UNIT 4 REAL FUNCTIONS

STRUCTURE
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Algebraic Functions
Algebraic Combinations bf unctions
Notion of an Algebraic Function
Polynomial Functions
Rational Functions
Irrational Functions

I 4.3 ~ranscendentalFunctions
Trigonometric Functions
Logarithmic Functions
Exponential Functions

4.4 Some Special Functions

Bounded Functions
I I
I
I 4.5 Summary

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Real Analysis is often referred to as the Theory of Real ~unctions.The word

'function' was first introduced in 1694 by L.G. Leibniz [1646-17161, a famoll German
mathematician, who is also credited along with Isacc Newton for the invention.of
Calculus, Leibniz used the term functian to denote a quantity connected with a curve.
A Swiss mathematician, L. Euler [1707-17831 treated function as an expression made
up of a variablt and some constants. Euler's idea of a function was later generalized
by an eminent French mathematician J. Fourier 11768-18301. Another German
mathematician, L. Dirichlet (1805-1859) defined function as a.relationship between a
variable (called an independent variable) and another variable (called the dependent
variable). This is the definition which, you know, is now used in Calculus.

The concept of a function has undergone many refinements. With the advent of Set
Theory in 1895, this concept was modified as a correspondence between any two non-
empty sets. Given any twa non-empty sets S and T, a function f'from S into T,
denoted as f: S 4 T, defines a rule which assigns to each x E S, a unique element
' Leonard Eulcr '
y-ET. This is expressed by writing is y =.f (x). This definition, as you will recall, was
given in Section 1.2. A function fi S -4-
T is said to be a

(i) Complex-valued function of a complex variable if both S and T are sets of

complex numbers;
(ii) Complex-valued functiop of a real variable if S is a set of real numbers and T is
a set of compler numbers;
. (iii) Real-valued function of a comp(lex variable if S is a set of complex numbers and
T i a set of real numbers;
f,
(iv) . R e -valued function of a real variable if both S and T are some sets of real
numbers,
.Since we are d e a b g v & h the course on Real Analysis, we shall confine our discussion
t'o those functions whose donlains'as well as codomains are s6me subsets of the set of
real numbers. We shall call such,functions as Real Functions. ,
In this unit, we shall deal with the algebraic and transcendental functions. .Amorig the
transcandental functions, we shall define the trigonometric functions, the exponential
and logarithmic functions. Also, we shall talk about some special real functions
including the bounded and monotonic functions. We shall frequently use these
68 functions to illustrate various concepts in Blocks 3 and 4.
 Real Functions

After going through this unit, you should be able to

+identify various types of algebraic functions
-+define the trigonometric and the inverse trigonometric functions
-+describe the exponential and logarithmic functions
-+discuss some special functions including ths bounded and monotonic functions.

4.2 ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

In Unit 1, we identified the set of natural numbers and built up various sets of
numbers with the help of the algebraic operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division etc. In the same way, let us construct new functions from the
real functions which we have chosen for our discussion. Before we do so, let us
review the algebraic combinations of the functions under the operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division on the real-functions.

4.2.1 ALGEBRAIC COMBINATIONS O F FUNCTIONS

Let f and g b e any two real functions with tlie same domain S C R and their co-
domain as the set R of real numbers. Then we have the following definitions:
DEFINITION 1: SUM AND DIFFERENCE O F TWO FUNCTIONS
(i) The Sum of f and g, denoted a s f + g, is a function defined from S into R such
that
(f + g) (x) = f(x) -I-g(x), If x E S.
(ii) The Difference o f f i n d g, denoted as f - g, is a f u n c t i h defined from S to R
such that
(f - g) (x) = f(x) - g(x), IfxG S.
Note that both f(x) and g (x) are elements of R. Hence each of their sum and
difference is again a unique member of R.
DEFINITION 2: PRODUCT O F TWO FUNCTIONS
Let f: S -+R and g: S ' E be any two functions. The product o f f and g, denoted as
fag,is defined as a function f. g: S ' R by
(f . g) (x) = f(x) . g(x), it x E S .
DEFINITION 3: SCALAR MULTIPLE O F A FUNCTION
Let f: S R be a function and
-+

k be same fixed real number. Then the scalar multiple of 'f' is a function
kfS -+R defined by
(kf (x) = k. f(x), 9 x E S.
This is also called the scalar multiplication.
DEFINITION 4: QUOTIENT O F TWO FUNCTIONS
Let f: S R and g: S 'R be any two functions such that g(x) # 0 for each
-+

-
x in S. Then s function!: S + R defined by
g
(t) ----&
( x ) = f(x) V x E S

is called the quotient of the two functions.

-
EX'ERCISE 1)
Let f, g, h be any three functions, defined on S and taking values in R, as
f (x) = ax 2, g(x) = bx for every x in S, where a, b, are fixed real numbers. Find f + g,
f - g, f , g, f / g and kf, when k is a constant.

4.2.2 NOTION O F AN ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION

+ +
You are quite familiar with the equations ax b = 0 and ax2 bx -t c = 0,where
a, b, c E R, a Z 0. These equations, a s you know are, called linear (or first degree) and
l e a l Numbers and Functions quadratic (or second degree) equations, respectively. The expressions ax b and +
+ +
ax2 bx c are, respectively, called the first and second degree polynomials in x. In
+
the same way an expression of the form ax' bx2 cx d (a # 0, a, b, c, d ER) is
called a third degree polynomial (cubic polynomial) in x. In general, an expression of
+
the form ao xn a, x"l + +
a2 x " - ~ ...,4-a,, where a, P 0, ar ER, i = 0, 1,2, ...., n, is
called an nth degree polynomial in x.
A function which is expressed in the form of such a polynomial is called a polynomial
function. Thus, we have the following definition:
DEFINITION 5:*POLYNOMIALFUNCTION

integer. Let S be a subset of R. A function f: S -

Let 81(i = 0,1, ...., n) be fixed real numbers where n is some fixed non-negative
R defmed by

is called a polynomial function of degree n.

