Chemotherapy: Antiseptics and Disinfectants: September 2008

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Chemotherapy: Antiseptics and Disinfectants
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Pharmacy e-Book Medicinal Chemistry Dr Asif Husain
ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS
(Medicinal Chemistry Theory)

For
B. Pharmacy students
BY
DR. ASIF HUSAIN
Associate Professor
DEPARTMENT OF PHARM. CHEMISTRY
SCHOOL OF PHARMACEUTICAL EDUCATION AND
RESEARCH (SPER)
JAMIA HAMDARD
Antiseptics and Disinfectants 1

e-Book title: Medicinal Chemistry
Chapter title: Chemotherapy: Antiseptics and Disinfectants
Author name: Dr. Asif Husain
Suggested reading: 1. M.E. Wolf: Burger`s Medicinal Chemistry, John Wiley and Sons, New
York.
2. W.O. Foye: Principles of Medicinal Chemistry, Lea & Febiger,
Philadelphia.
3. R.F. Doerge: Wilson & Gisvold`s Text Book of Organic and
Pharmaceutical Chemistry, J. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia.
4. D. Lednicer, L.A. Mitschlar, Organic Chemistry of Drug Synthesis,
John Wiley and Sons, New York.
5. www.pubmed.com
6. www.google.com
Keywords: Antiseptic, disinfectant, biocide, anti-infective, dyes, quaternary
ammonium compounds, phenol, alcohol, formaldehyde, chlorhexidine,
iodine, hydrogen peroxide.

Antiseptics and Disinfectants

Anti-infective agents or germicides or biocides may be broadly classified as Antiseptics and
Disinfectants. They are used to kill or restrict the growth of microorganisms when applied to a
living tissue or inanimate objects.
An antiseptic is a chemical compound that kills or inhibits the growth of micro-organisms when
applied to a living tissue like skin etc. a disinfectant is a chemical compound that prevents
infection by the destruction of harmful micro-organisms when applied to inert objects like
bedding, floor etc.
They should possess the following properties:
1. Chemical stability
2. Economical
3. Non-staining with acceptable color and odor.
4. Bactericidal, not only static and capable of destroying spores as well.
5. Wider spectrum of action.
An antiseptic in addition should be-
1. Rapid in action and exert sustained lethal action.
2. Non-irritating to tissues when applied.
3. Non-allergic to the subject.
4. No systemic toxicity (Non-absorbable).
5. Active even in the presence of body fluids e.g.- blood, pus.

A disinfectant in addition should be-
1. Non-corrosive
2. Good penetrating agent
3. Compatible with other organic compounds like soap.
Antiseptics and disinfectants are used extensively in hospitals and other health care settings for a
variety of topical and hard-surface applications. In particular, they are an essential part of
infection control practices and aid in the prevention of nosocomial infections. Mounting concerns
over the potential for microbial contamination and infection risks in the food and general
consumer markets have also led to increased use of antiseptics and disinfectants by the general
public. A wide variety of active chemical agents (or "biocides") are found in these products,
many of which have been used for hundreds of years for antisepsis, disinfection, and
preservation. Despite this, less is known about the mode of action of these active agents than
about antibiotics. In general, biocides have a broader spectrum of activity than antibiotics, and,
while antibiotics tend to have specific intracellular targets, biocides may have multiple targets.
The widespread use of antiseptic and disinfectant products has prompted some speculation on the
development of microbial resistance, in particular cross-resistance to antibiotics.
A summary of the various types of biocides used in antiseptics and disinfectants, their chemical
structures, and their clinical uses is shown in the table below. It is important to note that many of
these biocides may be used singly or in combination in a variety of products, which vary
considerably in activity against microorganisms. Antimicrobial activity can be influenced by
many factors such as formulation effects, presence of an organic load, synergy, temperature,

dilution, and test method. These issues are beyond the scope of this review and are discussed
elsewhere.
Table 1: Chemical structures and uses of biocides in antiseptics and disinfectants
Ethanol CH3 CH2OH Antisepsis
Alcohol Disinfection
CH3
CHOH
Isopropanol CH3 Preservation
CHOCH2CH2CH2CHO Disinfection
Gluteraldehyde
Aldehyde Preservation
Formaldehyde HCHO Sterilization
C6H5NHCOR
General structure Cl
Anilides Antisepsis
Cl NH CO NH Cl
Triclocarbon
NH NH NH NH
Antisepsis
Chlorhexidine Cl NH C NH C (CH2)6 NH C NH C Cl
Antiplaque
agents
Biguanides
Disinfection
Alexidine, polymeric
biguanides Preservation
Cl HO
Antisepsis
Triclosan Cl O Cl
Antiplaque
agents
Bisphenols OH H2 OH
C
Cl Cl
Deoderants
Hexachlorophene
Cl Cl
Preservation
Cl Cl

Propamidine HN NH Antisepsis
Amidines C O (CH2)n O C
Dibromopropamidine H2N NH2 Preservation
Chlorine compounds
(i) HOCl
(i) Hypochlorous
aci O
d
H3C S NHCl
(ii) ONa
(ii) Choramine
Iodine compounds Antisepsis

Halogen
(i) Iodine (i) I2
releasing Disinfection
agents
CHCH2 Cleansing
N O
(ii) Povidone iodine .xI
n
(ii)
Bromine compounds O
Br
HN
Dibromin
O N O
H
OH
Antisepsis
Chloroxylenol
Halophenols
(PCMX) H3C CH3 Preservation
Cl
Mercury compounds
Antisepsis
(i) HgCl2
Heavy (i) Mercuric
chloride COONa
Preservation
metals
Disinfection
(ii) Thimersal SHgC2H5
(ii)

Silver compounds
(i) AgNO3
(i) Silver nitrate
Ag
N
H2N SO2N
(ii) Silver (ii) N
sulfadiazine
Zinc compounds
(i) Zinc sulphate (i) ZnSO4
(ii) Zinc oxide (ii) ZnO

(i) Hydrogen
(i) H2O2
peroxide
Disinfection
Peroxygens (ii) O3
(ii) Ozone
Sterilization
(iii) CH3COOOH
(iii) Peracetic acid
OH
(i) Phenol
(i)
CH3
Phenols and Disinfection

(ii) Thymol
Cresols OH
Preservation
C
H3C H CH3
(ii)
OH
(iii) Cresol
CH3
(iii)

(iv) Resorcinol OH
(iv) OH
OH
(v) Hexyl resorcinol (CH2)5CH3
(v) HO
+
R1 R3
N -
General structure X
R2 R4
+ Antisepsis
Quaternary H3C CH3
Preservation
ammonium (i) Cetrimide N
Br
compounds H3C
Disinfection
CnH2n+1
(i) Cleansing
+
H2
(ii) Benzalkonium C CH3
chloride N Cl
H3C CnH2n+1
(ii)

1) Triphenylmethane N(CH3)2
dyes
(CH3)2N Cl
a) Gentian violet
N(CH3)2
a)
+
NH2
b) Basic Fuschin H2N Cl
CH3
NH2
b)
2) Thiazine dyes
H3C
+ CH3
Dyes Methylene blue N S N Disinfection
H3C Cl
CH3
N
3) Acridine dyes
a) Acriflavin
H2N N NH2
a)
NH2
b) Salacrin
N CH3
b)
4) Xanthine dyes HgOH

