GROWING CASSAVA

A training manual from production to

postharvest

Adebayo B. Abass, Elifatio Towo,

Ivor Mukuka, Richardson
Okechukwu, Roger Ranaivoson,
Gbassey Tarawali and Edward Kanju
Acknowledgement
We would like to acknowledge G. Asumugha, U. Udensi and T. Osun for their technical inputs to the IITA
materials used for developing parts of this manual. We acknowledge the financial support received
from the Common Fund for Commodities of the Netherlands (CFC), USAID-Nigeria, Africa Development Bank
(AfDB) and the International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD).

© International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 2014.

Ibadan, Nigeria

To Headquarters from outside Nigeria:

IITA, Carolyn House,
26 Dingwall Road,
Croydon CR9 3EE, UK

Within Nigeria:
PMB 5320, Oyo Road
Ibadan, Oyo State

Illustrated by Athman H. Mgumia and Mosher Chande

ISBN: 978-978-8444-50-3

Correct citation: Adebayo B. Abass, Elifatio Towo, Ivor Mukuka, Richardson Okechukwu, Roger Ranaivoson,
Gbassey Tarawali and Edward Kanju. 2014. Growing cassava: A training manual from production to postharvest.
IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria.
 GROWING CASSAVA

A training manual from production to postharvest

Adebayo B. Abass, Elifatio Towo,

Ivor Mukuka, Richardson
Okechukwu, Roger Ranaivoson,
Gbassey Tarawali and Edward Kanju
 Content

1 Cost-effective mechanization in 12
cass ava production
Cassava stem handling for increased yield 2 Introduction
Background Cost-effective mechanization practices and farm
Preparing healthy cassava stems for planting operations
How to plant cassava cuttings Available machines for commercial to small-to medium-scale
How to produce large quantities of cassava stems cassava production
Highlights Highlights

Zero input technologies to increase yield 6 Harvesting 16

in cassava production When to harvest
How to harvest cassava
Zero input
How to use zero input technologies to get good yields Highlights
Qualities of improved cassava varieties
Inter cropping cassava under zero input Postharvest handling and storage 19
How to increase yield without inputs of fresh roots
Highlights Transporting cassava roots
Storing cassava roots
Highlights
Weed control practices in cassava 9
production
Processing operations and machinery 23
Common weeds found on cassava farms Why cassava is processed
When and how control weed Operations in cassava processing
Chemical control Highlights
Weed control groups
Highlights 9 Conclusion 29
1 Introduction
Cassava is either the first or the second most important staple food in There is also paucity of cassava production specialists, agribusiness
many sub-Saharan African countries. Cassava production and experts, processing and, agro-machinery experts to provide advice to
processing practices remain largely habitual in most of the producing farmers, processors, product assemblers, and other value chain
countries despite the high potentials for its commercial production and actors. The lack of technical advice hinders the ability of small and
processing, its export potential, and its use in local industries to reduce medium scale farmers to improve value chain efficiency and
import expenditure on substitute imported products. Most cassava profitability of their cassava enterprises. It contributes to the inability of
farmers are either not aware of available modern technologies for most farmers to manage cassava production as a business and
growing and processing cassava or lack the ability to use them. hinders processors from upgrading from the traditional rudimentary
processing methods to mechanical, high capacity, efficient and
profitable processing enterprises. Consequently, cassava value
chain actors in Africa are not competitive enough to participate in the
global market.

This training manual was developed based on research results and

field experiences of cassava value chain development experts. It
provides consolidated and relevant set of techno-commercial oriented
information presented with simple annotated drawings to explain the
step-by-step use of improved techniques and tools of cassava
production, handling, processing, storage, quality assurance and
marketing.

The manual will be useful to farmers, processors, marketers, extension

agents and other experts who are supporting cassava
commercialization in Africa. The use of the manual by value chain
actors will enhance their knowledge and capacity to improve efficiency
of their cassava related operations and can increase profitability.
Although new commercial, medium-scale cassava farmers are
beginning to emerge in some cassava growing countries, such as in
DRC, Ghana and Nigeria, most of them use only some and not all
available or recently developed modern techniques that can increase
efficiency of growing and processing cassava. Inability to apply modern
technologies in a holistic or consolidated manner for cassava growing
and processing operations reduces the prospect to maximize profit.

1
2 Cassava stem handling for increased yield

Background

Cassava is propagated by stem cuttings. These cuttings must be

handled properly for good sprouting and establishment. In this section
we look at the best practices in stem handling for increased yield.

Preparing healthy cassava stems for planting

m Obtain stems for planting from mature plants 10–12 months old.
m Store under the shade for 2–5 days (never more than 2 weeks)
before cutting and planting. This makes the stems sprout faster
than when they are planted freshly cut from the field.
m Stems should be stored vertically on the soil under a shade. The
distal end of the stems should touch the soil, which is moistened
regularly, with the surroundings kept free from weeds (Figure 1).
m Handle the stems with care not to destroy the nodes that may
result in losses. Do not make jagged cut surfaces or keep stems
Figure 1. Stored cassava stems under the shed
in the open (leading to drying) (Figure 2).
m Cut stems, with sharp tools, preferably secateurs or cutlasses, m Cuttings can also be planted in a horizontal position in which the
into 25-cm cuttings with 5–7 nodes (Figure 3). cuttings are completely buried in the soil to a depth of 5 cm (Fig 4b).