Let us consider some particular cases of a polynomial function on R:
Suppose f: S "R is such that
(i) f(x) = k, V x ES (k is a fixed real number). This is a polynomial function. This is
generally called a constant function on S.
For example,
f(x) = 2, f(x) = - 3,f(x)= T,tf xE R, are all constant functions.
(ii) One special case of a constant function is, obtained by taking
k = 0 i.e. when
f(x) = 0 , v x E S.
This is called the zero function on S

EXERCISE 2)
Draw the.graph of a constant function. Draw the graph of the zero function.

Let f: S 'R be such that

+
(iii) f(x) = a, x a,, f f x ES, a,# 0.
This is a polynomial function and is called a linear function on S. For example,
qx) = 2x f 3, f(x) = - 2 x+3,
f(x) = 2x - 3, f(x) = -.2x - 3, f(x) = 2x' for every
x E S are all linear functions

(iv) The function f: S R defined by

f(x) = x , f f x E S
1 s called the identity function on S.,
.
(v) fi S ' R given as
f(x),=ao.t2+at x + a2,VxER,ao#O.
is a polynomial function of degree two and.is called a quadratic function on S.
+
Fpr example, f(x) = 2x 2 3x - 4, f(x) = x
2
+ 3, f(x) = x 2
f 2x,
f(x) = - 3x2,
for every x E S are all quadratic functions.
DEiilNITION 6: RATIONAL FUNCTION
A function which can be expressed as the quotient of two polynomial functions is
called a rational function.
Thus n function f: S 'R defined by

is called a rational fbnction.

Here ao # O bo # 0, ai, bj E R where i, j are some fixed seal numbers and the - Real Funcrinns
polynomial function in the denominator is never zero.
EXAMPLE 1: The following are all rational functions on R.

The functions which are not rational are known as irrational functions. A typical
example of an irrational function is the square root function which we define as
follows:
DEFINITION 7: SQUARE ROOT FUNCTION
Let S be the set of non-negative real numbers. A function f: S
f(x) = 6 , - vx E S
- R defined by

is called the square root function.

You may recall that Jx is the non-negative real number whose square is x. Also it is
defined for all x L 0.

EXERCISE 3)
Draw the graph of the function f(x) = &for x L 0.
-.
Polynomial functions, rational functions and the square root function are some of the
examples of what are known as algebraic functions. An algebraic function, in general,
is defined as follows
DEFINITION 8: ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION
An algebraic function f: S "R is a function defined by y = f(x) if it satisfies
identically an equation of the form
....
p o ( ~ ) y " + p , ( X ) y n - ' + +p.-,(x) y + p , ( x ) = O
where p (x), pl (x), ....p.-I (x), p. (x) are Polynomials in x for all x in S and n is a
positive integer.
EXAMPLE 2: Show that f: R 'R defined by

is an algebraic function.
Solution

Let y = f(x) =
d x 2- 3, +2
. JiFT
Then (4 x-1) y2- (x2-3x + 2) = 0
Hence f(x) is an algebraic function.
In fact, any function constructed tiy a finite number of algebraic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and root extraction) on the identity function and
the constant function, is an algebraic function.
EXAMPLE 3: The functions f : R -+ R defined by

EXAMPLE 4: Rove that every rational function is an algebraic function.

S O L ~ T O :N Let f: R 'R be given as
 Red Numbers and Functions bhere p(x) and q(x) are some polynomial functions such that q (x) # 0 for any x E R.
Then we have

which shaws.that y = f(x) can be obtained by solving the equation

4tx) Y - P(X)= 0.
Hence f(x) is an algebraic function.

EXERCISE 4)
Verify that a function f: R "R defined by
f(x)= m x
i s an algebraic function.

A function which is not algebraic is cdled a Transcendental Function. Examples of

elementary transcendental functions are the trigonometric functions, the exponential
functions and the logarithmic functions, which we discuss in the next section.

4.3 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

In Unit 1, we gave a brief introduction t o the algebraic and transcendental numbers.
Recall that a number is said t o be an algebraic if it is a root of an equation of the
form

with integral coeffioients and ~o # 0, where n is a positive integer. A number which is

not algebrkc is called a transcendental number. For example the numbers e and n are
transcendental numbers. In fact, the set of transcendental numbers is uncountable.
'Based on the same analogy, we have the transcendental functions. In Section 4.2, we
have discussed algebraic functions. The functions that are non-algebraic are called
transcendental functions. In this section, we discuss some of these functions.

4.3.1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

You are quite familiar with the trigonometric functions from the study of Geometry
and Trigonometry. The study of Trigonometry is concerned with the measurement of
the angles and the ratio of the measures of the sides of a triangle. In Calculus, the
trigonometric functions have an importance much greater than sirpply their use in
relating sides and angles of a triangle. Let us review the definitions of the
trigonometric functions sin x, cos x and some of their properties. These functions
form an important class of real functions.
Consider a circle x2 t y2 = r 2 with radius r and centre at 0.Let P be a poii~ton the
circumference of this circle. If 8 is the radian measure of a central angle a t the centre
of the circle as shown in the Figure 1.
 Real Bunctions
then you know that the lengths of the arc AP is given by
s = 8r.

You already know how the trigonometric ratios sin 0, cos 0 , etc., are defined for an angle
. measured in degrees or radians. We now define sinx, cos x, etc., for x ER.
Q

If we put r = 1 in above relation, then we get 0 = s. Also the equation of circle beconies
x1 + y 2 = I . This, as you know,, is the Unit Circle. Let C represents this circle with centre
0 and radius 1. Suppose the circle meets the x-axis at a point A as shown in the Figure
2.

