1

INTRODUCTION
1 Background and Motivation .................................... 2

• Mobile Robot Localization

• Autonomous Localization Systems

1.2 Thesis Roadmap .................................................... 8

1.3 Practical Systems .................................................. 11
1.4 Summary ............................................................... 12

In this modem age the autonomous or semi autonomous robot vehicles find
applications in automated inspection systems [1], floor sweepers [2), hazardous
environments [3], autonomous truck loading systems [4], agriculture tasks, delivery in
establishments like manufacturing plants, office buildings, hospitals [5J, etc. and
providing services for the elderly [6]. In addition to this, autonomous vehicles are
widely utilized in undersea exploration and military surveillance systems [7, 8].
Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs), such as the cargo transport systems are heavily
used in industrial applications. Mobile robots are also finding their way into a growing
number of homes, providing security, automation [9, 10], and even entertainment. In
each of these tasks, some type of positioning system is essential. A variety of
technologies have been developed and used successfully to provide position and
attitude infonnation. However, many of these existing positioning systems have

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inherent limitations in their workspace. These limitations generally fall into two main
categories: line-of-sight restrictions and insufficient resolution/precision as they require
multiple clear lines-of-sight and absolute drift-free measurements.

In mobile robot applications, two basic position estimation methods are

employed concurrently, viz., the absolute and relative positioning [11]. Absolute
positioning methods usually rely on the use of appropriate exteroceptive (external)
sensing techniques, like navigation beacons [12,13], active or passive landmarks[14],
map matching [15], or satellite-based navigation [16] signals. Navigation beacons and
landmarks normally require costly installations and maintenance, while map-matching
methods are usually slower and demand more memory and computational overheads.
The satellite-based navigation techniques are used only in outdoor implementations
and have poor accuracy, of the order of a few metres. Relative position estimation is
based on proprioceptive (internal) sensing systems like odometry [17], inertial
navigation system (INS) [18] or optical flow techniques [19). The vehicle performs
self localization by using relative positioning technique, called dead reckoning. For
implementing a navigational system many indoor mobile robots use active beacons
[13] together with traditional inertial navigation systems employing gyros and
accelerometers or position odometric system or both. The latter provides accurate and
precise intermediate estimation of position during the path execution.

1.1 Background and Motivation

Autonomous navigation and autonomous mobile Robots/Vehicles
specifically, are currently of great interest to the scientific, industrial, and military
communities. Such systems have the potential to improve human-safety and
performance in various applications like hazardous environments, industrial
establishments, guiding differently able personnel, autonomous highway driving,
automated traffic and transport control system and Robotic Army that may fight in
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the battlefields. The ability of a mobile robot to determine its location in space is a
fundamental competence for autonomous navigation. Knowledge of self-location,
and the location of other places of interest is the basic foundation on which all high
level navigation operations are built. It enables strategic path planning for tasks
such as goal reaching, exploration and obstacle avoidance, and makes the following
of these planned trajectories possible. Without a notion of location, a robot is
limited to reactive behavior based solely on local stimuli and is incapable of
planning actions beyond its immediate sensing range.

The knowledge of position and attitude information is not exclusive to the

realm of mobile robots. Information about the location of an inanimate object, for
example a cargo pallet, can streamline inventory and enable warehouse automation.
Unmanned vehicles promise to allow often dangerous tasks to be perfonned from
remote locations in a range of application domains such as mining, defense and sub
sea exploration. With the advent of newer technologies, including a host of
relatively cheap sensors and increase in computational speed, there has been a
recent push to increase the level of autonomy with which remote agents are
allowed to operate. This is seen in numerous application domains where the
systems are required to operate for long periods with little or no input from a
human operator. From the landing of spacecraft on distant planets [21] to
submersible vehicles operating too deep in the oceans [22], there is a need for
systems capable of making decisions and performing controls in an independent
manner.

A number of groups around the world have been concentrating their efforts
on the development of field deployable robots and these are being taken up in a
variety of industrial sectors. The deployment of autonomous systems in field
environments demands high levels of robustness and system integrity. As

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technology advances the autonomous mobile robot vehicles can navigate at higher
speeds with high resolution and precision. The need for reliable, high resolution
localization system for indoor autonomous navigation has resulted in a
considerable amount of research.