How to plant cassava cuttings

m Cassava cuttings can be planted in a slanting or angular position

o
(45 ). In this case, the cuttings are buried in the soil with one-third
above the soil surface. Ensure that the buds point upwards. This
is where the cuttings sprout (Fig 4a).

Figure 2. Avoid destroying

nodes and jagged cuts Figure 3. Cassava cuttings

1
2
m Plant the cuttings at a spacing of 1 m × 1 m on the crest of ridges
or mounds as conventionally recommended. This will give a plant
population of 10,000 stands/ha.
m Vertical or angular planting is recommended in areas of high
rainfall
m Horizontal planting is better in dry areas.

Step 2: Remove from the solution and place in perforated transparent

polythene bags for pre-sprouting.

Figure 4a. Planting at 45o Figure 4b. Planting horizontally

How to produce large quantities of cassava stems

Rapid multiplication technique can be used to produce large quantities
of cassava stems as planting materials for subsequent seasons.
m Select and use improved, healthy, and pest/disease free cassava
Step 3: Store in the polythene bags under the shade of a tree or under
stems.
the cassava canopy or in a farm shed for 7–10 days to sprout.
m Cut the stems into several 2-node or 3-node stakes using
secateurs, a sharp knife/machete, or a stake cutting machine.

Rapid multiplication in a nursery using 2-node cassava

stakes:
Step 1: Treat the stakes with available insecticides or fungicides by
measuring out the quantities into a container, add water and
mix thoroughly. For example, 1kg of Neem leaf powder in 5L of
water. Put the stakes into the solution for 10 minutes.

23
Step 4: Prepare the nursery for planting.

Step 5: Expose the polythene bags in the field by placing them on

ridges and mounds, or on the flat ground for 20 minutes.

20–25 cm

Avoid bruising the harvested stems

Step 8: Plant on the main farm.

Step 6:: Transplant the sprouted stakes into the nursery at 2–4 cm
depth at a spacing of 100 cm × 50 cm or 50 cm × 50 cm
in a well prepared rapid multiplication field. Handle the stakes
carefully to avoid breakage. planting:

Transplant only when there is enough moisture in the soil.

Step 1: Treat the stakes with insecticides or fungicides as for the
2-node cuttings treatment.
Step 7: Harvest cassava stems at 6–8 months after planting. To
harvest, cut the stems at a height of 20–25 cm above the
ground level with a sharp machete.
Step 2: Plant the treated stakes directly on the multiplication field using
the appropriate spacing as described in the 2-node
cuttings method (Step 6).

3
4
 Figure 5. 3-node pieces

Highlights

Achieving increased yields of 20–45 t/ha from improved

varieties starts with this critical stage of stem handling. To
ensure increased cassava yields, start right by following the
recommended steps.

45
 Zero input technologies to increase yield in cassava
3 production
Zero input
You can grow cassava using zero input technology. This does not
need chemicals, such as fertilizers and herbicides, or organic
compost. The zero input method encourages biological activity in the
soil and provides natural protection from diseases. It can guarantee
good yields, provided that you select a land with adequate organic
matter, use the right varieties, plant at the right spacing and time,
and ensure a weed-free farm. In this section we look at this
environmentally-friendly farming practice.

How to use zero input technologies to get good yields

Figure 6a. In deep soils cassava Figure 6b. In shallow soils
m Choose a good soil with medium fertility and good drainage. is planted on flat land cassava is planted on mounds to
m Avoid stony, clayey or water-logged soils. increase the topsoil volume per
plant
m Use a farm that has been well maintained.
m Practice minimum tillage in sandy soils to conserve organic
matter, and moisture, and to reduce soil erosion.
m In shallow or hard soils, make ridges or mounds to increase
the topsoil volume per plant for a better establishment (Figure
6a & 6b).
m Choose improved varieties with the highest and most stable
yield performance in the particular farm locations.
m Select planting materials from healthy cassava plants (9-15
months old) without stem or leaf damage from pests or
diseases.
m Handle the stems carefully to avoid bruising or damaging the
nodes and to improve sprouting.

Do not use force when tying the stems in bundles and when Figure 7. Using force when tying the stems in bundles may cause
loading vehicles (Figure 7). breakage

5
6
 Cut the middles of the stems into 25 cm lengths with 5–7 nodes.
Middle portions establish better than the tips and basal parts
(Figure 8).

25 cm 0.8 m

Figure 8. Better cuttings are from the middle portion of the stem 1m

Figure 9b. Non-branching type

 Plant at the right time to ensure healthy sprouting and good crop
establishment. Dry season planting is not recommended when
 Weed the farm early. Early weeding is easier, and prevents weeds
the rains stop early or where the water table is low. There may not
from competing with the crop for nutrients, water, light, and space
be enough moisture to allow sprouting and the stems to survive.
at that important period. If planting early in the rainy season, weed
In general, cassava should be planted when 2 months of
at 4, 8 and 12 weeks after planting. If the rainy season ends before
adequate soil moisture is expected after planting.
this schedule can be completed, continue weeding during the
 Plant at the correct spacing. The recommended planting space is following rainy season at 6–10 weeks after the rains begin.
1m × 1m for branching types and 1m × 0.8m for non-branching
types (Figure 9a & b).
Qualities of improved cassava varieties
 Grow fast and mature early
 Tolerate major diseases and pests.
 Give high root yields (fresh and dry).
 Meet end-users’ quality needs.
 Store well in the ground for 12–15 months.