Fig. 2

' Through the point A = (1,O); we draw a verticle line labeled as t-axis with origin at A and
positive direction upwards. Now, let t be any real number and we will think of this as a
point on this verticle number line i.e., t-axis.

Imagine this t-axis as a line af thread that can be wrapped around the circle C, Let
p(t) 7 (x, y) be the point where 't' ends up when this wrapping takes place. In other
words, the line segment from A to point (t, 0) becomes the arc from A to P, pdsitive or
negative i.e., counterclockwise or clockwise, depending on whether t > 0 or t c: 0. Of
course, when t = 0, P = A. Then, the trigonometric functions 'sine' and 'cosine', for
arbitrary t ER,are defined by

s i n t = s i n e = y, and c o s t = c o s e = x,

where '8' is the radian measure of the angle subtended by the arc AP at the centre of the
circle C. More generally, if t is any real number, we may take (0 I8 5 27c) to be the angle
(rotation) whose radian measure is t. It is then clear that

sin (t + 27c) = sin t and cos (t + 2 x ) = cost.

You can easily see that as 6 increases from '0' to d 2 , PQ increases from 0 to 1 and OQ
decreases from 1 to 0: Further, as 6
 RP~B
Yclmbtrs and Functions a
increases from -
2
to n; P Q decreases from 1 to 0 and O Q decreases from 0 to - 1,
3x
Again as B increases from n to , PQ decreases from 0 to - 1 and O Q
2
3a
increases from - 1 to 0. As B increases kom - to 217. O Q increases
2
-
from 0 to 1 and PQ increases from 1 to 0. The graphs of these functions take the
shapes as shown in Figure 3.

L
!-
= sins

y 7 cos x

Frg. J I

Thus, w e define sin x and cos x as follows :

DEFJNITION 9: SINE FUNCTlON
I
A function f: R -+ R dkfined by
f(x) = sin x, V x ER I

I
is called the sine of x. We often write y = sin x. I
I
DEFINITION 10: COSINE FUNCIION
A function fi R -+ R defined by I
f(x) = cos x, V x ER I

I
is called the cosine of x and we write y = cos x.
i
74 I
i
I
Note that the range of each of the sine and cosine, is [- 1, 11. In terms of the real Kca! F~~nctions
fLinctions sine and cosine, the other four trigonometric functions can be defined as
follows:

(i) A function f: S --+ M defined by

f(x) = tan x =
sin x
- , cos x # 0, +Y' x E S = R - {(2n + 1) T]
2
is called the COS

Tangent Function. The range of the tangent function is ] - m, m [ = R and +

the
+
domain is S = R - {(2n 1) E ] , where n is a non-negative integer.
2
:(ii) A function f: S -+ R defined by
COS X
f ( x ) = c o t x = -, sir1 X # 0 , U X ES = R - [n T } ,
sin x
is said to be the Cotangent Function. lts'range is also same as its co-domain i.e.
range = ] - m, m [ = R and the domain is S = R - { n r ) ,where n is a non-
negative integer.

(iii) A function f: S -*R defined by

f(x)=aecx= -~I
o s ~ # o , v ~ E s = s - ( l~j ~z ]+.
cos x 2
is called the Secant Function. Its range is the set

S=]-=,-I]. U[I,m[anddomain i s S = R - { 2 n + I)T},

2
(iv) A function f: S * R defined by
1 -
f(x) = cosec x =
sin x
sin x# 0, x E S = R {n r } ,
-, -
is called the Cosecant function. Its range is also the set S = ] - m, - I] U [I, oo[ and
domaini$S=K-{n T } .
The graphs of these functions are shown in the Figure 4 on pages 76-77.
EXAMPLE 5: Let 5 = - h TI].Show fhat the function f:-S R defined by
2'2
f(x) = sin x, V x E S
is one-one. When is f only onto? Under what conditions f is both one-one and onto?

SOLUTION: .Recall from Unit 1 that a function i is one-one if

f(x1) = f(x2) =+ XI = X2
for every XI,x2 in the domain off.
Therefore, here we have for any X I ,X Z E S , Recnll the trigonometric identities
- \khich you have lenrnt in your
XI) = f(x2) =+ sin X I = sin x2 ,, prevlous study of Trigonometry.
=+ sin XI - sin x2 = 0
+ 2sin - X'-X2 COS -= o
x1+x2
2 2
+ Either sin = 0, or cos XI + x2 = 0.
-
2 2

If sin -
X 1-X:
= 0, then -
XI-X?
= O , f 7r, + 2 ~ ....
,
2 2

If cos -
X I + X:
2
=O, then-
2
x,+x.
=* Tr

2
3Tr
-, f - ,
2
.,,.

~erel'orewe can only have

2 2-
Real Numbers and Functions
--R < XL -2 X< - x
2 - 2. 2
and

i s , then x, + x, = + x .
X
Since x,,x, E[ - - ,
2
X 'IC
therefore, x, = x2= - or x, = x, = --
2 2

Hence(x,) = f(x,) 3 x, = x,, which proves that f is one-one. Then function f(x) = sin x
dsfined as such, is not onto because you know that the range of sin x is [- 1, 11 # R.

y = tan x

I
Fig. 4 t i )

Fig .4- (ii )

 Rcal Functions '

Fig. 4 (iii)

If you dzfipe f: R----3. [-I, I] as

f(x) = sin x, ft x ER.
Then f is certainly onto. But then it is not one-one. However the function.

f: [-T. I d[- I , lldefinedby

f(x) = sin. x, V x E

is both one-one and onto.

 -
-
Real Numbers and Functions
EXERCISE 3
Two functions g and h are defined as follows :
cia g: S -+R d e f i ~ ~ eby
d
g(x) = 60.5 X, X E S = 10, 7C]
(ii) h: S -+ R defined by

Show that the finctiol~sare one-one. Under what conditions the function are one-one and
onto?