+-
NaO O O
Mercurochrome Br Br
- +
COONa

H3BO3
Boric acid
Acids Preservation
CH3COOH
Acetic acid
Ethylene oxide O
H2C CH2 Sterilization

Vapour
phase
Disinfection
Formaldehyde HCHO
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
Furan
Nitrofuran Antisepsis
derivatives O2N O CH N NH CONH2
Mechanism of Action
Whatever the type of microbial cell (or entity), it is probable that there is a common sequence of
events. This can be envisaged as interaction of the antiseptic or disinfectant with the cell surface
followed by penetration into the cell and action at the target site(s). The nature and composition
of the surface vary from one cell type (or entity) to another but can also alter as a result of
changes in the environment. Interaction at the cell surface can produce a significant effect on
viability (e.g. with glutaraldehyde), but most antimicrobial agents appear to be active
intracellularly. The outermost layers of microbial cells can thus have a significant effect on their
susceptibility (or insusceptibility) to antiseptics and disinfectants; it is disappointing how little is
known about the passage of these antimicrobial agents into different types of microorganisms.
Potentiation of activity of most biocides may be achieved by the use of various additives.

In this section, the mechanisms of antimicrobial action of a range of some chemical agents that
are used as antiseptics or disinfectants or both are discussed. Different types of microorganisms
are considered, and similarities or differences in the nature of the effect are emphasized. The
mechanisms of action are summarized in the table below.
Table 2: Summary of mechanisms of antibacterial action of some antiseptics
and disinfectants.
Target Antiseptic or disinfectant Mechanism of action
Cell envelope (cell Glutaraldehyde Cross-linking of proteins

wall, outer
Gram-negative bacteria: removal of
EDTA, other
membrane)
permeabilizers Mg2+, release of some LPS
Generalized membrane damage

QACs
involving phospholipid bilayers
Low concentrations affect membrane
Chlorhexidine integrity, high concentrations cause

congealing of cytoplasm
Cytoplasmic (inner)
membrane
Diamines Induction of leakage of amino acids
Phase separation and domain formation

PHMB, alexidine
of membrane lipids
Phenols Leakage; some cause uncoupling
Cross-linking of Cross-linking of proteins, RNA, and

Formaldehyde
DNA

macromolecules Cross-linking of proteins in cell

Glutaraldehyde
envelope and elsewhere in the cell
Intercalation of an acridine molecule
DNA intercalation Acridines between two layers of base pairs in

DNA
Membrane-bound enzymes (interaction
Interaction with thiol
Silver compounds
groups with thiol groups)
Halogens Inhibition of DNA synthesis

Effects on DNA
Hydrogen peroxide, silver
DNA strand breakage
ions
Oxidation of thiol groups to disulfides,
Halogens
sulfoxides, or disulfoxides
Hydrogen peroxide: activity due to from
Oxidizing agents formation of free hydroxy radicals
Peroxygens (·OH), which oxidize thiol groups in

enzymes and proteins; PAA: disruption
of thiol groups in proteins and enzymes
Alcohols
Ethanol It is an effective antiseptic and can be used for a number of purposes in different
concentrations. It can be used as antiseptic, preservative, mild counter-irritant solvent, astringent
and rubefacient. It acts by precipitating the bacterial proteins. It as an irritant, and should not be
applied to mucous membrane, delicate skin or open wound, as it may cause burning sensation. It
is rarely used for disinfection as does not kills spores and may promote rusting. It is also used for
the preparation of large number of pharmaceutical preparations like spirits and tinctures.

It occurs as a clear, colourless, volatile liquid, having a burning taste and a pleasant characteristic
odour. It is soluble in water and most organic solvents. Ethanol is commercially prepared
through fermentation process by the action of microbes on molases.
Isopropanol It has been found to be a suitable substitute for ethanol and is used to disinfect the
skin and surgical instruments. It is more potent than ethanol. It cannot be used internally. It is
used in a number of pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations.
It occurs as a clear, colourless, volatile liquid, having a pleasant characteristic odour and a bitter
taste. It is miscible with water, alcohol and chloroform.
Aldehydes
Glutaraldehyde Glutaraldehyde is an important dialdehyde that has found usage as a
disinfectant and sterilant, in particular for low-temperature disinfection and sterilization of
endoscopes and surgical equipment and as a fixative in electron microscopy. Glutaraldehyde has
a broad spectrum of activity against bacteria and their spores, fungi, and viruses, and a
considerable amount of information is now available about the ways whereby these different
organisms are inactivated.
Table 3 Mechanisms of antimicrobial action of Glutaraldehyde
Target microorganism Glutaraldehyde action

Low concentrations inhibit germination; high
concentrations are sporicidal, probably as a
Bacterial spores
consequence of strong interaction with outer
cell layers

Action unknown, but probably involves

Mycobacteria
mycobacterial cell wall
Strong association with outer layers of gram-
positive and gram-negative bacteria; cross-
Other non-sporulating bacteria
linking of amino groups in protein; inhibition of
transport processes into cell
Fungal cell wall appears to be a primary target
Fungi
site, with postulated interaction with chitin
Actual mechanisms unknown, but involve

Viruses
protein-DNA cross-links and capsid changes
Protozoa Mechanism of action not known
Formaldehyde Formaldehyde (methanal, CH2O) is a monoaldehyde that exists as a freely water-
soluble gas. Formaldehyde solution (formalin) is an aqueous solution containing ca. 34 to 38%
(wt/wt) CH2O with methanol to delay polymerization. Its clinical use is generally as a
disinfectant and sterilant in liquid or in combination with low-temperature steam. Formaldehyde
is bactericidal, sporicidal, and virucidal, but it works more slowly than glutaraldehyde.
Formaldehyde is an extremely reactive chemical that interacts with protein, DNA, and RNA in
vitro. It has long been considered to be sporicidal by virtue of its ability to penetrate into the
interior of bacterial spores. The interaction with protein results from a combination with the
primary amide as well as with the amino groups, although phenol groups bind little
formaldehyde. It has been proposed that formaldehyde acts as a mutagenic agent and as an
alkylating agent by reaction with carboxyl, sulfhydryl, and hydroxyl groups. Formaldehyde also
reacts extensively with nucleic acid (e.g., the DNA of bacteriophage T2). It forms protein-DNA