Intercropping cassava under zero input

 Cassava/maize and cassava/legume intercrops have been found
1m to make better use of the land, reduce soil erosion and the risk of
crop loss.
1m  Cassava can also be intercropped with yam, sweet potato, okra,
and leafy vegetables.
Figure 9a. Branching type

67
m For sole crop cassava, plant on the top of the ridge or heap. When much technical knowledge from the small-scale farmer. But you
intercropped with maize, plant cassava on the top and maize on must use the crop husbandry practices mentioned in this
the side of the ridge or mound. manual. This environmentally-friendly farming strategy is more
m Where cassava is grown as an intercrop, adjust the spacing from suitable for cassava than crops such as maize, rice, and
0.8m × 1m to 1m × 1m to suit the branching habits of cassava and sorghum that have a high demand for fertilizer.
the other crop(s). m High yielding and healthy planting materials can be received or
purchased from your country’s cassava Research Institutes,
How to increase yield without purchasing soil Cassava Program or Root and Tuber Programs.
nutrient-enhancing inputs m Good planting materials can be purchased from trained and
individual farmers, farmers’ associations or seed companies
m Plant leguminous crops such as soybean in rotations or intercrops, which multiply cassava for sale in your area.
or Mucuna in fallows. This helps to sustain soil fertility and quality,
and to manage water, noxious weeds (spear grass), pests and
diseases.
m Mulch cassava seedbeds: This means covering the soil surface
with plant materials. It is especially valuable when growing
cassava in dry areas and on slopes. It has these advantages:
l Increases the ability of the soil to hold water
l Improves the fertility of the soil.
for plant growth.
l Reduces erosion and weed problems.
m Sources of good mulching material include dead leaves from
alley crops, rice husks, coffee hulls, crop/weed residues and
leguminous plants (live mulch).
m Cover crops such as Mucuna, Centrosema, and Aeschynomene,
when used as live mulch are usually incorporated into the soil
before the crop is planted.

Highlights
m A good yield of cassava can be achieved without chemicals since
these are often unavailable or too expensive, and demand too

7
8
4 Weed control practices in cassava production
Controlling weeds in sub-Saharan Africa takes up to 60% of the labor  Tillage
in crop production and more than 40% of the total cost of growing  Mulching
cassava. In this section we look at efficient and cost-effective weed  Burning
control practices in cassava production.
 Cropping system such as cover crops (Figure 11)

Common weeds found on cassava farms

There are two broad categories: annual and perennial weeds. Weeds
can further be grouped into broad leaved weeds, grasses, and sedges
Broad leaved weeds – Chromolaena odorata, Commelina
benghalensis, Euphorbia heterophylla, Aspilia africana and
Mimosa spp.
Grasses – Imperata cylindrica, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum
maximum, and Pennisetum polystachion
Sedges – Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus sculentus, Mariscus
alternifolius, and Mariscus labelliformis
Figure 10. Hand/hoe weeding
When and how to control weed

Weeds are controlled so that cassava grows and develops well.

Control weeds in the 3-4 months after planting (MAP).

Biological method: Biological weed control techniques suppress

weed growth.
 Fallowing
 Plant density and canopy management
Cultural method: Good crop husbandry minimizes weed
interference: 3
 Hand/hoe weeding (Fig 10)
Figure 11. Cover crop
89
 m Preventing the spread of weed seeds
Chemical method: Herbicides kill or damage weeds .
Herbicides can be applied before land preparation
(pre-tillage), immediately after land preparation (pre-planting),
and 4–8 months after planting (post-emergence).

Chemical control

m To control hard-to-kill perennial weeds that hand-pulling

cannot remove.
m To avoid damaging cassava roots.
m To control annual weeds that grow quickly and produce many
seeds. Figure 12. Pre-planting Figure 13. Pre-emergence
application application
m To increase yield, reduce labor and weed interference
m To cost-effectively and quickly cultivate large farms.

When and how to apply chemicals

m Pre-planting: Use herbicides containing glyph sate at (3–4 L/ha),

10 days before land preparation (Figure 12).
m Pre-emergence : Depending on availability, use (Atropine +
Metolachlor) at 4 L/ha, or Atrazine + Pendimethalin at 4-6
L/ha, or Fluometuron + Metolachlor at 5 L/ ha, or Fluome-
turon+ Pendimethalin at 4 L/ha (Figure 13).
m Post-emergence: Use Fusilade Forte 150EC recommended at
5–6 L/ha at 12 weeks after planting, for grasses. Apply Diuron
+ Paraquat at 7 L/ha (directed spray) 4–8 weeks after planting
(early post emergence) for broad leaved weeds. Avoid direct or
drift damage to the crop (Figure 14).

Figure 14. Post-emergence

application

10
Tips for successful chemical weed control
m Choose the right herbicide for the job.
m Check and calibrate the sprayer.
m Know the spray volume needed. Standard spray volume is 200 L/
ha, speed and walking is 1 m/sec or 3.6 km/h.
m Wear the right protective clothing.
m Follow the maker’s instruction for every herbicide. READ THE
LABEL AND HEED THE LABEL (Five times: 1 before purchase,
2 before mixing, 3 before application, 4 at storage and 5 before Figure 15. Read the label and
disposing of the excess herbicide) (Fig 15). a) Before purchase

m Dilute the herbicide correctly. Too much is dangerous: too little

does not work.
m Watch the weather. Do not spray on windy days or in very dry
weather or when heavy rain is likely.
m Buy the amount needed for one spraying or for one growing
season.
m Store herbicides correctly.
m Maintain the sprayer in good condition.

