized organisations. Manufacturers of
minicomputers include IBM and International Computer Limited
(ICL).

d) Microcomputers. These are the personal computers commonly

used for office and leisure activities. Examples include
Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell. They include
desktops, laptops and palmtops.

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COMPUTER HARDWARE

These are the physical or tangible components of a computer system. They perform five functions including;
input, output, storage, processing and communication.

INPUT DEVICES
Input is any data or instructions you enter into the memory of a computer. Once input is in memory, the
CPU can access it and process the input into output. Four types of input are data, programs, commands, and
user responses:

An input device is any hardware component that allows you to enter data, programs, commands, and user
responses into a computer. Input devices include the keyboard, pointing devices, scanners and reading
devices, digital cameras, audio and video input devices, and input devices for physically challenged users

THE KEYBOARD
You enter data into a computer by pressing the keys on the keyboard. Desktop computer keyboards usually
have from 101 to 105 keys, while keyboards for smaller computers such as laptops contain fewer keys. A
computer keyboard includes keys that allow you to type letters of the alphabet, numbers, spaces, punctuation
marks, and other symbols such as the dollar sign ($) and asterisk (*). A keyboard also contains special keys
that allow you to enter data and instructions into the computer.

Function keys are special keys programmed to issue commands and accomplish certain tasks. Keyboards also
contain keys that can be used to position the insertion point on the screen. The insertion point is a symbol
that indicates where on the screen the next character you type will display .Many of the newer keyboards
includes buttons that allow you to access your CD/DVD drive and adjust speaker volume.

POINTING DEVICES
A pointing device is an input device that allows you to control a pointer on the screen. In a graphical user
interface, a pointer is a small symbol on the display screen. A pointer often takes the shape of a block arrow,
an I-beam (T) or a pointing hand. Using a pointing device, you can position the pointer to move or select
items on the screen. For example, you can use a pointing device to move the insertion point; select text,
graphics, and other objects; and click buttons, icons, links, and menu commands.

Common pointing devices include the mouse, trackball, touchpad, pointing stick, joystick, touch screen, light
pen, and graphics tablet.

Trackball
Some users opt for alternative pointing devices other than a mouse, such as a trackball. Whereas a
mechanical mouse has a ball mechanism on the bottom, a trackball is a stationary pointing device with a ball
mechanism on its top.

Touchpad
A touchpad or trackpad is a small, flat, rectangular pointing device that is sensitive to pressure and motion.
To move the pointer using a touchpad, you slide your fingertip across the surface of the pad. Some
touchpads have one or more buttons around the edge of the pad that work like mouse buttons; on others,
you tap the pad’s surface to simulate mouse operations such as clicking.
Stick
A pointing stick is a pressure-sensitive pointing device shaped like a pencil eraser that was first developed by
IBM for its laptop computers. Because of its small size, the pointing stick is positioned between keys on the
keyboard. To move the pointer using a pointing stick, you push the pointing stick with your finger. The
pointer on the screen moves in the direction that you push the pointing stick.

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Joystick
Users running game software such as a driving or flight simulator may prefer to use a joystick as their
pointing device. A joystick is a vertical lever mounted on a base. You move the lever in different directions to
control the actions of a vehicle or player. The lever usually includes buttons called triggers that you can press
to activate certain events. Some joysticks also have additional buttons that you can set to perform other
actions.
Touch Screen
A monitor that has a touch-sensitive panel on the screen is called a touch screen. You interact with the
computer by touching areas of the screen with your finger, which acts as an input device. Because they
require a lot of arm movements, touch screens are not used to enter large amounts of data. Instead you
touch words, pictures, numbers, or locations identified on the screen.
Pen Input
Many input devices use an electronic pen instead of a keyboard or mouse for input. Some of these devices
require you to point to onscreen objects with the pen; others allow you to input data using drawings,
handwriting, and other symbols that are written with the pen on a surface.

LIGHT PEN
A light pen is a handheld input device that contains a light source or can detect light. Some light pens
require a specially designed monitor, while others work with a standard monitor. Instead of touching the
screen with your finger to interact with the computer, you press the light pen against the surface of the
screen or point the light pen at the screen and then press a button on the pen. Light pens are used in
applications where desktop space is limited such as in the health-care field or when a wide variety of people
use the application, such as electronic voting.

GRAPHICS TABLET
A graphics tablet, also called a digitizer or digitizing tablet, consists of a flat, rectangular, electronic plastic
board used to input drawings, sketches, or other graphical data. Each location on the graphics tablet
corresponds to a specific location on the screen. When you draw on the tablet with either an electronic pen
or a puck, the tablet detects and converts the movements into digital signals that are sent into the computer.

SCANNERS AND READING DEVICES

These devices capture data from a source document, which is the original form of the data. When using a
keyboard or pointing device to enter data, the source document might be a timecard, order blank, invoice, or
any other document that contains data to be processed.

Devices that capture data directly from source documents include optical scanners, optical character
recognition devices, optical mark recognition devices, bar code scanners, and magnetic-ink character
recognition readers. Examples of source documents used with these devices include advertisements,
brochures, photographs, inventory tags

Optical Scanner
An optical scanner, usually simply called a scanner, is a light-sensing input device that reads printed text and
graphics and then translates the results into a form the computer can use. The density of the dots, known as
the resolution, determines sharpness and clearness of the resulting image. Resolution typically is measured in
dots per inch (dpi), and is stated as the number of columns and rows of dots

OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION

Optical character recognition (OCR) is a technology that involves reading typewritten, computer-printed, or
handwritten characters from-ordinary documents and translating the images into a form that the computer
can understand. Most OCR devices include a small optical scanner for reading characters and sophisticated
software for analyzing what is read.

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Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
Optical mark recognition (OMR) devices read hand-drawn marks such as small circles or rectangles. A person
places these marks on a form, such as test, survey, or questionnaire answer sheet

Bar Code Scanners

A bar code scanner uses laser beams to read bar codes (Figure 3-4). A bar code scanner is an identification
code that consists of a set of vertical lines and spaces of different widths. The bar code, which represents
some data that identifies the item, is printed on a product’s package or on a label that is affixed to a product
so it can be read by a bar code scanner. The bar code scanner uses light patterns form the bar code lines to
identify the item.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition Reader

Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR) reader is used to read text printed with magnetized ink. MICR is
used almost exclusively by the banking industry for check processing. Each check in your checkbook has
precoded MICR characters on the lower-left edge; these characters represent the bank number, your account
number, and the check number.
DIGITAL CAMERAS
A digital camera allows you to take pictures and store the photographed images digitally instead of on
traditional film. With some digital cameras, you download, or transfer a copy of, the stored pictures to your
computer by connecting a cable between the digital camera and your computer and using special software
included with the camera. With other digital cameras, the pictures are stored directly on storage media such
as a floppy disk, PC Card, or flash card
Audio Input
Audio input is the process of entering (recording) music, speech, or sound effects. To record high quality
sound, your personal computer must have a sound card. (Most new computers today come equipped with a
sound card.) Sound is entered via a device such as a microphone, tape player, or audio CD player, each of
which plugs into a port on the sound card. External MIDI devices such as an electric piano keyboard also can
connect to the sound card for audio input.
Speech Recognition
Another use for a microphone is speech recognition. Speech recognition, also called voice recognition, is the
computer’s capability of distinguishing spoken words. Speech recognition programs do not understand
speech; they only recognize a vocabulary of certain words. The vocabulary of speech recognition programs
can range from two words (such as Yes and No) to more than sixty thousand words.
Video Input
Video input or video capture is the process of entering a full-motion recording into a computer and storing
the video on a hard disk or some other medium. To capture video, you plug a video camera, VCR, or other
video device into a video capture card, which is an expansion card that converts the analog video signal into a
digital signal that a computer can understand. (Most new computers are not equipped with a video capture
card.) Once the video device is connected to the video capture card, you can begin recording. After you save
the video on a hard disk, you can play it or edit it using video-editing software.
Videoconferencing
A videoconference is a meeting between two or more geographically separated individuals who use a network
or the Internet to transmit audio and video data. To participate in a videoconference, you must have a
microphone, speakers, and a video camera mounted on your computer. As you speak, members of the
meeting hear your voice on their speakers. Any image in front of the video camera, such as a person’s face,
displays in a window on each participant’s screen.

OUTPUT DEVICES

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WHAT IS OUTPUT?

Output is data that has been processed into a useful form called information. That is, a computer processes
input into output. Computers generate several types of output, depending on the hardware and software
being used and the requirements of the user. You may choose to display or view this output on a monitor,
print it on a printer, or listen to it through speakers or a headset. Four common types of output are text,
graphics, audio, and video.

An output device is any computer component capable of conveying information to a user. Commonly used
output devices include display devices, printers, speakers, headsets, data projectors, facsimile machines, and
multifunction devices
1. PRINTERS

A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper or
transparency film. Printed information is called hard copy because the information exists physically and is a
more permanent form of output than that presented on a display device (soft copy).Hard copy, also called a
printout, can be printed in portrait or landscape orientation.

Generally, printers can be grouped into two categories: impact and no impact. Printers in each of these
categories are discussed in the following sections.
I. Impact Printers
An impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper by striking a mechanism against an
ink ribbon that physically contacts the paper. Because of the striking activity, impact printers generally are
noisy. Many impact printers do not provide letter quality print.

Impact printers also are ideal for printing multipart forms because they easily can print through many layers
of paper. Finally, impact printers are used in many factories and at retail counters because they can
withstand dusty environments, vibrations, and extreme temperatures.