cross-links in SV40, thereby inhibiting DNA synthesis. Low concentrations of formaldehyde are
sporostatic and inhibit germination. Formaldehyde alters HBsAg and HBcAg of HBV.
It is difficult to pinpoint accurately the mechanism(s) responsible for formaldehyde-induced
microbial inactivation. Clearly, its interactive, and cross-linking properties must play a
considerable role in this activity. Most of the other aldehydes (glutaraldehyde, glyoxyl,
succinaldehyde, and o-phthalaldehyde [OPA]) that have sporicidal activity are dialdehydes (and
of these, glyoxyl and succinaldehyde are weakly active). The distance between the two aldehyde
groups in glutaraldehyde (and possibly in OPA) may be optimal for interaction of these-CHO
groups in nucleic acids and especially in proteins and enzymes.
Formaldehyde-releasing agents Several formaldehyde-releasing agents have been used in the
treatment of peritonitis. They include noxythiolin (oxymethylenethiourea), tauroline (a
condensate of two molecules of the aminosulponic acid taurine with three molecules of
formaldehyde), hexamine (hexamethylenetetramine, methenamine), the resins melamine and urea
formaldehydes, and imidazolone derivatives such as dantoin. All of these agents are claimed to
be microbicidal on account of the release of formaldehyde. However, because the antibacterial
activity of taurolin is greater than that of free formaldehyde, the activity of taurolin is not entirely
the result of formaldehyde action.
o-Phthalaldehyde OPA is a new type of disinfectant that is claimed to have potent bactericidal
and sporicidal activity and has been suggested as a replacement for glutaraldehyde in endoscope
disinfection. OPA is an aromatic compound with two aldehyde groups. To date, the mechanism

of its antimicrobial action has been little studied, but preliminary evidence suggests an action
similar to that of glutaraldehyde.
Anilides
The anilides have been investigated primarily for use as antiseptics, but they are rarely used in
the clinic. Triclocarban (TCC; 3,4,4'-triclorocarbanilide) is the most extensively studied in this
series and is used mostly in consumer soaps and deodorants. TCC is particularly active against
gram-positive bacteria but significantly less active against gram-negative bacteria and fungi and
lacks appreciable substantivity (persistency) for the skin. The anilides are thought to act by
adsorbing to and destroying the semi permeable character of the cytoplasmic membrane, leading
to cell death.
Biguanides
Chlorhexidine Chlorhexidine is probably the most widely used biocide in antiseptic products, in
particular in hand washing and oral products but also as a disinfectant and preservative. This is
due in particular to its broad-spectrum efficacy, substantivity for the skin, and low irritation. Of
note, irritability has been described and in many cases may be product specific. Despite the
advantages of chlorhexidine, its activity is pH dependent and is greatly reduced in the presence of
organic matter. A considerable amount of research has been undertaken on the mechanism of the
antimicrobial action of this important bisbiguanide, although most of the attention has been
devoted to the way in which it inactivates nonsporulating bacteria. Nevertheless, sufficient data
are now available to examine its sporostatic and mycobacteriostatic action, its effects on yeasts
and protozoa, and its antiviral activity.

Table 4: Mechanisms of antimicrobial action of chlorhexidine.
Type of microorganism Chlorhexidine action
Not sporicidal but prevents development of
Bacterial spores spores; inhibits spore outgrowth but not

germination.
Mycobacteristatic (mechanism unknown) but
Mycobacteria
not mycobactericidal.
Membrane-active agent, causing protoplast and
Other non-sporulating bacteria spheroplast lyses; high concentrations cause

precipitation of proteins and nucleic acids
Membrane-active agent, causing protoplast
Yeasts lysis and intracellular leakage; high

concentrations cause intracellular coagulation.
Low activity against many viruses; lipid-

enveloped viruses more sensitive than
Viruses
nonenveloped viruses; effect possibly on viral
envelope, perhaps the lipid moieties.
Recent studies against A. castellanii
Protozoa demonstrate membrane activity (leakage)

toward trophozoites, less toward cysts.
Chlorhexidine is a bactericidal agent. Its interaction and uptake by bacteria were studied initially
by some co-workers, who found that the uptake of chlorhexidine by E. coli and S. aureus was
very rapid and depended on the chlorhexidine concentration and pH. More recently, by using
[14C] chlorhexidine gluconate, the uptake by bacteria and yeasts was shown to be extremely
rapid, with a maximum effect occurring within 20 s. Damage to the outer cell layers takes place
but is insufficient to induce lysis or cell death. The agent then crosses the cell wall or outer

membrane, presumably by passive diffusion, and subsequently attacks the bacterial cytoplasmic
or inner membrane or the yeast plasma membrane. In yeasts, chlorhexidine "partitions" into the
cell wall, plasma membrane, and cytoplasm of cells. Damage to the delicate semipermeable
membrane is followed by leakage of intracellular constituents, which can be measured by
appropriate techniques. Leakage is not per se responsible for cellular inactivation but is a
consequence of cell death. High concentrations of chlorhexidine cause coagulation of
intracellular constituents. As a result, the cytoplasm becomes congealed, with a consequent
reduction in leakage, so that there is a biphasic effect on membrane permeability. An initial high
rate of leakage rises as the concentration of chlorhexidine increases, but leakage is reduced at
higher biocide concentrations because of the coagulation of the cytosol.
Chlorhexidine was claimed by some scientists to be an inhibitor of both membrane-bound and
soluble ATPase as well as of net K+ uptake in Enterococcus faecalis. However, only high
biguanide concentrations inhibit membrane-bound ATPase, which suggests that the enzyme is
not a primary target for chlorhexidine action. Although chlorhexidine collapses the membrane
potential, it is membrane disruption rather than ATPase inactivation that is associated with its
lethal effects.
The effects of chlorhexidine on yeast cells are probably similar to those previously described for
bacteria. Chlorhexidine has a biphasic effect on protoplast lysis, with reduced lysis at higher
biguanide concentrations. Furthermore, in whole cells, the yeast cell wall may have some effect
in limiting the uptake of the biguanide. The findings presented here and elsewhere demonstrate
an effect on the fungal plasma membrane but with significant actions elsewhere in the cell.
Increasing concentrations of chlorhexidine (up to 25 µg/ml) induce progressive lysis of

Saccharomyces cerevisiae protoplasts, but higher biguanide concentrations result in reduced
lysis.
Work to date suggests that chlorhexidine has a similar effect on the trophozoites of
Acanthameoba castellanii, with the cysts being less sensitive. It has also been reviewed that
chlorhexidine and other biocides affects Acanthameoba and the membrane damage in these
protozoa is a significant factor in their inactivation.
Mycobacteria are generally highly resistant to chlorhexidine. Little is known about the uptake of
chlorhexidine (and other antiseptics and disinfectants) by mycobacteria and on the biochemical
changes that occur in the treated cells. Since the MICs for some mycobacteria are on the order of
those for chlorhexidine-sensitive, gram-positive cocci, the inhibitory effects of chlorhexidine on
mycobacteria may not be dissimilar to those on susceptible bacteria. Mycobacterium avium-
intracellulare is considerably more resistant than other mycobacteria.
Chlorhexidine is not sporicidal. Even high concentrations of the bisbiguanide do not affect the
viability of Bacillus spores at ambient temperatures, although a marked sporicidal effect is
achieved at elevated temperatures. Presumably, sufficient changes occur in the spore structure to
permit an increased uptake of the biguanide, although this has yet to be shown experimentally.
Little is known about the uptake of chlorhexidine by bacterial spores, although coatless forms
take up more of the compound than do "normal" spores.
Chlorhexidine has little effect on the germination of bacterial spores but inhibits outgrowth. The
reason for its lack of effect on the former process but its significant activity against the latter is
unclear. It could, however, be reflected in the relative uptake of chlorhexidine, since germinating