Weed control groups b) Before mixing c) Before application

Agricultural extension departments of Ministry of Agriculture or Local

Government Administration are encouraged to organize trainable youth
to become weed control groups in various localities. These groups and
herbicide companies should be linked. The companies can provide
training to the youth to help farmers choose and apply herbicides
correctly.

Highlights
A combination of cost-effective cultural, biological, and chemical
methods is needed for good, affordable weed management in cassava
e) Before disposing of the
production. Chemical and biological control methods require technical
d) At storage excess herbicide
knowledge.
11
5 Cost-effective mechanization in cassava production
Introduction
Cassava production in Africa is mostly in the hands of small-
holder farmers who depend on costly manual labor. Full of
using improved inputs, such as improved varieties, fertilizers, and Figure 16 :
D6 light bulldozer
herbicides in boosting cassava production, cannot be achieved
without mechanization. This section, provides a guide on
mechanization in cassava production and focuses on small-scale
mechanization for farms between 1–20 ha.

Cost-efficient mechanization practices and farm m Light bulldozers such as D6 or D65, can clear 2 or more ha in 1
operations day in fallow areas, depending on the vegetation. The bulldozers
push down the trees and shrubs and the blade is not allowed to
m Cost-efficient mechanization means that all costs touch the topsoil.
are covered and the farmer enjoys a good
m Bulldozers are used only on dry soils, particularly during the dry
m Land clearing, tillage, planting, fertilizer application, season, to avoid compaction.
weed control, and harvesting can be mechanized.
m Whenever bulldozers are not necessary or not available, the
m The level of mechanization can be small, medium, monkey winch is the next most efficient machine for land clearing.
or large, depending on the land area.
m It can clear 1 ha in half the time that would be taken to do the
m Careful planning is required because buying or hiring work by hand.
machinery is an expensive undertaking for a small holder.
m Monkey winch is usefull in felling trees, pulling out roots of the
m The right machines and a suitable schedule for trees without damaging the soil and it is easy to take to the field
operations are needed. because of its light weight.
m Terrain, soil type, and rainfall are all important when m The chain saw is portable and very useful for felling trees and
the farmer is choosing machines. cutting down shrubs but it cannot be used to uproot stumps.
Available machines for commercial small- to m For higher efficiency, it is usually combined with the monkey
winch, or the stumps are removed by hand.
medium-scale cassava production
m The brush-cutter is designed to clear grasses, small bushes, and
1. Land clearing shrubs.
m Land clearing can be mechanized using light bulldozers, monkey m With a medium powered brush-cutter, a farmer can clear 1 ha of
winches, monkey jacks and chain saws. land in less than 2 hours.
12
 Uprooting a stump Felling a tree with 2. Tillage
with monkey jack monkey winch

 Tillage loosens and aerates the soil, and mixes organic matter
and nutrients fairly evenly; roots can penetrate more deeply and
plants are established better.
 In fallow land, it takes 40 to 50 people one day to till one ha by
hand and make mounds. In the savannas, it takes 25% less labor
to do the same work.
 Soil tillage can be mechanized using tractor-mounted plows or
Figure 17. Monkey winch power tillers (Figure 22).
 The most common plows in Tanzania, for example, are the disc
type. They are designed to break, turn, mix, and raise soil.
Rolling a heavy log
with monkey jack
Figure 18. Using monkey winch  A trained operator can plow 4 ha in a day. A disc plow is cost
and monkey jack saving and faster than tillage by hand.
 The use of a power tiller is the next most efficient machine for soil
tillage whenever tractor-mounted plows are not necessary or not
available (Fig 23).
 It can till 1.0–1.8 ha in 8 hours, depending on how wet and heavy
the soil is.
 Many small farmers could contribute funds to buy 1 power tiller
that can service at least 250 ha of land in a year.

Figure 19. Chain saw Figure 20. Cutting tree by chain

saw

Figure 22. Tractor-mounted Figure 23. Power tiller

plough

Figure 21 a and b. Clearing grasses and bushes using a brush

cutter
13
3. Planting

m Depending on the type of planter, cassava stems are usually

cut into 20–25 cm long stakes or cuttings stakes or cuttings
which are planted horizontally, inclined, or vertically on
m Generally farmers plant by hand and it takes 8–10 persons
to plant 1 ha in 1 day (Figure 24).
m Cassava planting can be mechanized using tractor-powered
planters (Figure 25). Mechanical planters are suitable for
large-scale planting. For small- or medium-scale farmers, hiring
a mechanical planter and paying a fee for planting could be
more cost-effective.
m A 2-row planter can plant 7–10 ha in 1 day, depending on
the terrain.
m It is faster and 50% less expensive than planting by hand.
m The planter requires a tractor 60–70 hp, especially in soils likely
to become compacted. Four people are often required to
operate a 2-row planter: a tractor driver, two people to feed the
stakes into the planter and one person on the ground.
m The cuttings need to be the same length, size, and shape with Figure 24. Farmers planting cassava by hand
cleanly cut ends. Stem cuttings could be prepared by hand
using simple tools such as hacksaws or a small motorized
chain saw. A cassava stem cutting machine has also been m Stem cuttings could be prepared by hand using simple tools such
developed. as hacksaws or a small motorized chain saw. A cassava stem
m Some mechanical planters can simultaneously cut cassava cutting machine has also been developed.
stems to stakes of constant length, plant at equidistance, apply
fertilizer, and cover the planted stakes. Generally this type of
5. Weeding
mechanical planter can plant 3–6ha in 1 day.
m Weeds reduce crop yield. Weeding is the most expensive item in
How to plant cassava by machine cassava production.
m Weeds can be controlled with use of herbicides and a boom
m The cuttings need to be the same length, size, and shape sprayer mounted on a tractor.
with cleanly cut ends. m Boom sprayers have a tank which can carry 400–610 liters of

14
 the chemical. They reduce the cost of labor, and save time and
energy.
 The knapsack sprayer is also used and is hand-operated. It takes
a lot of time and is not cost-effective but it works well for small-
scale farmers.