Two commonly used types of impact printers are dot-matrix printers and line printers. Each of these
printers is discussed in the following sections.

Dot-matrix printers
A dot-matrix printer is an impact printer that produces printed images when tiny wire pins on a print
head mechanism strike an inked ribbon. When the ribbon presses against the paper, it creates dots that form
characters and graphics. Most dot-matrix printers use continuous-form paper, in which each sheet of paper is
connected together. The pages generally have holes punched along two opposite sides so the paper can be fed
through the printer
Line Printer
A line printer is a high-speed impact printer that prints an entire line at a time. The speed of a line printer
is measured by the number of lines per minute (1pm) it can print. Capable of printing up to 3,000 lines per
minute (1pm), these printers often are used with mainframes, minicomputers, or with a network in
applications such as manufacturing, distribution, or shipping.
II. Non-impact Printers
A non-impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper without actually striking the

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paper. Some spray ink, while others use heat and pressure to create images. Because these printers do not
strike the paper, they are much quieter than the previously discussed impact printers.

Three commonly used types of non-impact printers are ink-jet printers, laser printers, and thermal printers.
Each of these printers is discussed in the following sections.

Inkjet printers
An ink-jet printer is a type of non-impact printer that forms characters and graphics by spraying tiny drops
of liquid ink onto a piece of paper. Ink-jet printers usually use individual sheets of paper stored in a
removable or stationary tray. These printers can produce letter-quality text and graphics in both black-and-
white and color on various materials such as envelopes, labels.

Laser printers
A laser printer is a high-speed, high-quality no impact printer. Laser printers for personal computers usually
use individual sheets of paper stored in a removable tray that slides into the printer case. Some laser printers
have trays that can accommodate different sizes of paper, while others require separate trays for letter- and
legal-sized paper. Most laser printers have a manual feed slot where you can insert individual sheets and
envelopes. You also can print transparencies on a laser printer.

Laser printers can print text and graphics in very high quality resolutions, ranging from 600 dpi to 1,200 dpi.
While laser printers typically cost more than ink-jet printers, they also are much faster, printing text at
speeds of four to thirty pages per minute.

Thermal printers
A thermal printer generates images by pushing electrically heated pins against heat-sensitive paper. Standard
thermal printers are inexpensive, but the print quality is low and the images tend to fade over time. Thermal
printers are, however, ideal for use in small devices such as adding machines.
III. Portable Printers

A portable printer is a small, lightweight printer that allows a mobile user to print from a laptop or
handheld computer while travelling. Barely wider than the paper on which they print, portable printers
easily can fit in a briefcase alongside a laptop computer.

IV. Plotters and Large-Format Printers

Plotters and large-format printers are sophisticated printers used to produce high-quality drawings such as
blueprints, maps, circuit diagrams, and signs. Because blueprints, maps, and other such drawings can be quite
large, these printers typically can handle paper with widths up to 60 inches. Some plotters and large-format
printers use individual sheets of paper, while others take large rolls. These printers are used in specialized
fields such as engineering, drafting, and graphic art and usually are very costly.

Two basic types of plotters are pen plotters and electrostatic plotters. A pen plotter uses one or more color
pen light beams, or a scribing device to draw on paper or transparencies. Pen plotters differ from other
printers in that they produce continuous lines, whereas most printers generate lines by printing a closely
spaced series of dots.

An electrostatic plotter uses a row of charged wires (called styli) to draw an electrostatic pattern on specially
coated paper and then fuses toner to the pattern. The printed image is composed of a series of very small
dots, which provide high-quality output.

2. DISPLAY DEVICES

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A display device is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics, and video information. Information
shown on a display device often is called soft copy, because the information exists electronically and is
displayed for a temporary period of time.

CRT Monitors
A CRT monitor, or monitor, is a display device that consists of a screen housed in a plastic or metal case. A
color monitor displays text, graphics, and video information in color.

Monitors that display only one color are considered monochrome. A monochrome monitor displays text,
graphics, and video information in one color (usually white, amber, or green) on a black background

Monochrome monitors are less expensive than color monitors. Most monitors are referred to by their
viewable size, which is the diagonal measurement of the cathode ray tube inside the monitor and is larger
than the actual viewing area provided by the monitor.

LCD displays
LCD displays commonly are used in laptop computers, handheld computers, digital watches,’ and calculators
because they are thinner and more lightweight than CRT monitors.

Gas Plasma Monitors

For even larger displays, some large business or power users prefer gas plasma monitors, which can measure
more than 42 inches and hang directly on a wall

MONITOR QUALITY
The quality of a monitor’s display depends largely on its resolution, dot pitch, and refresh rate. The
resolution, or sharpness and clarity, of a monitor is related directly to the number of pixels it can display.
Resolution is expressed as two separate numbers: the number of columns of pixels and the number of rows
of pixels a monitor can display. A monitor with a higher resolution displays a greater number of pixels, which
provides a smoother image.
Another factor that determines monitor quality is dot pitch, which is a measure of image clarity. The dot
pitch is the vertical distance between each pixel on a monitor. The smaller the distance between the pixels,
the sharper the displayed image. Text created with a smaller dot pitch is easier to read. To minimize eye
fatigue, you should use a monitor with a dot pitch of .28 millimeters or smaller.
3. AUDIO OUTPUT (speakers, headsets)

Audio is music, speech, or any other sound. Audio output devices are the components of a computer that
produce music, speech, or other sounds, such as beeps. Two commonly used audio output devices are
speakers and headsets

To boost the low bass sounds, you can add a woofer (also called a subwoofer). The stereo speakers and
woofer are connected to ports on the sound card. Most speakers have tone and volume controls so you can
adjust these settings.

4. DATA PROJECTORS

A data projector takes the image that displays on a computer screen and projects it onto a screen so that
an audience of people can see the image clearly. Data projectors can be large devices attached to a ceiling or
wall in an auditorium, or they can be small portable devices Two types of smaller, lower-cost units are LCD
projectors and DLP projectors.

LCD projector

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An LCD projector, which uses liquid crystal display technology, attaches directly to a computer and uses its
own light source to display the information shown on the computer screen. Because LCD projectors tend to
produce lower-quality images, some users prefer to use a DLP projector for sharper, brighter images.

A digital light processing (DLP) projector uses tiny mirrors to reflect light; producing crisp, bright, colorful
images that remain in focus and can be seen clearly even in a well-lit room.
5. FACSIMILE (FAX) MACHINE

A facsimile (fax) machine is a device that transmits and receives documents over telephone lines. The
documents can contain text, drawings, or photographs, or can be handwritten. When sent or received via a
fax machine, these documents are known as faxes. A stand-alone fax machine scans the original document,
converts the image into digitized data, and transmits the digitized image. A fax machine at the receiving end
reads the incoming data, converts the digitized data into an image, and prints or stores a copy of the original
image.

Fax capability also can be added to your computer using a fax modem. A fax modem is a communications
device that allows you to send (and sometimes receive) electronic documents as faxes. A fax modem
transmits computer-prepared documents, such as a word processing letter, or documents that have been
digitized with a scanner or digital camera. A fax modem is like a regular modem except that it is designed to
transmit documents to a fax machine or to another fax modem.
6. VIDEO CARDS

To display color, a color monitor works in combination with a video card, which is included with today’s
personal computers. A video card, also called a graphics card or video adapter, converts digital output into an
analog video signal that is sent through a cable to the monitor. The monitor separates the video signal into
red, green, and blue signals. Electron guns then fire the three color signals to the front of the monitor. These
three dots - one red, one green, and one blue are combined to make up each single pixel.
The number of colors that a video card can display is determined by the number of bits it uses to store
information about each pixel

THE COMPONENTS IN THE SYSTEM UNIT

1. System Unit (CPU)

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) CONTROL UNIT (CU)

Performs basic arithmetic calculations selects and interprets program ins-
And logical comparisons tructions and then sees that they
are executed

REGISTERS
Used to hold information on a temporary basis

MAIN MEMORY
RAM and ROM

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

 Floppy disk
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 Hard disk
The system unit is a box-like case housing the electronic components of a computer that are used to process
data. System unit components include the processor, memory module, expansion cards, and ports and
connectors. Many components reside on a circuit board called the motherboard or system board. The
motherboard contains different types of chips, or small pieces of semi conducting material on which one or
more integrated circuits (IC) are etched. One of the more important chips is the central processing unit.
2. The Central Processing Unit

The system unit, sometimes referred to as the processor, interprets and carries out the basic instructions that
operate a computer. That is, most of the devices connected to the computer communicate with the CPU in
order to carry out a task. The CPU contains the control unit and the arithmetic/logic unit.

The Control Unit

The control unit, one component of the CPU, directs and coordinates most of the operations in the
computer. For every instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic operations called the machine
cycle

i.fetching the instruction or data item from memory;

ii.decoding the instruction into commands the computer understands;
iii.executing the commands, and, if necessary;
iv.storing, or writing, the result to memory.

