Wu Thermodynamic Cycles

COMPUTERdIDEI)
DESIGN flND OPTIMIZ~ION
Chih Wu
United States Naval Academy
Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A.
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Chih Wu
ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION

To my wife, Hoying Tsai Wu,
and to my children, Anna, Joy, Sheree, and Patricia

Preface
Development in classical thermodynamics is, logically and traditionally,

aimed at the analysis of cycles. Computational efforts impose harsh
constraints on the kinds and amounts of cycle analyses that can reasonably
be attempted. Cycle simulations cannot approach realistic complexity. Even
relative sensitivity analyses based on grossly simplified cycle models are
computationally taxing compared to their pedagogical benefits.
The desire for more design content in thermodynamic books is a
familiar theme emanating from engineering industry and educational
oversight bodies. Thermodynamic cycles are fertile ground for engineering
design. Niches for innovative power generating systems for example, are
being created by deregulation, cogeneration, vacillating fuel costs, and
concern over global warming. Computerized look-up tables reduce
computational labor somewhat, but modeling cycles with many interactive
loops still lies well outside of power-engineering time budgets.
This book is based on intelligent computer software called Cyclepad.
Cyclepad was developed by Professor K. Forbus of Northwestern University
and evaluated by me. It is a powerful, mature, user-friendly freeware package
developed expressly to simulate thermodynamic devices and cycles. It
reduces by about 100-fold the computational effort involved in modeling
realistically complex systems and cycles. It thus makes it feasible for
engineers to run meaningful sensitivity analyses, to consider combinations
of design modifications, to make engineering cost–benefit analyses, and to
include refinements such as accounting for pressure changes and heat
transfers occurring between major cycle components.
A previous book of mine (Intelligent Computer-based Elementary
Applied Thermodynamics, 2002) covers the basic concept and laws of
thermodynamics.
This book, along with Cyclepad, is intended to comprise the cycle
portion in thermodynamics or to support cost–benefit analyses and to
direct design projects. It is strictly design- and problem-solving oriented.

Released from the drain of repetitive and iterative hand calculations,
power engineers can achieve a far wider and deeper analysis of cycles than
has previously been possible.
Classical thermodynamics is based on the concept of ‘‘equilibrium.’’
Time is not involved in conventional engineering thermodynamic
textbooks. Heat transfer deals with rate of energy transfer, but does not
cover cycles. There is a gap between thermodynamics and heat transfer.
The chapter ‘‘Finite-Time Thermodynamics’’ bridges the gap between
thermodynamics and heat transfer.
I have noted some attitudinal benefits during my eight semesters of
Cyclepad-assisted teaching of thermodynamics at the U.S. Naval Academy
and at Johns Hopkins University. Students tend from the outset to be
more positively disposed toward computer-assisted learning of education
thermodynamics, with quite a few describing it as ‘‘fun’’. (Not surprisingly,
higher education is increasingly embracing computer-assisted course
work.) Material that is more positively regarded tends to be better
retained. Further, an ability to execute realistically complicated cycle
simulations builds confidence and a sense of professionalism.
Both Cyclepad and the text contain pedagogical aids. The intelligent
computer software switches to a warning-tutoring mode when users attempt
to impose erroneous assumptions or perform inappropriate operations
during cycle analyses. Chapter summaries review the more salient points and
provide cohesion. Review problems and worked examples appear liberally
throughout the text. Both SI and English unit systems are used in the book.
I wish to acknowledge the following individuals who encouraged me
and assisted in the text preparation: Dr. Susan Chipman of the Naval
Office of Research, Professor Ken Forbus of Northwestern University,
Professor Myron Miller of Johns Hopkins University, and Professor Al
Adams, Professor Joe Gillerlain, Jr., Associate Professor Karen Flack,
Ensign Donald Sherrill, Mr. Doug Richardson, and Ms. Katherine Kindig
of the U.S. Naval Academy.
Chih Wu

Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Thermodynamic Concepts

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intelligent Computer-Aided Software
1.3 Review of Thermodynamic Concepts
1.4 Thermodynamic Cyclic Systems
1.5 Cycles
1.6 Carnot Cycle
1.7 Carnot Corollaries
Chapter 2 Vapor Cycles
2.1 Carnot Vapor Cycle
2.2 Basic Rankine Vapor Cycle
2.3 Improvements to Rankine Cycle
2.4 Actual Rankine Cycle
2.5 Reheat Rankine Cycle
2.6 Regenerative Rankine Cycle
2.7 Low-Temperature Rankine Cycles
2.8 Solar Heat Engines
2.9 Geothermal Heat Engines
2.10 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
2.11 Solar Pond Heat Engines
2.12 Waste Heat Engines
2.13 Vapor Cycle Working Fluids
2.14 Kalina Cycle
2.15 Nonazeotropic Mixture Rankine Cycle
2.16 Supercritical Cycle
2.17 Design Examples
2.18 Summary

Chapter 3 Gas Closed-System Cycles
3.1 Otto Cycle
3.2 Diesel Cycle
3.3 Atkinson Cycle
3.4 Dual Cycle
3.5 Lenoir Cycle
3.6 Stirling Cycle
3.7 Miller Cycle
3.8 Wicks Cycle
3.9 Rallis Cycle
3.11 Summary
Chapter 4 Gas Open-System Cycles

4.1 Brayton or Joule Cycle
4.2 Split-Shaft Gas Turbine Cycle
4.3 Improvements to Brayton Cycle
4.4 Reheat and Intercool Brayton Cycle
4.5 Regenerative Brayton Cycle
4.6 Bleed Air Brayton Cycle
4.7 Feher Cycle
4.8 Ericsson Cycle
4.9 Braysson Cycle
4.10 Steam Injection Gas Turbine Cycle
4.11 Field Cycle
4.12 Wicks Cycle
4.13 Ice Cycle
4.15 Summary
Chapter 5 Combined Cycle and Cogeneration

5.1 Combined Cycle
5.2 Triple Cycle in Series
5.3 Triple Cycle in Parallel
5.4 Cascaded Cycle
5.5 Brayton/Rankine Combined Cycle
5.6 Brayton/Brayton Combined Cycle
5.7 Rankine/Rankine Combined Cycle
5.8 Field Cycle
5.9 Cogeneration
5.11 Summary

Chapter 6 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles
6.1 Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
6.2 Basic Vapor Refrigeration Cycle
6.3 Actual Vapor Refrigeration Cycle
6.4 Basic Vapor Heat Pump Cycle
6.5 Actual Vapor Heat Pump Cycle
6.6 Working Fluids for Vapor Refrigeration and
Heat Pump Systems
6.7 Cascade and Multistaged Vapor
Refrigerators
6.8 Domestic Refrigerator-Freezer
System and Air-Conditioning–Heat
Pump System
6.9 Absorption Air-Conditioning
6.10 Brayton Gas Refrigeration Cycle
6.11 Stirling Refrigeration Cycle
6.12 Ericsson Cycle
6.13 Liquefaction of Gases
6.14 Nonazeotropic Mixture
Refrigeration Cycle
6.16 Summary
Chapter 7 Finite-Time Thermodynamics

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Rate of Heat Transfer
7.3 Heat Exchanger
7.4 Curzon and Ahlborn (Endoreversible Carnot)
Cycle
7.5 Curzon and Ahlborn Cycle
with Finite Heat Capacity
Heat Source and Sink
7.6 Finite-Time Rankine Cycle with Infinitely
Large Heat Reservoirs
7.7 Actual Rankine Cycle with Infinitely Large
Heat Reservoirs
7.8 Ideal Rankine Cycle with Finite Capacity
Heat Reservoirs
7.9 Actual Rankine Cycle with Finite Capacity
Heat Reservoirs
7.10 Finite-Time Brayton Cycle
7.11 Actual Brayton Finite Time Cycle

7.12 Other Finite Time Cycles
7.13 Summary
7.14 Bibliography
Appendix

1
Thermodynamic Concepts
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Research in cognitive science potentially offers tremendous benefits in

education, industry, and training. Psychological studies of human learning
can yield insights as to what forms of instruction might be most beneficial
for particular purposes, and what mental models and misconceptions
students might have. Artificial intelligence research can provide formal
representations and reasoning techniques that can be used in new kinds of
educational software that itself contains a deep understanding of the domain
being taught. These scientific advances, coupled with dramatic changes in
computing technology (i.e., increased computing power at decreasing costs),
provide new opportunities for exploring how intelligent software can be
used in thermodynamic education and industry.
Thermodynamic design, for example, can be relieved of repetitive
hand calculation, iterative solution techniques, and two-way interpolations.
Beyond this is a pervasive cultural preference of this generation towards
interacting with computers.
Throughout, the book is software oriented. The text is tightly
integrated with ‘‘CyclePad,’’ an intelligent, user-friendly software which
performs first and second law analyses for user-defined inputs and pro-
cesses, solves simultaneous equations, looks up state data, and attractively
graphs processes in phase spaces. In reducing computational effort more
than 10-fold, this software enables and requires engineers to work many
more cycle problems, and just as importantly, to do so in a timely way.
Such efficient learning strategy boosts engineer confidence.
1.2 INTELLIGENT COMPUTER-AIDED SOFTWARE
An intelligent computer software called CyclePad is used throughout

the book. CyclePad has been codeveloped by Oxford University and

Northwestern University since 1995, and evaluated by Professor C. Wu in
the Mechanical Engineering Department at the U.S. Naval Academy.
Normally, calculation in a cycle analysis is lengthy, complex, and
tedious for an engineer. The analysis would be more meaningful, time
saving, and fun for engineers using CyclePad as a tool to help in the cycle
analysis, design, and optimization. Engineers would be able to change any
parameter in the cycle and see the effect of the parameter on the
performance of the cycle.
The value that CyclePad brings to its users is a reduction in time
while moving from concept to finished design. This time saving allows the
user to move to his physical prototyping stage faster, thereby eliminating
certain prototyping costs and improving cycle design more rapidly. Virtual
prototyping with CyclePad follows the same basic steps used in traditional
or physical design process. The user builds his cycle design, runs it through
analyses, validates results, refines the design, and iterates this process until
the cycle’s performance is optimized. The difference is that the user
manages this process virtually through a computer, much more quickly,
easily, and cost-efficiently.
Design is a trying and learning process. Engineers would be able to
choose various components in their design of power plants or choose
different working fluids in the plants for a specific mission by using
CyclePad as a tool. They would be able to gain a tremendous design
experience and knowing what they are doing in a relative short time.
CyclePad is made from a design and coaching perspective view.
CyclePad is designed to help with the learning and conceptual design of
thermodynamic cycles. It works in two phases, build and analysis. There
are three modes (build, analysis, and contradiction) in the software.
1.2.1 Build Mode

In the build mode, a user takes components out from either a thermo-
dynamic open-system inventory shop or a thermodynamic closed-system
inventory shop and connects them to form a state or several states, a
process or several processes, or a cycle or several cycles.
1.2.2 Analysis Mode

In the analysis mode, a user chooses working fluid, process assumption for
each component, and input numerical property values. All the calculations
are then quickly done by the software. There is a sensitivity tool that
makes cycle performance parameter effects easy and quick, and generates
the effect in graph form.

1.2.3 Contradiction Mode
There is a coach (senior engineer) in the software. If there is a mistake or
a contradiction made by the user, the coach will show up and tell the
contradiction and suggest ways to solve the contradiction.
CyclePad can be downloaded (free from Northwestern University’s
web page at http://www.qrg.ils.northwestern.edu) by the following steps:
Internet Explorer
http://www.qrg.ils.northwestern.edu
Software
Download CyclePad v2.0
Fill in form—submit form
License agreement—download software
Save this program to disk—OK
Choose a location—save
Close Internet Explorer
Open my computer
Go to the location you save the file to
Double click on webcpad—#######.exe
Double click on Setup.exe
Install
Yes
OK
OK—CyclePad is downloaded
1.2.4 Installation Into Your Own PC

CyclePad can be installed into your own PC by the following steps:
Make new folder
Temp-CyclePad
Copy files from Zip to new folder Temp-CyclePad
Go to Temp-CyclePad
Double click–webcpad–20000504 20000504 (date)
Double click–cpadinst
Double click–setup
Install
Yes
Yes
C:\CyclePad
OK
OK

1.3 REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS
Thermodynamics is a science in which the storage, transformation, and

transfer of energy E and entropy S are studied. Thermodynamics is
governed by four basic laws called (1) the zeroth law of thermodynamics,
(2) the first law of thermodynamics, (3) the second law of thermo-
dynamics, and (4) the third law of thermodynamics.
The zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
The first law is an expression of the conservation of energy.
The second law states that actual isolated processes occur in the
direction of decreasing quality of energy.
The third law states that the entropy of a pure substance at absolute
zero temperature is zero.
A thermodynamic system is either a quantity of matter called a control
mass or closed system, or a region in space called a control volume or open
system chosen for study. The mass or region outside the system is called the
surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary. A closed system or a control mass
consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. It
usually encloses a device that involves no mass flow such as gas contained in a
cylinder-piston setup. An open system or a control volume is a selected region
in space. It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a pump,
compressor, turbine, mixing chamber, separator, heat exchanger, boiler,
condenser, or evaporator. Flow through these devices is best studied by
selecting the region within the device as the open system.
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. The essential
feature of a property is that it has a unique value when a system is in a
particular state. Properties are considered to be either intensive or exten-
sive. Intensive properties are those that are independent of the size of a
system, such as temperature T and pressure p. Extensive properties are
those that are dependent on the size of a system, such as volume V,
internal energy U, and entropy S. Extensive properties per unit mass are
called specific properties such as specific volume v, specific internal energy
u, and specific entropy s. Properties can be either measurable such as
temperature T, volume V, pressure p, specific heat at constant pressure
process cp, and specific heat at constant volume process cv, or non-
measurable such as internal energy U and entropy S. A relatively small
number of independent properties suffice to fix all other properties and
thus the state of the system. If the system is composed of a single phase,
free from magnetic, electrical, chemical, and surface effects, the state is
fixed when any two independent intensive properties are fixed.