cells take up much less of the bisbiguanide than do outgrowing forms. Binding sites could thus
be reduced in number or masked in germinating cells.
The antiviral activity of chlorhexidine is variable. Studies with different types of bacteriophages
have shown that chlorhexidine has no effect on MS2 or K coliphages. High concentrations also
failed to inactivate Pseudomonas aeruginosa phage F116 and had no effect on phage DNA
within the capsid or on phage proteins; the transduction process was more sensitive to
chlorhexidine and other biocides than was the phage itself. This substantiated an earlier finding
that chlorhexidine bound poorly to F116 particles. Chlorhexidine is not always considered a
particularly effective antiviral agent, and its activity is restricted to the lipid-enveloped viruses.
Chlorhexidine does not inactivate nonenveloped viruses such as rotavirus, HAV, or poliovirus.
Its activity was found by to be restricted to the nucleic acid core or the outer coat, although it is
likely that the latter would be a more important target site.
Alexidine Alexidine differs chemically from chlorhexidine in possessing ethylhexyl end groups.
Alexidine is more rapidly bactericidal and produces a significantly faster alteration in
bactericidal permeability. Studies with mixed-lipid and pure phospholipid vesicles demonstrate
that, unlike chlorhexidine, alexidine produces lipid phase separation and domain formation. It has
been proposed that the nature of the ethylhexyl end group in alexidine, as opposed to the
chlorophenol one in chlorhexidine, might influence the ability of a biguanide to produce lipid
domains in the cytoplasmic membrane.
Polymeric biguanides Vantocil is a heterodisperse mixture of polyhexamethylene biguanides
(PHMB) with a molecular weight of approximately 3,000. Polymeric biguanides have found use
as general disinfecting agents in the food industry and, very successfully, for the disinfection of

swimming pools. Vantocil is active against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, although
P. aeruginosa and Proteus vulgaris are less sensitive. Vantocil is not sporicidal. PHMB is a
membrane-active agent that also impairs the integrity of the outer membrane of gram-negative
bacteria, although the membrane may also act as a permeability barrier. Activity of PHMB
increases on a weight basis with increasing levels of polymerization, which has been linked to
enhanced inner membrane perturbation.
Unlike chlorhexidine but similar to alexidine, PHMB causes domain formation of the acidic
phospholipids of the cytoplasmic membrane. Permeability changes ensue, and there is believed to
be an altered function of some membrane-associated enzymes. The proposed sequence of events
during its interaction with the cell envelope of E. coli is as follows: (i) there is rapid attraction of
PHMB toward the negatively charged bacterial cell surface, with strong and specific adsorption
to phosphate-containing compounds; (ii) the integrity of the outer membrane is impaired, and
PHMB is attracted to the inner membrane; (iii) binding of PHMB to phospholipids occurs, with
an increase in inner membrane permeability (K+ loss) accompanied by bacteriostasis; and (iv)
complete loss of membrane function follows, with precipitation of intracellular constituents and a
bactericidal effect.
Diamidines
The diamidines are characterized chemically as described in Table 1. The isethionate salts of two
compounds, propamidine (4,4-diaminodiphenoxypropane) and dibromopropamidine (2,2-
dibromo-4,4-diamidinodiphenoxy propane), have been used as antibacterial agents. Clinically,
diamidines are used for the topical treatment of wounds.

The exact mechanism of action of diamidines is unknown, but they have been shown to inhibit
oxygen uptake and induce leakage of amino acids (Table 2), as would be expected if they are
considered as cationic surface-active agents.
Halogen-Releasing Agents
Halogens include iodine, chlorine, bromine, and fluorine. The disinfectant usually recommended
for mold removal is a solution of one part bleach to two parts water. Commercial disinfectants
are also available through janitorial supply stores. Use a household or garden sprayer and spray
all surfaces that have been touched by flood water or have been soaked by water from some
other source. Use a brush or broom to force the solution into crevices.
Iodine Tincture of iodine (2% I2 in 70% alcohol) inactivates proteins and is used as an antiseptic
on skin. Iodine is one of the oldest (300 to 400 years) and most effective germicidal agents. It is
a broad-spectrum bactericide and a good fungicide with some viricidal action. It will kill spores
and is an excellent disinfectant that is effective against protozoa (amebas). It is only slightly
soluble in water; iodine is available as a tincture dissolved in alcohol. Problems arise when the
alcohol evaporates and the concentration of iodine increases, which can cause burning of skin.
Iodophors Iodophors are combinations of iodine and organic molecules (hydrocarbons).
Iodophors work by inhibiting enzyme action and are more effective than iodine. They are
nonirritating, good surfactants, and non-staining.
Chlorine Chlorine (Cl2) gas forms hypochlorous acid (HClO), a strong oxidizing agent, and is
used to disinfect drinking water and as a general disinfectant. Chlorine is used as a gas dissolved
in water or in combination with other chemicals. The chlorine mode of operation is not

completely understood but appears to be a strong oxidizing agent as result of the following
reaction:
Cl2 + H2O HCl + HClO HCl + [O]
Hypochlorites are used domestically and industrially for disinfection. Hypochlorites were first
advocated by Semmelweiss (1846–1848) to reduce incidence of childbed fever in hospitals, and
they have a broad spectrum of kill. Chlorine is a universal disinfectant that is active against all
microorganisms, including bacterial spores.
Potential applications for chlorine as a disinfectant include:
• Work surfaces
• Glassware
• Fixed or portable equipment and cages
• Liquids treated for discard
• Before and after vivarium entry, as a footbath
Many active chlorine compounds are available at various strengths; however, the most widely
used for chemical disinfection is sodium hypochlorite. Household or laundry bleach is a solution
of 5.25% (or 52,500 ppm) sodium hypochlorite. Note that a 10% or 1:10 dilution of bleach will
result in a 0.525% or 5250-ppm solution of chlorine. The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) recommends 500 ppm (1:100 dilution of household bleach) to 5000 ppm (1:10
dilution of bleach), depending on the amount of organic material present, to inactivate the human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The strength of chlorine to be used for disinfection must be
clearly indicated when described in standard operating procedures.
Chlorine solutions will gradually lose strength, so fresh solutions must be prepared frequently.
Diluted solutions should be replaced after 24 hours. The stability of chlorine in solution is greatly
affected by the following factors:
• Chlorine concentration
• Presence and concentration of catalysts such as copper or nickel
• pH of the solution
• Temperature of the solution
• Presence of organic material
• Ultraviolet irradiation
The chlorine solution should have the following characteristics for maximum stability:
• Low chlorine concentration
• Absence or low content of catalysts such as nickel or copper
• High alkalinity
• Low temperature
• Absence of organic materials
Chlorine should be shielded from ultraviolet light by storage in the dark in closed containers. The
following factors may or may not affect chlorine biocidal activity:
• pH — Chlorine is more effective at a lower pH.
• Temperature — An increase in temperature produces an increase in bactericidal activity.