Arithmetic/Logic unit
The arithmetic/logic unit, another component of the CPU, performs the arithmetic, comparison, and logical
operations. Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Comparison
operations involve comparing one data item to another to determine if the first item is greater than, equal to,
or less than the other item. Logical operations work with conditions and logical operators such as AND, OR,
and NOT
3. Registers
The CPU uses temporary storage locations called registers, to hold data and instructions. The function
include storing location of where instruction was fetched storing an instruction while it is being decoded,
storing data while the ALU processes it, and storing the results of a calculation.
4. Memory
In the system unit, a computer’s memory stores data, instructions, and information. Memory stores three
basic items: The operating system and other system software that control the usage of the computer
equipment; Application programs designed to carry out a specific task such as word processing; and The data
being processed by application programs.
RAM
RAM (random access memory) is a memory chip that the processor can read from and write to. RAM is
volatile memory, meaning that its contents are lost when the computer’s power is turned off. Multiple
programs can be loaded into RAM simultaneously, provided you have enough RAM to accommodate all the
programs. The program with which you are working currently displays on the screen. Basic types of RAM
include dynamic RAM and static RAM, RDRAM (Rambus DRAM), Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)

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ROM
ROM (read-only memory) is a memory chip that only can be read and used; that is, it cannot be modified.
ROM is non-volatile memory, meaning that its contents are not lost when the computer’s power is turned
off.

Commonly used for storing of program instructions, that are not subjected to change. Generally, they are
provided by manufacturer. ROM chips that contain permanently written data, instruction, or information are
called firmware. Another type of ROM chip, called programmable read only memory (PROM) clip, is a blank
ROM chip on which you can permanently place items. The instructions used to program a PROM chip are
called micro-code. Once the micro-code is programmed into the PROM chip, it functions like a regular ROM
chip and cannot be erased or changed.
Flash memory
Another type of non-volatile memory is called flash memory or flash ROM. Unlike a PROM clip that can be
programmed only once, flash memory can be erased electronically and reprogrammed. Flash memory is used
to store programs on personal computers, as well as cellular telephones, printers, digital cameras, pagers, and
personal digital assistant. Flash memory is available in sizes ranging from 1 to 40 MB.
CMOS
Another of memory clip in the memory unit is complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS). CMOS
memory is non-volatile memory used to store configuration information about the computer, such as the
type of disk drives, keyboard, and monitor; the current date and time; and other start-up information needed
when the computer is turned off. CMOS use battery power to retain information even when the power to
the computer is turn off. Battery-backed CMOS memory thus keeps the calendar, date, and time current even
when the computer power is off. Unlike ROM, information stored in CMOS memory can be changed, such as
when you change from standard time to daylight saving time
Expansion Slots and Expansion Boards
An expansion slot is an opening, or socket, where a circuit board can be inserted into the motherboard.
These circuit boards, sometimes referred to as expansion boards or expansion cards, add new devices or
capabilities to the computer, such as a modem or more memory. Plug and Play refers to a computer’s
capability to automatically configure expansion boards and other devices as they are installed.
Port
A cable often attaches external devices to the system unit. The interface or point of attachment, to the system
unit is called a port. Ports have different types of connectors used to join a cable to a device.
i) Serial Port
A serial port is one types of interface used to connect a devices to the system unit. Because a serial port
transmits only one bit of data at a time, it usually is used to connect devices that do not require fast data
transmission rates, such as a mouse, keyboard, or modem

ii) Parallel Port

Unlike serial port, a parallel port is an interface used to connect devices that are capable of transferring more
than one bit at a time. Parallel ports originally were developed as an alternative to the slower speed serial
ports.

Many printers connect to the system unit using a parallel port with a 25-pin female connector. This parallel
port can transfer eight bits of data simultaneously through eight separate lines in a single cable

Types of Processors

CISC Processors (Complex Instruction Set Computing)

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One of the earlier goals of CPU designers was to provide more and more instructions in the instruction set of
the CPU, to ensure it directly supports more features making it easier to translate high level language
programs to machine language and to ensure machine language programs run more effectively. However
every additional instruction in the instructions set of the CPU requires the necessary hardware circuitry to
handle such instructions, adding more complexity to CPU’s hardware circuitry.

Another goal of CPU designers was to optimize the usage of expensive memory, to achieve this they tried to
pack more instructions in the memory by introducing the concept of variable length instructions. CISC
processors possess many processing features whereby making the job of machine programmers easier. They
are complex and expensive to produce.

RISC Processors (Reduced Instruction Set Computing)

In early 1980 some CPU designers discovered that several of the instructions supported by CISC CPU’s are
rarely used hence came out with an idea that the complexity of the CPU design can be greatly reduced by
implementing only a bare minimum basic set of instructions plus some of the more frequently used
instructions in the hardware circuitry of the CPU. Other complex instruction did not need to be supported in
the instruction set in the CPU because they can always be implemented in software by using the basic set of
instructions.

The designers came up with the idea of making all instructions of uniform length so that the decoding and
execution of all instructions becomes simple and fast. This design resulted in producing a faster and less
expensive processor. They have a small instruction set thereby placing extra demand on programmers who
must consider how to implement complex computations by combining simple instructions. Due to a simple
design RISC processors are faster for most applications, less complex and less expensive to produce than
CISC processors.

MEMORY (STORAGE DEVICES)

While performing a processing operation, the CPU needs a place to temporarily hold instructions to be
executed and data to be used with those instructions. Memory, which is composed of one or more chips on
the motherboard, holds data and instructions while they are being processed by the CPU.

The two basic types of memory are volatile and non-volatile. The contents of volatile memory, such as RAM,
are lost (erased) when the power to the computer is turned off. The contents of non-volatile memory,
however, are not lost when power is removed from the computer. For example, once instructions have been
recorded onto a non-volatile ROM chip, they usually cannot be erased or changed, and the contents of the
chip are not erased when power is turned off.

SECONDARY STORAGE
Storage, also called secondary storage, auxiliary storage, or mass storage, holds items such as data,
instructions, and information for future use. Think of storage a filing cabinet used to hold file folders, and
memory as the top of your desk. When you need to work with a file, you remove it from the filing cabinet
(storage) and place it on your desk (memory). When you are finished with the file, you return it to the filing
cabinet (storage).

Storage is non-volatile, which means that items in storage are retained even when power is removed from the
computer. A storage medium (media is the plural) is the physical material on which items are kept. One
commonly used storage medium is a disk, which is a round, flat piece of plastic or metal with a magnetic
coating on which items can be written. A storage device is the mechanism used to record and retrieve items
to and from a storage medium.

The speed of a storage device is defined by its access time, which is the minimum time it takes the device to
locate a single item on a disk. Compared to memory, storage devices are slow.

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The size, or capacity, of a storage device, is measured by the number of bytes (characters)
1. FLOPPY DISKS
A floppy disk, or diskette, is a portable, inexpensive storage medium that consists of a thin, circular, flexible
plastic disk with a magnetic coating enclosed in a square-shaped plastic shell. When discussing a storage
medium, the term portable means you can remove the medium from one computer and carry it to another
computer. A floppy disk drive is a device that can read from and write to a floppy disk.
2. HARD DISKS
When personal computers were introduced, software programs and their related files required small
amounts of storage and fit easily on floppy disks. As software became more complex and included graphical
user interfaces and multimedia, file sizes and storage requirements increased. Today, hard disks - which
provide far larger storage capacities and much faster access times than floppy disks - are one of the primary
media for storing software programs and files. Current personal computer hard disks can store from 4 GB
and above of data, instructions, and information.

A hard disk usually consists of several inflexible, circular disks, called platters, on which items are stored
electronically.
3. COMPACT DISCS
A compact disc (CD) is a flat, round, portable, metal storage medium that usually is 4.75 inches in diameter
and less than one-twentieth of an inch thick (Figure 5-8). Compact disks store items such as data,
instructions, and information by using microscopic pits (indentations) and land (flat areas) that are in the
middle layer of the disc.
CD-ROMs
CD-ROM (pronounced SEE-DEE-Rom, is an abbreviation for compact disc read-only memory) The contents
of standard CD-ROMs are written, or recorded, by the manufacturer and only can be read and used. That is,
they cannot be erased or modified- hence, the name read-only. A CD-ROM can hold up to 700 MB of data,
instructions, and information, or about 450 times that which can be stored on a high-density 3.5-inch floppy
disk.
CD-R (compact disc-recordable)
Is a technology that allows you to write on a compact disc only once using your own computers? Once you
have recorded the CD-R, you can read from it as many times as you wish.
CD-RW (compact disc-rewriteable)
Is an erasable disc that you can write on multiple times CD-RW overcomes one of the disadvantages of CD-
R disks - that you can write on them only once.
DVD-ROMs
A DVD-ROM (digital video disc-ROM) is an extremely high capacity compact disc capable of storing from
4.7 GB to 17 GB - more than enough to hold a telephone book containing every resident in the United
States. Not only is the storage capacity of a DVD-ROM greater than a CD-ROM, a DVD-ROM’s quality also
far surpasses that of a CD-ROM.
4. MAGNETIC TAPES
One of the first storage media used with mainframe computers was magnetic tape, a magnetically coated
ribbon of plastic capable of storing large amounts of data and information at a low cost. Tape storage
requires sequential access, which refers to reading or writing data consecutively. Like a music tape, you must
forward or rewind the tape to a specific point to access a specific piece of data.
5. PC CARDS

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A PC Card is a thin, credit card-sized device that fits into a PC Card expansion slot on a laptop or other
personal computer. Different types and sizes of PC Cards are used to add storage, additional memory,
communications, and sound capabilities to a computer.

6. Picture card or compact flash card

Some digital cameras also use a matchbook-size card, sometimes called a picture card or compact flash
card, to store pictures, which are then transferred to a computer by inserting the card into a card reader
or slot. These compact flash cards have storage capacities ranging from 2 MB to 256 MB.
7. Smart Cards
A smart card, which is similar in size to a credit card or ATM card, stores data on a thin microprocessor
embedded in the card. An intelligent smart card contains a CPU and has input, process, output, and storage
capabilities. In contrast, a memory card has only storage capabilities. When the smart card is inserted into a
specialized card reader, the information on the smart card is read and, if necessary, updated.