A system is in equilibrium if it maintains thermal, mechanical, and
phase equilibrium. Any change that a thermodynamic system undergoes
from one equilibrium state to another is called a process, and the series of
states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of
the process. A reversible process is a process without irreversibility factors
and the process can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
surroundings. An irreversible process is a process with irreversibility
factors such as friction, heat transfer due to finite temperature difference,
free expansion, mixing, etc., and the process cannot be reversed without
leaving any trace on the surroundings. An internally reversible process is
a process without irreversibility factors within the boundary of the system
during the process. An externally reversible process is a process without
irreversibility factors outside the boundary of the system during the
process. A totally reversible process is a process without irreversibility
factors within the boundary of the system and its surroundings during the
process. An isochoric or isometric process is a process during which the
volume V remains constant. An isobaric process is a process during which
the pressure p remains constant. An isothermal process is a process during
which the temperature T remains constant. A throttling process is a
process during which the enthalpy h remains constant. An adiabatic
process is a process during which there is no heat transfer between the
system and its surroundings. A polytropic process is a process during
which the quantity of pVn remains constant, where n is a nondimensional
polytropic index. An isentropic process is a process during which the
entropy S remains constant. An isentropic process is also known as an
adiabatic and reversible process. A steady-flow process is a process in
which no properties within the control volume change with time. Notice
that a large number of engineering systems such as power plants,
refrigerators, and heat pumps operate for long periods under the same
conditions once the transient start-up period is completed and steady
operation (cruise condition) is established, and they are classified as
steady-flow systems. Cycles and processes involving such systems are called
steady-flow processes. Since the design, analysis, and test of engineering
systems are all based on cruise condition, all of our open cycle analyses in
this book are assumed to be steady flow.
There are three kinds of thermodynamic substances used in
thermodynamic cycles. The three substances are (1) pure substance,
(2) ideal gas, and (3) liquid and solid.
A pure substance is a homogeneous simple compressible substance.
There are three phases (solid, liquid, and vapor) of a pure substance. A
pure substance state may occur in more than one phase, but each phase
must have the same chemical composition. A pure substance exists in

different phases, depending on its energy level. In the compressed liquid
phase, the pressure of the substance is higher than the boiling pressure.
During a phase-change process, the substance is a mixture of saturated
liquid and saturated vapor, and the boiling pressure and boiling temper-
ature are dependent. In a saturated liquid and saturated vapor mixture,
the mass fraction of vapor is called the quality x and is expressed as
x ¼ mvapor/mtotal. In the superheated vapor phase, the temperature of the
substance is higher than the boiling temperature. Water, ammonia, and
freons are pure substances. The properties of a pure substance is usually
found in tables such as steam tables and freon tables.
An ideal gas is a relatively low-density gas. The pressure p,
temperature T, and specific volume v of an ideal gas are related by an
equation of state, pv ¼ RT, where R is a constant for a particular gas and
is called the gas constant. Air, helium, and carbon dioxide are ideal gases.
The properties of an ideal gas can be found in tables such as air tables.
Solids are usually not used in cycles. Liquids can be approximated as
incompressible (dv ¼ 0) substances since their specific volumes remain near
constant during a process.
Energy can cross the boundary of a system without mass transfer in
either macroscopic form called work (W) or microscopic form called heat
(Q). Boundary work is due to a pressure difference and causes a system
volume displacementR (dV). The boundary work of a process is given by the
expression W ¼ pdV: On a p–V diagram, the boundary work of a
process is the area underneath the process path. Heat is due to a
temperature difference and causes a system entropy displacement
R (dS). The
heat of a process is given by the expression Q ¼ TdS: On a T–S
diagram, the heat of a process is the area underneath the process path.
Elementary thermodynamics is based on the following three
fundamental physical relations applied to the system being analyzed:
1. Mass m balance: mass change ¼ mass transfer
2. Energy E balance: energy change ¼ energy transfer
3. Entropy S balance: entropy change ¼ entropy transfer þ entropy
generation
The relations above are applicable to any kind of system undergoing
any kind of process or cycle.
1.4 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLIC SYSTEMS
An energy conversion cyclic system that converts heat to work, and

sometimes work to heat, is the foremost objective of thermodynamics.

The former is manifested by heat engines of one sort or another, the latter
by heat pumps or refrigeration cycles. The three thermodynamic cyclic
systems (heat engine, heat pump, and refrigerator) are described in the
following subsections.
1.4.1 Heat Engine

A heat engine is a continuous cyclic device that produces positive net work
output by adding heat. The energy flow diagram of a heat engine and its
thermal reservoirs are shown in Fig. 1.1. A thermal reservoir is any object
or system that can serve as a heat source or sink for another system.
Thermal reservoirs usually have accumulated energy capacities that are
very, very large compared with the amounts of heat energy they exchange.
Therefore, the thermal reservoirs are considered to operate at constant
temperatures. Heat (QH) is added to the heat engine from a high-
temperature thermal reservoir at TH, output work (W) is done by the
heat engine, and heat (QL) is removed from the heat engine to a low-
temperature thermal reservoir at TL.
An example of this is a commercial central power station using a
heat engine called a Rankine steam power plant. The Rankine heat engine
HIGH TEMPERATURE
THERMAL RESERVOIR
TH
HEAT QH
ADDED
(DESIRABLE)
OUTPUT
HEAT WORK
ENGINE W
HEAT QL
REMOVED
LOW TEMPERATURE
THERMAL RESERVOIR
TL
Figure 1.1 Heat engine.

consists of a pump, a boiler, a turbine, and a condenser. Heat (QH) is
added to the working fluid (water) in the boiler from a high-temperature
(TH) flue gas by burning coal or oil. Output work (Wo) is done by the
turbine. Heat (QL) is removed from the working fluid in the condenser to
low-temperature (TL) lake cooling water. Input work (Wi) is added to
drive the pump. The net work (W) produced by the Rankine heat engine
is W ¼ Wo Wi.
The measurement of performance for a heat engine is called the
thermal efficiency, . The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is defined
as the ratio of the desirable net output work sought to the heat input of
the engine: ¼ Wnet/Qinput.
1.4.2 Refrigerator
A refrigerator is a continuous cyclic device that removes heat from a low-
temperature reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir at the expense of
work input. The energy flow diagram of a refrigerator and its thermal
reservoirs are shown in Fig. 1.2. Input work (W) is added to the refriger-
ator, desirable heat (QL) is removed from the low-temperature thermal
reservoir at TL, and heat (QH) is added to the high-temperature thermal
reservoir at TH.
HIGH TEMPERATURE
THERMAL RESERVOIR
TH
HEAT QH
REMOVED
INPUT
WORK
REFRIGERATOR
W
(DESIRABLE) QL
HEAT
ADDED
LOW-TEMPERATURE
THERMAL RESERVOIR
TH
Figure 1.2 Refrigerator.

An example of a refrigerator is a domestic refrigerator, which is
made up of a compressor, a condenser, an expansion valve, and an
evaporator. Work (W) is added to drive the compressor by an electric
motor, heat (QL) is added in the evaporator from the low-temperature
(TL) refrigerator inner space by the working fluid (refrigerant), and heat
(QH) is removed from the condenser from the working fluid to the high-
temperature (TH) reservoir (kitchen).
The measurement of performance for a refrigerator is called the
coefficient of performance (COP), and is denoted by R. The coefficient of
performance of a refrigerator is defined as the ratio of the desirable heat
removed QL to the work input W of the refrigerator: R ¼ QL/W.
QL is called refrigerator capacity and is usually expressed in tons of
refrigeration. One ton of refrigeration is 3.516 kW or 12,000 Btu/h. The
term ‘‘ton’’ is derived from the fact that the rate of heat required to melt
one ton of ice is about 12,000 Btu/h.
Notice that the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator may be
larger or smaller than unity.
1.4.3 Heat Pumps

A heat pump is a continuous cyclic device that pumps heat to a high-
temperature reservoir from a low-temperature reservoir at the expense of
work input. The energy flow diagram of a heat pump and its thermal
reservoirs are shown in Fig. 1.3. Input work (W) is added to the heat
pump, desirable heat (QH) is pumped to the high-temperature thermal
reservoir at TH, and heat (QL) is removed from the low-temperature
thermal reservoir at TL.
An example of a heat pump is a house heat pump, which is made up
of a compressor, a condenser, a throttling valve, and an evaporator. Heat
(QH) is removed to the high-temperature house from the working fluid in
the condenser, work is added to the compressor by an electric motor, and
heat (QL) is added to the evaporator from the low-temperature outside air
in the winter season.
Notice that the energy flow diagram and hardware components of
a heat pump are exactly the same as those of a refrigerator. The difference
between the heat pump and the refrigerator is the function of the cyclic
devices. A refrigerator is used to remove heat (QL) from a low-temperature
(TL) thermal reservoir by adding work. A heat pump is used to add heat
(QH) to a high-temperature (TH) thermal reservoir by adding work.
The measurement of performance for a heat pump is called the
coefficient of performance (COP), and is denoted by HP. The coefficient

HIGH-TEMPERATURE
THERMAL RESERVOIR
TH
(DESIRABLE) QH
HEAT
REMOVED
INPUT
HEAT WORK
PUMP W
HEAT QL
REMOVED
LOW-TEMPERATURE
THERMAL RESERVOIR
TL
Figure 1.3 Heat pump.
of performance of a heat pump is defined as the ratio of the desirable heat

output QH to the work input W of the heat pump: HP ¼ QH/W.
Notice that the coefficient of performance of a heat pump is always
larger than unity.
1.5 CYCLES
Thermodynamic cycles can be divided into two general categories: heat

engine cycles, which are discussed in Chapters 2–5, and refrigeration and
heat pump cycles, which are discussed in Chapter 6.
Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized by phase as vapor cycles
and gas cycles, depending on the phase of the working fluid. In vapor
cycles, the working fluid exists in the vapor phase during one part of
the cycle and in the liquid phase during another part of the cycle.
In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase throughout
the entire cycle.
Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized by system as closed-
system cycles and open-system cycles. In closed-system cycles, each
component of the cycle is considered as a closed system. In open-system
cycles, each component of the cycle is considered as an open system.

1.6 CARNOT CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is of historical importance. The reversible cycle was

introduced by a French engineer N.S. Carnot in 1824 and led to the
development of the second law of thermodynamics. The importance of
the Carnot cycle is that it sets up a standard thermal cycle performance for
the actual cycles to compare with.
Considering the concepts of reversible processes, a reversible cycle
can be carried out for given thermal reservoirs at temperatures TH and TL.
The Carnot heat engine cycle on a p–V diagram and a T–S diagram, as
shown in Fig. 1.4 is composed of the following four reversible processes:
1-2 Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compression
2-3 Reversible isothermal heating at TH
3-4 Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion
4-1 Reversible isothermal cooling at TL
Referring to Fig. 1.4, the system undergoes a Carnot heat engine
cycle in the following manner:
1. During process 1-2, the system is thermally insulated and the
temperature of the working substance is raised from the low temperature
TL to the high temperature TH. The process is an isentropic
R process. The
amount of heat transfer during the process is Q12 ¼ TdS ¼ 0, because
there is no area underneath a constant entropy (vertical) line.
2. During process 2-3, heat is transferred isothermally to the
working substance from the high-temperature reservoir at TH. This process
is accomplished reversibly by bringing the system in contact with the high-
temperature reservoir whose temperature is equal to or infinitesimally
higher than that of the working
R substance. The amount of heat transfer
during the process is Q23 ¼ TdS ¼ TH ðS3 S2 Þ, which can be represented
Figure 1.4 Carnot heat engine cycle on p–v and T–s diagram.

by the area 2-3-5-6-2; Q23 is the amount of heat added to the Carnot cycle
from a high-temperature thermal reservoir.
temperature of the working substance is decreased from the high temp-
erature TH to the low temperature TL. The process is an isentropic R process.
The amount of heat transfer during the process is Q34 ¼ TdS ¼ 0,
because there is no area underneath a constant entropy (vertical) line.
4. During process 4-1, heat is transferred isothermally from the
working substance to the low-temperature reservoir at TL. This process is
accomplished reversibly by bringing the system in contact with the low-
temperature reservoir whose temperature is equal to or infinitesimally
lower than that of the working substance.
R The amount of heat transfer
during the process is Q41 ¼ TdS ¼ TL ðS1 S4 Þ, which can be
represented by the area 1-4-5-6-1; Q41 is the amount of heat removed
from the Carnot cycle to a low-temperature thermal reservoir.
The net heat added to the cycle is Qnet ¼ Q12 þ Q23 þ Q34 þ Q41 ¼
0 þ TH(S3 S2) þ 0 þ TL(S1 S4) ¼ (TH TL)(S4 S1) ¼ [area 2-3-5-6-2]-
[area 1-4-5-6-1] ¼ area 1-2-3-4-1. Notice that the area 1-2-3-4-1 is the area
enclosed by the cycle.
The net work produced to the cycle is Wnet ¼ Qnet ¼ area 1-2-3-4-1.
According to the definition of heat engine efficiency, the efficiency of
the Carnot heat engine is Carnot ¼ Wnet output/Qinput ¼ [area 1-2-3-4-1]/[area
2-3-5-6-2] ¼ (TH TL)(S4 S1)/[TH(S4 S1)] ¼ (TH TL)/TH, or
Carnot ¼ 1 TL/TH (1.1)
If the Carnot cycle for a heat engine is carried out in the reverse
direction, the result will be either a Carnot heat pump or a Carnot
refrigerator. Such a cycle is shown in Fig. 1.5. Using the same graphical
explanation that was used in the Carnot heat engine, the heat added from
the low-temperature reservoir at TL is area 1-4-5-6-1; Q41 is the amount of
heat added to the Carnot cycle from a low-temperature thermal reservoir.
Referring to Fig. 1.5, the system undergoes a Carnot heat pump or
Carnot refrigerator cycle in the following manner:
temperature of the working substance is raised from the low temperature
TL to the high temperature TH.
2. During process 2-3, heat is transferred isothermally from the
working substance to the high temperature reservoir at TH. This process
is accomplished reversibly by bringing the system in contact with the

Figure 1.5 Carnot heat pump or Carnot refrigerator cycle on p–V and T–S
diagram.
high-temperature reservoir whose temperature is equal to or infinitesimally

lower than that of the working substance.
temperature of the working substance is decreased from the high tem-
perature TH to the low temperature TL.
4. During process 4-1, heat is transferred isothermally to the
working substance from the low-temperature reservoir at TL. This process
is accomplished reversibly by bringing the system in contact with the
low-temperature reservoir whose temperature is equal to or infinitesimally
higher than that of the working substance.
The net heat added to the cycle is Qnet ¼ Q12 þ Q23 þ Q34 þ Q41 ¼ 0 þ
TH(S3 S2) þ 0 þ TL(S1 S4) ¼ (TH TL)(S4 S1) ¼ [area 2-3-5-6-2]-[area
1-4-5-6-1] ¼ Area 1-2-3-4-1. Notice that the area 1-2-3-4-1 is the area
enclosed by the cycle.
The net work added to the cycle is Wnet ¼ Qnet ¼ area 1-2-3-4-1.
According to the COP () definition of a refrigerator, the COP of the
Carnot refrigerator is Carnot,R ¼ Qdesirable output/Winput ¼ [area 4-1-5-6-4]/
[area 1-2-3-4-1] ¼ (TL)(S2 S3)/[(TH TL)(S2 S3)] ¼ TL/(TH TL), or
Carnot,R ¼ 1/(TH/TL 1) (1.2)
The net work added to the cycle is Wnet ¼ Qnet ¼ area 1-2-3-4-1.
According to the COP () definition of a heat pump, the COP of the
Carnot heat pump is Carnot,HP ¼ Qdesirable output/Winput ¼ [area 2-3-5-6-2]/
[area 1-2-3-4-1] ¼ (TH)(S2 S3)/[(TH TL)(S2 S3)] ¼ TH/(TH TL), or
Carnot,HP ¼ 1/(1 TL/TH) (1.3)
A reversible isothermal heat-transfer process between the Carnot

cycle and its surrounding thermal reservoirs is impossible to achieve

because it would require either an infinitely large heat exchanger or an
infinitely long time to complete the process. Therefore, it is not economic
to build a practical cyclic system that would operate closely to the Carnot
cycle. However, the Carnot cycle sets up a standard thermal cycle
efficiency or coefficient of performance for actual cycles to compare with.
1.7 CARNOT COROLLARIES
Six corollaries deduced from the Carnot cycle are of great use in
comparing the performance of cycles. The corollaries are:
1. The efficiency of the Carnot heat engine operating between a
fixed high-temperature heat source thermal reservoir at TH and
a fixed low-temperature heat sink thermal reservoir at TL is
irrespective of the working substance.
2. No heat engine operating between a fixed high-temperature heat
source thermal reservoir and a fixed low-temperature heat sink
thermal reservoir can be more efficient than a Carnot heat
engine operating between the same two thermal reservoirs.
3. All reversible heat engines operating between a fixed high-
temperature heat source thermal reservoir and a fixed low-
temperature heat sink thermal reservoir have the same efficiency.
4. The COP (coefficient of performance) of the Carnot heat pump
(or refrigerator) operating between a fixed high-temperature
thermal reservoir at TH and a fixed low-temperature thermal
reservoir at TL is irrespective of the working substance.
5. No heat pump (or refrigerator) operating between a fixed high-
temperature thermal reservoir and a fixed low-temperature
thermal reservoir can have higher COP (coefficient of perfor-
mance) than a Carnot heat pump (or refrigerator) operating
between the same two thermal reservoirs.
6. All reversible heat pumps (or refrigerators) operating between
a fixed high-temperature thermal reservoir and a fixed low-
temperature thermal reservoir have the same COP (coefficient of
performance).
These corollaries can be proved by demonstrating that the violation
of any one of them results in the violation of the second law of
thermodynamics.