Highlights

A suitable mechanized production system developed with care

can reduce the labor requirement and operational costs. Farmers
are advised to carefully select the machines required for the
operations, depending on their scale of production, to avoid
choosing a production method too expensive for the work. Many
of the States/Local Government Areas and the private sector in
many countries have institutions responsible for mechanical
machine hiring services. African governments are encouraged to
make agriculture machine hiring services to be functional,
organized, and accessible. Farmers are therefore encouraged to
take advantage of these services.

Figure 25.
Mechanical cassava
planting

15
6 Harvesting
When to harvest to inaccurate weight records. Also, the roots may be very dirty and
highly contaminated when peeled, thereby requiring large volume
Cassava roots should be harvested at peak of maturity or at the right of water and extended time to wash the peeled roots thoroughly.
age, size and tenderness required for fresh market (use of roots as a
snack or home cooking). Fully matured cassava roots should be How to harvest cassava
harvested for processing.
Cassava roots are harvested by pulling the stem which carries the
Cassava roots may lose the valuable starch, rot or become woody if roots out of the ground. Harvesting could be done manually or by
not harvested at maturity. They are exposed to rodents and the land mechanical methods.
cannot be put into productive use in the next season if the roots are
not harvested. This contributes to the general agriculture outputs in Manual method:
smallholder systems and can cause shortage of land and increase
m Cut the plant at about 30–50 cm above the ground; use the stem
production costs, especially in places where land is scarce.
to lift the roots.
This section provides a guide on proper harvesting and postharvest m Pull the plant gently and do not drag the roots. Dragging can cause
handling of cassava. bruises and cuts which may lead to early deterioration (Figure
26).
m Harvest cassava roots when they are mature to have accumu-
lated enough starch but have not yet become fibrous.
m The optimum age when the starch and dry matter yields are
highest is 9 – 12 months after planting, depending on the variety
and the climate. Some varieties mature in 15 – 18 months.
Extended cold season may delay the maturity of cassava.
m Harvesting too early results in a low yield while delayed harvesting
could reduce yield.
m Harvest cassava when the soil is slightly soft but has no excessive
water so hat you can easily remove soil from the roots. Harvesting
in soft soil is easier than when the soil is harder. Roots harvested
in soggy conditions get soil stuck between them and this can lead

Figure 26. Harvesting

16
m If the soil is compact, loosen it but take care not to damage m After harvesting, do not leave the roots under the sun. Too much
the roots (Figure 27). heat causes weight loss and early deterioration.
m Manual method of harvesting usually requires 40-60 persons,
depending on the season, to harvest 1 ha of cassava in 1 day.

Mechanical methods:
Cassava lifter
m This equipment is manually operated and reduces the drudgery
in lifting tubers (Figure 29).
m The jaws will grip the base of the stem tightly.
m The lever is then used to lift the roots.
m The lifter can harvest up to 200 plants/hour.

Figure 27. Loosen hard soils

m Separate the roots from the stem using a sharp knife or cutlass.
Cut each root near to the stem. Do not break the roots from the
stump by hand. This will cause injuries which lead to root rot
(Figure 28).

Figure 29 . Cassava lifter

Figure 28. Cut each root near to the stem

17
Motorized cassava harvester Highlights

m The mechanical harvester cuts, digs, and raises up soil containing Harvesting requires proper planning in terms of timing and method
the cassava root cluster. to be used. Manual harvesting is labor intensive and expensive.
m The equipment is usually pulled by a tractor and used by large- To reduce cost in a commercial operation, farmers are advised to
scale farmers (Figure 30). harvest the roots using mechanical methods. To avoid loss of quality
m A 2-row mechanical harvester can harvest 3-5 ha cassava farm in and quantity of roots (postharvest losses), the amount of roots to be
1 day, depending on the terrain. It is faster and 50% cheaper than harvested should be gauged depending on immediate market demand
harvesting by hand. Mechanical harvesters can be imported or or quantity needed for immediate processing.
bought locally.

Figure 30. Motorized cassava harvester

18
7 Postharvest handling and storage of fresh roots
Cassava tubers attached to the main stem can remain safely in the Storing cassava roots
ground for several months. However, after harvest the roots start Cassava roots start deteriorating soon after harvesting. Internal
deteriorating within 2 – 3 days, and rapidly become of little value for discoloration and loss of marketing value occur if they are not cooked
consumption or industrial use. or processed within 24 – 48 hour of harvesting. Secondary fungi and
bacteria infection may cause rot in untreated roots.
This section, provides a guide on post-harvest handling and storage
of cassava.

Transporting cassava roots

To avoid root deterioration and loss of quality, transport to the homestead,
market or processing plant immediately after harvesting.