4.3.2 INVERSE TRIGQNOMETWIC FUNCTIONS

In Section 1.2 we discussed inverse functions. You Icnow that if a function is one-one
and onto, then it will have an inverse. If a functioli is not one-one and onto, then
sometimes it is possible lo restrict its domain in some suitable manner such that the
restricted function is one-one and onto. Let us use these ideas to define the inverse
trigonometric functions. We begin with the inverse of the sine function.

Refer to the graph of f(x) = sin x in Fig. 3. The x-axis cuts the curve y = sin x at the
points x = 0, x = x , x = 2.x,....... This shows that function f(x) = sin x is not one-one.
However, we have already shown in Example 5 that if we restrict the domain of
f(x) = sinx to the interval [-n/2, 71/21, then the functio~l

f [--
7t
-1x -+[- 1, 11 defined by
2 ' 2
71 71
f(x) = sinx, --
2 1x5- 2
is one-to-one as well as onto. Hence it will have the inverse. The inverse function is
Be careful about the notation
used.The superscript - 1 that called the inverse sine of x and is denoted as sin x. In other words,
appears in y = sin-' is not y = sin-' x o x = sin y,
an exponent, but is Lhe
71 7t
symbol f' used to denote the where -- 5 y 2 - and -1 2 x 2 1.
inverse of a function f. Two 2 2
I avoid this, notation y =
,, Thus, we have the following definition:
I ' arcsin, illstead of =
' 1 x is used sometimes.
DEFINlTION 11: INVERSE SllVE FUNCTION
'rt
A function g : [-I, 1) -> [--
2
, -12TK defined by

g(x) = sin-'x, V x E [-I, I ]

-
is called the inverse sine function.
Again refer back to the graph of f(x) = cos x in Figure 3. You can easily see that cosine
function is also not one-one. However, if you ~~estrict the domain of f(x) = cos x to the
interval [0, x ] , then the function f [O, 711 -> [ -1, 11 defined by
f(x) = cosx, 0 I x 1 ?I,
is one-one and onto. Hence it will have the inverse. The inverse function is called the
inverse cosine of x and is denoted by cos-I x (or by arc cosx). In other words,
y = cos-'x G X = cosy, !

where 0 I y 5 7~ and -1 5 x I I .

Thus, we have the following definition:

DEFINITION 12: A function g: 1-1,1] --A10, n] defined by

g(x) = cos-' x, v x E[-1, 11,

is called the inverse cosine function.

You can easily see from Figure 4 that the tangent function, in general, is not one-one.
However, again if we restrict the domain of f(x) = tan x to the interval 1-~12, ~ 1 2 [ then
,
the hnction
 n n Real Punctinna
f: ] - - , -[
2 2
-+ R defined hy

n: .n
f(x) = tan x, - -
2
<x < -
2
is one-one and onto. Hence it has an inverse. The inverse function is called the inverse
tangent of x and is denoted by tan-, x (or by arctan x). In other words,
y = tan-' x a x = tan y,

Thus, we have the following definition:

DEFINITION 13: Inverse Tangent Function
71 n:
A function g: R -+ ] - -, - ( defined by
2 2
g(x) = tan-' x, v x ER I
is called the inverse tangent function.
Now you can t1-y the following exercise to define the remaining three inverse
trigonometric functions:

EXERCISE 6)
Define the inverse cotangent, inverse secant and inverse cosecant function. Specify their
domain and range.

Now, before we proceed to define the logarithmic and exponential functions, we need the
concept of the monotonic functions. We discuss these fullctions as follows:

4.3.3 MONOTONIC FUNCTIONS

Consider the following functions:
(i) f(x)=x,b'x~R.
(ii) f(x) = sin x, V x E [-7212, ~ 1 2 1 .
(iii) f(x) = - x2, 'd x E [0, ca[.
(iv) f(x) = cos x, 'v' x E [O, n:].
Out of these functions, (i) and (ii) are such that for any x,, x, in their domains,
X I < x, f(x,) 2 f(x,),
whereas (iii) and (iv) are such that for any x,, x, in their domains,
x, < x, =$ f(x,) 2 f(x,).
The functiolls given in (i) and (ii) are called illonotonically increasing while those of (iii)
and (iv) are called monotonically decreasing. We define these functions as follows:
Let f: S + R (S c R) be a function
(i) I t is said to be a monotonically increasing function on S if
x, < x, a f(x,) I f(x,) for any x,, x, E S
(ii) I t is said to be a monotonically decreasing function on S if
X, < x2 3 f(x,) 2 f(x2) for any x,, x, ES.
(iii) The function f is said to be a monotonic function on S if it is either monotonically
increasing o r monotonically decreasing.
(iv) The function f is said tb be strictly increasing on S if
X, < x2 3 f(x,) < f(x2), for x,,x2 ES.
(v) It is said to be strictly decreasing on S if
X, < X, 3 f(xI) > f(x,), for x,, xz ES.
Red Numbem and Functions You can notice immediately that i f f is monotonically increasing then - f i.e.
- f: R 'R defined by (- f) (x) = -f(x), tf x ER
is monotonically decreasing and vice-versa.
EXAMPLE 6: Test the monotonic character of the function f: R 'R defined as

SOLUTION: For any XI,XZER,XI h 0,x2 5 0

XI < x2 = > x21> x22 => f(x1) > f(x2)
which shows that f is strictly decreasing.
Again if X I > 0,x2 > 0,then
xl<x2=>~:<~:=+-~:>-x:=>f(xl)>f(x2)
which shows that Z is strictly decreasing for x > 0. .Thus f is strictly decreasing for
every x E R.
Now, we discuss an interesting property of a strictly increasing function in the form of
the following theorem:
THEOREM 1: Prove that a strictly increasing function is always one-one.
PROOF: Let f: S "T be a strictly increasing function. Since f is strictly increasing,
therefore,
X I < xz XI) < f(x2) for any XI,xz f S.