2
Vapor Cycles
2.1 CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE
Theoretically, the Carnot vapor cycle is the most efficient vapor power
cycle operating between two temperature reservoirs.
The Carnot vapor cycle as shown in Fig. 2.1 is composed of the
following four processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Isothermal heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Isothermal heat rejection
In order to achieve the isothermal heat addition and isothermal heat
rejection processes, the Carnot simple vapor cycle must operate inside the
vapor dome. The T–S diagram of a Carnot cycle operating inside the
vapor dome is shown in Fig. 2.2. Saturated water at state 2 is evaporated
isothermally to state 3, where it is saturated vapor. The steam enters a
turbine at state 3 and expands isentropically, producing work, until state 4
is reached. The vapor–liquid mixture would then be partially condensed
isothermally until state 1 is reached. At state 1, a pump would
isentropically compress the vapor–liquid mixture to state 2.
Applying the first law and second law of thermodynamics of the open
system to each of the four processes of the Carnot vapor cycle yields:
Q12 ¼ 0 (2.1)
W12 ¼ m(h1 h2) (2.2)
W23 ¼ 0 (2.3)
Q23 0 ¼ m(h3 h2) (2.4)

Figure 2.1 Carnot vapor cycle.
Figure 2.2 Vapor Carnot cycle T–S diagram.
Q34 ¼ 0 (2.5)
W34 ¼ m(h3 h4) (2.6)
W41 ¼ 0 (2.7)
and
Q41 0 ¼ m(h1 h4) (2.8)
The net work (Wnet), which is also equal to net heat (Qnet), is
Wnet ¼ Qnet ¼ Q23 þ Q41 (2.9)

The thermal efficiency of the cycle is
¼ Wnet/Q23 ¼ Qnet/Q23 ¼ 1 Q41/Q23 ¼ 1 (h4 h1)/(h3 h2) (2.10)
Example 2.1
A steam Carnot cycle operates between 250 C and 100 C. Determine
the pump work, turbine work, heat added, quality of steam at the exit
of the turbine, quality of steam at the inlet of the pump, and cycle
efficiency.
To solve this problem by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build:
a. Take a pump, a boiler, a turbine, and a condenser from the
inventory shop and connect the four devices to form the
basic Rankine cycle.
b. Switch to analysis mode.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the four devices: (1) pump as adia-
batic and isentropic, (2) boiler as isothermal (isobaric inside
the vapor dome), (3) turbine as adiabatic and isentropic,
and (4) condenser as isothermal (isobaric inside the vapor
dome).
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is water,
(2) inlet temperature and quality of the boiler are 400 C and
0, (3) exit quality of the boiler is 1, and (4) inlet temperature
of the condenser is 100 C.
3. Display results:
a. Display the T–s diagram and cycle properties results. The
cycle is a heat engine. The answers are pump work ¼
111.9 kJ/kg, turbine work ¼ 603.7 kJ/kg, and ¼ 28.67%.
b. Display the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus
boiler temperature. (See Fig. 2.3.)
COMMENTS: The Carnot vapor cycle as illustrated by Example 2.1 is not
practical. Difficulties arise in the isentropic processes of the cycle. One
difficulty is that the isentropic turbine will have to handle steam of low quality.
The impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blade causes erosion and
wear. Another difficulty is the isentropic compression of a liquid–vapor
mixture. The two-phase mixture of the steam causes serious cavitation
problems during the compression process. Also, since the specific volume of the
saturated mixture is high, the pump power required is also very high. Thus, the
Carnot vapor cycle is not a realistic model for vapor power cycles.

Figure 2.3 Carnot vapor cycle.
Review Problems 2.1 Carnot Vapor Cycle
1. Why is excessive moisture in a steam undesirable in a steam

turbine? What is the highest moisture content allowed?
2. Why is the Carnot cycle not a realistic model for steam power
plants?
3. A Carnot engine with a steady flow rate of 1 kg/sec uses water as
the working fluid. Water changes phase from saturated liquid to
saturated vapor as heat is added from a heat source at 300 C.
Heat rejection takes place at a pressure of 10 kPa. Determine
(1) the quality at the exit of the turbine, (2) the quality at the
inlet of the pump, (3) the heat transfer added in the boiler, (4)
the power required for the pump, (5) the power produced by the
turbine, (6) the heat transfer rejected in the condenser, and (7)
the cycle efficiency.

2.2 BASIC RANKINE VAPOR CYCLE
The working fluid for vapor cycles is alternately condensed and vaporized.
When a working fluid remains in the saturation region at constant pressure,
its temperature is also constant. Thus, the condensation or evaporation
of a fluid in a heat exchanger is a process that closely approximates the
isothermal heat-transfer processes of the Carnot cycle. Owing to this fact,
vapor cycles closely approximate the behavior of the Carnot cycle. Thus,
in general, they tend to perform efficiently.
The Rankine cycle is a modified Carnot cycle for overcoming the
difficulties with the latter cycle when the working fluid is a vapor. In the
Rankine cycle, the heating and cooling processes occur at constant pressure.
Figure 2.4 shows the devices used in a basic Rankine cycle, and Fig. 2.5
is the T–s diagram of the basic Rankine cycle.
The basic Rankine cycle is composed of the following four processes:
2-3 Isobaric heat addition
4-1 Isobaric heat removing
Figure 2.4 Basic Rankine cycle.

Figure 2.5 Basic Rankine cycle T–S diagram.
Water enters the pump at state 1 as a low-pressure saturated liquid

to avoid the cavitation problem and exits at state 2 as a high-pressure
compressed liquid. The heat supplied in the boiler raises the water from
the compressed liquid at state 2 to saturated liquid to saturated vapor and
to a much higher temperature superheated vapor at state 3. The super-
heated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine where it expands to state 4. The
superheating moves the isentropic expansion process to the right on the
T–s diagram as shown in Fig. 2.5, thus preventing a high moisture content
of the steam as it exits the turbine at state 4 as a saturated mixture. The
exhaust steam from the turbine enters the condenser at state 4 and is
condensed at constant pressure to state 1 as saturated liquid.
Applying the first and second laws of thermodynamics of the open
system to each of the four processes of the Rankine cycle yields:
Q12 ¼ 0 (2.11)
W12 ¼ m(h1 h2) ¼ mv1(p1 p2) (2.12)
W23 ¼ 0 (2.13)
Q23 0 ¼ m(h3 h2) (2.14)
Q34 ¼ 0 (2.15)
W34 ¼ m(h3 h4) (2.16)
W41 ¼ 0 (2.17)
and
Q41 0 ¼ m(h1 h4) (2.18)
The net work (Wnet), which is also equal to the net heat (Qnet), is
Wnet ¼ Qnet ¼ Q23 þ Q41 (2.19)

¼ Wnet/Q23 ¼ Qnet/Q23 ¼ 1 Q41/Q23 ¼ 1 (h4 h1)/(h3 h2)
(2.20)
Example 2.2
Determine the efficiency and power output of a basic Rankine cycle
using steam as the working fluid in which the condenser pressure is 80 kPa.
The boiler pressure is 3 MPa. The steam leaves the boiler as saturated
vapor. The mass rate of steam flow is 1 kg/sec. Show the cycle on a T–s
diagram. Plot the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus boiler
pressure.
1. Build:
inventory shop and connect the four devices to form the basic
Rankine cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the four devices: (a) pump as
isentropic, (2) boiler as isobaric, (3) turbine as isentropic, and
(4) condenser as isobaric.
(2) inlet pressure and quality of the pump are 80 kPa and 0,
(3) inlet pressure and quality of the turbine are 3 MPa and 1,
and (4) mass flow rate is 1 kg/sec.
3. Display results:
a. Display the T–s diagram and cycle properties’ results. The cycle
is a heat engine. The answers are ¼ 24.61%, Wdotpump ¼
3.07 kW, Qdotboiler ¼ 2409 kW, Wdotturbine ¼ 595.7 kW,
Qdotcondenser ¼ 1816 kW, and net power output ¼ 592.7 kW.
boiler pressure.
c. Display the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus
condenser pressure. (See Fig. 2.6.)
COMMENTS: (1) The sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus boiler
pressure demonstrates that increasing the boiler pressure increases the boiler
temperature. This raises the average temperature at which heat is added to
the steam and thus raises the cycle efficiency. Operating pressures of boilers
have increased over the years up to 30 MPa (4500 psia) today.

Figure 2.6 Rankine cycle.
(2) The sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus condenser

pressure demonstrates that decreasing the condenser pressure decreases the
condenser temperature. This drops the average temperature at which heat is
removed to the surroundings and thus raises the cycle efficiency. Operating
pressures of condensers have decreased over the years to 5 kPa (0.75 psia)
today.
The Rankine efficiency could be increased by increasing the
boiler pressure, since the area enclosed by the cycle (net work) in the
T–s diagram will be increased.
Example 2.3
A simple Rankine cycle using water as the working fluid operates between
a boiler pressure of 500 psia and a condenser pressure of 20 psia. The
mass flow rate of the water is 3 lbm/sec. Determine (1) the quality of
the steam at the exit of the turbine, (2) the net power of the cycle, and (3) the
cycle efficiency. Then change the boiler pressure to 600 psia, and determine
(4) the quality of the steam at the exit of the turbine and (5) the net power
of the cycle.

1. Build:
basic Rankine cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the four devices: (1) pump as
adiabatic and isentropic, (2) boiler as isobaric, (3) turbine as
adiabatic and isentropic, and (4) condenser as isobaric.
(2) the inlet pressure and quality of the pump are 20 psia
and 0, (3) the inlet pressure and quality of the turbine are
500 psia and 1, and (4) the mass flow rate is 3 lb/s.
3. Display results:
a. Display cycle properties’ results. The cycle is a heat engine.
The answers are xturbine outlet ¼ 0.8082, Wdotnet ¼ 981.8 hp,
and ¼ 22.97%.
b. Change the boiler pressure to 600 psia and display cycle
properties’ results again. The answers are xturbine outlet ¼
0.7953, Wdotnet ¼ 1028 hp, and ¼ 24.08%. (See Fig. 2.7.)
Figure 2.7 Rankine cycle.

COMMENTS: The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the quality of
the steam at the exit of the turbine can be seen by comparing the two cases.
The higher the boiler pressure, the higher the moisture content (or the lower
the quality) at the exit of the turbine. Steam with qualities less than 90%
at the exit of the turbine, cannot be tolerated in the operation of actual
Rankine steam power plants. To increase steam quality at the exit of the
turbine, superheating and reheating are used.
Example 2.4
Determine the efficiency and power output of a superheated Rankine cycle
using steam as the working fluid in which the condenser pressure is 80 kPa.
The boiler pressure is 3 MPa. The steam leaves the boiler at 400 C. The
mass rate of steam flow is 1 kg/sec. Show the cycle on a T–s diagram.
Plot the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus boiler superheat
temperature.
Convert the SI units to Imperial units and find the answer.
1. Build:
inventory shop and connect the devices to form the basic
Rankine cycle.
2. Analysis:
isentropic, (2) boiler as isobaric, (3) turbine as isentropic,
and (4) condenser as isobaric.
(3) inlet pressure and temperature of the turbine are 3 MPa
and 400 C, and (4) the mass flow rate is 1 kg/sec.
3. Display results:
a. Display the T–s diagram and cycle properties’ results. The
cycle is a heat engine. The answers are ¼ 26.11% and net
power output ¼ 740.3 kW.
superheat temperature. (See Figs. 2.8a and 2.8b.)
COMMENTS: From the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency vs superheat
temperature, it is seen that the higher the superheat temperature, the higher
the cycle efficiency. The superheat temperature is limited, however, due to

Figure 2.8a Superheated Rankine cycle.
Figure 2.8b Superheated Rankine cycle sensitivity analysis.

metallurgical considerations. Presently, the maximum operating superheat
temperature is 620 C (1150 F).
Review Problems 2.2 Basic Rankine Cycle

1. What are the processes that make up the simple ideal Rankine
cycle?
2. What is the quality of vapor at the inlet of the pump in a simple
ideal Rankine cycle? Why?
3. What is the minimum quality of vapor required at the exit of the
turbine in a Rankine cycle? Why?
4. Steam in an ideal Rankine cycle flows at a mass rate of flow of
14 lbm/sec. It leaves the boiler at 1250 psia and 1000 F, and enters a
turbine where it is expanded and then exhausted to the main condenser,
which is operating at a pressure of 1 psia. The fluid leaves the condenser as
a saturated liquid, where it is pumped by a pump back into the boiler.
Determine for the cycle:
1. Pump power
2. Rate of heat added by the boiler
3. Ideal turbine power
4. Rate of heat rejected by the condenser
5. Thermal efficiency of the cycle
5. An ideal Rankine cycle uses water as a working fluid, which
circulates at a rate of 80 kg/sec. The boiler pressure is 6 MPa, and the
condenser pressure is 10 kPa. Determine (1) the power required to operate the
pump, (2) the heat transfer added to the water in the boiler, (3) the power
developed by the turbine, (4) the heat transfer removed from the condenser,
(5) the quality of steam at the exit of the turbine, and (6) the thermal efficiency
of the cycle.
6. An ideal Rankine cycle uses water as a working fluid, which
circulates at a rate of 80 kg/sec. The boiler pressure is 6 MPa, and the
condenser pressure is 10 kPa. The steam is superheated and enters the
turbine at 600 C and leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid. Determine
(1) the power required to operate the pump, (2) the heat transfer added to
the water in the boiler, (3) the power developed by the turbine, (4) the heat
transfer removed from the condenser, (5) the quality of steam at the exit of
the turbine, and (6) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
7. A Rankine cycle using 1 kg/sec of water as the working fluid
operates between a condenser pressure of 7.5 kPa and a boiler pressure
of 17 MPa. The superheater temperature is 550 C. Determine (1) the pump

power, (2) the turbine power, (3) the heat transfer added to the boiler, and
(4) the cycle thermal efficiency.
8. In a Rankine power plant, the steam temperature and pressure
at the turbine inlet are 1000 F and 2000 psia. The temperature of the
condensing steam in the condenser is maintained at 60 F. The power
generated by the turbine is 30,000 hp. Assuming all processes to be
ideal, determine: (1) the pump power required (hp), (2) the mass flow
rate, (3) the heat transfer added in the boiler (Btu/hr), (4) the heat
transfer removed from the condenser (Btu/hr), and (5) the cycle thermal
efficiency (%).
9. Water circulates at a rate of 80 kg/sec in an ideal Rankine power
plant. The boiler pressure is 6 MPa and the condenser pressure is 10 kPa.
The steam enters the turbine at 600 C and water leaves the condenser as
a saturated liquid. Find: (1) the power required to operate the pump,
(2) the heat transfer added to the boiler, (3) the power developed by the
turbine, (4) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
10. For an ideal Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at 5 MPa
and 400 C, and exhausts to the condenser at 10 kPa. The turbine produces
20 MW of power.
1. Draw a T–s diagram for this cycle with respect to the saturation
curve.
2. What is the mass flow rate of the steam? (kg/sec)
3. What is the rate of heat rejection from the condenser, and the
rate of heat added to the boiler?
4. Find the thermal efficiency for this cycle.
11. Steam is generated in the boiler of a steam power plant operating
on an ideal Rankine cycle at 10 MPa and 500 C at a steady rate of
80 kg/sec. The steam expands in the turbine to a pressure of 7.5 kPa.
Determine (1) the quality of the steam at the turbine exit, (2) rate of heat
rejection in the condenser, (3) the power delivered by the turbine, and (4)
the cycle thermal efficiency (%).
12. A steam power plant operating on an ideal Rankine cycle has a
boiler pressure of 800 psia and a condenser pressure of 2 psia. The quality
at the turbine exit is 95% and the power generated by the turbine is
10,000 hp. Determine (1) the mass flow rate of steam (lbm/s), (2) the
turbine inlet temperature ( F), (3) the rate of heat addition to the boiler
(Btu/h), and (4) the cycle thermal efficiency (%).
13. Water is the working fluid in an ideal Rankine cycle. The
condenser pressure is 8 kPa and saturated vapor enters the turbine at:
(1) 15 MPa, (2) 10 MPa, (3) 7 MPa, and (4) 4 MPa. The net power output
of the cycle is 100 MW. Determine for each case the mass flow rate of

water, heat transfer in the boiler and the condenser, and the thermal
efficiency.
14. A steam power plant operates on the Rankine cycle. The steam
enters the turbine at 7 MPa and 550 C. It discharges to the condenser at
20 kPa. Determine the quality of the steam at the exit of the turbine, pump
work, turbine work, heat added to the boiler, and thermal cycle efficiency.
15. A steam power plant operates on the Rankine cycle. The steam
with a mass rate flow of 10 kg/sec enters the turbine at 6 MPa and 600 C.
It discharges to the condenser at 10 kPa. Determine the quality of the
steam at the exit of the turbine, pump power, turbine power, rate of heat
added to the boiler, and thermal cycle efficiency.
2.3 IMPROVEMENTS TO RANKINE CYCLE
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be improved by increasing the
average temperature at which heat is transferred to the working fluid in the
heating process, or by decreasing the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the surroundings from the working fluid in the cooling process.
Several modifications to increase the thermal efficiency of the basic Rankine
cycle include increasing boiler pressure, decreasing condenser pressure, and
use of a superheater, reheater, regenerator, preheater, etc.
Increasing the average temperature during the heat-addition process
increases the boiler pressure. The maximum boiler pressure is limited by
the tube metallurgical material problem in the boiler. Increasing the boiler
pressure increases the moisture content of the steam at the turbine exit,
which is not desirable.
without increasing boiler pressure can be done by superheating the steam
to high temperature with a superheater. Superheating the steam to a higher
temperature also decreases the moisture content of the steam at the turbine
exit, which is very desirable.
can be accomplished with a superheater. The moisture content of steam at
the turbine exhaust can be decreased by reheating the steam between the
stages of a multistage turbine.
An increase in the average temperature during the heat-addition process
can also be accomplished by regenerating the steam. A portion of the partially
expanded steam between the stages of a multistage turbine is drawn off to
preheat the condensed liquid before it is returned to the boiler. In this way,
the amount of heat added at low temperature is reduced. So the average
temperature during the heat-addition process is increased.