1.1.1 Mobile Robot Localization

This section briefly describes the features of localization schemes
commonly used in mobile robot vehicles. Relative position estimation or dead
reckoning is based on proprioceptive (internal) sensing systems, where the error
growth rates are usually unacceptable. This is the most basic [on11 of localization,
which is simply estimation of the vehicle pose by integrating estimates of its
motion by the help of inertial sensors and encoder-based odomctry. The problem
with dead reckoning is that each change-in-pose estimate includes a component of
error and these errors accumulate as part of the integration process. Thus,
uncertainty in the pose estimate increases monotonically with time and one cannot
prevent this increase. The error growth rates of these systems are usually
unacceptable. Pose estimation with bounded uncertainty is only possible through
the availability of absolute rather than incremental pose measurements.

Inertial Navigation System (INS) is complex and expensive and requires

more information processing for extracting the required position and attitude
information. The localization based on [NS uses accelerometers or gyros, where the
accelerometer data must be integrated twice to yield the position infonnation,
thereby making these sensors extremely sensitive to drift. A very small error in the
rate information furnished by the INS can lead to unbounded growth in the position
errors with time and distance. Rate infonnation from the gyros can be integrated
to estimate the position and yields better accuracy than accelerometers. Though the
odometric system is simple, inexpensive and accurate over short distances, it is
 I ntroauctioll

prone to several sources of errors due to wheel slippage, variations in wheel radius,
body deflections, surface roughness and undulations. For better traction, most of
the mobile robots use rubber tyres, which have unevenness in their diameter and
these tyres compress differently under asymmetric load distribution or load
imbalances, causing further position and attitude errors.

1.1.2 Autonomous Localization Systems

The general arrangement of a mobile robot localization system is shown in
figure 1.1. From the proprioceptive sensors' data the pose and velocity of the vehicle
can be estimated. The system also takes measurements from one or more exteroceptive
sensors and uses this infonnation to provide corrections to the estimated values.
Depending upon the sensor type and its quality the resolution and precision of the
estimated position and attitude varies. Various algorithms and filtering techniques are
utilized for the extraction of best estimate from the available infonnation.

Navigation beacons and landmarks nonnally require costly installations and

maintenance, while map-matching methods are usually slower and demand more
memory and computational overheads. The satellite-based navigation techniques are
used only in outdoor implementations and have poor accuracy, of the order of a few
metres.

Corrected values of Pose

---
Proprioceptive
Error Correction and Velocity
Sensors
and
(Accelerometer,
Estimation
Gyro, Encoder)

l
Exteroceptive
Sensors
(Beacons,
Landmarks, maps)

Figure 1.1: A block diagram showing the general arrangement of a

mobile robot localization system.
Cliapter 1

For outdoor applications Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS)

based localization techniques provide adequate resolution, whereas for indoor use,
this resolution is insufficient and moreover the satellite signals may be obstructed,
which further aggravate the situation. Another technique is map based localization
where the map of the environment defined by the locations of distinct landmarks
provides a source of absolute position information. Thus, given an ability to sense
its surroundings, the robot can obtain absolute pose estimates by registering sensed
information with the map. The problem with a priori map based localization is the
need to have explored the environment in advance, and to have surveyed the
landmark locations before the robot can begin to navigate autonomously.
Construction of an a priori map may be a difficult operation and a new map must
be built for each new environment. Moreover, the resulting map is static and cannot
adapt to changes in the environment or grow with exploration into regions beyond
the original map bounds. The geometric feature extraction or map based navigation
methods are highly environment dependant and sometimes it is too difficult to
deri ve the pose.