Now to show that f: S "T is one-one, it is enough to show that

f(x1) = f(x2) => X I = X2. -
Equivalently, it is enough to show that distinct elements in S have distinct images in T
i.e. X I # x2 XI) # f (xz), for X I ,xz E S.
Indeed,
xl # x2 =>XI < xz or X I > xz
=> f(x1) < f(x2) or f(xl)> f(x2)
=> XI) # ~ ( x z )

which proves the theorem.

EXAMPLE 7: Let f: S +T be a strictly increasing function such that f(S) = T. Then
prove that f is invertible and f l :T + S is also strictly increasing.
SOLUTION: Since fi S ' T is strictly increasing, therefore, f is one-one. 'Further,
, I
since f (S) = T, therefore f is onto. Thus f is one-one and onto. Hence f is invertible.
In other words, f -I: TS' exists.

Now, for any y ~y,2 E T , we have yl= f(xl), y2 = f(xz). If y~ < yz, then we claim XI < XZ.
Indeed if X I 2 x2, then f (xl) 2 f(x2) (why?).
This implies that y, 2 y2 which contradicts that yl < y2.
Hence yl < yz =>XI < xz =>f (yl)< f-' (y2)
-'
which shows that f is strictly increasing.
You can similarly solve the following exercise for a strictly decreasing function:

EXERCISE 7)
Let f: S ' T be a strictly decreasing function such that f(S) = T. Show that f is
-':
invertible and f T ' S is also strictly decreasing.

4.3.4 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

You know that a definite integral of a function represents the area enclosed between
the curve of the function, X-Axis and the two Ordinates:.You will now see that this
can be used to define logarithmic function and then the exponential function.
1
We consider the function f(x) = - >
for x 0. We find that the graph of the
X
function is as shown in the Figure 5,
 Pig. 5
--
DEFINITION 14: LOG,4IPITiWMIC FUNCTION
For x 2 1, we define thc! arraturitai logarithulic function log x as

log x = J - dta P
I t
1
In the Figure 5, log x represents the area between the curve f(t) = - X - Axis and
9

t
d ;r. F,..; 0 < x < 1, we define
the two ordinates.at 1 ; ~ s at

1 o g x = - J - I dt
x t
This means that for O < x < 1, log x is the negative of the area under the graph of
1
f(t) = - X - Axis and the.twc3 ordinates at x and at.1

?P
X.
Fig 6 '

We also see by this definition that

logx<oifo<x<l
log 1 = 0
and
l o g x > O i f x > 1.
It 'also follows by definition that if .
xt > x2 > 0, then log xl> log x2. This shows that log x is qtrictly increasin

shown in the Figure 7.

f'
reason for this is quite clear if we realise by log XI as the area under the gf phThe
as

The logarithmic function defined here is called the Natural logarithmic function. For
+
any x > 0, and for any positive real number a 1, we can define
log x
log.,*- =
!

-
log a
This function is called the logarith,mic function with respect to the base a,.
If a = 10, then this function is c a l l ~ dthe common logarithmic funktion. 811
 Fig.
Logarithmic function to the base a has the following properties
( i ) log, ( ~ 1 ~ x=
2 log,
) XI + log, xz

(iii) log, xm = m loga x for every integer rn.

(iv) lo&. = I.
(v) log,,' = 0 1

By the definition of log x, we see that log 1 = 0 and as xbecomes larger and larger,
1
the area covered by the curve f(t) = X - axis and :he ordinates at 1 and x,
t
becomes larger and larger. Its graph is as shown in the Figure 8,

You already know what is meant, by inverse of ;l funcion. You had also seen in Unit 1
that if f is 1 - 1 and onto, then f is invertible. Let us ?ply that study to logarithmic
function. I

4.3.5 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

We now come to define exponential function. We hak seen that
log x: 10,w[ "R
is strictly increasing function. The graph of the logaribmic function also showsjthat
log x: 10; =[ R .
is also onto. Therefore this function' admits of invers function. Its inverse function,
called the Exponential function, Exp (x) has domair qs the set R of all red numbers
and range as ]0,%. If
log x = y, then Exp (y) = x. 1 1
 Real Functions
The graph of this function is the mirror image of logarithmic function as shown in the
Figure 9.

I
(ii) a > 1

Fig. 9

-
The Exp (x) satisfies the following properties
+
(i) Erp (x y) = Exp x Exp y
(ii) Exp (x - y) = Exp x/Exp y
(iii) (Exp x)"= Exp (nx)
(iv) Exp (0) = 1
I.*

We now come t o define ax for a > 0 and x any real number. We write
ax =-E.xp (x log a)

If x is any raGonai number, thenwe know that log a' = x log. a. ~ e n c e

Exp (x log a) = Exp (log a x) = ax. Thus our definition agrees with the already known
definition of a in cace x is a rational number. The function ax satisfies the following
'properties

I (iii) (ax)Y= a xY
, (iv) ax b x = (ab)x,a > 0, b > 0.
Denote E (I) = e, so that log e = 1. The number e is an irrational number and its
approximation say upto five places of decimals is 2.71828. Thus
-
ex = Exp (x log e) = Exp (x).
I Thus Exp (x) is also den,oted a s e x and ye~writefor each a > 0, a" exlog a
EXAMPLE 8: Plot the graph of the function I: R -+ R defined by f(x) A 2'.

' The required graph takes the shape as shown in the Figure 10.
 Fig. 10

- r

EXERCISE 8)
1
Show the graph off: R 'R defined by F(x) = ( - )"
2

4.4 SOME SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

So far, we have discussed two main classes of real functions-Algebraic and

Transcendental. Some functions have been designated as special functions because of
their special nature and behaviour. Some of these special functions are of great
interest to us. We shall frequently use these functions in our discussion in the
subsequent units and blocks.