Decreasing the average temperature during the heat-rejection process
decreases the condenser pressure and increases cycle efficiency. The
minimum condenser pressure is limited by the sealing and leakage problem
in the condenser.
2.4 ACTUAL RANKINE CYCLE
For actual Rankine cycles, many irreversibilities are present in various

components. Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler and
condenser. These drops in the boiler and condenser are usually small. The
major irreversibilities occur within the turbine and pump. To account for
these irreversibility effects, turbine efficiency and pump efficiency must be
used in computing the actual work produced or consumed. The T–s
diagram of the actual Rankine cycle is shown in Fig. 2.9. The effect of
irreversibilities on the thermal efficiency of a Rankine cycle is illustrated in
the following example.
Example 2.5
Determine the efficiency and power output of an actual Rankine cycle
using steam as the working fluid and having a condenser pressure is
80 kPa. The boiler pressure is 3 MPa. The steam leaves the boiler at 400 C.
The mass rate of steam flow is 1 kg/sec. The pump efficiency is 85% and
the turbine efficiency is 88%. Show the cycle on a T–s diagram. Plot the
Figure 2.9 Actual Rankine cycle T–s diagram.

sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus pump efficiency, and cycle
efficiency versus turbine efficiency.
1. Build:
inventory shop and connect the devices to form the actual
Rankine cycle.
2. Analysis:
adiabatic, (2) boiler as isobaric, (3) turbine as adiabatic, and
and 400 C, (4) mass flow rate is 1 kg/sec, (5) phase at the
exit of turbine is saturated, and (6) pump efficiency is 85%
and turbine efficiency is 88%.
3. Display results:
a. Display the T–s diagram (Fig. 2.9a) and cycle properties
results (Fig. 2.9b). The cycle is a heat engine. The answers
are ¼ 22.95% and net power output ¼ 650.5 kW.
b. Display cycle efficiency versus pump efficiency (Fig. 2.9c),
and cycle efficiency versus turbine efficiency (Fig. 2.9d).
COMMENTS: (1) The pump work is quite small compared to the turbine
work. Therefore, it is seen from the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency
versus pump efficiency that the cycle efficiency is not sensitive to the pump
efficiency.
(2) The sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus turbine efficiency
demonstrates that the cycle efficiency is sensitive to the turbine efficiency.
The power output of the Rankine cycle can be controlled by a throttling
valve. The inlet steam pressure and temperature may be throttled down to a
lower pressure and temperature if desired. Adding a throttling valve to the
Rankine cycle decreases the cycle efficiency. The throttling Rankine cycle is
shown in Fig. 2.10. An example illustrating the throttling Rankine cycle is
given in Example 2.6.
Example 2.6
An actual steam Rankine cycle operates between a condenser pressure of
1 psia and a boiler pressure of 600 psia. The outlet temperature of the

Figure 2.9a Rankine cycle T–s diagram.
superheater is 600 F and the turbine efficiency is 80%. The rate of mass
flow in the cycle is 1 lbm/sec.
1. Find the pump power required, turbine power produced, rate of

heat added to the boiler, and the cycle efficiency.
2. If the pressure is throttled down to 400 psia at the inlet of
the turbine, find the pump power required, turbine power
produced, rate of heat added to the boiler, rate of heat
removed in the condenser, and the cycle efficiency. Draw the
T–s diagram.
To solve part (1) of this problem, let us make use of Fig. 2.10.
(1) Assume that the pump is isentropic, the boiler is isobaric, the
turbine is adiabatic with 80% efficiency, and the condenser is isobaric;
(2) input p1 ¼ 1 psia, x1 ¼ 0, p2 ¼ 600 psia, T3 ¼ 600 F, mdot ¼ 1 lbm/s, and
p4 ¼ 600 psia.
The results are: Wdotpump ¼ 2.55 hp, Wdotturbine ¼ 491.0 hp,
Qdotboiler ¼ 1218 Btu/sec, and ¼ 28.36% as shown in Fig. 2.10a.

Figure 2.9b Rankine cycle results.
Figure 2.9c Rankine cycle efficiency versus pump efficiency sensitivity analysis.

Figure 2.9d Rankine cycle efficiency versus turbine efficiency sensitivity analysis.
Figure 2.10 Throttling Rankine cycle.
To solve part (2) of this problem, let us make use of Fig. 2.10.
(1) Assume that the pump is isentropic, the boiler is isobaric, the
turbine is adiabatic with 80% efficiency, and the condenser is isobaric; (2)
input p1 ¼ 1 psia, x1 ¼ 0, p2 ¼ 600 psia, T3 ¼ 600 F, mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec, and
p4 ¼ 400 psia;
The results are: Wdotpump ¼ 2.55 hp, Wdotturbine ¼ 461.2 hp,
Qdotboiler ¼ 1218 Btu/sec, and ¼ 26.62% as shown in Fig. 2.10b. The
T–s diagram is shown in Fig. 2.10c.

Figure 2.10a Rankine cycle with throttling valve off.
Figure 2.10b Rankine cycle with throttling valve on.
Figure 2.10c Rankine throttling cycle T–s diagram.

Review Problems 2.4 Actual Rankine Cycle
1. Is Rankine cycle efficiency sensitive to the pump inefficiency?
Why?
2. Is Rankine cycle efficiency sensitive to the turbine inefficiency?
Why?
3. What is the purpose of the throttling valve in the Rankine
throttling cycle? Does it improve the cycle efficiency?
4. Steam enters a turbine of a Rankine power plant at 5 MPa and
400 C, and exhausts to the condenser at 10 kPa. The turbine
produces a power output of 20 MW. Given a turbine isentropic
efficiency of 90% and a pump isentropic efficiency of 100%:
a. What is the mass flow rate of the steam around the cycle?
b. What is the rate of heat rejection from the condenser?
c. Find the thermal efficiency of the power plant.
5. 12.7 kg/sec of superheated steam flow at 2 MPa and 320 C enters
the turbine of a Rankine power plant and expands to a condenser
pressure of 10 kPa. Assuming that the isentropic efficiencies of
the turbine and pump are 85 and 100%, respectively, find:
a. The actual pump power required.
b. The quality of steam at the exit of the turbine.
c. The actual turbine power produced.
d. The rate of heat supplied in the boiler.
e. The rate of heat removed in the condenser.
f. The cycle efficiency.
6. Water circulates at a rate of 80 kg/sec in a Rankine power plant.
The boiler pressure is 6 MPa and the condenser pressure is
10 kPa. The steam enters the turbine at 700 C and water leaves
the condenser as a saturated liquid. The actual turbine efficiency
is 90%. Find:
a. The power required to operate the pump.
b. The heat transfer added in the boiler.
c. The power developed by the turbine.
d. The thermal efficiency of the cycle.
7. A Rankine cycle using water as the working fluid operates between
a condenser pressure of 7.5 kPa and a boiler pressure of 17 MPa.
The superheater temperature is 550 C. The rate of mass flow in
the cycle is 2.3 lbm/sec. The turbine efficiency is 85%. Determine:
a. The pump power
b. The turbine power
c. The rate of heat added in the boiler
d. The cycle thermal efficiency

8. A throttling Rankine cycle using water as the working fluid
operates between a condenser pressure of 7.5 kPa and a boiler
pressure of 17 MPa. The superheater temperature is 550 C. The
rate of mass flow in the cycle is 2.3 lbm/sec. The turbine
efficiency is 85%. If the pressure at the exit of the throttling
valve is 12 MPa, determine:
a. The pump power
b. The turbine power
c. The rate of heat added to the boiler
d. The cycle thermal efficiency
2.5 REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be significantly increased by

using higher boiler pressure, but this requires ever-increasing superheats.
Since the maximum temperature in the superheater is limited by the
temperature the boiler tubes can stand, superheater temperatures are usually
restricted. Since the major fraction of the heat supplied to the Rankine cycle
is supplied in the boiler, the boiler temperatures (and hence pressures) must
be increased if cycle efficiency improvements are to be obtained.
The problem of excessive superheater temperatures may be solved
while avoiding two-phase saturated mixtures in the expansion, by reheating
the expanding steam part way through the expansion as shown in Fig. 2.11.
The steam leaving the boiler section as saturated vapor is superheated to
Figure 2.11 Reheat Rankine cycle.

an acceptable temperature and then expanded (while producing work)
until it intersects with the maximum moisture (complement of quality, or
minimum quality) curve. The steam is then reheated in a second
superheater section and expanded in a second turbine (while producing
more work) until it intersects with the maximum moisture (complement of
quality, or minimum quality) curve again. The steam is then condensed
and pumped back into the boiler.
The one reheat Rankine basic cycle is composed of the following six
processes:
Applying the first law of thermodynamics of the open system to each
of the six processes of the reheat Rankine cycle yields:
Q12 ¼ 0 (2.21)
W12 ¼ m(h1 h2) ¼ mv1(p1 p2) (2.22)
W23 ¼ 0 (2.23)
Q23 0 ¼ m(h3 h2) (2.24)
Q34 ¼ 0 (2.25)
W34 ¼ m(h3 h4) (2.26)
W45 ¼ 0 (2.27)
Q45 0 ¼ m(h5 h4) (2.28)
Q56 ¼ 0 (2.29)
W56 ¼ m(h5 h6) (2.30)
W61 ¼ 0 (2.31)
and
Q61 0 ¼ m(h1 h6) (2.32)
Wnet ¼ Qnet ¼ Q23 þQ45 þ Q61 (2.33)

Figure 2.12 Reheat Rankine T-S diagram.

¼ Wnet =ðQ23 þ Q45 Þ ¼ Qnet =ðQ23 þ Q45 Þ ¼ 1 Q61 =ðQ23 þ Q45 Þ
¼ 1 ðh6 h1 Þ=½ðh3 h2 Þ þ ðh5 h4 Þ ð2:34Þ
The T–S diagram of the reheat Rankine cycle is shown in Fig. 2.12.
Example 2.7
A steam reheat Rankine cycle operates between the pressure limits of 5 and
1600 psia. Steam is superheated to 600 F before it is expanded to the
reheat pressure of 500 psia. Steam is reheated to 600 F. The steam flow
rate is 800 lbm/hr. Determine the quality of steam at the exit of the
turbine, the cycle efficiency, and the power produced by the cycle.
1. Build:
a. Take a pump, a boiler, a turbine, a reheater, another
turbine, and a condenser from the inventory shop and
connect the devices to form the reheat Rankine cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the six devices: (1) pump as
adiabatic, (2) boiler and reheater as isobaric, (3) turbines as
adiabatic, and (4) condenser as isobaric.
(2) inlet pressure and quality of the pump are 5 psia and 0,

(3) inlet pressure and temperature of the first turbine are
1600 psia and 600 F, (4) mass flow rate is 800 lbm/hr, and
(5) inlet pressure and temperature of the first turbine are
500 psia and 600 F.
3. Display results: display the T–s diagram and cycle properties
results. The cycle is a heat engine. The answers are x ¼ 82.52%,
¼ 30.04%, and net power output ¼ 111.4 hp. (See Fig. 2.13.)
COMMENTS: The sole purpose of the reheat cycle is to reduce the moisture
content of the steam at the final stages of the turbine expansion process. The
more reheating processes, the higher the quality of the steam at the exit of
the last-stage turbine. The reheat temperature is often very close or equal
to the turbine inlet temperature. The optimum reheat pressure is about
one-fourth of the maximum cycle pressure.
Example 2.8
Determine the efficiency and power output of a reheat Rankine cycle,
using steam as the working fluid, in which the condenser pressure is
80 kPa. The boiler pressure is 3 MPa. The steam leaves the boiler at 400 C.
The mass flow rate of steam is 1 kg/sec. The pump efficiency is 85% and
the turbine efficiency is 88%. After expansion in the high-pressure turbine
to 800 kPa, the steam is reheated to 400 C and then expanded in the
low-pressure turbine to the condenser.

1. Build:
a. Take a pump, a boiler, a turbine, a reheater, another
turbine, and a condenser from the inventory shop and
connect the devices to form the reheat Rankine cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the six devices: (1) pump as
adiabatic, (2) boiler and reheater as isobaric, (3) turbines
as adiabatic, and (4) condenser as isobaric.
and 400 C, (4) mass flow rate is 1 kg/sec, and (5) pump
efficiency is 85% and turbine efficiency is 88%.
3. Display results: display the cycle properties’ results. The cycle is
a heat engine.
The answers are ¼ 24.57% and net power output ¼ 779.9 kW. (See
Fig. 2.14.)
COMMENTS: The advantage of using reheat is to reduce the moisture content
at the exit of the low-pressure turbine and increase the net power of the Rankine
power plant. The one reheat Rankine basic cycle shown in Fig. 2.13 can be
expanded into more than one reheat if desired. In this fashion it is possible to use
higher boiler pressure without having to increase the maximum superheater
temperature above the limit of the superheater tubes.

Review Problems 2.5 Reheat Rankine Cycle
1. What is the purpose of reheat in a reheat Rankine cycle?