8. Microfilm and Microfiche

Microfilm and microfiche are used to store microscopic images of documents on roll or sheet film.
Microfiche uses a small sheet of film, usually about four inches by six inches. The images are recorded onto
the film using a device called a computer output microfilm (COM) recorder. The stored images are so small
they can be read only with a microfilm or microfiche reader.

Applications of microfilm and microfiche are widespread. Libraries use these media to store back issues of
newspapers, magazines, and genealogy records. Large organizations use microfilm and microfiche to archive
inactive files. Banks, for example, use it to store transactions and cancelled checks, and the U.S. Army uses it
to store personnel records. Using microfilm and microfiche provides a number of advantages: it greatly
reduces the amount of paper firms must handle; it is inexpensive; and it has the longest life of any storage
medium.
Relationship among the hardware, system software, application software and users of a computer system

HARDWARE
(Physical devices/ components of the
computer system)

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
(Software that constitute the operating and programming
Environment of the computer system)

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
(Software that do a specific task or solve a specific problem)

USERS
(Normally interact with the system via the user
Interface provided by the application software
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 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software is a set of computer programs, procedures and associated documents which describe the programs
and how they are to be used. A computer program is a sequence of logical instructions, written in a
language, which can be understood by the computer which controls the activity of processing by the
computer.

Most software can be divided into two major categories

 System software
 Application software
 Programming languages

System software

System software is a set of one or more programs, designed to control the operation and extend the
processing capability of a computer system. In general it performs the following functions:

 Supports the development of other application software

 Supports the execution of other application software
 Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources e.g. CPU, memory, peripheral
 Communicates with and controls the operation of peripheral devices e.g. printers, hard disk
Some of the most commonly known types of system software are:

 Operating systems – it takes care of the effective and efficient utilization of all the hardware and
software components of the computer system e.g. Microsoft DOS, Windows, UNIX, LINUX

 Programming language translators – they transform the instructions prepared by programmers in a

programming language into a form which can be interpreted and executed by a computer system e.g.
Assemblers, Compilers, Interpreters

 Communication software – they enable transfer of data and programs from one computer system to
another in a network environment

 Utility programs – a set of programs which help user in system maintenance tasks and in performing
tasks of routine nature. E.g. formatting hard disks

Operating System

It’s an integrated set of programs that controls the resources (CPU, Memory, Input/output devices) of a
computer system and provides its users with an interface or virtual machine that is more convenient to use
than the bear machine.

The two primary objectives of Operating System use:

(i) Making a computer system convenient to use i.e. hides details of Hardware resources from the
programmer and provides him with a convenient interface of using computer system. It acts as an
intermediary between hardware and software providing a high level interface to low level hardware
and making it easier for the software to access the use of those resources.

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 (ii) Managing computer resources. This involves performing such tasks as keeping track of who is using
which resource, granting resource requests, accounting for resource usage, and mediating
conflicting requests from different programs and users.
Main functions of Operating System.

(i) Process Management

(ii) Memory Management
(iii) File Management
(iv) Security
(v) Command Interpretation.
Operating System arose historically as people needed to solve problems associated with using computers.
Much of operating system history is driven by relative cost factors of hardware and people. Hardware started
out fantastically expensive, relative to people and the relative costs has been decreasing ever since.

(i) Process Management

A process (job) is a program in execution. The main objective of the process management module of
operating system is to manage the process submission to the system in a manner to minimize the idle time
of various processors (CPU, I/O processors e.t.c) of the computer system.

It takes care of creation and deletion of processes, scheduling of various system resources to different
processes requesting them and providing mechanisms for synchronization and communication among
processes

Multiprogramming: This is the interleaved execution of two or more different and independent programs by
same computer. Two or more user programs are placed in the main memory and executed consecutively.

Note: The CPU is capable of conducting / executing only one instruction at a time.

Requirements of Multi-programming System

(a) Large Memory – Required to accommodate a good number of user programs along with the operating
system.
(b) Memory Protection- To prevent a job in one memory partition from changing information or instructions
of a job in another memory partition.
(c) Job status preservation- preserves the job’s complete status information when the CPU is taken away
from it and restores this information back, before the CPU is given back to it again.
(d) Proper job mix- to effectively overlap the operations of the CPU and Input/output devices.
(e) CPU scheduling – To decide which of the ready jobs should be allocated the CPU for execution.
Multitasking: Technically speaking it is the same as multiprogramming. It is system’s capability to
concurrently work on more than one task/process. Some authors prefer using multiprogramming for multi-
user systems and multitasking for single-user systems. The progress of different tasks can be viewed on
different windows in a multitasking system.

Multiprocessing: Used to describe interconnected computer configurations or computers with two or more
CPUs which have the ability to simultaneously execute several programs. Multiprocessing systems have better
performance and reliability.

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Note:
These systems however require a very sophisticated operating system to schedule, balance and coordinate
input, output and processing activities of multiple processors. The design of such operating system is a
complex and time taking job. They are expensive to procure and maintain.
(ii) Memory Management

Its job is to keep tracks of which parts of memory are in use and which are not in use, to allocate memory to
processes when they need it and de allocate when they are done.

Virtual Memory – Extension of memory which allows execution of processes that might not be completely
loaded in memory. It is often described as hierarchy of two storage systems-one is a low cost, large capacity,
low speed system (hard disk) the other is a high cost, small capacity high speed system (RAM). The operating
system manages the two storage systems in such as a way that the users of the system feel that they have
access to a single, large, directly addressable and fast main memory.

(iii) File Management

A file is a collection of related information. Every file has a name, data and attributes. The name of a file
uniquely identifies it in the system and is used by its users to access it. The file management module of an
operating system takes care of file related activities such as accessing, naming, sharing and protection files.

File Access Methods

To use information stored in a file, it must be accessed and read into computer memory. The two commonly
supported file access methods at operating system level are:

1. Sequential Access.

2. Random Access.
1. Sequential Access. A process can read the bytes or records in the file in the order in which they are
stored, starting at the beginning. A sequential file can however be rewound and read as often as needed.

2. Random Access. Information stored in a random access file can be accessed randomly, irrespective of the
order in which the bytes or records are stored.

File Operation

An operating system provides a set of operations to deal with files and their contents. A typical set of file
operations provided by an operating system may be as follows;

1. Create-Is used to create a new file.

2. Delete- Is used to delete an existing file, which is no longer needed.
3. Open-Is used to open an existing file, when a user wants to start using it.
4. Close-Is used a close a file, when a user has finished using it.
5. Read-Is used to read data stored in a file.
6. Write-Is used to write new data in a file.
7. Seek-. Is used with random access file to first position the read/ write pointer to a specific place in the
file, so that data can be read from, or written to, that position.

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 8. Get attributes- Is used to access the attributes of a file.
(iv) Security Management

Security in a computer system deals with protecting the various resources and information of a computer
system against destruction and unauthorized access.

A total approach to computer security involves both external and internal security;

 External security deals with securing the computer system against external factors such as fires, floods,
earthquakes, stolen disks, leaking out of stored information by a person who has access to the information.

For external security, the commonly used methods include; maintaining adequate backup copies of stored
information at places far away from the original, information using security guards to allow entry of only
authorized persons into the computer centre. Allowing access to sensitive information to only trusted users
etc.

 Internal security deals with:

(a) User Authorization – Once a user is allowed physical access to the computing facility, the users
identification must be checked by the system before he/she can actually use the facility. E.g. Voice
recognition systems, Finger prints, Eye scanning, ATMs.

(b) Access Control – Even when a user passes the authorization stage and is allowed to use the computing
facility, a way is needed to prohibit the user from accessing the system’s resources/information that he or
she is not authorized to access e.g. pin number, password.

(c) Cryptography – Even if a user manages to gain access to the information which he/she is not
authorized to access, a way is need to ensure that the user cannot make use of that information.
Cryptography works on the idea that if it is not possible to ensure access control, it is better to prevent
comprehension of information.

(v) Command Interpretation

The command interpretation module of an operating system provides a set of commands using which the
user can give instructions to the computer for getting some job done by it. When a user gives instructions
to the computer, the interpreter takes care of interpreting the command and directing the system
resources to handle the request hence the command interpreter provides a user interface to hide the
hardware details of the system from the user. The two broad categories of user interface supported by
various operating systems are;

(i) Command Line Interface

(ii) Graphical user interface(GUI)

Command Line interface: This is a textual user interface in which the user gives instructions to a computer
by typing commands. To enter a command, the user uses the keyboard to key in words and symbols e.g.
UNIX and DOS.

Graphical user interface (GUI); It is much easier to learn and use than command line interface. A GUI
provides the screen full of graphical icons and menus and allows the user to make a rapid selection from
the displayed icons or menus to use instructions to the computer.

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 A point and-draw device is normally used to rapidly point to and select a particular graphical icon or menu
item from the multiple options displayed on the screen. E.g. Window, LINUX

Popular Operating Systems

1. UNIX.

It is a multi- user, timesharing operating system. It was developed in the early 1970s at the Bell labs by
Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie for a small PDP- 11 computer. It was the first operating system to be
written in a high level language (C – Language) since UNIX was written in C- language moving it to a new
machine was much easier. This was an important reason for its large popularity and availability on a wide
variety of systems. It has multi- processing capability but is also used in single – processor computers.
Additionally, it has a command driven interface. It has been the most widely used multi-user network
Operating System. There are many versions that can run on many different designs of computer i.e.
mainframe computers, micro and mini- computers.