1. Identity Function
We have already discussed some of the special functions in Section 4.2. For example,
the Identity function i : R + R, defined as i (x) = x, V x E R has already been
discussed as an algebraic function. However, this function is sometimes, referred to as
a special function because of its special characteristics, which are as follows:

(i) domain of i = Rangc of i = Codomain of i

(ii) The function i is one-one and onto. Hence it has an inverse i-' which is also one-
one and onto.
I
(iii) ;The function i is invertible and its inverse i-' = !

(iv) The graph of the identity function is a straight line through the origin which
forms an angle of 45' along the positive direction of X-Axis as shown in the
Figure 11.

84

il
 Real F ~ ~ n c l i o ~ ~ s

Fig. 11
2. .periodic Function
You know that
+ +
sin (27r x) = sin (4n x) = sin x,
tan (IT + x ) = tan (27r-t x) = tanx.
This leads us to define a special class of functions, known as Periodic functions. All

A function f: S
that
-
trigonometric functions belong to this class.
R is said to be periodic if there exlsts a positive real number k such

+
f(x k) = f(x), tf x ES
where S C R.
The smallest such positive number k is called the period of the function.
You can verify that the functions sine, cosine, secant and cosecant are periodic each
with a period 2n while tangent and cotangent are periodic functions each with a
period IT.

EXERCISE 9)
F'ind the period of the function f where f(x) = I sin3 xl
-<.

3. Modulus Function
The modulus or the absolute (numerical) value of a real number has already been
defined in Unit 1. Here we define the modulus (absolute value) function as follows:
Let S be a subset of R. A function f: S R defined by
f(x)= 1x1, v x E S
is called the modulus function.
In short, it is written as ~ d function.
d
You can easily see the following properties of this function:
(i) The domain of the Modulus function may be a subset of R or the set R itself.
,
(ii) The range of this functionI is a subset of the set of non-negative real numbers.
(iii) The ~ o d u l ' ufunction
s I: R R is not an onto #unction. (Check why?).
(iv) The Modulus function f: R "R is not one-one. For instance, both 2 and - 2 in

(v) The modulus function fi R -

the domain have the same image 2 in the range.
R does not have an inverse function (why)?
(vi) The graph of the Modulus function is R R given in the Figure 12.
-+
Reel Nurnkrs and Functions

It consists of two straight lines:

(i) y = x (y 2 0)
and (ii) y = -x (y 2 0)
through 0, the origin, making an angle of rr/4 and 3n/4*withthe pojitive direction of
X-axis:

4. Signum Function
A fuqction'kR ' R defined by

x when x # 0
x when x = 0:

or equivalently by:
-lifx<O

1 if x > 0.
is called the signum function. It is generally mitten as sgn (x).
Its range set is {-I, 0, I}. Obviously sgn x is neither one-one nor onto. The graph of
sgn x is shown in the Figure 13,
 5. Greatest Integer Function Real Functioris

Consider the number 4.01. Can you find the greatest integer which is less than or equal
to this number? Obviously, the required integer is 4 and we write it as [4.01] = 4.

Similar.ly, ifthe syrnbol [x] denotes the greatest integer contained in x then w e have
[3/4] = 0, [5.01] -5,
[-.OO:i] = -1 and [-3.961 = -4.
Based on these, thc greatest integer function is defined as follows:
A function f: R -+ R defined by
f(x) = 1x1, V x ER,
where [x] is the largest integer less than o r equal to x is called the greatest integer
function:
The following properties of this function are quite obvious:
(i) The domain is R and the range is the set Z of all integers.
(ii) The function is neither one-one nor onto.
(iii) If n is any integer and x is any real number such that x is greater than or equal to
n but less than n + 1 i.e., if n S x < n + 1 (for some integer n), then [x] = n i.e.,
The graph of tile greatest integer function is shown in the Figure 14.

--C
I I I I I I ( I o , I I I I I
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4I I
-3 -2 - II
I
I 1 2I 3I 4 I 5 I 6 I7 8I 9I C
x-axis

Fig. 14

EXAMPLE 9: Prove that

[x + m] = 1x1 + m, V x e R a n d ~ E Z .
SOLUTION:You know that for every x ER, there exists an integer n such that
nSx<n+l.
Therefore,
n+m<x+rn<n+I+m,
and hence
[x+m] = n + m = [x]+m,
which proves the result. 87

I
EXERCISE 10)
Test whetlher or not allre function f: R + R defined by f(x) = x-[x] M x E R, is
psddic. PB i h m9h d its psimi.

6. Even m d Odd Funstions

Consider a function C R + R defined as
f(x) = 2x, V x E R.
If you change x to -x, then you have
f(-X) := 2 (-x) = -2x -f (x).

-
Suck a function is called an add function.
Now,consider a function f:R R defined as
f(x) = x2 V x E R
Then changing x to -x we get
q-x) = (-x)~= x2 = f(x)
Such a function is called a n even function.
The definitions of even and odd functions are as follows:
A function fi R + R is called even if f.( - x) = f(x), tf x ER.
It is callcd odd Pf f(- x) = - f(x), tf x E R
EXAMPLE 7: Verify whether the function P: R "R defined by
(i) f(x) = s i d x + em32x
qx) = \I- - JZ
are even or odd.
+
SOLUTION: (1 f(x) = sin2 x cos3 2x. V. x € R
-I +
=> (-X) = sin Z(-x) cos 3
2 (-x)
+ 3
= sin x cos 2x = f(x), tf x E R
=> f is an even function.
(ii) fix) =
=> P(-x) =

f is an odd function.