2. Is the efficiency of a reheat Rankine cycle always higher than the
efficiency of a simple Rankine cycle operating between the same
boiler pressure and condenser pressure?
3. Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal reheat
Rankine cycle; 1 kg/sec of steam flow enters the high-pressure
turbine at 15 MPa and 600 C and leaves at 5 MPa. Steam is
reheated to 600 C and enters the low-pressure turbine. Exhaust
steam from the turbine is condensed in the condenser at 10 kPa.
Determine:
a. The pump power required.
b. Rate of heat added to the boiler.
c. Rate of heat added in the reheater.
d. Power produced by the high-pressure turbine.
e. Power produced by the low-pressure turbine.
f. Rate of heat removed from the condenser.
g. Quality of steam at the exit of the low-pressure turbine.
h. Thermal cycle efficiency.
4. Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal reheat
Rankine cycle; 1 kg/sec of steam flow enters the high-pressure
turbine at 15 MPa and 600 C and leaves at 5 MPa. Steam is
reheated to 600 C and enters the low-pressure turbine. Exhaust
steam from the turbine is condensed in the condenser at 10 kPa.
Both turbines have 90% efficiency. Determine:
a. Pump power required.
b. Rate of heat added in the boiler.
c. Rate of heat added in the reheater.
d. Power produced by the high-pressure turbine.
e. Power produced by the low-pressure turbine.
f. Rate of heat removed from the condenser.
g. Quality of steam at the exit of the low-pressure turbine.
h. Thermal cycle efficiency.
2.6 REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be increased by the use of
regenerative heat exchange as shown in Fig. 2.15. In the regenerative cycle,
a portion of the partially expanded steam is drawn off between the high-
and low-pressure turbines. The steam is used to preheat the condensed

Figure 2.15 Regenerative Rankine cycle.
liquid before it returns to the boiler. In this way, the amount of heat
added at low temperatures is reduced. Therefore, the mean effective
temperature of heat addition is increased, and cycle efficiency is increased.
In the case of an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, the best result is
obtained by heating the feed-water to a temperature equal to the
saturation temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure. To carry out
the ideal regenerative process, the regenerative heat exchanger is called the
feed-water heater. The T–s diagram of the ideal regenerative Rankine cycle
is shown in Fig. 2.16.
The one regenerative Rankine basic cycle is composed of the
following processes:
Applying the mass balance and the first law of thermodynamics of
the open system to each of the seven processes of the regenerative Rankine

Figure 2.16 Regenerative Rankine cycle T–S diagram.
cycle yields:
m1 ¼ m2 ¼ m7 (2.35)
m4 ¼ m5 (2.36)
m4 ¼ m2 þ m6 (2.37)
Q12 ¼ 0 (2.38)
W12 ¼ m1(h1 h2) ¼ m1v1 (p1 p2) (2.39)
m4(h4 h3) þ m2(h2 h3)þm6(h6 h3) ¼ 0 (2.40)
Q34 ¼ 0 (2.41)
W34 ¼ m4(h3 h4) ¼ m4v3 (p3 p4) (2.42)
W45 ¼ 0 (2.43)
Q45 0 ¼ m4(h5 h4) (2.44)
Q56 ¼ 0 (2.45)
W56 ¼ m4(h3 h4) (2.46)
Q67 ¼ 0, (2.47)
W67 ¼ m1(h6 h7) (2.48)
W71 ¼ 0 (2.49)
and
Q71 0 ¼ m1(h1 h6) (2.50)

Wnet ¼ W56 þ W67 þ W12 þ W34 (2.51)

¼ Wnet/Q45 (2.52)
Example 2.9
Determine the efficiency and power output of a regenerative Rankine cycle
using steam as the working fluid and a condenser pressure of 80 kPa. The
boiler pressure is 3 MPa. The steam leaves the boiler at 400 C. The mass
rate of steam flow is 1 kg/sec. The pump efficiency is 85% and the turbine
efficiency is 88%. After expansion in the high-pressure turbine to 400 kPa,
some of the steam is extracted from the turbine exit for the purpose of
heating the feed-water in an open feed-water heater, the rest of the steam
is reheated to 400 C and then expanded in the low-pressure turbine to the
condenser. The water leaves the open feed-water heater at 400 kPa as
saturated liquid. Determine the steam fraction extracted from the turbine
exit, cycle efficiency, and net power output of the cycle.
1. Build:
a. Take two pumps, a boiler, a turbine, a reheater, another
turbine, a splitter, a mixing chamber (open feed-water
heater), and a condenser from the inventory shop and
connect the devices to form the regenerating Rankine cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the devices: (1) pumps as
adiabatic, (2) boiler and reheater as isobaric, (3) turbines
as adiabatic, (4) splitter as isoparametric, and (5) condenser
as isobaric.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is water, (2) inlet
pressure and quality of the pump are 80 kPa and 0, (3) inlet
pressure and temperature of the turbine are 4 MPa and 400 C,
(4) mass flow rate is 1 kg/sec through the boiler, and (5) pump
efficiency is 85% and turbine efficiency is 88%.
3. Display results:
a. Display the cycle properties results. The cycle is a heat
engine. The answers are fraction extraction ¼ 0.0877,
¼ 24.28% and net power output ¼ 636.8 kW.

reheater pressure.
c. Locate the optimum regeneration pressure (about 730 kPa)
from the sensitivity diagram.
d. Redo the problem with regenerator pressure at 730 kPa. The
answers are: fraction extraction ¼ 0.1233, ¼ 24.42%, and
net power output ¼ 616.1 kW. (See Figs. 2.17a and 2.17b.)
Figure 2.17a Regenerative Rankine cycle.
Figure 2.17b Regenerative Rankine cycle.

COMMENTS: (1) From the example, it is seen that the efficiency of the
regenerative Rankine cycle is better than that of the Rankine cycle without
regenerator.
(2) Suppose an infinite number of regenerators are used; the
regenerative cycle would have the same cycle efficiency as that of a
Carnot cycle operating between the same temperature limits. This is
physically not practical. Large number of regenerators may not be
economically justified. Consequently, the finite number of regenerators is a
design decision. In practice, six or seven regenerators is the maximum
number employed for large Rankine commercial power plants.
Example 2.10
Determine the efficiency and power output of a regenerative Rankine
(without superheater or reheater) cycle, using steam as the working fluid,
in which the condenser temperature is 50 C. The boiler temperature is
350 C. The steam leaves the boiler as saturated vapor. The mass rate of
steam flow is 1 kg/sec. After expansion in the high-pressure turbine to
100 C, some of the steam is extracted from the turbine exit for the purpose
of heating the feed-water in an open feed-water heater; the rest of the
steam is then expanded in the low-pressure turbine to the condenser.
The water leaves the open feed-water heater at 100 C as saturated liquid.
1. Determine the steam fraction extracted from the turbine exit,
cycle efficiency, and net power output of the cycle.
2. Plot the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus open
feed-water heater temperature.
3. Determine the steam fraction extracted from the turbine exit,
cycle efficiency, and net power output of the cycle at the optimal
cycle efficiency.
1. Build:
a. Take two pumps, a boiler, two turbines, a reheater, a
splitter, a mixing chamber (open feed-water heater), and a
condenser from the inventory shop and connect the devices
to form the regenerating Rankine cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the devices: (1) pumps as
adiabatic, (2) boiler as isobaric, (3) turbines as adiabatic,
(4) splitter as isoparametric, and (5) condenser as isobaric.

b.Input the given information: (1) working fluid is water,
(2) inlet temperature and quality of the pump are 50 C and
0, (3) turbine inlet steam quality and temperature are 1 and
350 C, (4) mass flow rate is 1 kg/sec through the
boiler, and (5) regenerator exit steam quality and
temperature are 0 and 100 C.
3. Display results:
a. Display the cycle properties’ results. The cycle is a heat engine.
The answers are fraction extraction ¼ 0.1258, ¼ 40.16%,
and net power output ¼ 871.4 kW. (See Fig. 2.18a.)
b. The sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus open feed-
water heater temperature ( vs. T3) is shown in Fig. 2.18b.
COMMENT: The temperature difference between the condenser and regen-
erator is approximately equal to the temperature difference between the boiler
and regenerator. From the diagram, the temperature is approximately 187 C.
c. Change the temperature of water, leaving the open feed-
water heater as saturated liquid, to 187 C. The answers
given by the cycle properties are: fraction extra-
ction ¼ 0.2970, ¼ 41.55%, and net power out-
put ¼ 727.9 kW. (See Fig. 2.18c.)
Figure 2.18a Regenerative Rankine cycle.

Figure 2.18b Regenerative Rankine cycle sensitivity diagram.
Figure 2.18c Regenerative Rankine cycle optimization.

Example 2.11
Determine the efficiency and power output of a four-stage steam
regenerative Rankine cycle (Fig. 2.19a). The following information is
provided:
p1 ¼ p24 ¼ 10 kPa, p2 ¼ p3 ¼ p21 ¼ p22 ¼ p23 ¼ p28 ¼ 3 MPa, p4 ¼ p5 ¼ p18 ¼
p19 ¼ p20 ¼ p27 ¼ 7 MPa, p6 ¼ p7 ¼ p15 ¼ p16 ¼ p17 ¼ p26 ¼ 10 MPa, p8 ¼ p9 ¼
p12 ¼ p13 ¼ p14 ¼ p25 ¼ 13 MPa, p10 ¼ p11 ¼ 16 MPa, T11 ¼ T14 ¼ T17 ¼ T20 ¼
T23 ¼ 400 C, x1 ¼ x3 ¼ x5 ¼ x7 ¼ x9 ¼ 0, mdot9 ¼ 1 kg/sec, Tur1 ¼ Tur2 ¼
Tur3 ¼ Tur4 ¼ Tur5 ¼ 85%, and pmp1 ¼ pmp2 ¼ pmp3 ¼ pmp4 ¼ pmp5 ¼
85%.
1. Build:
a. Take five pumps, five heaters (one boiler and four
reheaters), five turbines, four splitters, four mixing chambers
(open feed-water heaters), and a condenser from the
inventory shop and connect the devices to form the
regenerating Rankine cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the devices: (1) pumps as
adiabatic, (2) boiler, reheater, and regenerators as isobaric,
(3) turbines as adiabatic, (4) splitters as isoparametric, and
Figure 2.19a Four-stage steam regenerative Rankine cycle.

b. Input the given information: working fluid is water, p1 ¼
p24 ¼ 10 kPa, p2 ¼ p3 ¼ p21 ¼ p22 ¼ p23 ¼ p28 ¼ 3 MPa, p4 ¼ p5¼
p18 ¼ p19 ¼ p20 ¼ p27 ¼ 7 MPa, p6 ¼ p7 ¼ p15 ¼ p16 ¼ p17 ¼ p26
¼ 10 MPa, p8 ¼ p9 ¼ p12 ¼ p13 ¼ p14 ¼ p25 ¼ 13 MPa, p10 ¼
p11 ¼ 16 MPa, T11 ¼ T14 ¼ T17 ¼ T20 ¼ T23 ¼ 400 C, x1 ¼ x3 ¼
x5 ¼ x7 ¼ x9 ¼ 0, mdot9 ¼ 1 kg/sec, tur1 ¼ tur2 ¼ tur3 ¼ tur4 ¼
tur5 ¼ 85%, and pmp1 ¼ pmp2 ¼ pmp3 ¼ pmp4 ¼ pmp5 ¼
85%, as shown in Fig. 2.19b.
3. Display results: display the cycle properties results. The cycle is
a heat engine.
The results are: cycle ¼ 36.92%, Wdotinput ¼ 97.09 kW,
Wdotoutput ¼ 777.3 kW, Wdotnet output ¼ 680.2 kW, Qdotadd ¼ 1842 kW,
Qdotremove ¼ 1162 kW, Wdotpmp1 ¼ 44.23 kW, Wdotpmp2 ¼ 42.45 kW,
Wdotpmp3 ¼ 4.14 kW, Wdotpmp4 ¼ 4.33 kW, Wdotpmp5 ¼ 1.93 kW,
Wdottur1 ¼ 39.74 kW,Wdottur2 ¼ 50.45 kW,Wdottur3 ¼ 69.28 kW,Wdottur4 ¼
147.7 kW, Wdottur5 ¼ 470.1 kW, Qdothtr1 ¼ 1372 kW, Qdothtr2 ¼ 112.8 kW,
Qdothtr3 ¼ 107.2 kW, Qdothtr4 ¼ 107.2 kW, Qdothtr5 ¼ 143.5 kW, Qdotclr1
¼ 1162 kW, mdot2 ¼ mdot22 ¼ 0.5372 kg/sec, mdot3 ¼ mdot19 ¼ 0.7605 kg/
sec, mdot5 ¼ mdot16 ¼ 0.8705 kg/sec, mdot8 ¼ mdot12 ¼ 0.9459 kg/sec,
mdot25 ¼ 0.0541 kg/sec, mdot26 ¼ 0.0754 kg/sec, mdot27 ¼ 0.1100 kg/sec,
and mdot28 ¼ 0.2234 kg/sec. (See Fig. 2.19c.)
Figure 2.19b Four-stage steam regenerative Rankine cycle input.

Figure 2.19c Four-stage steam regenerative Rankine cycle output.
Review Problems 2.6 Regenerative Rankine Cycle

1. What is the purpose of regeneration in a regenerative Rankine
cycle?
2. Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal
regenerating Rankine cycle; 1 kg/sec of steam flow enters the turbine at
15 MPa and 600 C and is condensed in the condenser at 10 kPa. Some
steam leaves the high-pressure turbine at 1.2 MPa and enters the open
feed-water heater. If the steam at the exit of the open feed-water heater is
saturated liquid, determine (1) the fraction of steam not extracted from the
high-pressure turbine, (2) the rate of heat added to the boiler, (3) the rate
of heat removed from the condenser, (4) the turbine power produced by
the high-pressure turbine, (5) the turbine power produced by the low-
pressure turbine, (6) the power required by the low-pressure pump, (7) the
power required by the high-pressure pump, and (8) the thermal cycle
efficiency.
3. Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal regenerating
Rankine cycle; 1 kg/sec of steam flow enters the turbine at 15 MPa and
600 C and is condensed in the condenser at 10 kPa. Some steam leaves the
high-pressure turbine at 1.2 MPa and enters the open feed-water heater.
The turbine efficiency is 90%. If the steam at the exit of the open feed-
water heater is a saturated liquid, determine (1) the fraction of steam not
extracted from the high-pressure turbine, (2) the rate of heat added in the

boiler, (3) the rate of heat removed from the condenser, (4) the turbine
power produced by the high-pressure turbine, (5) the turbine power
produced by the low-pressure turbine, (6) the power required by the low-
pressure pump, (7) the power required by the high-pressure pump, and
(8) the thermal cycle efficiency.
4. Determine the efficiency and power output of a regenerative
Rankine (without superheater or reheater) cycle using steam as the
working fluid and in which the condenser temperature is 50 C. The boiler
temperature is 350 C. The steam leaves the boiler as saturated vapor. The
mass rate of steam flow is 1 kg/sec. After expansion in the high-pressure
turbine to 100 C, some of the steam is extracted from the turbine exit
for the purpose of heating the feed-water in an open feed-water heater;
the rest of the steam is then expanded in the low-pressure turbine
to the condenser. The water leaves the open feed-water heater at
120 C as a saturated liquid. The efficiency of both turbines is 85%.
(a) Determine the steam fraction extracted from the turbine exit, cycle
efficiency, and net power output of the cycle, (b) Plot the sensitivity
diagram of cycle efficiency versus open feed-water heater temperature,
and (c) Determine the steam fraction extracted from the turbine exit,
cycle efficiency, and net power output of the cycle at the optimal cycle
efficiency.
ANSWERS: (a) y ¼ 0.1605, ¼ 35.17%, Wdotnet ¼ 718.4 kW;
(b) T ¼ 187 C; (c) y ¼ 0.2884, ¼ 35.97%, Wdotnet ¼ 630.2 kW.
2.7 LOW-TEMPERATURE RANKINE CYCLES
Much of this chapter has been concerned with various modifications

to the simple Rankine cycle at high temperature. In the following five
sections, the Rankine cycle that makes possible use of energy sources
at low temperature, such as solar, geothermal, ocean thermal, solar pond,
and waste heat, will be discussed. Because of the small temperature
range available, only a simple Rankine cycle can be used and the cycle
efficiency will be low. This is not critical economically, because the fuel
is free.
The working fluids, such as ammonia and freons, used in
refrigerators and heat pumps are more desirable than steam for the very
low-temperature Rankine cycles. The reason is that the specific volume of
such working fluids at low temperature is much less than that of steam, so
the resulting turbine sizes can be much smaller and less expensive.
The sun provides a direct flux of thermal radiation of about
1350 kW/m2 outside the atmosphere, and about 630 kW/m2 on average at

the earth’s surface. If a flat-plate collector is used, the solar thermal power
system is a low-temperature heat engine. If a concentrate collector is used
to focus the power of the sun, the solar thermal heat engine can be
operated at a higher temperature.
All the geothermal heat sources of interest have been created by the
intrusion of hot magma from deep in the earth up into rock strata close
to the surface. The average temperature gradient is small. The regions of
interest for geothermal power production are those in which the
temperature gradient exceeds 20 C/km. There are regions where
geothermal energy in dry-steam form, hot-water form, or hot-rock form
could be tapped and used for power generation. More commonly than it
puts out dry steam, a geothermal well puts out a mixture of steam and
water. A separator is needed to separate the flashing steam from the hot
water. The steam is then used to drive the turbine. In a hot-rock (no steam
or hot water) geothermal well, water will need to be injected into the
well to tap the thermal energy. As with the hot-water geothermal energy,
a secondary closed, simple Rankine cycle will be required to produce
geothermal power.
Incident solar energy is absorbed by the surface water of the oceans.
Ocean surface temperatures in excess of 26 C occur near the equator.
Pure water has a maximum density at a temperature of 4 C. The chilled
water tends to settle to the depths of the ocean. The combination of
the warmed ocean surface water and cold deep ocean water provides
the thermodynamic condition needed to operate a heat engine called
ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC). A typical closed-cycle OTEC
Rankine cycle using a working fluid such as ammonia or a freon is
suggested.
Temperature differences have been found in natural ponds having
high concentration gradients of dissolved salt. Solar radiation is absorbed
in the lower water levels and at the bottom of the pond. The water near
the bottom (70–80 C) is at a higher temperature than that of the top
surface (30 C), with the density of the hot concentrated lower level water
higher than the density of the more dilute and cooler top levels. A typical
closed-cycle solar pond Rankine cycle using a working fluid such as
ammonia or a freon is also suggested.
Waste heat from farming, animal manure, crop production, and
municipal solid residues could also be used for power generation.
There is no question that power can be produced from these various
natural and waste energy sources. The question is the cost. Significant
efforts have been underway for many years to produce power from these
free energy sources. However, there are only a few commercial power
plants presently utilizing these energy sources.