• Concentration — A fourfold increase of chlorine will result in a 50% reduction in killing time,
and a twofold increase results in a 30% reduction in killing time.
• Organic material — Organic material will consume available chlorine. If the organic material
contains proteins, the reaction with chlorine will form chloramines that will have some
antibacterial activity. Loss due to organic materials is more significant if minute amounts of
chlorine are used. Footbaths are frequently contaminated with organic material and may
require more frequent changing than the 24 hours previously stated.
• Hardness — Hardness of the water does not have a slowing effect on the antibacterial action of
sodium hypochlorite.
• Addition of ammonia or amino compounds — Addition of ammonia and nitrogen
compounds will slow the bactericidal action of chlorine.
Other available active chlorine sources include liquid chlorine, chlorine dioxide, inorganic
chloramines, organic chloramines, and halazone.
Chlorine combines with protein and rapidly decreases in concentration when protein is present.
This property gives rise to swimming pool odor, which is often mistaken for the odor of chlorine.
In actuality, that characteristic swimming pool odor indicates that the chlorine in the water has
combined with organic contaminants and is off-gassing from the pool water. The organic source
may be contamination in the pool (e.g., perspiration, urine, feces). Other natural non-protein
materials and plastics and cationic detergents may also inactivate chlorine.

Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent that is corrosive to metals and should not be used on the
metal parts of machines that are subject to stress when in use. Do not autoclave chlorine
solutions or materials treated with them, as the residual chlorine can vaporize resulting in an
inhalation hazard. Do not use chlorine in combination with ammonia, acetylene, butadiene,
butane, methane, propane or other petroleum gases, hydrogen, sodium carbide, benzene, finely
divided metals, or turpentine. Chlorine may cause irritation to the eyes, skin, and lungs. Wear
safety goggles, rubber gloves, aprons, or other protective clothing when handling undiluted
solutions.
Heavy Metals
Heavy metals are the most ancient of antiseptics and disinfectants. Heavy metals were used by
Egyptians, in the form of gold ointments and dust, and were often buried with the corpse or
mummies to provide salves and ointments in the afterlife. Heavy metals have an oligodynamic
(all encompassing) action and are extremely effective. They work because of the strong affinity
of the metals to proteins. Metallic ions bind and adhere to the sulfhydryl groups in proteins, and
enzymatic bindings are created. Stronger concentrations act as protein precipitants. Low
concentrations have a subtle interference on the metabolism of the cell. Examples of heavy metal
usage as disinfectants include the use of copper for ionizing water and to control algae. DaVinci
and others added gold dust to ointments for wounds.
Mercuric chloride inactivates proteins by reacting with sulfide groups and is used as a
disinfectant, although it occasionally is also used as an antiseptic on skin. Mercurials (inorganic
mercury compounds) have a long history, with their heyday occurring during World War I.
Mercurials were replaced by organic mercury compounds such as mercurochrome, methiolate,

and metaphen. These compounds were used as skin antiseptics but their effects are reversed
when they are washed off. Due to the toxic effects of mercury, these compounds are no longer
recommended for first aid or skin disinfection.
Zinc is used in combination with chlorine compounds as a mouthwash and in other combinations
is an effective fungicide. Organometallics (organically activated metals such as heavy metals or
organic radicals such as alcohol) are effective against Gram positive cocci, diphtheroids,
sporeforming rods, tuberculosis, and similar organisms and may be effective against viruses.
They are extremely effective against mycoses and have virtually no effectiveness against Gram-
negative rods. Tributyltin is an example of an organometallic that also has deodorizing qualities.
In one form or another, silver and its compounds have long been used as antimicrobial agents.
The most important silver compound currently in use is silver sulfadiazine (AgSD), although
silver metal, silver acetate, silver nitrate, and silver protein, all of which have antimicrobial
properties. In recent years, silver compounds have been used to prevent the infection of burns and
some eye infections and to destroy warts.
Silver nitrate The mechanism of the antimicrobial action of silver ions is closely related to their
interaction with thiol (sulfydryl, -SH) groups, although other target sites remain a possibility. It
has also been demonstrated that amino acids such as cysteine and other compounds such as
sodium thioglycolate containing thiol groups neutralized the activity of silver nitrate against
P. aeruginosa. By contrast, amino acids containing disulfide (SS) bonds, non-sulfur-containing
amino acids, and sulfur-containing compounds such as cystathione, cysteic acid, L-methionine,

taurine, sodium bisulfite, and sodium thiosulfate were all unable to neutralize Ag+ activity. These
and other findings imply that interaction of Ag+ with thiol groups in enzymes and proteins plays
an essential role in bacterial inactivation, although other cellular components may be involved.
Some co-workers have discussed hydrogen bonding, the effects of hydrogen bond-breaking
agents, and the specificity of Ag+ for thiol groups. Virucidal properties might also be explained
by binding to -SH groups.
It has also been proposed that silver salts and other heavy metals such as copper act by binding to
key functional groups of fungal enzymes. Ag+ causes the release of K+ ions from
microorganisms; the microbial plasma or cytoplasmic membrane, with which is associated many
important enzymes, is an important target site for Ag+ activity.
In addition to its effects on enzymes, Ag+ produces other changes in microorganisms. Silver
nitrate causes marked inhibition of growth of Cryptococcus neoformans and is deposited in the
vacuole and cell wall as granules. Ag+ inhibits cell division and damages the cell envelope and
contents of P. aeruginosa. Bacterial cells increase in size, and the cytoplasmic membrane,
cytoplasmic contents, and outer cell layers all exhibit structural abnormalities, although without
any blebs (protuberances). Finally, the Ag+ ion interacts with nucleic acids; it interacts
preferentially with the bases in DNA rather than with the phosphate groups, although the
significance of this in terms of its lethal action is unclear.
Silver sulfadiazine AgSD is essentially a combination of two antibacterial agents, Ag + and
sulfadiazine (SD). The question whether the antibacterial effect of AgSD arises predominantly

from only one of the compounds or via a synergistic interaction has been posed repeatedly.
AgSD has a broad spectrum of activity and, unlike silver nitrate, produces surface and membrane
blebs in susceptible (but not resistant) bacteria. AgSD binds to cell components, including DNA.
Based on a chemical analysis, a polymeric structure of AgSD was proposed that composed of six
silver atoms bonding to six SD molecules by linkage of the silver atoms to the nitrogens of the
SD pyrimidine ring. Bacterial inhibition would then presumably be achieved when silver binds to
sufficient base pairs in the DNA helix, thereby inhibiting transcription. Similarly, its antiphage
properties have been ascribed to the fact that AgSD binds to phage DNA. Clearly, the precise
mechanism of action of AgSD has yet to be solved.
Peroxygens
Hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a widely used biocide for disinfection,
sterilization, and antisepsis. It is a clear, colorless liquid that is commercially available in a
variety of concentrations ranging from 3 to 90%. H2O2 is considered environmentally friendly,
because it can rapidly degrade into the innocuous products water and oxygen. Although pure
solutions are generally stable, most contain stabilizers to prevent decomposition. H2O2
demonstrates broad-spectrum efficacy against viruses, bacteria, yeasts, and bacterial spores. In
general, greater activity is seen against gram-positive than gram-negative bacteria; however, the
presence of catalase or other peroxidases in these organisms can increase tolerance in the
presence of lower concentrations. Higher concentrations of H2O2 (10 to 30%) and longer contact
times are required for sporicidal activity, although this activity is significantly increased in the
gaseous phase. H2O2 acts as an oxidant by producing hydroxyl free radicals (OH) which attack