2. DOS

Stands for “Disk Operating System”. It is a single user operating and IBM compatible Pcs. It was
introduced in 1981 by Microsoft and IBM and was the most popular Operating System for personal
computers in the 1980s. Its popularity stared reducing in the 1990s with the launch of Ms Window
Operating System. It is a single user operating single tasking and command operating system.

3. Microsoft Windows:

Developed by Microsoft to overcome the limitation of its own Dos operating system was initially developed
as a graphical user interface for Dos not as an operating system. The first success version of this operating
System was Windows 3.00 released in1990. Other versions were Windows 95, 98, 2000, XP, Millennium,
NT, and Vista.

Windows is a single- user- multi- tasking operating system. Progress is represented by icons which provide
the user with ease of manipulating of file and programs i.e. clicking, double – clicking, drag, drop, etc.

4. LINUX

An open –source operating system enhanced and backed by thousands of programmers worldwide. Its
multitasking operating systems which was originally designed for Pcs.

The Linux is derived from its inventor called Linus Torvalds. He was a student at the University of
Helsinki, Finland in the early 1990s when he wrote the first version of Linux as a toy project. He later
posted the code on the internet and asked programmers to help him build it into a working system. The
result was Linux. Torvalds holds the copyright but permits free distribution of the source code. He oversees
the development of the Kernel and its own trademark. When someone submits a change or a feature,
torvalds and his core team of kernel developers review the merit of adding it to the source code

Application software

A set of one or more programs, designed to solve a specific problem or do a specific task. E.g.
 Word processing – enables us to make use of a computer system for editing, viewing, formatting, storing,
retrieving, and printing documents e.g. Microsoft word, word perfect, word pro, WordStar.

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 Spreadsheet software – a numeric data analysis tool, which allows us to create a kind of computerized
ledger e.g. Microsoft excel, lotus 1-2-3

 Database software – a set of one or more programs, which enable us to create a database, maintain it,
organize its data in desired fashion and to selectively retrieve useful information from it. Microsoft access,
Quattro pro, VISIC ALC

 Graphics software – enables us to use a computer system for creating, editing, viewing, storing, retrieving
and printing designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything else that can be draw in the traditional
manner.

 Education software – allows a computer system to be used as a teaching and learning tool.

 Entertainment software – allows a computer system to be used as an entertainment

Ways of acquiring computer software

An organization can develop proprietary software that is unique, customized programs for a specific
application area and on the other hand a company can purchase and use an existing software package (off-
the –shelf software).

Customized/proprietary software

Programmers determine the type of software to be developed according to users specific problems/ needs.
The software can be developed by an in-house development team or by a contracted software company but
based on the specific user needs.

Advantages
i) You can get exactly what you need in terms of reports, features e.t.c
ii) Being involved in development offers a further level in control over results
iii) There’s more flexibility in making modifications that may be required due to changes in technology or
environment.
iv) You don’t pay for features which you won’t use
v) The user get in-house’s a competitive advantage
Disadvantages
i) The cost of developing the software is high/expensive
ii) It takes more time to develop
iii) It is vulnerable or prone to errors because it has not been thoroughly tested

Off –the –shelf software

They are readily available across the shops or from software vendors.

Advantages

i) They are cheap because development and maintenance costs are shared among many customers
ii) They take less time to develop
iii) A user can start using the software almost immediately he purchases it
iv) Possibility of errors is low because it has been properly tested

Disadvantages

i) The user pays for features he/ she may never use

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 ii) It does not solve all user problems
iii) It is difficult to make alterations and modifications
iv) A user may be locked/forced to using the products of a particular supplier/manufacturer especially
upgrades

COMPUTER PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

1St Generation Programming Languages (Machine Language)

the machine language of a computer is written as strings of binary (ones and zeros).the circuitry of a
computer is wired in a manner that it immediately recognizes the machine language instructions and
converts them in the electrical signals needed to execute them.

Advantages

1. Programs written in machine language can be executed very fast

2. The program can directly address and control the internal circuitry of the computer making it more
effective in hardware usage and control
Disadvantages

1. it is machine dependent
2. difficult to program
3. it is error prone
4. it is difficult to modify
5. the programmer has to have expert knowledge of the computer
6. it is extremely difficult to learn and use
2nd Generation programming languages (Assembly Language)
They use symbols and codes to represent program instructions instead of binary digits. The resulting
program still directly instructs the computer hardware therefore not easily portable.

Advantages

1. It is easier to correct errors and modify program instruction

2. They have the same execution efficiency as machine language
3. Easy to understand and save a lot of time and effort of programmer
4. There is no worry about address
Disadvantages

1. They are still machine dependent

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2. Knowledge of hardware is required
3. They are still time consuming
4. Program execution takes longer than machine language

3rd generation programming languages (Procedural language)

They are easier to learn and use than were the earlier generations. While not directly manipulating specific
hardware components, they must still give the computer detailed instructions of how to reach the desired
results. They incorporate great use of english like instructions which are easier to learn and use. Examples
include COBOL, FORTRAN, C, and PASCAL.

Procedural programming languages offer very little control and flexibility. They are portable.

4th generation programming languages (non-procedural language)

They are much easier to use and more English like than procedural languages. Its programs tell the computer
what it needs to accomplish but do not provide detailed instructions as to how to accomplish it. They
concentrate on the output and not procedural details. They can be used by people who are not computer
specialists.

e.g. C++, VISUAL BASIC, POWER BUILDER.

Object oriented programming languages

OOP was first introduced in 1967 by developers of a programming language named SIMULA 67. The basic
idea behind OOP is that programming languages are used for simulating real world problems on computers.
OOP’s consist of objects that include descriptions of data relevant to the object as well as the operations that
can be done on that data.e.g query languages, report generators, application generators

Features of OOP’s
1. There is extensive use of graphical objects
2. There are features that allow easy program coding, error detection and correction
3. In order to write code, one double clicks on an object and selects the event for which they are writing
code.
Advantages
1. Program coding is made easier
2. Error correction is made easy
3. Writing a program or application takes less time compared to procedural.
4. It is easier to learn than procedural
5. They are portable

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6. The programmer does not need to be an expert on the internal workings of a computer
7. Programs made using OOP’s are user friendly
Disadvantages
1. Interface design takes more time
2. One has to master all usable objects and event procedures in order to create an effective application
3. Programs made using OOP’s occupy much more storage space than procedural languages
4. In some cases they are difficult to learn and use

COMMUNICATIONS
When referring to computers, communications describes a process in which one computer transfers data,
instructions, and information to another computer(s). Communications requires: a device that initiates the
transfer (a sending device); a communications device (such as a modem) that converts the sent material into
signals capable of being carried by a communications channel; a communications channel over which the
signals are sent; a communications device that receives the signals and converts them into a form understood
by the receiving device; and a device that accepts the sent material (a receiving device).

COMMUNICATIONS CHANNELS
An important aspect of communications is the channel, which is the communications path between two
devices. A communications channel is composed of one or more transmission media. Transmission media
consists of materials or techniques capable of carrying one or more signals.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Transmission media are one of two types: physical or wireless. Physical transmission media use wire, cable,
and other tangible (touchable) materials to send communications signals; wireless transmission media send
communications signals through the air or space using radio, Microwave, and infrared signals.

1. Physical transmission media used in communications include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fibre-
optic cable. These cables typically are used within buildings or underground.

2. Wireless transmission media used in communications include broadcast radio, cellular radio, microwaves,
communications satellites, and infrared. Wireless transmission media are used when it is impractical or
impossible to install cables. Many wireless devices that access the Internet now use the WAP (Wireless
Application protocol), which is a standard set of communications specifications that help to ensure
successful communications.

TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
Any transmissions sent during communications can be categorized by a number of characteristics including
the signal type, transmission mode, transmission direction, and transmission rate.

Signal Type: Analog or Digital

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Depending on the devices and media involved, that signal is either analog or digital. Telephone equipment
originally was designed to carry only voice transmission in the form of an analog signal, which consists of a
continuous electrical wave. Computers, however, process data as digital signals, which are individual electrical
pulses that represent the bits grouped together into bytes. For telephone lines to carry digital signals, a
special piece of equipment called a modem converts between. Digital signals (0s and Is) and analog signals.

Categories of channels

Broadband vs. Baseband

You have learned that several different types if communications media exist, including both physical (twisted-
pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable) and wireless (broadcast radio, cellular radio, microwave, satellite,
infrared). Some types of these media can transmit only one signal at a time, called base-band transmission,
while others can transmit multiple signals simultaneously, called broad-band transmission. Media that use
broadband transmission transmits signals it a much faster speed than those that use baseband transmission.
Satellite is an example of a media that uses broadband transmission. Two other widespread applications of
broadband transmission are digital subscriber lines (DSL) and cable television networks.

Transmission Direction: Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex

The direction in which data flows along transmission media is classified in one of three types: simplex, half-
duplex, or full-duplex (Figure 6-7).

 Simplex transmission,
Data flows only in one direction - from the sending device to the receiving device. Simplex transmission is
used only when the sending device does not require a response from the receiving device. Security systems
and fire alarms that contain a sensor, for example, use simplex transmission.

 Half-duplex transmission
In half-duplex transmission, data can flow in either direction - from sender to receiver and back - but only in
one direction at a time. Citizens band (CB) radio, for example, uses half-duplex transmission; you can talk or
listen, but you cannot do both at the same time. Many fax machines, credit card verification systems, and
automatic teller machines also use half-duplex transmission.