How to transport cassava roots

m Use wheel barrows or any other suitable container to transport
roots in small quantities and short distances, such as from the
farm to road side or bulking center where they will be loaded on a
vehicle for long distance transportation.
m Gently off load the roots from the wheelbarrow or container without Figure 31. Transportation of cassava roots
causing bruises or damage to the roots
m Vehicles transporting cassava a long distance should be covered
with tarpaulin to avoid rapid moisture loss from the roots (Figure
31).
m Use oxen-cart for transportation especially in the rural areas
where there are no paved roads or the roads are not passable to
vehicles (Figure 32)
m Carefully sort and arrange roots neatly in the vehicle or cart to
save space
m Do not seat or put heavy objects such as vehicle tyres on roots
after loading.
Figure 32. Oxen-cart loaded with cassava roots
19
1
How to store cassava roots m Dig trenches measuring 1 meter (m) wide and 30–40 cm deep.
The length varies according to the volume of roots. A trench 1 m
Traditional storage methods
long can contain 70–80 kg of roots.
m Cassava roots are left underground after maturity and harvested m Dig the trenches in such a way that the length is directed
in piecemeal when needed. This practice is common when downhill.
cassava is used for food security. However, it is not m At the lower end of the trench, make a drainage ditch, at least 20
recommended for commercial practice. cm wide and 5 to 10 cm deeper than the storage trench.
m Cassava roots are heaped under shade and watered everyday. m Arrange mature, undamaged roots inside the trench. Cover each
m Undamaged roots are stored in pits or trenches(usually 1 meter layer with soil, preferably river- sand or sea- sand. Clay-loam soil
long and 30-40cm wide) dug in well drained soils, sloppy and can also be used if it is not too wet.
shaded area. The trenches, with the long side directed downhill m Do not use heavy clay. Soil of this type could speed up root
are lined with straw and dried leaves before roots are arranged deterioration.
in them after which the roots are covered with soil, preferably m Do not keep cassava in a waterlogged area because roots will rot
river-sand or sea-sand. Water-logged areas and heavy clay for easily.
covering should be avoided.
m Cassava roots are coated with clay or mud. Storage in sawdust
m Freshly harvested or peeled roots are stored for 1 – 2 days by m Select healthy roots that were not damaged or bruised and were
completely submerging in water. The roots are simultaneously harvested no longer than 24 hours.
detoxified but may ferment or spoil after 3 days, m Put a layer of damp sawdust in wooden crates or baskets lined
m Storage by heaping or soaking, in pits, or by coating extends with plastic foils that prevent the sawdust from drying up.
the shelf life of the roots by only 2–3 days. This is not suitable
m Arrange the roots in alternate layers of damp sawdust in the
for commercial operations.
wooden crate and store (Figure 33).
How to reduce postharvest losses m To avoid microbial spoilage, the sawdust must be damp, not too
m Harvest when the soil is wet or loose. wet.
m When harvesting, cut the roots from the stem leaving 2-5cm of
the stuck on the roots.
m Avoid bruises or damage to the roots during harvesting and
transportation.
m Select uninjured roots if storage of more than 1 week is desired.
m Treat unpeeled roots with fungicides before storage.
Improved storage methods
m Select a well-drained area, preferably shaded,
and slightly sloping.
Figure 33. Storage in sawdust
20
1
Storage in clamps This method works best for farmers, marketers or processors to hold
large stocks of non-bruised or undamaged roots for up to 4 weeks
m The method is practical where fresh (sweet) roots are without quality loss.
marketed over many days for fresh uses or transported Storage in polythene bags
over long distances. The storage period is about 1 month.
m Choose a dry spot in the farm or processing area and dig m Treat non-bruised or undamaged roots with fungicide such as
a shallow trench. thiabendazole solution (0.4% w/w) to avoid microbial spoilage.
m Place a layer of straw, add a layer of selected undamaged Alternatively, household bleach (0.95% active chlorine) could be
roots to form a cone or mound shape (Figure 34). used.
m Vacuum pack in polythene bags, which makes it air tight and
creates the atmosphere (reduced oxygen and appropriate
humidity) for the storage. (Figure 35).

Straw

Soil

Figure 35. Fungicide treated roots stored in polythene bags

m Keep the package at ambient temperatures

m The storage period is 2 – 4 weeks.
Figure 34. Field clamp with cassava
Storage in refrigerators
m Add 20cms of straw, then cover the clamp with soil, leaving
openings at the bottom for ventilation, to maintain temperature m Select healthy (non-bruised or undamaged) roots.
below 40°C for curing wounds and for the storage. m Wash with cool chlorinated water
m Ensure proper ventilation and that the floor remains dry. m Pack or vacuum pack in nylon bags
m Store in the refrigerator at below 4oC.

21
The cassava roots can be stored for about a month but they may lose
same moisture. However, their texture and taste may not be
significantly affected.

Freezing

m Select healthy roots

m Wash and freeze the roots. Peeling and/or cutting into small
sizes are optional. Store the roots whole or cut up in frozen
condition (Figure 36).
Figure 37. Waxed cassava in ventilated cartons.
Freezing is suitable for long term storage and long distance marketing
but the textural quality of the frozen roots may be affected. To reduce
texture damage, apply blast freezing to quickly freeze the roots. Waxing is done for commercial export of roots.Waxing slows down
respiration rate and transpiration, and prevents physiological
deterioration.