Substantial research works are gomg on m the area of Simultaneous

Localization and Map building (SLAM) [20] using various sensing systems. The
motivation for SLAM is to overcome the need for a priori maps as a mechanism
for bounded pose uncertainty, and to enable map construction that is extensible and
adaptive to environmental change. SLAM is performed by storing landmarks in a
map as they are observed by the robot sensors, using the robot pose estimate to
detennine the landmark locations, while at the same time, using these landmarks
help to improve the robot pose estimates. As the landmarks are repeatedly re-
observed, their locations become increasingly certain and the map converges,
eventually acquiring the rigidity of an a priori map. The complexity of the SLAM
estimation problem is potentially huge, which require more memory and
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computational overhead for feature extraction. Further, the structure of the SLAM
problem is characterized by monotonically increasing correlations between
landmark estimates. For these reasons, there has been a significant drive to find
computationally effective SLAM algorithms. This has been achieved through the
development and use of the Kalman and extended Kalman filter as the estimation
algorithms of choice in SLAM algorithms.

The errors in kinematic and environmental parameters will lead to poor

estimation of positions during the path execution and this necessitates the need for
frequent absolute localizations. For indoor applications like localization of
personnel, products and vehicles in warehouses as well as production
environments, where a stable and accurate localization system is necessary, the
ultrasonic, infrared, (23] radio frequency [24] and laser techniques (25] are
commonly used. The use of ultrasonic sensors [26,27] is limited to the proximetry
because of poor system characteristics like moderate axial resolution, low lateral
resolution, and high rate of inaccuracies in measurements resulting from multiple
reflections, environmental complexity and the aperture cone. Radio frequency
systems are very expensive and are susceptible to reflections from metallic objects.
These localization systems, which utilize triangulation or trilateration techniques
(28], have high uncertainty in position estimations, incurring extra computational
overheads, resulting possibly in slowing down the path execution process of the
vehicle.

Most of the high resolution systems are complex and costly. A cost
effective commercially available infrared Beacon System used for indoor robot
localization application is the Northstar from Evolution Robotics Inc. (29J. This
system requires a reflecting roof for its functioning, which is not always feasible in
an industrial or warehouse environment. The reflective characteristics as well as the

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indoor lighting system may affect its performance. Here also the computational
overhead due to the triangulation method exists.

For the successful navigation and path planning of indoor mobile robots, a
well-defined and structured workspace is required. This can provide high-rate of
precise positioning and attitude information for reliable estimation of the vehicles'
localization and navigation map.

This thesis investigates the localization problem in the context of 2-D

(planar) environments, so that the location of the robot is given by its pose (i.e.,
position (x, y) and orientation B).

1.2 Thesis Roadmap

The thesis deals with the necessary background by discussing common
localization methods available for the detection of position and attitude
measurement of mobile robot vehicles. The robotic systems have utilized various
sensing techniques and processing algorithms for the extraction of information.
The various sensing techniques reported for mobile robot localization are
examined.

Some sensors are simple but some others are sophisticated and equipped
with complex and costly processing electronics, which can be used to acquire
information about the robot's environment or even to directly measure a robot's
absolute position. As the mobile robot moves around, it will frequently encounter
unforeseen environmental characteristics, and therefore such sensing is particularly
critical. General classification of sensors used for localization of robots and their
features are discussed. Examples of different types of sensors and the information
they provide are also presented. Various beacon based systems and their merits and
demerits in the application of localization of autonomous mobile robots are

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examined. Odometric sensors, INS and active rangmg sensors are thoroughly
discussed. Complex systems like vision based localization and SLAM are also
briefly explained.

The methodology of design, construction and experimental details of a

beacon system and receiver developed for the absolute localization of autonomous
robot vehicle is discussed.

The development of a cost effective, accurate and reliable system, utilising

an infrared sheet of light, which minimizes position errors during the path
execution is presented. The encoded digital infrared sheet of light beacon (DISLiB)
construction, method of installation and its implementation using a microcontroller
are explained. Results of the characteristics study of the beacon transmitter are
given. A resolution enhancement algorithm developed is described and the
variations of the same with the environmental parameters are plotted. The position
and attitude updating for a three wheeled mobile vehicle with one driving-steering
wheel and two fixed rear wheels in-axis is also discussed. The characteristics,
merits and realization details of the system are thoroughly explored.