 Full-duplex transmission
In full-duplex transmission, data can flow in both directions at the same time. A regular telephone line, for
example, supports full-duplex transmission, meaning both parties can talk at the same time. Full-duplex trans-
mission is used for applications with intensive computing requirements or those with heavy traffic.

Transfer Rates
The speed with which a transmission medium carries data is its transfer rate. Transfer rate usually is
expressed as bits per second (bps) - that is, the number of bits that can be transmitted in one second.
Today's transmission media transmit data at rates ranging from millions of bits per second (Mbps) to billions
of bits per second (Gbps).

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Communications software

For two computers to communicate, they must have compatible communications software. Some
communications devices are pre- programmed to accomplish communications tasks. Other communications
devices require a separate communications software program to ensure proper transmission of data.
Communications software helps you establish a connection to another computer and manage the
transmission of data between computers; it resides in the main memory of the sending and receiving
computers while the connection is established.

To help you establish a connection to another computer, communications software uses wizards, dialog
boxes, and other onscreen messages to prompt you for information and automate tasks where possible.
Communications software usually includes one or more of the following features: dialing, file transfer,
terminal emulation, and Internet access.

The Internet access feature allows you to use the computer to connect to the Internet to send entail,
participate in chat rooms, visit World Wide Web sites, and so on. When you purchase a modem, it usually
includes a basic communications software package so you can connect to other computers, such as ones used
for a bulletin board system. When you subscribe to an online service or Internet service provider, the
provider typically sends you a separate communications software package, which you must use to connect to
their computers so you can access the Internet, send e-mail, and use their other services.

Communications devices
A communications device is any type of hardware capable of transmitting data, instructions, and information
between a sending device (sender) and a receiving device (receiver). At the sending end, a communications
device converts the data, instructions, or information from the sender into signals understood by the
transmission media on the communications channel. At the receiving end, the communications device
receives the signals from the communications channel and converts the signals into a form understood by the
receiver.

Recall that sending and receiving devices include a variety of types of hardware such as handheld computers,
laptop computers, desktop computers, minicomputers, mainframes, digital cameras, and fax machines. The
type of communications device used in a communications system depends on the type of sending and/or
receiving devices, as well as the type of transmission media.

Some of the more common types of communications devices are modems, cable modems, multiplexers, and
network interface cards.

Today, thousands of computer networks exist, ranging from small networks operated by home users to global
networks operated by numerous telecommunications firms. To interconnect the many types of networks that
exist, various types of communications devices are used, including hubs, repeaters, bridges, gateways, and
routers.

Telnet
One of the ways that a person can access a remote computer over a network such as the internet. It’s often
used by network administrators to remotely control and/or troubleshoot the operation of a web server.
Telnet programs act as if your computer is a terminal that is connected to the remote computer.

Intranets
Intranets are internal networks that use Internet and Web technologies. Intranets make company information
accessible to employees and facilitate working in groups.

Extranet

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An extranet is an intranet that extends to authorize users outside the company. Extranets facilitate
communications among a company’s customers or suppliers.

Videoconferencing involves using video and computer technology to conduct a meeting between participants
at two or more geographically separate locations.

COMPUTER NETWORK TYPES

LAN
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a local area, like a home, office or small
group of buildings such as a college. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three
characteristics: (1) their size, (2) their transmission technology, and (3) their topology.

MAN
Metropolitan Area Networks or MANs are large computer networks usually spanning a campus or a
city. They typically use wireless infrastructure or optical fiber connections to link their sites.
For instance a university may have a MAN that joins together many of their campus local area
networks (LANs) around a city.

WAN
A wide area network or WAN is a computer network covering a wide geographical area, involving a
vast array of computers. The best example of a WAN is the Internet. WANs are used to connect local
area networks (LANs) together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with
users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are
private.

We can have two types of networks (configurations).

 Client/server network where we have one server and many clients.
 Peer-to-peer network – all computers have the same capability and can communicate with
each other.

NETWORK HARDWARE FOR LAN

1. Network interface card (NIC)
This is the key hardware component for connecting a computer to a LAN. It is a small circuit board
designed to plug into an expansion slot on a computer main-board. The NIC sends data from your
workstation out over the network and collects incoming data for your workstation. Most recent
computers have them integrated onto the motherboard.

2. Connecting cables:-
The cables commonly used for interconnecting PCs are the twisted pair copper wires, either Category
5 (CAT 5) or Category 6 (CAT 6) cables. Or fiber optic conections.

Instead of using cables, some wireless networks use radio or infrared signals to transmit data from
one network device to another. The NIC on a wireless network contain the transmitting device
necessary to send data to other devices on the LAN.

3. Network Servers
These are different kinds of network servers.

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A dedicated file server is devoted only to the task of delivering programs and data files to
workstations. It does not process data or run programs for the Workstations. Instead programs run
using the memory and processor of the workstation.

Non-dedicated server (peer-to-peer capability) here a network computer performs a dual role as both
file server and workstation.

4. Print server – stores files in a print queue and sends each queued file to the network printer. A
print job is a file that has been sent to the printer.

Application server is a computer that runs application software and forwards the results of processing
to workstations as requested. It makes it possible to use the processing power of both the server and
the workstation.

5. Modem - These are devices that modulate and demodulate data. Modulation is the process of
conversion of the computer data into analog signals before being transferred over a standard
telephone line.

Demodulation refers to converting back the data to digital form. The quality of a modem is
determined by its transmission speed. It can be either internal or external.

SOFTWARE FOR NETWORK

Network operating system
A network requires network software or network operating system to control the flow of data,
maintain security, and keep track of user accounts.

Examples:
Network Operating Systems such as Novell Network, Banyan lines, and LANtastic are software
packages designed to control data flow.

Network software is sometimes included as a component of popular computer Operating systems

such as windows for workgroup, windows 9x, UNIX, OS. A network OS has both the server and
client software.

Standalone Applications
Most applications designed for standalone computers can be installed on a network server, which
sends them to individual workstations as requested.

GroupWare
A workgroup is basically two or more people who work on the same project. GroupWare is
application software that support collaborative work, usually on a LAN.

Network permits use of application programs by multiple people on a network.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
This refers to how devices on LAN are connected to each other.

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Bus-topology
Here the new nodes are easily added to a bus and all nodes may directly communicate with each
other, we use the coaxial cable to connect the workstations:

PC PC PC PC

Advantages
 Easy to implement and extend
 Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
 Typically the cheapest topology to implement
 Failure of one station does not affect others

Disadvantages
 Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
 Limited cable length and number of stations
 A cable break can disable the entire network
 Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
 Performance degrades as additional computers are added

Ring topology
Here every node is connected to two other nodes. Movement of data on the ring is normally in one
direction to prevent signals from interfering with each other.

PC

PC
PC
PC
Advantages
 Growth of the system has minimal impact on performance
 All stations have equal access
 Each node on the ring acts as a repeater, allowing ring networks to span greater distances than other
physical topologies.
 Because data travels in one direction high speeds of transmission of data are possible

Disadvantages
 Often the most expensive topology
 Failure of one computer may impact others
Star topology
Here all the messages pass through a central switch/hub. It allows any node to communicate with
every other node by sending messages to the hub.

HUB

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 PC PC PC

Advantages
 Easy to implement and extend, even in large networks
 Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
 The failure of a non central node will not have major effects on the functionality of the network.
Disadvantages
 Limited cable length and number of stations
 Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
 Failure of the central node can disable the entire network.
Network Protocols:
A communication protocols is a set of rules that ensures the orderly and accurate transmission and
reception of data. The most widely used network communications protocol are:
TCP/IP (Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) which is used on minicomputer, micro
computer and mainframe networks. It is frequently used in UNIX and Win. NT systems and is the
basis for a communication on the network.
IPx (Internet-work packet exchange) is the protocol used by Novell NetWare, the most popular
microcomputer network software.

INTERNET
Definitions
Internet
Is a global network of many computers connected via telecommunication networks? The computers
communicate using a set of protocols called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol).
Internet can be compared with a library. Like a like a library, the Internet is also a source of
enjoyable, important and varied information that can be obtained and used by millions of people
across the world. The Internet also, like our library contains different forms, like text sound and
graphics. Super library does not allow just anybody to browse books or cassettes; this facility is
available only for authorized members of the library. In a similar way only authorized users of the
Internet can access it to obtain information.
NETWORK
Network is a group of computers and associated devices connected by communications facilities
(both hardware and software) to share information and peripheral devices, such as printers and
modems.
ISP
ISP is a company that provides and sells physical Internet access to users. ISP is a company that
provides access to the Internet. ISP stands for Internet Service Provider.
Examples:-Africaonline, Simbanet, Raha, Cybertwiga, Datel, TTCL, Internet Africa
MODEM

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Modem stands for Modulator/De-modulator. Modem is a hardware device that allows a computer to
transmit and receive information over telephone lines. A modem converts digital data from computers
into analog data that can be transmitted over the telephone lines.

PROTOCOL
Protocol is a standardized means of communication among machines across a network. Protocols
allow data to be taken apart for faster transmission, transmitted, and then reassembled at the
destination in the correct order.

TCP/IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the communications protocol that
connects your computer to the Internet.

FTP
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) - This is a way of transferring files over the Internet from one computer
to another.
HTTP
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) is the protocol used between a Web browser and a server to
request a document and transfer its contents. HTTP is the standard language that computers
connected to the World Wide Web use to communicate with each other.