Review Problems 2.7 Low-Temperature
Rankine Cycles
1. Is the cycle efficiency of the low-temperature heat engine higher

than that of the high-temperature heat engine?
2. What is the fuel cost of the low-temperature heat engine?
3. List at least three low-temperature energy resources.
4. Why are working fluids such as ammonia and freons, used in
refrigerators and heat pumps, more desirable than steam for
the low-temperature Rankine cycles?
2.8 SOLAR HEAT ENGINES
The abundance of incident solar energy, particularly in large desert

regions with few interruptions due to cloud cover, lends to the appeal of
solar heat engines. Electrical power produced via thermal conversion of
solar energy by means of a conventional Rankine cycle is technically
achievable.
If a flat-plate collector is used, the solar thermal power system is a
low-temperature heat engine. The conversion efficiency of a thermo-
dynamic cycle depends on the collector temperature achieved, i.e., the
higher the collector temperature the higher the heat engine efficiency. On
the other hand, the collector efficiency also depends on the collector
temperature achieved, i.e., the higher the collector temperature the lower
the collector efficiency. Therefore, for a solar-collector Rankine cycle to
operate at high collector efficiency and high heat engine efficiency, the
heat input to the solar low-temperature heat engine can be derived from
several collectors, as shown in Fig. 2.20. The heat exchangers (collectors)
in Fig. 2.20 are operated at different temperatures.
Another solar heat engine, suitable for a moderate sized power-
generating facility, utilizes a concentrate collector (receiver) mounted
on top of a high tower. Radiation from the sun is reflected by a
field of mirrors on to the receiver to achieve a high concentration
ratio. The orientation of each mirror depends on its location relative
to the central receiver. Each mirror is controlled to keep the sun’s
reflected radiation concentrated on the central receiver. The central
receiver can serve as the boiler for the steam Rankine solar heat engine.
Thermal storage will be required for a commercial facility to mitigate
interruptions caused by clouds and to provide for an evening and night-
time output.

Figure 2.20 Solar heat engine.
Example 2.12
A solar heat engine with two collectors as shown in Figure 2.20 is
proposed. Water enters the low-temperature heat exchanger from a low-
temperature collector at 1 kg/sec and 80 C and 101 kPa. Water enters
the high-temperature heat exchanger from a high-temperature collector at
120 C and leaves the heat exchanger at 100 C and 101 kPa. Cycle water
enters the pump of the Rankine heat engine at 8 kPa and 0% quality.
Cycle water enters the high-temperature heat exchanger at 80 C.
Saturated steam enters the turbine at 80 kPa. Find the power produced
by the solar heat engine.
To solve this problem with CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build as shown in Fig. 2.20.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the five devices: (1) turbine as
adiabatic with 100% efficiency, (2) pump as adiabatic with
100% efficiency, (3) low-temperature heat exchanger as
isobaric on both hot and cold sides, (4) high-temperature

heat exchanger as isobaric on both hot and cold sides, and
(5) condenser as isobaric process.
b. Input the given information as shown in Fig. 2.20a: (1)
working fluid of cycle is water, (2) inlet quality and pressure
of the pump are 0 and 8 kPa, (3) inlet quality and pressure
of the turbine are 1 and 80 kPa, (4) working fluid of hot
side of the low-temperature heat exchanger is water, (5)
mass flow rate is 1 kg/sec, (6) inlet temperature and pressure
of hot-side fluid are 80 C and 101 kPa, (7) exit temperature
of hot-side fluid is 50 C, (8) working fluid of hot side of the
high-temperature heat exchanger is water, (9) inlet
temperature and pressure of hot-side fluid are 120 C and
101 kPa, and (10) exit temperature of hot-side fluid is 100 C.
3. Display results as shown in Fig. 2.20b.
The answers are: rate of heat added in the low-temperature heat
exchanger ¼ 125.6 kW, rate of heat added in the high-temperature heat
exchanger ¼ 2501 kW, net power produced by the Rankine cycle ¼ 357 kW,
and efficiency of the solar heat engine ¼ 357/(125.6 þ 2501) ¼ 13.59%.
Example 2.13
A solar Rankine heat engine with one concentrated collector used as the
boiler is proposed. Saturated water at 1 kg/sec enters the pump of the
Figure 2.20a Solar heat engine input information.

Figure 2.20b Solar heat engine output information.
Rankine heat engine at 10 kPa. Steam enters the turbine at 1 MPa and
250 C. Find the cycle efficiency and power produced by the solar heat
engine.
1. Build a Rankine cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the four devices: (1) turbine as
adiabatic with 100% efficiency, (2) pump as adiabatic with
100% efficiency, (3) boiler as isobaric process, and
(4) condenser as isobaric process.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid of cycle is
water, (2) inlet quality and pressure of the pump are 0 and
10 kPa, (3) inlet temperature and pressure of the turbine are
250 C and 1 MPa, and (4) mass flow rate is 1 kg/sec.
3. Display result as shown in Fig. 2.21.
The answers are: rate of heat added in the boiler ¼ 2749 kW, net
power produced by the Rankine cycle ¼ 747.7 kW, and efficiency of the
solar heat engine ¼ 27.2%.
Review Problems 2.8 Solar Heat Engine

1. Why are several solar collectors at different temperatures
desirable for a solar-collector Rankine heat engine?

Figure 2.21 Solar Rankine heat engine.
2. A solar heat engine with two collectors as shown in Fig. 2.20 is

temperature collector at 100 C and 101 kPa. Water enters the high-
temperature heat exchanger from a high-temperature collector at 120 C
and leaves the heat exchanger at 100 C and 101 kPa. Cycle water enters
the pump of the Rankine heat engine at 1 kg/sec and 8 kPa. Cycle water
enters the high-temperature heat exchanger at 100 C. Saturated steam
enters the turbine at 80 kPa. Find the water mass flow rates of the
low-temperature collector and the high-temperature collector.
ANSWERS: mass flow rate of the low-temperature collector ¼
57.61 kg/sec, mass flow rate of the high-temperature collector ¼ 57.61 kg/
sec.
3. A solar heat engine with two collectors as shown in Fig. 2.20 is
temperature collector at 100 C and 101 kPa. Water enters the high-
temperature heat exchanger from a high-temperature collector at 140 C
and leaves the heat exchanger at 100 C and 101 kPa. Cycle water enters
the pump of the Rankine heat engine at 1 kg/sec and 8 kPa. Cycle water
enters the high-temperature heat exchanger at 100 C. Saturated steam
enters the turbine at 80 kPa. Find the water mass flow rates of the
low-temperature collector and the high-temperature collector.
ANSWERS: mass flow rate of the low-temperature collector ¼ 29 kg/
sec; mass flow rate of the high-temperature collector ¼ 29 kg/sec.
2.9 GEOTHERMAL HEAT ENGINES
Since interior regions of the earth have temperatures higher than those at
the surface, an outward flux of heat is observed. The earth’s interior is a

vast thermal reservoir, which can be used as a source of energy if favorable
geological conditions exist. There are many areas that have a high heat
flow rate. Also, there are many geological formations resulting in thermal
reservoirs located within a short distance of the earth’s surface. By drilling
into these high-temperature reservoirs, useful quantities of geothermal
energy are obtained.
In a few regions, porous rock is overlain by a low-permeability
stratum and above that an aquifer, which allows water to trickle into the
hot porous rock at a rate such that a steady flow of dry steam is
generated. Dry steam is the most desirable form of geothermal energy.
For these dry-steam wells, the obvious course is to use the dry steam
directly in the turbine after filtering it to remove mineral particulates. The
dry steam can be expanded in a turbine and exhausted directly to the
atmosphere. While this is the simplest and least costly type of geothermal
power installation, its efficiency in converting geothermal energy to
electrical energy is low. Leaving the turbine would be a mixture of vapor
and liquid, the pressure of which must be above atmospheric pressure. The
exhaust geothermal fluid temperature must, therefore, be above 100 C.
A considerable improvement on the efficient use of the geothermal power
plant can be achieved by reducing the turbine exhaust temperature to
50 C. A condenser with an internal pressure less than atmospheric
pressure is required. Figure 2.22a shows the basic dry steam geothermal
power plant for such an arrangement.
Example 2.14
At a geothermal energy source, dry steam at 700 kPa and 170 C is
available at a mass flow rate of 100 kg/sec. A barometric condenser
at 10 kPa is used to decrease the turbine exhaust temperature. Find
(a) the power produced by the geothermal power plant as shown in
Fig. 2.22a. (b) What is the power produced without the barometric
condenser?
1. Build as shown in Fig. 2.22a.
Figure 2.22a Dry-steam geothermal power plant.

Figure 2.22b Dry-steam geothermal power plant without condenser.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the two devices: (1) turbine as
adiabatic with 100% efficiency, and (2) condenser as isobaric
process.
water, (2) inlet temperature and pressure of the turbine are
170 C and 700 kPa, (3) the inlet pressure of the condenser is
10 kPa, and (4) mass flow rate is 100 kg/sec.
3. Display result:
The answers are: (a) With condenser, power ¼ 642.2 kW as shown in
Fig. 2.22a, and (b) without condenser, changing the inlet pressure of the
condenser to 100 kPa gives: power ¼ 332.7 kW as shown in Fig. 2.22b.
More commonly than it puts out dry steam, a geothermal well puts
out a mixture of steam and water above 130 C, or just hot water.
A separator is needed in a hot water–steam mixture geothermal power
plant to separate the flashing steam from the hot water, as shown in
Figure 2.23. An additional throttling valve is required to generate
saturated steam in a hot-water geothermal power plant.
Example 2.15
At a geothermal energy source, a mixture of 80% steam and 20% water at
140 C is available at a mass flow rate of 1 kg/sec. A barometric condenser

Figure 2.23 Hot water–steam mixture geothermal power plant.
at 10 kPa is used to decrease the turbine exhaust temperature. Find the

power produced by the geothermal power plant.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the three devices: (1) turbine as
adiabatic with 100% efficiency, (2) splitters as nonisopar-
ametric devices, and (3) condenser as isobaric process.
water, (2) inlet mass flow rate, quality and temperature of
the separator (splitter) are 1 kg/sec, 0.8, and 140 C, (3) inlet
quality of the turbine is 1, (4) inlet quality of the sink1 is 0,
and (5) pressure of the condenser is 10 kPa.
3. Display result.
The answer is power ¼ 430.8 kW as shown in Fig. 2.23a.

Example 2.16
A proposal is made to use a geothermal supply of hot water at 1500 kPa
and 180 C to operate a steam turbine. The high-pressure water is throttled
into a flash evaporator chamber, which forms liquid and vapor at a lower
pressure of 400 kPa. The liquid is discarded while the saturated vapor feeds
the turbine and exits at 10 kPa. Cooling water is available at 15 C. Find
the turbine power per unit geothermal hot-water mass flow rate. The
turbine efficiency is 88%. Find the power produced by the geothermal
power plant, and find the optimized flash pressure that will give the most
turbine power per unit geothermal hot water mass flow rate.
1. Build the hot-water geothermal power plant as shown in
Fig. 2.23.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the three devices: (1) turbine as
adiabatic with 88% efficiency, (2) splitters as nonisopara-
metric devices, and (3) condenser as isobaric process. Notice
that throttling devices in CyclePad are automatically
constant-enthalpy processes.
water, (2) inlet mass flow rate, pressure, and temperature of
the separator (splitter) are 1 kg/sec, 1500 kPa, and 180 C,
(3) inlet quality and pressure of the turbine are 1 and
400 kPa, (4) inlet quality of the sink1 is 0, and (5) inlet
pressure of the condenser is 10 kPa.
3. Display result.
The answer is power ¼ 32.95 kW as shown in Fig. 2.24a.
To find the optimized flash pressure that will give the most turbine
power per unit geothermal hot-water mass flow rate, we use sensitivity
analysis. A plot of power versus turbine inlet pressure is made as shown
in Fig. 2.24b. The maximum power is found to be about 42 kW at a
pressure of about 140 kPa.
Example 2.17
A proposal is made to use a geothermal supply of hot water at 1500 kPa
and 180 C to operate a two-flash evaporator and two geothermal
steam turbines system as shown in Fig. 2.25a. The high-pressure water
is throttled into a flash evaporator chamber, which forms liquid and
vapor at a lower pressure of 400 kPa. The saturated vapor at 400 kPa

Figure 2.24a Geothermal hot-water power plant.
Figure 2.24b Optimization of geothermal hot-water power plant.
feeds the high-pressure turbine and exits at 10 kPa. The saturated liquid at
400 kPa is then throttled into a flash evaporator chamber, which forms
liquid and vapor at a lower pressure of 100 kPa. The liquid at 100 kPa
is discarded while the saturated vapor at 100 kPa feeds the low-pressure

Figure 2.25a Two-flash evaporators and two geothermal steam turbines systems.
turbine and exits at 10 kPa. Cooling water is available at 15 C. The

turbines have efficiency of 80%. Find the total turbine power per unit
geothermal hot water mass flow rate.
Consider that there is an optional choice for flash pressure. Find the
optimized flash pressure that will give the most total turbine power per
unit geothermal hot-water mass flow rate.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the eight devices: (1) turbines as
adiabatic with 80% efficiency, (2) splitters as nonisopar-
ametric devices, and (3) condensers as isobaric processes.
Notice that throttling devices are automatically constant
enthalpy processes.
water, (2) inlet (state 1) mass flow rate, pressure, and
temperature of the high-pressure throttling valve separator
(splitter 1) are 1 kg/sec, 1500 kPa, and 180 C, (3) inlet (state
2) pressure of the high-pressure splitter 1 is 350 kPa, (4) inlet
(state 3) quality and pressure of the high-pressure turbine
are 1 and 350 kPa, (5) inlet (state 6) quality of the low-
pressure throttling valve 2 is 0, (6) inlet (state 7) pressure of
the low-pressure splitter 2 is 100 kPa, (7) inlet pressure of the
condensers is 10 kPa, and (8) the exit temperature of the
condensers is 15 C as shown in Fig. 2.25b.
3. Display result.
The answers are power of turbine 1 ¼ 35.59 kW, power of turbine
2 ¼ 18.61 kW, and total turbine power ¼ 35.59 þ 18.61 ¼ 54.2 kW as shown
in Fig. 2.25c.
To find the optimized flash pressure that will give the most turbine
power per unit geothermal hot-water mass flow rate, we use the sensitivity
analysis. A plot of total turbine power versus high-pressure turbine 1 inlet

Figure 2.25b Input information.
Figure 2.25c Output information
pressure (p2) is made as shown in Fig. 2.25d. The maximum total turbine
power is found about 54.3 kW at a pressure of 400 kPa.
Electrical power can be produced by geothermal fields, in which
there is either hot water or steam below 130 C, by using a secondary
closed Rankine cycle as shown in Fig. 2.26.