Highlights

The improved storage methods for roots help to extend shelf life of
stocks of fresh roots by 2 – 6 weeks. The methods are suitable for
storing small amounts of roots by consumers, restaurant operators
and itinerant food vendors. Low temperature storage can be combined
with fungicide treatment or waxing and is suitable for export of large
Figure 36. Frozen cassava amount of roots. In this case, the processors or exporters can afford
the needed specialized equipment and have the necessary technical
Waxing
skills while the consumers can afford the higher cost.
m Wash non-bruised or undamaged roots in chlorinated cooled
water.
m Dip in melted paraffin wax at a temperature of 51.5°C–52.5°C.
m Edible coating/film formulated with cassava starch, glycerol,
carnauba wax and stearic acid have been tested for waxing of
cassava roots and were found suitable.
m Pack in well ventilated cartons (Figure 37)

22
1
8 Processing operations and machinery
This section provides a guide on processing of cassava into highly
valuable products at both large and small scale.

Why cassava is processed

Cassava is processed for many reasons. These include:
m To increase shelf life of roots and prevent spoilage or food loss
m To reduce bulkiness, ease transportation and reduce the cost
m To remove the toxic compounds in cassava
m To create varieties of foods with acceptable taste, aroma and
Figure 38a. Mechanical peeler
texture
m To produce industrial raw materials.

Operations in cassava processing

There are many operations used for processing cassava. These
operations include peeling, washing, size reduction, drying,
fermenting, cooking by steaming, roasting, frying, etc. These
processing operations are combined in different sequence to make
different products such as granules, dried chips/flour, pastes, Figure 38b. Mechanical peeler
fermented starch, etc.
Peeling
Cassava is peeled to improve the quality and safety of cassava foods.
Nearly all cassava products are made by first peeling the roots.
m Peeling is labor intensive, slow and is done manually mostly by
women. A woman may peel 20 -25 kg roots in one hour and
peeling loss could be between 22% and 30%.

m Mechanical peelers are now available in countries such as

Brazil, DRC and Nigeria (Figure 38a & 38b).Peelers that peel
and wash cassava are also available (Figure 39).

m Mechanical peelers in Nigeria, although they are still being

improved, can peel between 600kg and 800k roots per hour, Figure 39. Mechanical peeler and washer
removing 60-90% of the peels.
23
Efforts are ongoing to reducethe high (up to 30%) peeling loss for
some of the designs.

Some mechanical peelers (and graters) in Nigeria are mobile. The

machines are transported with power tillers or tricycles to the farm or
remote villages to carry out the two or three processing operations -
peeling, grating and pressing at farm gate. This approach can
eliminate transportation of bulky fresh roots to long distances before
processing and can reduce the cost of the processing operation by
nearly 50%. It can significantly increase access of farmers in remote
villages to mechanical processing machines and increase the
amount of processed products produced by such farmers.

Size reduction

m Size reduction facilitates detoxification and drying of cassava.

Size reduction is mostly by chipping, slicing, and grating.

m Grating is widely used for making gari or rale, starch, flour,

and some other products. Manual grating is labor-intensive
and exposes the women processors to injuries. Figure 40. Mechanical chipper

m Grating is very efficient in hydrolyzing more than 95% of the

toxic compounds within 3 hrs, after which the compounds can
be almost entirely removed by dewatering.

m Chipping, although is a new technique compared to grating, is

used for making dried chips that could be milled to flour if
lowcyanide cassava variety is processed or for making animal
feed from any cassava variety.

m Commercial mechanical chippers (Figure 40) and graters

(Figure 41) could process 2-3 tons of fresh roots per hour,
significantly reducing labor inputs and saving time for women

Dewatering

m Dewatering or removal of water facilitates of cassava, drying

of fermented or fresh mash.
Processed cassava is dewatered during making of gari, high
m quality flour starch, fufu, etc. Figure 41. Mechanical grater

24
1
 m Traditional methods of dewatering cassava with heavy stones
and logs are dangerous, labor-intensive and slow.

m Mechanized single-screw, double-screw, hydraulic, and

double basket presses have replaced the traditional methods
(Figure 42).

m There are on-going research efforts at IITA and some

Nigerian universities to develop machines that will grate and
dewater cassava in a single operation.

Drying

m Cassava is traditionally dried to increase storability. Roots are

dried to 12-14% moisture before storage. The most
commontraditional method of drying cassava is sun-drying
(sun-heat and wind) on the ground in the farm, road-side,
around the homestead, on roof tops, etc. Sometimes the roots
are dried on-top of or cooking places in the homes.

m These methods are prone to microbial contamination,

infestation by insects and is slow, especially during the rainy
season when drying could take 2-3 weeks. These promote
poor quality and insect infestation.

m The poor quality of the product (discolored, changed tastes,

offensive smell, etc) lead to poor market acceptability and low
prices.

m An improvement to this is the drying of cassava on raised

platformson black polythene sheet (Figure 43).

m For large scale processing, mechanical drying of cassava is

the most suitable. It hastens the drying operation thereby
saving time, preventing insect infestation, and preserving
color, taste and smell.

m Many types of mechanical cassava dryers are now available,

these include cabinet, rotary, tunnel, solar, and flash dryers.
Sources of heat energy for dryers are electricity, sun, wood,
Figure 42. Hydraulic dewatering machine charcoal, gas, diesel, etc.