HTML
HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is the coded format language used for creating hypertext
documents on the World Wide Web and controlling how Web pages appear.

DOMAIN NAME
This is the unique name that identifies an Internet site. Domain Names always have at least two parts,
which are separated by dots. The part on the left is specific whereas the part on the right is more
general.
Examples:- tanzanet.org
ippmedia.com
isidingo.co.za
netscape.net
whitehouse.gov
tanzania.go.tz
ccm.or.tz
harvard.edu
IP
Internet Protocol is the most basic protocol to communicate on the Internet. An IP number is a
numerical address consisting of four numbers seperated by periods. Each IP address uniquely
identifies a certain computer on the Internet. The domain name is used to make using them easier.
BROWSER (WEB BROWSER)
Web Browser or Browser is a program that allows a user to find, view, hear, and interact with
material on the World Wide Web. Web Browser or Browser is a software program that lets you
find, see, and hear material on the World Wide Web, including text, graphics, sound, and video.
Popular browsers are Netscape Navigator, Mosaic, Opera, Internet Explorer.

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 SERVER
Server is a computer that provides shared resources to network users. A server is a computer
program that provides services to other computer programs.

URL
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the World Wide Web address of a site on the Internet. The URL
for the Tanzania Revenue Authority, for example, is http://www.tra.go.tz/

HYPERTEXT
Hypertext is any text that contains links to other documents - words or phrases in the document that
can be chosen by a reader and which cause another document to be retrieved and displayed.
Hypertext usually refers to any text available on the World Wide Web that contains links to other
documents.

HYPERLINK
Hyperlink is a graphic or piece of text in a Web page that, when clicked with a mouse, causes
another file on the Web to be accessed.

WEBPAGE
WEBPAGE is an individual file that is made up of HTML code. A webpage is an HTML file that
has a specific URL and is accessible via the www. Sometimes referred to as a page, a document, or a
home page.

WEBSITE
Website is a group of Web Pages that collectively represent a company, or individual on the World
Wide Web. A group of web pages that have been developed together to present information on
specific subjects is also a Web Site. A website is a collection of pages designed to present
information over the World Wide Web.

WWW
WWW (World Wide Web) is the Internet facility that allows you to browse linked Web pages.
WWW is a collection of online documents on Internet servers worldwide. World Wide Web
documents are written in HTML. In order to use the World Wide Web, you must have a World Wide
Web browser.

E-MAIL
E-mail (Electronic Mail) is the mail system that is used on the Internet to pass messages from one
person or group of people to another. The systems also permits the transmission of pictures and
sounds. E-mail means Messages, usually text, sent from one person to another via computer. E-mail
can also be sent automatically to a large number of addresses (Mailing List).

E-MAIL ADDRESS
E-mail Address is the unique Internet address to which your e-mail is delivered. A complete E-mail
address is composed of the username, "@" and the name of the server where the user's mailbox
resides. For instance username@domain name.

USERNAME

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Username is the name that identifies a user to a computer network; generally used in conjunction
with a password to establish the user's right to access a host (server). Username can also be known as
ID or Screen Name or Login Name or Sign In Name
Examples:- utajiju, usingizi, uroda, sisimizi, utumbo etc etc

PASSWORD
Password is a secret combination of characters used to access a secured resource such as a computer,
a program, a directory, or a file; often used in conjunction with a username.

ATTACHMENT
AN Attachment is a file that is sent along with an e-mail message. Examples Picture File, Microsoft
Excel file, Microsoft Word file, Microsoft Access file etc etc etc etc etc

Some uses of Internet

· Looking for jobs
· Learning a foreign language
· Making friends from any part of the world
· Participating in a discussion about your favorite TV show with similar minded people across the
world,
· Send to a friend, an electronic birthday card that actually signs happy birthday to you’
· Go through the catalogue of a library situated across the globe and find a book you always wanted
to read
· See the latest photographs of your movie stars.
· Download some interesting software and try it out.
· Make your own home page, which talks about yourself, your family, your pets and your hobbies.
· Chat with a friend working abroad and see him as you talk.

From home you can use Internet for following activities

· To exchange email with friends and family
· To participate in group discussions through public news groups or bulletin board
· To find educational tools around the world, access libraries, book stores etc.
· For entertainment
· To do shopping
· Leisure activities
For business the Internet is invaluable:
· Get technical support for products
· Distribute software
· Provide technical support, bug fixes, product information to customers etc.
· Publish information on any topic
· Communicate or collaborate on projects
· Market or sell products
· Access business while at home
· These services can be availed round the clock from anywhere in the world.
· At any given point of time, up-to-date information can be obtained

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 How e-mail works
The way electronic mail works on the Internet is similar to the way the postal system works. The
address is the most important part of both standard letters and e-mail messages. If the address is
incorrect the intended recipient will never see the message. Issuing a send command at your computer
is similar to placing your letter in a mailbox. Once you’ve sent your message on its way, you cannot
retract it. The postal service collects mail and takes it to the local post office for processing and
routing. When you send electronic mail, your local post office reads the e-mail address and either
delivers the message to another local mail account or sends it to the Internet.
As your letter travels from one post office to another, the postal service routes it based on the address,
so that it continues to move closer to its destination.
Exercises
 Be able to use a Web browser
 Define and know all terms used
 Create an email account, upload and send an image of the fourth president of Kenya
(UHURU KENYATTA) to [email protected]. indicating your name and admin
number (10mks)

DATA PROCESSING

Definitions

 Data – Basic facts about the activities of the business. E.g. number of hours worked by an employee
on a particular machine.

 Information – Data which is summarized in the way you want it, so that it is useful to you in your
work. It’s the end product of data processing. Must be accurate, timely, complete, concise and
relevant.

 Data Processing – Collection and manipulation of items of data to produce meaningful information.
It’s the process of transforming raw data into meaningful output i.e. information.

Data processing can be done manually using pen and paper, mechanically using simple devices like
typewriters or electronically using modern data processing tools such as computers.

Electronic data processing has become so popular that the manual and mechanical methods are being
faced out.

Factors determining the methods of data processing

a. Size and type of business.
Methods of producing the information largely depend on the size and type of business. In a very small
company, one person can be able to produce all the necessary information. However as the company
increases in size, more people and aids e.g. calculators and small computers will be needed. Large
volumes of data and information will require the use of large computers.

b. Timing aspects.

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Some information requirements are less time critical than others. The timing requirement for
information will have a considerable bearing on the methods and equipment needed to provide it.

c. Link between applications.

Where data is needed for more than one information requirement, a different method of processing it
may be suggested.

Stages of data processing

From the source documents.

a. Preparation of data for input

Data is checked for correctness and validity i.e. transcription and they are also sorted.

b. Input of data
The collected data is converted from human readable to machine readable form. The conversion takes
place in the input device.

c. Processing
The transformation of input data by the C.P.U to a more meaningful output (information).

d. Output
The production of the end product. The information can then be distributed to the target group or
stored for future reference.

Data Collection
Data collection is getting the data from the point of its origin (source documents) to the computer in a
form suitable for processing. Also referred to as data gathering or fact finding.

Tools that help in data collection include source documents such as forms, data capture devices e.g.
digital camera e.t.c.

Stages of data collection

a. Data creation
It’s the process of putting together facts in an organized manner.

There two basic alternatives;

 Source documents – A great deal of data still originate in the form of manually prepared documents.

 Data capture – Data is produced in machine-sensible form at source and is read directly by a suitable
device e.g. a bar code reader.

b. Data transmission
This depends on the method and medium of data collection adopted:

 If computer is located at a central place, the documents will be physically transmitted i.e. by the
postman or courier services.

 It’s also possible for data to be transmitted by means of telephone lines to central computer. In this
case no source documents would be involved in the transmission process.

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 c. Data preparation
This is the transcription (conversion) of data from the source documents to a machine-readable form.

Data collected using devices that directly capture data in digital form don’t require transcription.

d. Data conversion
Data may need to be converted from one media to another e.g. from floppy disk to hard disk for input to
the computer.

e. Input validation
Data entered into the computer is subjected to validity checks by a computer program before being used
for processing.

f. Sorting
This stage is required to re-arrange the data into a sequence required for processing. It’s a practical
necessity for efficient processing of sequentially organized data in many commercial and financial
applications.

g. Control
It’s not really a stage because control is applied throughout the whole collection.

Data collection media and methods

a. On-line transmission of data from source e.g. Data Direct Entry (DDE)

b. Source document keyed directly keyed directly into diskette (key-to-diskette).

c. The source document itself prepared in machine-sensible form using character recognition techniques.

d. Data capture devices.

e. Portable encoding devices.

f. Source data captured from tags, plastic badges or strips.

g. Creation of data for input as a by-product of another operation.

Controls

Objectives of controls
i. To ensure that all data is processed.

ii. To preserve the integrity of maintained data.

iii. To detect, correct and re-process all errors.

iv. To prevent and detect data.

Importance of controls
They must be instituted early as possible in the system. The quality of input data is of vital importance to
the accuracy of output. Everything possible must be done to ensure that the data are complete and accurate
just before input to the computer.

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Types of controls
a. Manual controls
b. Data preparation
c. Validation checks
d. Batch controls
e. Other controls

i. Validation checks
These are attempts to build into the computer program powers of judgement so that incorrect items of data
are detected and reported.

These check s can be made in two stages:

 Input– When data is first input into the computer, different checks can be applied to prevent errors
going forward for processing. For this reason, the first computer run is often referred to as validation or
data vet.

 Updated – Further checking is possible when the data input are being processed.