The realization details of an odometric error reduction system, which can be

utilized as part of all wheeled mobile robot vehicles, are discussed. The various
factors causing errors to the odometric system are examined. A simple and efficient
method and its implementation in FPGA for reducing the odometric localization
errors caused by over count readings of an optical encoder based odometric system
in a mobile robot due to wheel-slippage and terrain irregularities is also discussed.
The detection and correction is based on redundant encoder measurements. The
standard quadrature technique is used to obtain four counts in each encoder period.
The CORDIC algorithm is used for the computation of sine and cosine terms in the
update equations. The necessary hardware IS designed and developed for the

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independent computation and comparison of the position and attitude values from
the rear wheel and front wheel encoder data. The digital comparators manage the
switching of multiplexers that selects the least values among the computed values.
The results presented demonstrate the effectiveness of the technique.

The suitability of DISLiB system to applications where localization and

guidance are of great importance, like intelligent control of the public
transportation system as well as guidance of differently-able personnel are
envisaged. The adaptive traffic control system ensures safe and smooth traffic flow
and informs the drivers about the traffic status. The guidance and obstacle
avoidance systems for the visually impaired personnel provide less body gear and
adequate information about the environment. The installation and realization of
these systems are explained. A novel technique to reduce the traffic congestions
and location identification is introduced. The need for an intelligent traffic control
for the modem public transportation system is well illustrated. The realization
details of a traffic and transport control system using existing GSM network are
discussed. The design of a flexible and friendly driver support system for the
vehicle is also proposed. The diverse ways of position estimation and support
systems for differently-able people that are already in use are briefed. The DISLiB
based visually impaired personnel support system is simple, cost effective and
provides less body gear without much computational burden or significant
processing. The natural language assisting capability of the system by
incorporating a chipCorder is addressed.
A comparison of the merits and demerits of the system has also been carried
out. This research work is carried out with an aim of developing a robust, cost
effective and absolute position update system without any computational burden.
The proposed absolute localization method has been realized and tested.

10 ([)efJanftumt ofP1ectronics
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Suggestions for improving the system perfonnance are also proposed. The
extension of the use of the system to other applications is also suggested.
The major contributions of the work are also listed.

1.3 Practical Systems

There is a great demand for the practical use of service robots in a wide
range of applications, to enable a more enriched society, in view of declining
birthrates. unwillingness of people to join anny and aging populations in many
countries. Fujitsu Frontech and Fujitsu Laboratories Ltd. have introduced a new
service robot. enon (exciting nova on network) [30] that can assist in such tasks as
providing guidance. escorting guests, transporting objects, and security patrolling.
The robot is able to autonomously cater the customers' requirements while being
linked to a network (Wireless LAN (802.11 alII bill g) (30(.

Ibl
Figure 1.2 The photographs ~f(a) enon and (b) ASlMO

Honda engineers has created an advanced humanoid robot AS/MO with 34

degrees of freedom that help it wa1k and perform tasks much like a human [31 J.
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Cfiapter 1

These degrees of freedom act much like human joints for optimum movement and
flexibility. ASIMO is designed to operate in the real world, where people need to
reach for things, pick things up, navigate along floors, sidewalks, and even climb
stairs. Its abilities to run, walk smoothly, climb stairs, communicate, and recognize
people's voices and faces will enable ASIMO to easily function in real world and
truly assist humans [31). The photographs of enon and AS/MO are shown in figure
1.2.

1.4 Summary
This thesis describes the development of an accurate and reliable
localization system for autonomous mobile robot navigation, utilising an infrared
sheet of light, which minimizes the position and attitude errors during the path
execution. This provides a cost effective position and attitude sensing system
designed specifically to face the challenges in a realistic, cluttered indoor
environment, such as that of an office building or warehouse. In the proposed
approach, a number of beacon transmitters are installed in the well defined and
structured workspace as required and all the transmitters provide the estimates in a
common reference frame or universal frame. Two sensor units on the mobile robot
read the beacon and process the measurements to determine its position, attitude as
well as traffic signaling information. The real-time identification and correction
methods mitigate the impact of localization errors caused by the robot vehicles and
the environment. A novel resolution enhancement algorithm suggested in this
thesis satisfies the requirements of a high resolution localization system. The
potential for this type of localization system for autonomous robots operating in
structured indoor environments is enormous.

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