essential cell components, including lipids, proteins, and DNA. It has been proposed that exposed
sulfhydryl groups and double bonds are particularly targeted.
Peracetic acid Peracetic acid (PAA) (CH3COOOH) is considered a more potent biocide than
hydrogen peroxide, being sporicidal, bactericidal, virucidal, and fungicidal at low concentrations
(<0.3%). PAA also decomposes to safe by-products (acetic acid and oxygen) but has the added
advantages of being free from decomposition by peroxidases, unlike H2O2, and remaining active
in the presence of organic loads. Its main application is as a low-temperature liquid sterilant for
medical devices, flexible scopes, and hemodialyzers, but it is also used as an environmental
surface sterilant.
Similar to H2O2, PAA probably denatures proteins and enzymes and increases cell wall
permeability by disrupting sulfhydryl (-SH) and sulfur (S-S) bonds.
Ozone Ozone generators sold as air cleaners intentionally produce the gas ozone. Ozone is a
molecule composed of three atoms of oxygen. Two atoms of oxygen form the basic oxygen
molecule — the oxygen we breathe that is essential to life. The third oxygen atom can detach
from the ozone molecule and reattach to molecules of other substances, thereby altering their
chemical composition. Ozone is a toxic gas with vastly different chemical and toxicological
properties from oxygen. The same chemical properties that allow high concentrations of ozone to
react with organic material outside the body give it the ability to react with similar organic
materials that make up the body, with potentially harmful health consequences. Relatively low
amounts can cause chest pain, coughing, shortness of breath, and, throat irritation. Ozone may
also worsen chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma and compromise the ability of the body

to fight respiratory infections. Whether in its pure form or mixed with other chemicals, ozone
can be harmful to health. When inhaled, ozone can damage the lungs.
Phenols
Phenolic-type antimicrobial agents have long been used for their antiseptic, disinfectant, or
preservative properties, depending on the compound. It has been known for many years that,
although they have often been referred to as "general protoplasmic poisons," they have
membrane-active properties, which also contribute to their overall activity.
Phenol induces progressive leakage of intracellular constituents, including the release of K+, the
first index of membrane damage, and of radioactivity from 14C-labeled E. coli. Some co-workers
have demonstrated that low concentrations of phenols (0.032%, 320 µg/ml) and other
(nonphenolic) agents lysed rapidly growing cultures of E. coli, staphylococci, and streptococci
and concluded that autolytic enzymes were not involved. Some have even proposed that phenol
acts only at the point of separation of pairs of daughter cells, with young bacterial cells being
more sensitive than older cells to phenol.
It has been showed with chlorinated bis-phenol fenticlor that there was a close relationship
between bactericidal activity and leakage of 260-nm-absorbing material (leakage being induced
only by bactericidal concentrations). Fentichlor affected the metabolic activities of S. aureus and
E. coli and produced a selective increase in permeability to protons with a consequent dissipation
of the proton motive force (PMF) and an uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation. Chlorocresol
has a similar action. Coagulation of cytoplasmic constituents at higher phenol concentrations,
which causes irreversible cellular damage, has been described.

The phenolics possess antifungal and antiviral properties. Their antifungal action probably
involves damage to the plasma membrane, resulting in leakage of intracellular constituents.
Phenol does not affect the transduction of P. aeruginosa PAO by bacteriophage F116, has no
effect on phage DNA within the capsid, and has little effect on several of the phage band proteins
unless treatments of 20 min or longer are used.
Phenol It is used in dentistry as an analgesic, for dressing of small wounds. In solutions with
glycerol, it is used as an antiseptic, and analgesic in mouth ulcers and tonsillitis.
Cresol It is many times active than phenol and is less damaging to the tissues. It is used for
disinfection of utensils, excretory fluids and for washing hands.
Resorcinol It is less potent than phenol but is keratolytic and antipruritic. It is used for the
treatment of various skin disorders like ringworm, eczema, psoriasis, and dermatitis.
Bis-Phenols
The bis-phenols are hydroxy-halogenated derivatives of two phenolic groups connected by
various bridges. In general, they exhibit broad-spectrum efficacy but have little activity against
P. aeruginosa and molds and are sporostatic toward bacterial spores. Triclosan and
hexachlorophane are the most widely used biocides in this group, especially in antiseptic soaps
and hand rinses. Both compounds have been shown to have cumulative and persistent effects on
the skin.
Triclosan. Triclosan (2,4,4'-trichloro-2'-hydroxydiphenyl ether; Irgasan DP 300) exhibits
particular activity against gram-positive bacteria. Formulation effects can significantly enhance
its efficacy against gram-negative bacteria and yeasts. For example, triclosan in combination

with EDTA caused increased permeability of the outer membrane. Reports have also suggested
that in addition to its antibacterial properties, triclosan may have anti-inflammatory activity. The
specific mode of action of triclosan is unknown, but it has been suggested that the primary effects
are on the cytoplasmic membrane. In studies with E. coli, triclosan at subinhibitory
concentrations inhibited the uptake of essential nutrients, while higher, bactericidal
concentrations resulted in the rapid release of cellular components and cell death. Studies with a
divalent-ion-dependent E. coli triclosan mutant for which the triclosan MIC was 10-fold greater
than that for a wild-type strain showed no significant differences in total envelope protein
profiles but did show significant differences in envelope fatty acids. Specifically, a prominent
14:1 fatty acid was absent in the resistant strain, and there were minor differences in other fatty
acid species. It was proposed that divalent ions and fatty acids may adsorb and limit the
permeability of triclosan to its site of action. Minor changes in fatty acid profiles were recently
found in both E. coli and S. aureus strains for which the triclosan MICs were elevated; however,
the MBCs were not affected, suggesting, as for other phenols, that the cumulative effects on
multiple targets contribute to the bactericidal activity.
Hexachlorophene. Hexachlorophene (hexachlorophane; 2,2'-dihydroxy-3,5,6,3',5',6'
hexachlorodiphenyl methane) is another bis-phenol whose mode of action has been extensively
studied. The primary action of hexachlorophene, based on studies with Bacillus megatherium, is
to inhibit the membrane-bound part of the electron transport chain, and the other effects noted
above are secondary ones that occur only at high concentrations. It induces leakage, causes
protoplast lysis, and inhibits respiration. The threshold concentration for the bactericidal activity
of hexachlorphene is 10 µg/ml (dry weight), but peak leakage occurs at concentrations higher