EXERCISE 11)
Dct wbkboftbefdlowiug

(iii) a l n x , c ~ x , ~ x ,
(iv) f(x) = -
x-4
x2- 9
~ftxER,xC(-3,3)

In Unit 2, you were introduced to the notion of a bounded set, upper and lower
bounds of a set. Let us now extend these notions to a function.
You know that if I: S R is a function, (S C R), then
-+

{Kx):x €s], -
is called the range set or simply the range of the function f.
-
A function 18 mid io be bounded if iti I*age-h bounded.
Let f: S R be a function. It is said to be bounded above #$here kxists a real
number K such that
f ( x ) l K. Vx ES
The number K is called an upper bound of It. The function f is said to be bounded I
below if there exists a number.k such that 1
I

a R X ) ~ ~ ~ X ' E S I
The number k je called a lower bound of f. .-
- - .--
I

1
4 s
A function I:'S R, which is bounded above as well as bounded below, is said to be
+

bounded. This implies that there exist two real numbers k and K such that
kSf(x)SKVxES.

This is equivalent to say that a function f: S + R is bounded if there exists a real

number M such that
If(x)l S M , V x E S .

A function may be bounded above only or may be bounded below only or neither
bounded above nor bounded below.
RecalI that sin x and cos x are both bounded functions. Can you say why? It is

-
because of the reason that the range of each of these functions is [-I, 11.
EXAMPLE 8: A function fi R R defined by
* 2- -
(i) f(x) = - x , tr x E R is bounded above with 0 as an upper bound
(Ii) f(x) = x , q x 1 0 is bounded below with 0 as a lower bound
(i) f )= for 1x1 5 1 is bounded because If(r)( 5 l for 1 rl 5 1.
Try the following 'exercise.

EXERCISE 12)
Test which of the following functions with domain and co-domain as R are bounded
and unbounded:
(i) f(x) =: tan x
(W f(x) = 1x1
(iii) f(x).= ex
(iv) f(x) = log x
EXERCISE 18)
Suppose t:S 4 -Rand g: S -+- R are any bounded functions on S. h a v e that f
+ g aqd'f. g are also bounded functions on S.

4.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed various types of real functions. We shall frequently use
these functions in the concepts and examples to be discussed in the subsequent units
throughout the course).
-
In Section 4.2, we h a v e r o d u c e d the notion of an algebraic function
--- and its varioua
types. A function f: S ---+ R ( S C R) defrned as y = f(x), Y x E S is said to be
algebraic if it satisfies identically an equation of the form
PO (x) y"+ + + + +
PI (x) Y"" p2 (x) yn-2 .... P(X)Y pn (x) = 0,
where p, (x), pl (x), ...., p, (x) are polynomials in x for all
x € S and n is a positive integer. In fact, any function constructed by a finite number
of algebraic operations-addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and root
extraction-is an algebraic function. Some of the examples of algebraic functions are
the polynomial functions, rational functions and irrational functions.
But not all functions are algebraic. The functions which are not algebraic, are called
transcendental functions. These have been discussed in Section 4.3. Some important
examples of the transcendental functions are trigonometric functions, logarithmic
functions and exponential functions which have been defined in this section. We have
defined the monotonic functions also in this section.
In Section 4.4, we have discussed some special functions. These are the identity I

function, the periodic functions, the modulus function, the signum function, the
matest integer function, even and odd functions. Lastly, we have introduced the
bounded functions and discussed a few examples. .89
 Relei Numbers and Functions
4.6 ANSWERS/IEPINTS/SOLUTIONS
El) (f + g) (x) ax2 + bx
(f - g) (x) = ax2 - bx
(fg) (x) = ax2.bx = abx3
ax2 ax
(flg) (x) =- = - provided b + 0, x s 0.
bx b

constant function Zero function (x-axis)

I

I
E3) y = f(x) = d x y2 = x. Now draw the graph.

E4) y = Rx) = y =
i = y 2 = x + LC,
/ / =>y2-x=,E
i' =? (y2 - x ) =~x
1 <

which shows that y = f(x) is an algebraic function.

E5) (i) Let x,, x, €10, x[. Then

f(xl) = f (x2)= COS XI = COS X2
=? cos x, - cos x, = 0

2 sin (-)X I + x2 sin (x2 - x,)

- = 0
2 2

either sin 1-( =0 or sin Cx, - x,) = 0

-
2 2
X -X
NOW,sin 51.5= 0 a 3 = 0, + n, 2 2n, ...., and
2 2
x +%
sin = O 3- = o , + X , + 23,......
2 2
X -X
Now, ~ = 0 ~ x I = x 2
2
X -X
--1---! = t n n : ( n 2 I ) a x , = t ; 2 n n : + x 1 ,
2
which, is not possible.
X -X
-
Hence 2= +- n n: is not possible.
2
Thus, the only possibility is
X2 --X, = 0 which means x, = x,.
2
Since, x,, x, E]O, A[, we cannot have the case

. X t x2 ,
1
2
0, 2 n:, i2n,..*
Hence -
qx,) = f(X2) 3 XI = Xr
In other words, f(x) = cos x is .one-one in.[O, n].
90
 a

Now, the range of cos x is [-I, 11 = R. Therefore cos x, defined from [0, 7c] to Real Functions
R is not onto. But, if cos x is defiend fiom [O, ] to [-I, I], then it is certainly
one-one and onto.
(i) Do it yourself.

Ed) (i) Contangent Inverse.

y = COP x o x = cot y
where 0 < y < n and - ca < x < + m,

(ii) Secant !nverse

y = sec-' x o x sec y,
=

n
where 0 I y < n, y # - andlxl L 1.
2
(iii) Cosecant inverse
y = cosec-I x e x = cosec y,
n n
where - - 5 y s - , y z O a n d I x l 2 1 .
2 2
E7) (i) Let f:S + T be a strictly decreasing function.
Let x,, x, be any two distinct elements of S. Then
X, + x2 3 X , < X, or X , > X,
= f(x,) > f(x,) or f(x,) < f(x,)
3 f(x,) # f(x2).