Figure 2.25d Sensitivity diagram of total turbine power versus pressure.
Figure 2.26 A closed-cycle low-temperature dry geothermal Rankine cycle.
Dry geothermal fields (high-temperature rocks) in which no water is

present are another potential source of geothermal energy. Water will need
to be injected into the field. After drilling, fracturing of the high-
temperature rocks will be required to improve heat transfer areas with
water. A secondary closed Rankine cycle as shown in Fig. 2.26 will be
required for producing power.

Example 2.18
At a dry geothermal energy source, hot rock is available. Water is injected
into the field. Geothermal energy is transferred from the hot rock to a
proposed Rankine heat engine by a heat exchanger. The information for
the proposed geothermal steam–Rankine cycle are: fluid mass flow rate,
quality, and pressure at the inlet of the pump are 1 kg/sec, 0, and 8 kPa;
fluid quality and pressure at the inlet of the turbine are 1 and 140 kPa; and
hot-water temperature at the inlet and exit of the heat exchanger are 120
and 70 C. Find the power produced by the geothermal power plant.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the four devices: (1) turbine
as adiabatic with 100% efficiency, (2) pump as adiabatic
with 100% efficiency, (3) condenser as isobaric process,
and (4) both hot and cold sides of the heat exchanger are
isobaric.
water, (2) inlet mass flow rate, quality, and pressure of the
pump are 1 kg/sec, 0, and 8 kPa, (3) inlet quality and
pressure at the inlet of the turbine are 1 and 140 kPa, (4)
inlet and exit of the heat exchanger are 120 and 70 C, and
(5) inlet pressure of the hot water to the heat exchanger is
100 kPa.
3. Display result.
The answer is power ¼ 422.5 kW as shown in Fig. 2.27.
Review Problems 2.9 Geothermal Heat Engines

1. A proposal is made to use a geothermal supply of hot water at
1 MPa and 170 C to operate a steam turbine as shown in Fig. 2.24a. The
high-pressure water is throttled into a flash evaporator chamber, which
forms liquid and vapor at a lower pressure of 400 kPa. The liquid is
discarded while the saturated vapor feeds the turbine and exits at 10 kPa.
Cooling water is available at 15 C. The turbine has an isentropic efficiency
of 88%. Find the turbine power per unit geothermal hot-water mass flow
rate. Find the optimized flash pressure that will give the most turbine
power per unit geothermal hot-water mass flow rate.
ANSWERS: turbine power ¼ 26.51 kW; maximum turbine power ¼
40.8 kW at throttling pressure ¼ 106 kPa.

Figure 2.27 A closed-cycle low-temperature dry geothermal Rankine cycle.

800 kPa and 170 C to operate a steam turbine as shown. The high-pressure
water is throttled into a flash evaporator chamber, which forms liquid and
vapor at a lower pressure of 300 kPa. The liquid is discarded while the
saturated vapor feeds the turbine and exits at 10 kPa. Cooling water is
available at 15 C. The turbine has an isentropic efficiency of 85%. Find
the turbine power per unit geothermal hot-water mass flow rate. Find the
optimized flash pressure that will give the most turbine power per unit
geothermal hot-water mass flow rate.
1 MPa and 150 C to operate a two flash evaporators and two geothermal
steam turbine systems as shown. The high-pressure water is throttled into
a flash evaporator chamber, which forms liquid and vapor at a lower
pressure of 400 kPa. The saturated vapor at 400 kPa feeds the high-
pressure turbine and exits at 10 kPa. The high-pressure turbine has an
isentropic efficiency of 88%. The saturated liquid at 400 kPa is then
throttled into a flash evaporator chamber, which forms liquid and vapor

at a lower pressure of 100 kPa. The liquid at 100 kPa is discarded while the
saturated vapor at 100 kPa feeds the low-pressure turbine and exits at
10 kPa. The low-pressure turbine has an isentropic efficiency of 87%.
Cooling water is available at 15 C. Find the turbine power per unit
geothermal hot-water mass flow rate. Consider that there is an optional
choice for flash pressure. Find the optimized flash pressure that will
give the most total turbine power per unit geothermal hot-water mass
flow rate.
ANSWERS: high-pressure turbine power ¼ 6.34 kW; low-pressure
turbine power ¼ 24.45 kW; maximum turbine power ¼ 33.5 kW at throt-
tling pressure ¼ 230 kPa.
1200 kPa and 170 C to operate a two-flash evaporator and two geothermal
flow rate.
turbine power ¼ 22.9 kW; maximum turbine power ¼ 48.8 kW at throttling
pressure ¼ 295 kPa.

choice for flash pressure. Find the optimized flash pressure that will give
the most total turbine power per unit geothermal hot-water mass flow
rate.
ANSWERS: high-pressure turbine power ¼ 23.24 kW; low pressure
flow rate.
7. A geothermal supply of hot water at 800 kPa and 150 C is fed to
the throttling valve of a geothermal power plant. A stream of saturated
vapor at 300 kPa is drawn from the separator and fed to the turbine. The
turbine has an isentropic efficiency of 85% and an exit pressure of 10 kPa.
8. A geothermal supply of hot water at 800 kPa and 160 C is fed to
the throttling valve of a geothermal power plant. A stream of saturated
vapor at 300 kPa is drawn from the separator and fed to the turbine. The
turbine has an isentropic efficiency of 88% and an exit pressure of 10 kPa.

steam turbine systems as shown. The high-pressure water is throttled
into a flash evaporator chamber, which forms liquid and vapor at a lower
pressure turbine and exits at 10 kPa. The saturated liquid at 400 kPa is
then throttled into a flash evaporator chamber, which forms liquid and
vapor at a lower pressure of 100 kPa. The liquid at 100 kPa is discarded
while the saturated vapor at 100 kPa feeds the low-pressure turbine and
exits at 10 kPa. Cooling water is available at 15 C. The turbines have
efficiency of 80%. Find the turbine power per unit geothermal hot-water
mass flow rate.
ANSWER: total turbine power ¼ 54.49 kW.
pressure turbine and exits at 10 kPa. The saturated liquid at 400 kPa is
then throttled into a flash evaporator chamber, which forms liquid and
vapor at a lower pressure of 100 kPa. The liquid at 100 kPa is discarded
while the saturated vapor at 100 kPa feeds the low-pressure turbine and
exits at 10 kPa. Cooling water is available at 15 C. The turbines have
efficiency of 80%. Find the turbine power per unit geothermal hot-water
mass flow rate.
ANSWER: total turbine power ¼ 44.18 kW.
2.10 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION
Since the oceans comprise over 70% of the earth’s surface area, the absorbed
solar energy that is stored as latent heat of the oceans represents a very large
potential source of energy. As a result of variation in the density of ocean
water with temperature, the ocean water temperature is not uniform with
depth. Warm surface ocean water with low density tends to stay on the
surface and cold water with high density within a few degree of 4 C tends
to settle to the depths of the ocean. In the tropics, ocean surface temperatures
in excess of 25 C occur. The combination of the warmed surface water
and cold deep water provides two different temperature thermal reservoirs
needed to operate a heat engine called OTEC (ocean thermal energy
conversion). Since the temperature difference of the OTEC between the heat
source and the heat sink is small, the OTEC power plant cycle efficiency

is small. It means that enormous quantities of ocean water must be handled
and the heat exchangers and turbine must be very large.
There are two principal approaches to build OTEC power plants.
The first approach called the open OTEC cycle involves a flash boiler to
obtain steam directly from the warm surface ocean water. The open OTEC
cycle requires a very large turbine. The second approach is called the
closed OTEC cycle, which involves heat exchangers and a secondary
thermodynamic working fluid such as ammonia or freon to reduce the
size of the plant.
Ocean water is the working fluid of the open OTEC cycle, as shown
in Fig. 2.28. For conditions typical of an open OTEC plant, the vapor
pressure of the boiler at 26 C is 3.37 kPa and the vapor pressure of the
condenser at 5 C is 0.874 kPa. Boiling of the warm water occurs at a
pressure of only 3% of atmospheric pressure. The steam is expanded in
a low-pressure, low-temperature, high-volume turbine before being
condensed by the cold water. An advantage of this cycle is that heat
exchangers with their attendant temperature differentials are unnecessary.
The disadvantage is the very small pressure drop and the large specific
volumes that must be utilized by the turbine.
The closed OTEC cycle as shown in Fig. 2.29 uses a secondary
thermodynamic working fluid such as ammonia or freon to reduce the
size of the plant. For a boiler temperature of 25 C, the vapor pressure
Figure 2.28 Open OTEC cycle.

Figure 2.29 Closed OTEC cycle.
of ammonia is nearly 10 times the atmospheric pressure and the specific

volume is comparable to that of a conventional steam power plant.
While the size of a turbine is smaller than that of a comparable
low-pressure steam turbine, large heat exchangers are required.
Example 2.19
A typical closed-cycle OTEC Rankine cycle using ammonia is suggested,
as illustrated in Fig. 2.29, with the following information:
Condenser temperature 12 C
Boiler temperature 24 C
Mass flow rate of ammonia 1 kg/sec
Surface ocean warm water entering heat exchanger 28 C
Surface ocean warm water leaving heat exchanger 26 C
Deep ocean cooling water entering heat exchanger 5 C
Deep ocean cooling water leaving heat exchanger 9 C
Turbine efficiency 100%
Pump efficiency 100%
(a) Determine the pump power, turbine power, net power output,
rate of heat added to the heat exchanger by surface ocean warm water,
rate of heat removed from the heat exchanger by deep ocean cooling
water, cycle efficiency, specific volume of ammonia entering the turbine,
boiler pressure, condenser pressure, mass flow rate of surface ocean warm
water, and mass flow rate of deep ocean cooling water.

(b) Change the working fluid to tetrafluoroethane. Determine the
pump power, turbine power, net power output, rate of heat added to the
heat exchanger by surface ocean warm water, rate of heat removed from
the heat exchanger by deep ocean cooling water, cycle efficiency, specific
volume of ammonia entering the turbine, boiler pressure, condenser
pressure, mass flow rate of surface ocean warm water, and mass flow rate
of deep ocean cooling water.
2. Analysis:
adiabatic with 100% efficiency, (2) turbine as adiabatic with
100% efficiency, (3) heat exchanger 1 (boiler) as isobaric on
both cold and hot sides, and (4) heat exchanger 2
(condenser) as isobaric on both cold and hot sides.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid of cycle A is
ammonia, working fluid of cycle B is water, and working fluid
of cycle C is water, (2) inlet temperature and quality of the
pump are 12 C and 0, (3) inlet temperature and quality of
the turbine are 24 C and 1, and (4) mass flow rate is 1 kg/sec.
3. Display result.
The answers are: (a) Wdotpump ¼ 6.58 kW, Wdotturbine ¼ 48.91 kW,
Wdotnet ¼ 42.33 kW, Qdotboiler ¼ 1220 kW, Qdotcondenser ¼ 1178 kW, ¼
3.47%, v ¼ 0.1321 m3/kg, pboiler ¼ 972.4 kPa, pcondenser ¼ 658.5 kPa, mdot-
warm water ¼ 145.8 kg/sec, and mdotcold water ¼ 70.23 kg/sec.
4. (a) Retract the working fluid: working fluid of cycle A is
R-134a, and (b) Display result as shown in Fig. 2.30.
The answers are: (b) Wdotpump ¼ 1.38 kW, Wdotturbine ¼ 7.74 kW,
Wdotnet ¼ 6.36 kW, Qdotboiler ¼ 194.2 kW, Qdotcondenser ¼ 187.9 kW, ¼
3.27%, v ¼ 0.0320 m3/kg, pboiler ¼ 445.3 kPa, pcondenser ¼ 647.6 kPa,
mdotwarm water ¼ 23.21 kg/sec, and mdotcold water ¼ 11.21 kg/sec.
Review Problems 2.10 Ocean Thermal

Energy Conversion
1. A typical closed-cycle OTEC Rankine cycle using ammonia is
suggested, as illustrated in Fig. 2.30, with the following information:

Figure 2.30 OTEC Rankine cycle.

Determine the pump power, turbine power, net power output, rate of heat
added to the heat exchanger by surface ocean warm water, rate of heat
removed from the heat exchanger by deep ocean cooling water, cycle
efficiency, boiler pressure, condenser pressure, mass flow rate of surface
ocean warm water, and mass flow rate of deep ocean cooling water.
ANSWERS:Wdotpump ¼ 6.36 kW,Wdotturbine ¼ 49.55 kW,Wdotnet ¼
43.18 kW, Qdotboiler ¼ 1228 kW, Qdotcondenser ¼ 1185 kW, ¼ 3.52%,
pboiler ¼ 913.4 kPa, pcondenser ¼ 614.9 kPa, mdotwarm water ¼ 47.08 kg/sec, and
mdotcold water ¼ 36.71 kg/sec.
2. A typical closed-cycle OTEC Rankine cycle using dichloro-
difluoromethane is suggested, as illustrated in Fig. 2.30, with the following
information:

ANSWERS: Wdotpump ¼ 1.06 kW, Wdotturbine ¼ 6.06 kW, Wdotnet ¼
5.00 kW, Qdotboiler ¼ 150.1 kW, Qdotcondenser ¼ 145.1 kW, ¼ 3.33%,
3. A typical closed-cycle OTEC Rankine cycle using chlorodifluoro-
methane is suggested, as illustrated in Fig. 2.30, with the following
information:
ANSWERS: Wdotpump ¼ 2.23 kW, Wdotturbine ¼ 8.09 kW, Wdotnet ¼
5.86 kW, Qdotboiler ¼ 198.4 kW, Qdotcondenser ¼ 192.5 kW, ¼ 2.95%,
2.11 SOLAR POND HEAT ENGINES
A solar pond heat engine is a small-scale, inverse OTEC system. In this

system, a shallow (1–2 m deep) pond saturated with a salt is used as the
primary solar collector. As the surface waters of the pond are heated by
the solar radiation, the solubility of this warm water increases and the

Figure 2.31 Solar pond heat engine.
solution becomes heavier as it absorbs more salt. This causes the hot water
to sink to the bottom of the pond. Consequently, the bottom water of
the pond becomes very hot (65 –82 C) while the surface water remains
at a temperature below 32 C.
The hot water from the bottom of the pond is pumped through a
boiler, where it boils a working fluid in a Rankine power cycle, as shown
in Fig. 2.31. The cooler water from the surface of the pond is used to cool
the turbine exhaust vapor in the condenser. This is the same concept that
is employed in the OTEC system, except that in the OTEC system the
surface waters are warmer than that of the deep ocean water.
Example 2.20
A proposal is made to use a solar pond supply of bottom pond hot water
at 100 kPa and 80 C to operate a steam turbine. The 100 kPa-pressure
bottom pond water is throttled into a flash evaporator chamber, which
forms liquid and vapor at a lower pressure of 20 kPa. The liquid is
discarded while the saturated vapor feeds the turbine and exits at 10 kPa.
geothermal hot-water mass flow rate. The turbine efficiency is 80%. Find
the power produced by the solar pond power plant.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the four devices: (1) turbine as adia-
batic with 80% efficiency, (2) splitter as nonisoparametric

Figure 2.32 Solar pond heat engine.
devices, and (3) condenser as isobaric process. Notice that

throttling devices are automatically constant enthalpy pro-
cesses.
water, (2) inlet mass flow rate, pressure, and temperature
of the separator (splitter) are 1 kg/sec, 100 kPa, and 80 C,
(3) inlet quality and pressure of the turbine are 1 and
20 kPa, (4) inlet quality of sink2 is 0, and (5) exit pressure
and temperature of the condenser are 10 kPa and 15 C.
3. Display result.
The answer is power ¼ 2.89 kW as shown in Fig. 2.32.
Review Problems 2.11 Solar Pond Heat Engines

1. What is a solar pond heat engine?
2. A proposal is made to use a solar pond supply of bottom pond
hot water at 100 kPa and 80 C to operate a steam turbine. The
100 kPa-pressure bottom pond water is throttled into a flash
evaporator chamber, which forms liquid and vapor at a lower
pressure of 20 kPa. The liquid is discarded while the saturated
vapor feeds the turbine and exits at 10 kPa. Cooling water is
available at 15 C. Find the turbine power per unit geothermal
hot-water mass flow rate. The turbine efficiency is 85%. Find the
power produced by the solar pond power plant.