than 50 µg/ml and cytological changes occur above 30 µg/ml. Furthermore, hexachlorophene is
bactericidal at 0°C despite causing little leakage at this temperature. Despite the broad-spectrum
efficacy of hexachlorophene, concerns about toxicity, in particular in neonates, have meant that
its use in antiseptic products has been limited.
Halophenols
Chloroxylenol (4-chloro-3,5-dimethylphenol; p-chloro-m-xylenol) is the key halophenol used in
antiseptic or disinfectant formulations. Chloroxylenol is bactericidal, but P. aeruginosa and
many molds are highly resistant. Surprisingly, its mechanism of action has been little studied
despite its widespread use over many years. Because of its phenolic nature, it would be expected
to have an effect on microbial membranes.
Quaternary Ammonium Compounds
Surface-active agents (surfactants) have two regions in their molecular structures, one a
hydrocarbon, water-repellent (hydrophobic) group and the other a water-attracting (hydrophilic
or polar) group. Depending on the basis of the charge or absence of ionization of the hydrophilic
group, surfactants are classified into cationic, anionic, nonionic, and ampholytic (amphoteric)
compounds. Of these, the cationic agents, as exemplified by quaternary ammonium compounds
(QACs), are the most useful antiseptics and disinfectants. They are sometimes known as cationic
detergents. QACs have been used for a variety of clinical purposes (e.g., preoperative
disinfection of unbroken skin, application to mucous membranes, and disinfection of noncritical
surfaces). In addition to having antimicrobial properties, QACs are also excellent for hard-
surface cleaning and deodorization.

It has been known for many years that QACs are membrane-active agents (Table 2) (i.e., with a
target site predominantly at the cytoplasmic (inner) membrane in bacteria or the plasma
membrane in yeasts). It has been proposed that the following sequence of events occurs with
microorganisms exposed to cationic agents: (i) adsorption and penetration of the agent into the
cell wall; (ii) reaction with the cytoplasmic membrane (lipid or protein) followed by membrane
disorganization; (iii) leakage of intracellular low-molecular-weight material; (iv) degradation of
proteins and nucleic acids; and (v) wall lysis caused by autolytic enzymes. There is thus a loss of
structural organization and integrity of the cytoplasmic membrane in bacteria, together with other
damaging effects to the bacterial cell.
Useful information about the selectivity of membrane action can be obtained by studying the
effects of biocides on protoplasts and spheroplasts suspended in various solutes. QACs cause
lysis of spheroplasts and protoplasts suspended in sucrose. The cationic agents react with
phospholipid components in the cytoplasmic membrane, thereby producing membrane distortion
and protoplast lysis under osmotic stress. Isolated membranes do not undergo disaggregation on
exposure to QACs, because the membrane distortion is not sufficiently drastic. The non-QAC
agents TCC and trichlorosalicylanide have specific effects: TCC induces protoplast lysis in
ammonium chloride by increasing Cl- permeability, whereas trichlorosalicylanide induces lysis
in ammonium nitrate by increasing NO3- permeability. In contrast, QACs (and chlorhexidine)
induce lysis of protoplasts or spheroplasts suspended in various solutes because they effect
generalized, rather than specific, membrane damage.
The bacterial cytoplasmic membrane provides the mechanism whereby metabolism is linked to
solute transport, flagellar movement, and the generation of ATP. Protons are extruded to the

exterior of the bacterial cell during metabolism. The combined potential (concentration or
osmotic effect of the proton and its electropositivity) is the PMF, which drives these ancillary
activities. The QAC cetrimide was found to have an effect on the PMF in S. aureus. At its
bacteriostatic concentration, cetrimide caused the discharge of the pH component of the PMF and
also produced the maximum amount of 260-nm-absorbing material.
QACs are also believed to damage the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria, thereby
promoting their own uptake. This aspect of QACs is considered below (see "Intrinsic resistance
of gram-negative bacteria").
The QAC cetylpyridium chloride (CPC) induces the leakage of K+ and pentose material from the
yeast S. cerevisiae and induces protoplast lysis as well as interacting with crude cell sap. Unlike
chlorhexidine, however, no biphasic effect on protoplast lysis was observed. The initial toxic
effect of QACs on yeast cells is a disorganization of the plasma membranes, with organized lipid
structures in the membranes (and in lipid bilayers) being disrupted.
QACs are sporostatic; they inhibit the outgrowth of spores (the development of a vegetative cell
from a germinated spore) but not the actual germination processes (development from dormancy
to a metabolically active state), albeit by an unknown mechanism. Likewise, the QACs are not
mycobactericidal but have a mycobacteriostatic action, although the actual effects on
mycobacteria have been little studied.
The QACs have an effect on lipid, enveloped (including human immunodeficiency virus and
HBV) but not nonenveloped viruses. QAC-based products induced disintegration and

morphological changes of human HBV, resulting in loss of infectivity. In studies with different
phages, CPC significantly inhibited transduction by bacteriophage F116 and inactivated the
phage particles. Furthermore, CPC altered the protein bands of F116 but did not affect the phage
DNA within the capsid.
Dyes
Staining is the main problem associated with all dyes. Dyes are used primarily in selective and
differential media and can be used intravenously and as pills or applied to the skin in liquid form.
Some dyes may be strong mutagenic agents, and the actions of some are unclear. When used as
gaseous chemosterilizers, these disinfectant aerosol particles should be between 1 and 5 µm in
size to be most effective.
Gentian violet It is a Rosaline dye which is active against gram-positive bacteria, staphylococci,
and fungi but not against mycobacterium and gram-negative bacteria. It is used for the treatment
of tinea and yeast infections, ulcers, eczema, Vincent’s angina, and vaginitis as suppository. It is
also used as an anthelmintic in thread worm and ring worm infections.
It occurs as a green powder or green flakes, having a metallic lusture. It is soluble in water and
alcohol but insoluble in most of the non-polar organic solvents.
Basic fuschin It is also a Rosaline dye which is a mixture of chlorides of Rosaline and p-
rosalines and is similar to gentian violet. It is used topically for the treatment of ring worm
infections and athlete’s foot.

It occurs as green crystalline powder having metallic lusture, soluble in water and alcohol but
insoluble in ether.
Methylene blue It is a thiazine derivative dye possessing redox properties which makes it useful
for the treatment of cyanide poisoning. It is considered to be bacterioststic and is used for the
treatment of cystitis and urethritis.
It occurs as green crystalline powder having metallic lusture, and soluble in water and alcohol.
Acriflavin and Proflavin These are acridine dyes, which are active against gram-positive
bacteria and gonococci. They are the most useful antiseptics among the dyes. They are non-
irritant and their activity is decreased in the presence of organic matter but increased in the
presence of alkali. They are useful for application to wounds, cuts and ulcers.
They occur as orange-yellow crystalline powder.
Mercurochrome It is a mercury derivative, used as an antiseptic but has weak bacteriostatic
properties. it is non-irritating and is used topically on cuts, wounds, skin, and mucosa. Its
staining properties restrict its use.
Acids
If the microenvironment is maintained at about pH 3, organisms begin to die off. The longer this
lower pH is maintained, the greater the die off. Acids are used in food preservation techniques.