This shows that f is one-one.

since f(S) = T, f is onto. Thus f is one-one and onto and hence f is
invertible. In other words f-I exists i.e. f-I : T + S is defined.
For y,, y, ET, we have y, = f(x,), y, = f(x2), for some x,, x, in S. If y, < y,, we claim
that x, x,. If not, then x, 5 x, which implies that f(x,) > f(x2) i.e., y, > y,. This is'a
contradiction. Hence y, < y, a d l > x, 3 El (y,) > f-I (y,).
Thus, f' is also strictly increasing.

I
! '
E8) Follow the method of Example 8.
I

E9) Since f(n + x) = ]sin (TK

3
+ x) 1 = 1 - sin' x 1 = I sin3 x I,
(
I therefore n is the period of f. You may note that n is the least such number
,I . satisfying the above relation.
E10) The function f(x) = x - [x] is periodic with period 1 because 1 is the least
, number sudh that
f(x+ l ) = ( x + 1)- [ x + I ] = ( x + 1) - [XI- 1 = x - [XI
= fIx).
1 Ell) (i) odd (ii) even.
(iii) sin x is odd, cos x is even, tan x is odd.
(-x1-4 -x-4
f(-x) = , which shows that f is neither even
(-X)~- 9 . x2 - 9
nor odd.
E12) (i) It is unbounded because its range is ] - a3, + co[.
(ii) 1x1 is bounded below with 0 as,a lower bound.
(ki) ex is bounded below because its range is 10, cof.
(iv) log x is unbounded.
E13) Since f and g are given to be bounded functions, therefore there exist numbers 1
k,, K,and \, 5 such that
k, I f(x) 5 K ,, b' x ES; i
I
k, S g(x) s K,, b' x ES. I

(i) Since (f+g) (x) = f(x) + g(x), V x ES,

I
therefore, k, + k, 5 f(x) + g(x) r K, + &, V x ES. 91
 I !

Rerl N u m k n and Functions ' + 'kL(f+g)(x)5KW x E S

+
where k = k l + kz, K = KI Kz are some real nimbers
+
Thus f(x) g(x) is a bounded function.
(ii) We know (f.g) (x) = f(x). g(x) _x_ E S. Since f and g are bounded,
therefore, we can find ml, mz such that
(f(x),1 5 r n ~I, Ig(x)l 5 mz, x E S.
Thep
' I(f.s) (XI I = l f(x).
= I f(x) l Ig(x1I
Pml.mzttxES
which shows that f.g is bounded.
 Real Functions-
REVIEW
Attempt the following self-assessment questions and verify your answers given at the
end:
I. Test whether the .following are rational numbers:
(i) d l 7 (ii) d g (iii) 3 4- d2
2. The inequality x - 5x 4- 6 < 0 holds for
2

(i) x < 2, x < 3 (ii) x > 2, x < 3

(ii) x < 2, x > 3 (iii) x > 2, x > 3
3. If a, b, c, d are real numbers duch that
a 2 + b 2 = 1 , c 2 + d 2 = 1,
then show that ac+bd 5 1.
C,

4. P r o v e t h a t l a + b + c l 5 l a l + ( b l + I c l
for all a, b, c, E R.
5. Show that
+ +
(a, az+ .... anl 5 (all la21 .... la,l+ + +
.for al, - -.... a, E R .
- .az,
6. Which of the'following sets are bounded above? Write the supremum of the set
if it exists.
+
01)

(i) '(n, e) (ii) U [2n, 2n I ]

n= 1

1
(v) ( x E R : x < O } (vi)(-:nENandnisprime)
n
!
(vii) ( x 2 : x E R } (viii)

7. Find which of the sets in question 6 are bounded below. Write the infemum if it
exists.
8. Which of the sets in question 6 are bounded and unbounded.
9. Test whether the following statements are true or i l s e :
(i) The set Z of integers is not a NBD of any of its points.
(ii) The interval 10, 11 is a NBD of each of its points
(iii) The set ]1, 3[ U ] 4, 5 [ is open.
(iv) The set [a,=[ U 1-00, a ] is not open.
(v) N is a closed set.
(vi) The derived set of Z is nonempty.
(vii) Every real number is a limit point of the set Q of rational numbers.
(viii) A finite bounded set has a limit point.
(ix) [4,5] U [7, 81 is a closed set.
(x) Every infinite set is closed.

10. Justify the following statements:

(i) The identity function is an odd function.
(ii) The absolute value function is an even function.
'
(iii) The greatest integer function is not onto.
(iv) The tangent function is periodic with period r.
(v) The function f(x) = I xl for - 2 5 x 5 3 is bounded.
(vi) The function f(x) = ex is not bounded
n n
(vii) The function f(x) = sin x; for x E [ - -
-1 is monotonically increasing.
2 2
-(viii) The function f(x) = cos x for 0 5 x 5 n is monotonically decreasing.
7T
(ix) The function f(x) = tan x is strictly inleasing for x E[0, :1.
L

(XI f(x) = is an algebraic function

3x-2
- - ANSWERS
1. None is a rational number
2. For (ii) only since2 < x < 3. .

4. , Use the triangle inequality.

5. Use the principle of Induction.
6 . (i) ; (iv) 2
1
(v) 0 (vi) - (viii) 1
2
(ix) and (x) are unbounded.
7. (i) e
(ii) 2
(i) 0
(vi) 0
(viii) -1
8. All the sets are unbounded except the (i)
9. (i) True (ii) False (iii) 'True (iv) False (v) True (vi) False (vii) True (viii) False
(ix) True (x) False.
NOTES