The following are the main types of validation checks that may be used:

 Presence - Data are checked to ensure that all fields are present.

 Size - Fields are checked to ensure that they contain the right number of characters.

 Range - Number of codes are checked to ensure that they are within the permissible range.

 Character check - Fields are checked to ensure that they contain only characters of the correct type
e.g. no letters in numeric field.

 Format - Fields are checked to ensure that they are of the correct format.

 Reasonableness - Quantities are checked to ensure that they are not abnormally high or low.

 Check digits – Use of a check digit enables a number to be self-checking. It’s a means of ensuring that
a number (e.g. a customer account number) maintains its validity.

ii. Manual controls

Even in advance systems, considerable checking of the source documents is often necessary.

Such checks may be:

 Scrutiny to detect:

i. Missing entries.

ii. Illegal entries.

iii. Illogical or unlikely entries.

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  Reference of the document to stored data to verify entries.

 Re-calculating to check calculations made on the document.

Types of errors during data collection.

a. Missing source documents.

b. Source documents on which entries are omitted, illegible or dubious.

c. Transcription errors e.g. errors in copying data from one form to another.

d. Data preparation errors e.g. errors made when keying onto diskette.

e. Program faults.

f. Machine hardware faults.

Types of data or computer files

Computer files – a collection of information initially created in memory and then stored with a file name on
a secondary storage.

Are of two types:

- Command files - Contains program executable code that computer reads and uses as instructions to
prepare a task.

- Text/data files - Contain standard alphanumeric information that has been entered into the file via an
application program such as word processor, spreadsheet, database e.t.c.

Types of files

 Master file

Main file that contains permanent data against which transactions are processed.
Contain:
o Reference data- tends to be relatively permanent and which is processed by amending i.e. making
occasional changes in the form of insertion of new records, deletion or alteration of existing
records e.g. personnel details.

o Dynamic data – Changes frequently and is processed by updating i.e. changing values of various
fields e.g. earnings and deductions.

 Transaction/movement files

Includes input and output files for holding temporary incoming and outgoing data. Used to update
dynamic data on master files.

 Reference file

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 It’s a file with a reasonable amount of permanency. Used for look up or reference purposes e.g. PAYE
deductions.

 Report file

Set of records extracted from data in master file used to prepare report which can be printed at a later
date.

Stores relatively permanent records extracted from the master files or generated after processing.

 Back up/History file

Holds copies of data or information from computer storage.

Retained for historical use or back up.

 Dump/work file

Used to hold data for security and recovery purposes or for temporary storage whilst other work is being
carried out e.g. total earnings and deductions calculations (payroll processing).

 Sort file

Mainly used where data is to be processed sequentially in a sequential process.

Data Storage Hierarchy

It normally consists of the following six levels;

1. Bit. The smallest item of data is a single binary digit (a bit), either 0 or 1.

2. Character. Multiple related bits are combined to form a character. A bit is the basic unit of primary and
secondary storage, and a character is the basic unit for human conception.

3. Field. It’s a meaningful collection of related characters.

4. Record. Multiple related fields are combined to form a record.

5. File. Multiple related records are combined to form a file. A file is a number of related records which
are treated as a unit. Every record in a file has the same set of fields. Each record in a file is identified,
for storage and retrieval purpose, by a key field whose contents are unique for each record in a file. In
case of an employee file, employee-code field may serve as the key. In case of an employee file,
employee-code field may serve as the key field.

6. Database. Multiple related files are integrated to form a database. A database is a collection of logically
related data elements from multiple files.

Standard methods of organizing data

Two standard methods for organizing data are:

- File-oriented approach

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 - Database-oriented approach

File-oriented approach was the traditional method and has largely been replaced today by the database-
oriented approach.

 File-oriented approach

In this method, an application’s data is organized into one or more files and the application program
processes the data stored in these files to generate the desired output.

This method of organizing data is simple, inexpensive and usually easy to use.

It however suffers the following limitations:

1. Limited query flexibility. In file-oriented approach, the records are organized according to a key field. As
long as we search records based on key field value, the query can be processed quickly.However, when the
key field is not relevant to the information needed, the entire field has to be searched.

2. Data redundancy. This is the repetition of the same data items in more than one file. In file-oriented
approach, the same data items are often included in many different files. This leads to increase in cost of
data entry and data storage. It also leads to data integrity problem.

3. Data integrity problem. Data integrity is the consistency of the data in all files, i.e. when some changes
occur in a data item, every file which contains that field, should be updated to reflect the change for
consistency. For example, when a data item changes, if all files are not updated correctly, there may be
frequent discrepancies among reports produced from different files, causing confusion.

4. Lack of program/data independence. In file-oriented approach, the application programs usually contain
data format statements that precisely define each data field to be processed. This often results in different
files having the same data item stored using different data formats. Data dependence occurs when the data
is dependent on the application. Due to data dependence problem, whenever there is need to add, delete, or
change data formats, the application program must also be changed. Data dependence problem also causes
incompatibility among data files from different applications due to which these data files cannot be linked,
if such a need arises.

5. Limited data security flexibility. A file-oriented approach normally offers file-level data security feature i.e.
data access restrictions can be enforced only for an entire file, not for a record or a record or a field of data
item.

Database-oriented approach

In this approach, data from multiple related files are integrated together in the form of a database, with the
following properties:

1. It provides greater query flexibility.

2. It reduces data redundancy.

3. It solves data integrity (inconsistency) problem.

4. It makes data independent of the application programs i.e. fields can be added, changed and deleted from
the database without affecting existing programs.

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5. It also includes data security features at database level, record level, and even at field level to provide
greater flexibility of restricted data access.

File organization1

This is the arrangement of records within a particular file.

File organization is very important because it determines the methods of access efficiency and flexibility.

File organization methods

a. Sequential file organization

Records are stored and accessed in a particular order using a key field. Retrieval requires searching
sequentially through the entire file word for word from the beginning to the end. e.g. if the record required
is the twentieth record on the file, in order to get it into storage to process it the computer will first have to
read in all nineteen preceding records. The principle storage medium for sequential files is magnetic tapes.

Sequential file organization is the most efficient and economical file organization in case of application in
which there is a large number of file records to be updated at regular scheduled intervals.

Applications such as payroll processing and monthly bill processing are processed in this manner.

Advantages of sequential files

a. They are conceptually simple to understand and use.

b. They are also easy to organize and maintain.

c. They need relatively inexpensive input- output media and devices for their storage and processing.

d. They are most efficient and economical to use in applications in which the activity ratio is high(most
records are changed during update runs)

Disadvantages of sequential files

1. They are very inefficient and uneconomical for applications in which the activity ratio is very low.

2. Since an entire sequential file may need to be read just to retrieve and update few records,
accumulation of transactions into batches is recommended before processing them. Hence, the use of
sequential files is limited to a batch-processing environment.

3. Because of the need to accumulate transactions into batches before processing them, sequential
processing precludes the possibility of up-to-the-minute data.

4. Sequential processing require the files to be sorted before processing i.e. both the transaction and
master files must be sorted and placed in the same sequence before processing.

5. Sequential processing often leads to data redundancy problem, since the same data may be stored in
several files sequenced on different keys.

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 b. Serial file organization

Records in a file are accessed one after another.

c. Random/direct file organization

Records are stored in the disk at random but are accessed directly.

Many applications require up-to-the-minute timeliness of data. The users of such applications cannot afford
to wait for the transactions to be accumulated to batches and then processed together. Such applications
require a transaction to be processed immediately as and when it occurs. Examples of such applications are
airlines or railway reservation systems, teller facility in banking applications, systems for enquiring whether a
certain item is in stock in a store e.t.c. For such applications, the use of random/direct file organization is
recommended, in which the desired record pertaining to the current transaction at hand can be directly
located by its key field value, without having to search through a sequence of other records.

The principal storage medium is magnetic/optical disc.

Direct file organization uses an address generating function to convert a record key value into a storage
address on the disk on which the file is stored.

Advantages of direct files

1. Given the key, any record can be quickly located and retrieved directly, without the need for a sequential
search of the file.

2. Transactions need not be sorted and placed in sequence before processing.

3. Accumulation of transactions into batches is not required before processing them. They may be processed
as and when generated.

4. It can support interactive online applications, which need to provide up-to-the-minute information in
response to inquiries from users.

5. If required, it’s also possible to process direct file records sequentially in a record key sequence.

Disadvantages of direct files

1. They require relatively expensive hardware and software resources because they must be stored on a
direct-access storage device, such as a disk.

2. Due to address generation overhead involved, they are less efficient and economical than sequential files
for use in sequential applications with high activity ratio (The ratio of the total number of records in a
transaction file and the total number of records in the master file).

3. Special security measures are often necessary for online direct files, which are simultaneously accessible
from multiple online stations.

d. Indexed sequential files

There two types of files involved:

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 - The data file which contains records stored in the file and

- The smaller index file which contains the key and disk address of each record stored in the data file.

The records of the file can be stored in a random sequence, but the index table is in sorted sequence on the
key value. This provides the user with a very powerful tool. Not only can the file be processed randomly, but
it can also be processed sequentially.

Advantages of indexed sequential files

1. They can be quite efficiently used for sequential processing of high activity ratio applications.

2. They can also be used quite efficiently for direct access processing of low activity ratio appliances.

Disadvantages of indexed sequential files

1. They require relatively expensive hardware and software resources because they must be stored on a direct-
access basis, such as a disk.

2. They require more storage space than other types of files because of the need for index file.

3. When used for direct access online applications, access to records may be slower than direct files.

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