25
1
 Figure 43. Raised platform drying

Some of the factors that increase the profitability of cassava drying

operations are:
Figure 44. Cabinet dryer
Use of dryers with the appropriate drying capacity
high drying efficiency through low energy-use, lowfuel-consumption,
or low heat-loss. Milling
m Dried cassava is mostly made into flour before home or
m Cabinet (Figure 44 ) and rotary dryers using charcoal, wood or industrial use.
agricultural wastes are being tested in Nigeria, Ghana,
Madagascar, Tanzania and Zambia. m The traditional method of milling dried cassava for home use is
pounding. The method is labor-intensive and slow.
m Flash dryers (Figure 45) are used for large-volume rapid drying
of cassava starch, fermented pulp (fufu), grated and pressed m Milling machines for grains and other crops are very common
cassava into flour, etc. and are used for milling of cassava. The appropriate fineness of
milled cassava depends on its final use (Figure 46).
m The amount of roots that can be sourced should be considered
when choosing a dryer. Drying capacity excessively higher than m Cassava for animal feed should be milled gritty, flour for home
the available cassava roots will be wasteful and might make the use needs to be fine while the flour for bread baking and starch
drying operation too expensive, reducing profitability. must be very fine.
26
 Figure 46. Milling machine

Gari frying:
Gari is made by roasting or frying cassava granules until cooked and
dried (Figure 47 & 48). The traditional frying method exposes women
to heat, smoke and possible inhaling of free cyanide. Mechanical fryers
reduce these risks and increase gari output.

Packaging and storage:

Cassava products, fermented or unfermented chips, flour, starch,
etc. are hygroscopic. The moisture absorbed from the atmosphere
promotes mould growth and spoilage. The growth of mycotoxigenic
fungi such as Aspergillus flavus may increase the risk of mycotoxin
contamination of mouldy cassava products.
m The traditional methods of storing dried cassava exposed to the
moisture in the atmosphere in porous bags, on the floor, orin the
arctic. The methods are not effective against moisture absorption,
mould growth, and insect damage.Prostephanustruncatus(Horn),
Dinoderusminutusand Tribolium sp. are the common insects that
Figure 45. Flash dryer damage dried cassava.

27
 m Proper packaging and appropriate storage conditions will preserve
quality characteristics and shelf life of cassava products.
m Packaging materials and storage conditions to be used for
cassava products must prevent the products from reabsorbing
moisture, andshould avoid infestation by pest insects.
m Polythene bags, paper or polypropylene bags lined with
polytheneare suitable for packaging of cassava products. (Figure

Figure 47. Mechanical gari fryer

Figure 49. Improved packaging for supermarket sale

Highlights:

The traditional processing techniques are laborious, time wasting

and may result in poor products. Mechanization of cassava
processing can solve these constraints of cassava processing.
The choice of machines for making a cassava product depends
on the unit operations involved in its production process. Machine
capacity should be selected based on quantity of roots available or
that can be sourced while packaging and storage systems should
aim at preventingprocessed cassava products from reabsorbing
Figure 48. Firewood stove
moisture, mould growth and infestation by spoilage insects.

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9 Conclusion
Achieving increased yields starts with the selection of high In the case of storage and packaging of fresh cassava, for a short
quality planting materials and adopting proper planting or long time, the choice of storage technique depends on the
procedures. The use of good agronomic practices that eliminate form in which the cassava will be used or consumed at the end of
the use of chemicals or fertilizers can guarantee good yields of storage, the intended storage period, and the level of freshness
cassava at low costs and at the same time be friendly to the required. In any case, it is beneficial to use improved storage
environment. A good agronomic practice starts with selecting methods that are cost effective. If processing is desired,
varieties that are high yielding and by sourcing healthy planting improved mechanized processing methods are preferred to the
materials from specialized institutions, certified individual traditional processing techniques, which are labor and time wast-
farmers, farmers associations, or seed companies. In addition, ing, and may not guarantee quality and safety. The use of
cassava farmers need to seek advice or service on weed control efficient and low-cost machinery and packaging system can
from trained personnel who have the relevant technical guarantee the demand for the products high profitability for the
knowledge and experience. Such expertises are usually processor.
available at research and extension centers specializing on
cassava. Therefore, these subject matter specialists are either References
very few or are located too from majority of the farmers. In order ICS-Nigeria (2003) Growing cassava in Nigeria, IITA Ibadan,
to increase the quality of service provision to farmers, the Nigeria.
agriculture ministries of cassava producing countries may
consider establishing training programs to transfer these skills to
educated youth in the rural areas and equip them with the
necessary tools to provide these services to farmers in their
localities.

Cost-efficient mechanization of cassava production up to

harvesting and bulk transportation of harvested roots to point of
processing or sale is necessary to enable farmers have the full
benefits of using improved inputs, such as improved varieties,
fertilizers, and herbicides. To reduce the labor requirement, a
farmer may choose to hire his/her implements or processing
machinery from implement hiring institutions or buy them. A
careful selection of such implement will enable farmers and
processors reduce operational costs.

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This training manual was developed based on research results and field experiences of cassava value chain
development experts. It provides consolidated and relevant set of techno-commercial oriented information
presented with simple annotated drawings to explain the step-by-step use of improved techniques and tools of
cassava production, handling, processing, storage, quality assurance and marketing. The manual will be useful
to farmers, processors, marketers, extension agents and other experts who are supporting cassava
commercialization in Africa. The use of the manual by value chain actors will enhance their knowledge and
capacity to improve efficiency of their cassava related operations and can increase profitability.

The manual will be useful to farmers, processors, marketers, extension agents and other experts who are
suporting cassava commercialization in Africa.