Vapor-Phase Sterilants
Many heat-sensitive medical devices and surgical supplies can be effectively sterilized by liquid
sterilants (in particular glutaraldehyde, PAA, and hydrogen peroxide) or by vapor-phase
sterilization systems (Table 1). The most widely used active agents in these "cold" systems are
ethylene oxide, formaldehyde and, more recently developed, hydrogen peroxide and PAA.
Ethylene oxide and formaldehyde are both broad-spectrum alkylating agents. However, their
activity is dependent on active concentration, temperature, duration of exposure, and relative
humidity. As alkylating agents, they attack proteins, nucleic acids, and other organic compounds;
both are particularly reactive with sulfhydryl and other enzyme-reactive groups. Ethylene oxide
gas has the disadvantages of being mutagenic and explosive but is not generally harsh on
sensitive equipment, and toxic residuals from the sterilization procedure can be routinely
eliminated by correct aeration. Formaldehyde gas is similar and has the added advantage of being
nonexplosive but is not widely used in health care. Vapor-phase hydrogen peroxide and PAA are
considered more active (as oxidants) at lower concentrations than in the liquid form. Both active
agents are used in combination with gas plasma in low-temperature sterilization systems. Their
main advantages over other vapor-phase systems include low toxicity, rapid action, and activity
at lower temperature; the disadvantages include limited penetrability and applications.
Furan derivative
Nitrofuran It is a broad spectrum antiseptic that has activity against both gram-positive and
gram-negative bacteria, but no activity against fungi. It is bactericidal against most bacteria but
Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains are resistant. Its activity is reduced in the presence of serum. It
inhibits the necessary enzymes for carbohydrate metabolism in bacteria and thus exerts its action.

It is generally used as creams, dusting powder or solutions in the treatment of burns and skin
grafts, minor cuts, and wounds.
It occurs as lemon yellow crystalline powder that is very slightly soluble in water while insoluble
in most organic solvents.
Factors modifying the action of Antiseptics and Disinfectants
1. Temperature
2. pH
3. Concentration of the compound
4. Surface tension
5. Time of contact with the microbes
6. Nature and amount of microbes
7. Pressure of organic matter and body fluids
8. Nature of the compound
9. Nature of the surface to which they are applied
Syntheses of some important antiseptics and disinfectants

1. Synthesis of Thymol
CH3 CH3
CH3
CH3COCH3
Acetylation
300-320o C
OH OH
OCOCH3
m-Hydroxy Toluene
H3C CH2
CH3
H2 -Ni
OH
H3C CH3
Thymol
2. Synthesis of Hexachlorophene
Cl OH OH OH
conc. H2 SO4 Cl CH2 Cl
+ CH2O
Formaldehyde
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
Hexachlorophene

3. Synthesis of Hexyl resorcinol
OH OH
ZnCl2
+ HOOC(CH2)4CH3 HO CO(CH2)4CH3
125-1350 C
OH
Resorcinol
HCl
Hg / Zn
OH
(CH2)5CH3
HO
Hexyl resorcinol
4. Synthesis of Chlorhexidine
NH2-C-NH-CN + NH2-(CH2)6-NH2 NC-NH-C-NH-(CH2)6-NH-C-NH-CN
NH NH
Hexamethylene-1,6-dicyandimide
Cl
2 . HCl
NH2
Cl
NH-C-NH-C-NH-(CH2)3 2 HCl
NH NH
2
Chlorhexidine

5. Synthesis of Acriflavin
H
H2N NH2 +
CH2OH COOH 1. ZnCl2 H2N N NH2
-
+ CHOH + 2. Oxidation . HSO4
COOH
CH2OH 3. H2 SO4
m-Phenylenediamine
Proflavin
1. Methyl p-toluene sulphonate

2. HCl
CH3
+
H2N N NH2
-
. Cl
Acriflavin
6. Synthesis of Mercurochrome
HO O OH
HO OH
CO Oxalic acid
O
+ -H2 O
O
CO
Resorcinol Phthalic anhydride O
Fluorescein
1. Br2 / CH3 COOH

2. Yellow HgO / CH3 COOH
HgOH HgOCO-CH3
O O ONa HO O OH
NaOH
Br Br Br Br
O
C=O
O
ONa
Mercurochrome

7. Synthesis of Gentian violet
H3C
CH3
N CH3 + 2 N
CH3
H3C
N,N-dimethyl-p-toluidine N,N-dimethyl aniline
C6 H5 NO2
NaCl
N(CH3)2
H3C +
N C Cl
H3C
N(CH3)2
Gentian violet
8. Synthesis of Methylene Blue
NH2 NH2
Na2 S2 O3
O2 - +
(CH3)2N (CH3)2N S-SO3 Na
Dimethyl-p-phenylene diamine
C6 H5 N(CH3 )2
HCl, O2
+ -
(CH3)2N S N (CH3)2Cl
N
Methylene Blue
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Chemotherapy: Antiseptics and Disinfectants

Chapter · September 2008

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ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS

(Medicinal Chemistry Theory)

Antiseptics and Disinfectants 1

e-Book title: Medicinal Chemistry

Chapter title: Chemotherapy: Antiseptics and Disinfectants

Author name: Dr. Asif Husain

Keywords: Antiseptic, disinfectant, biocide, anti-infective, dyes, quaternary

ammonium compounds, phenol, alcohol, formaldehyde, chlorhexidine,

iodine, hydrogen peroxide.

Antiseptics and Disinfectants 2

Antiseptics and Disinfectants

living tissue or inanimate objects.

bedding, floor etc.

They should possess the following properties:

3. Non-staining with acceptable color and odor.

4. Bactericidal, not only static and capable of destroying spores as well.

5. Wider spectrum of action.

An antiseptic in addition should be-

1. Rapid in action and exert sustained lethal action.

2. Non-irritating to tissues when applied.

3. Non-allergic to the subject.

4. No systemic toxicity (Non-absorbable).

5. Active even in the presence of body fluids e.g.- blood, pus.

Antiseptics and Disinfectants 3

A disinfectant in addition should be-

2. Good penetrating agent

3. Compatible with other organic compounds like soap.

development of microbial resistance, in particular cross-resistance to antibiotics.

considerably in activity against microorganisms. Antimicrobial activity can be influenced by

Antiseptics and Disinfectants 4

Table 1: Chemical structures and uses of biocides in antiseptics and disinfectants

Ethanol CH3 CH2OH Antisepsis

Antiseptics and Disinfectants 5

Iodine compounds Antisepsis

Antiseptics and Disinfectants 6

(i) Zinc sulphate (i) ZnSO4

(ii) Zinc oxide (ii) ZnO

Phenols and Disinfection

Antiseptics and Disinfectants 7

Antiseptics and Disinfectants 8

b) Basic Fuschin H2N Cl

4) Xanthine dyes HgOH

Antiseptics and Disinfectants 9

H2C CH2 Sterilization

Hydrogen peroxide H2O2

susceptibility (or insusceptibility) to antiseptics and disinfectants; it is disappointing how little is

Antiseptics and Disinfectants 10

mechanisms of action are summarized in the table below.

Table 2: Summary of mechanisms of antibacterial action of some antiseptics

Target Antiseptic or disinfectant Mechanism of action

Cell envelope (cell Glutaraldehyde Cross-linking of proteins

Generalized membrane damage