ANSWER: power produced by the solar pond power plant ¼
3.07 kW.
2.12 WASTE HEAT ENGINES
Waste sources are variable in both type and availability, depending on

season, location, and socioeconomic factors. Municipal solid residues
generated by large metropolitan areas are large. Large amounts of waste
materials are also generated from farming, animal manure, and crop
production. The quantity and heating values of solid residue are large.
These wastes are often flushed, buried, or burned. Disposal practices
of these wastes are wasteful of resources and create pollution of water
and land. Conversion of waste material to usable thermal energy on
a large scale has been found to be cost-effective and results in a net energy
gain.
Biomass energy created by waste and residues left after food
processing operations, and landfill gas mainly produced during anerobic
decomposition of organic waste material seem to offer the most promising
source of waste heat engines. The material is already concentrated at the
processing site and it creates a disposal pollution problem.
There are three major types of processes for direct combustion of
waste biomass: water-wall incineration, supplementary fuel co-firing with
coal or oil, and fluidized bed combustion.
In water-wall incineration, unprocessed municipal solid residues is
loaded into the incinerator and burned on traveling grates. Low pressure
and temperature (4 MPa, 260 C) steam is produced.
Burning biomass as a supplementary fuel in combination with
steam–electric power production is a proved and established technology.
Fluidized-bed combustion uses air-classified municipal solid residues
to provide heat for a conventional gas turbine to produce power. Several
stages of cyclone separators are also used to remove particulates from the
gas prior to its expansion through the turbines. An advantage of the
process is reduction of noxious gas emission.
Example 2.21
At a solid-waste energy source, steam at 4 MPa and 260 C is available at a
mass flow rate of 1 kg/sec. A barometric condenser at 10 kPa is used to
decrease the turbine exhaust temperature. The turbine efficiency is 85%,
and cooling water is available at 25 C. Find the power produced by the
solid-waste power plant.

2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the two devices: (1) turbine as
adiabatic with 85% efficiency, and (2) condenser as isobaric
process.
water, (2) inlet temperature and pressure of the turbine are
260 C and 4000 kPa, (3) exit pressure and temperature of
the condenser are 10 kPa and 25 C, and (d) the mass flow
rate is 1 kg/sec.
3. Display result.
The answers are: power ¼ 759.8 kW as shown in Fig. 2.33.
Review Problems 2.12 Waste Heat Engines

At a solid-waste energy source, steam at 3 MPa and 250 C is available at a
mass flow rate of 1 kg/sec. A barometric condenser at 10 kPa is used to
decrease the turbine exhaust temperature. The turbine efficiency is 85%,
and cooling water is available at 30 C. Find the power produced by the
solid-waste power plant.
ANSWER: power ¼ 753.0 kW
Figure 2.33 Waste heat engine.

2.13 VAPOR CYCLE WORKING FLUIDS
Water has been used mainly as the working fluid in the vapor power
examples of this chapter. In fact, water is the most common fluid in large
central power plants, though by no means is it the only one used in vapor
power cycles. The desirable properties of the vapor cycle working fluid
include the following important characteristics.
1. High critical temperature—to permit evaporation at high
temperature.
2. Low saturation (boiling) pressure at high temperature—to
minimize the pressure vessel and piping costs.
3. Pressure around ambient at condenser temperature—to eliminate
serious air leakage and sealing problems.
4. Rapidly diverging pressure lines on the h–s diagram—to
minimize the back-work ratio and to make reheat modification
most effective.
5. Large enthalpy of evaporation—to minimize the mass flow rate
for given power output.
6. No degrading aspects—noncorrosive, nonclogging, etc.
7. No hazardous features—nontoxic, nonflammable, etc.
8. Low cost readily available.
There are six vapor working fluids listed on the menu of CyclePad.
The fluids are ammonia, methane, refrigerants 12, 22, and 134a, and
water. Water has the characteristics of items 4, 5, 7, and 8 above and it
remains a top choice for industrial central vapor power plants. Hence,
steam power engineering remains the most important area of applied
thermodynamics.
Review Problems 2.13 Vapor Cycle Working Fluids

1. Why is water the most popular working fluid choice in central
vapor power plants?
2. The ocean surface water is warm (27 C at equator) and deep ocean
water is cold (5 C at 2000 m depth). If a vapor cycle operates
between these two thermal reservoirs, is water or refrigerant a
better choice as the working fluid for this power plant?
2.14 KALINA CYCLE
Thermal reservoirs are not infinitely large in the real world. Therefore, the
temperature of a thermal reservoir is not constant when heat is added to
or removed from the reservoir.

Kalina and his associates (Kalina, A.I., Combined-cycle system with
novel bottoming cycle. ASME Transaction Journal of Engineering for Gas
Turbines and Power, vol. 106, no. 4, pp. 737–742, 1984) have proposed the
use of a mixture of ammonia and water as the working fluid for a vapor
Rankine power plant. Since ammonia is more volatile than water, boiling
of an ammonia–water mixture starts at a lower temperature and the vapor
phase has a higher concentration of ammonia than the liquid phase.
Moreover, the mixture temperature increases as the vaporization process
progresses. Thus, the constant-pressure heat-transfer process temperature
curve of the working fluid more closely matches that of the temperature
distribution of its surrounding finite capacity thermal reservoir. The two
isobaric processes lead to a higher (better) degree of heat transfer. These
differences result in higher efficiency and specific work output. An
additional advantage is a condenser pressure near atmospheric pressure.
Review Problems 2.14 Kalina Cycle

1. What is a Kalina cycle?
2. What are the advantages of a Kalina cycle?
2.15 NONAZEOTROPIC MIXTURE RANKINE CYCLE
The thermodynamic performance of a vapor Rankine cycle may be

improved potentially by using a nonazeotropic mixture working fluid such
as ammonia–water (Wu, C. Nonazeotropic mixture energy conversion.
Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 199–206, 1985).
The nonazeotropic mixture Rankine cycle is a generalized Kalina cycle.
A mixture of two or more different fluids is classified as an azeotrope
when such a mixture possesses its own thermodynamic properties, quite
unlike the thermal and chemical characteristics of its components. A
distinguishing feature of this type of fluid is its ability to maintain a
permanent composition and uniform boiling point during evaporation,
much the same as a pure simple fluid in that its transition from liquid to
vapor phase (or vice versa) occurs at a constant pressure and temperature
without any change in the composition. Otherwise, the mixture is called a
nonazeotrope. A nonazeotropic mixture has a temperature distribution
parallel to that of the thermal reservoir. Note that one of the requirements
for the nonazeotropic mixture energy conversion improvement is to have
a nonconstant temperature heat source and heat sink. The proper choice
of the best combination for a nonazeotropic mixture is still not
entirely understood. Uncertainties in modeling the thermodynamic and

heat-transfer aspects of the nonazeotropic mixture cycle are such that
the probability of realizing significant net benefits in actual application is
also not fully known.
An ideal nonazeotropic mixture Rankine cycle and an ideal Carnot
cycle operating between a nonconstant temperature heat source and
a nonconstant temperature heat sink are shown in the T–s diagram of
Fig. 2.34. The ideal Carnot cycle consists of an isentropic compression
process from state 1 to state 2, an isobaric heat-addition process from
state 2 to state 3, an isentropic expansion process from state 3 to state 4,
and an isobaric heat-removing process from state 3 to state 4. The ideal
nonazeotropic mixture Rankine cycle consists of an isentropic compression
process from state 5 to state 2, an isobaric heat-addition process from state
2 to state 6, an isentropic expansion process from state 6 to state 4, and
an isobaric heat-removing process from state 4 to state 5. The inlet and
exit temperature of the heating fluid (finite-heat-capacity heat source) in
the hot-side heat exchanger are T7 and T8, and the inlet and exit
temperature of the cooling fluid (finite-heat-capacity heat sink) in the hot-
side heat exchanger are T9 and T10, respectively. It is clearly demonstrated
that the temperature distribution curves of the ideal nonazeotropic mixture
Rankine cycle (curves 2–6 and 4–5) are more closely matched to
the temperature distribution curves of the heat source and heat sink
(curves 7–8 and 9–10) than the temperature distribution curves of the
Carnot cycle (curves 2–3 and 4–1).
Referring to Fig. 2.34, the net work and heat added to the ideal
nonazeotropic mixture Rankine cycle are Wnet,nonaze ¼ area 52645 and
Figure 2.34 T–s diagram of ideal nonazeotropic cycle and Carnot cycle.

Qnonaze ¼ area 26ba2, and the net work and heat added to the Carnot cycle
are Wnet,Carnot ¼ area 12341 and QCarnot ¼ area 23ba2, respectively. The
cycle efficiency of the ideal nonazeotropic mixture Rankine cycle is
nonaze ¼ Wnet,nonaze/Qnonaze ¼ area 52645/area 26ba2. Similarly, the cycle
efficiency of the Carnot cycle is Carnot ¼ Wnet,Carnot/QCarnot ¼ area 12341/
area 23ba2. Rearranging the expression of the cycle efficiency of the ideal
nonazeotropic mixture Rankine cycle gives
nonaze ¼ Wnet,nonaze =Qnonaze ¼ area 52645=area 26ba2

¼ ½area 12341 þ area 2632 þ area 4514=½area 23ba2 þ area 2632
¼ farea 12341½1 þ ðarea 2632=area 12341Þ
þ ðarea 4514=area 12341Þg
=farea 23ba2 ½1 þ ðarea 2632=area 23ba2Þg
¼ Carnot ½1 þ ðarea 2632=area 12341Þ
þ ðarea 4514=area 12341Þ=½1 þ ðarea 2632=area 23ba2Þ
Since (area 2632/area 12341) is larger than (area 2632/area 23ba2),

the factor [1 þ (area 2632/area 12341)þ(area 4514/area 12341)]/[1 þ (area
2632/area 23ba2)] is larger than 1, and, therefore, nonaze is larger than
Carnot.
Review Problems 2.15 Nonazeotropic Mixture

Rankine Cycle
1. What is a nonazeotropic mixture?
2. Draw an isobaric heating process on a T–s diagram for a
nonazeotropic mixture from a compressed liquid state to a
superheated vapor state. Does the temperature remain the same
in the boiling region?
3. Why may the thermodynamic performance of a vapor Rankine
cycle be improved potentially by using a nonazeotropic mixture
working fluid?
2.16 SUPERCRITICAL CYCLE
The thermodynamic power cycles most commonly used today are the vapor
Rankine cycle and the gas Brayton cycle (see Chapter 4). Both are
characterized by two isobaric and two isentropic processes. The vapor

Rankine cycle operates mainly in the saturated region of its working fluid
whereas the gas Brayton cycle processes are located entirely in the superheat
or gas region.
The simple Rankine cycle is inherently efficient. Heat is added
and rejected isothermally and, therefore, the ideal Rankine cycle can
achieve a high percentage of Carnot cycle efficiency between the same
temperatures. Pressure rise in the cycle is accomplished by pumping a
liquid, which is an efficient process requiring small work input. The back-
work ratio is large.
However, the temperature range of the Rankine cycle is severely limited
by the nature of the working fluid—water. Adding superheat in an attempt
to circumvent this will remove the cycle from isothermal heat addition.
Increasing the temperature range without superheating leads to excessive
moisture content in the vapor turbines, resulting in blade erosion.
The gas Brayton cycle adds heat in a isobaric process over a large
temperature range. The temperature level is independent of the pressure
level. No blade erosion occurs in the gas turbine. However, the
compression process of the gas Brayton cycle requires large work input.
The back-work ratio is small.
A cycle that retains the advantages and avoids the problems of the
two cycles has been devised. This cycle operates entirely above the critical
pressure of its working fluid. The cycle is called a supercritical cycle.
The supercritical cycle is shown on the T–s diagram of a pure sub-
stance (Fig. 2.35). The cycle is composed of the following four processes:
Figure 2.35 T–s diagram of supercritical cycle.

Pure substance enters the pump at state 1 as a low-pressure satu-
rated liquid to avoid the cavitation problem and exits at state 2 as a
high-pressure (over critical pressure) compressed liquid. The heat supplied
in the boiler raises the liquid from the compressed liquid at state 2 to a
much higher temperature superheated vapor at state 3. The superheated
vapor at state 3 enters the turbine where it expands to state 4. The exhaust
vapor from the turbine enters the condenser at state 4 and is condensed at
constant pressure to state 1 as saturated liquid.
Analysis of the supercritical cycle is done in the same way as that
of the Rankine cycle. However, it requires special thermodynamic
property tables in the high-temperature and high-pressure range (over
critical temperature and critical pressure) of the working fluid. There is no
such table in the CyclePad working fluid menu. In principle, the
supercritical cycle can be operated with any pure substance. In practice,
the choice of working fluid controls the range of cycle operating pressures
and temperatures. For example, the critical pressure and critical
temperature of ammonia, carbon dioxide, and water are 11.28 MPa
and 405.5 K, 7.39 MPa and 304.2 K, and 22.09 MPa and 647.3 K,
respectively.
Carbon dioxide is a good potential working fluid for the supercritical
cycle for several good reasons. The critical pressure of carbon dioxide is
one-third that of water. Carbon dioxide is known to be a stable and inert
material through the temperature range of industrial power generation. It
is also abundant, nontoxic, and relatively inexpensive.
A numerical example of the carbon dioxide supercritical cycle has
been made by Feher (Feher, E.G., The super-critical thermodynamic
power cycle. Energy Conversion, vol. 8, pp. 85–90, 1968). The reasons for
the neglect of the supercritical cycle until now are not known.
Review Problems 2.16 Supercritical Cycle

1. What are the advantages of a Rankine cycle in the compression
process?
2. What are the disadvantages of a Rankine cycle in the expansion
process?
3. What are the disadvantages of a Brayton cycle in the compres-
sion process?
4. What are the advantages of a Brayton cycle in the expansion
process?
5. What is the concept of a supercritical cycle?

6. What are the processes of a supercritical cycle?
7. Why is carbon dioxide a better working fluid than water for
a supercritical cycle?
2.17 DESIGN EXAMPLES
CyclePad is to a power engineer what a word processor is to a journalist.

The benefits of using this software are numerous. The first is that
significantly less time is spent doing numerical analysis. As an engineer,
this is much appreciated because design computation work that would
have taken hours before can now be done in seconds. Second, CyclePad is
capable of analyzing cycles with various working fluids. Third, due to its
computer-assisted modeling capabilities, the software allows users to view
immediately the effects of varying input parameters, either through
calculated results or in the form of graphs and diagrams, giving the user
a greater appreciation of how a system actually works. More specifically,
there is the feature that provides the designer the opportunity to optimize
a specific power cycle parameter. The designer is able to gain extensive
design experience in a short time. Last, and most important, is the built-in
coaching facility that provides definitions of terms and descriptions
of calculations. CyclePad goes a step further by informing the
inexperienced designer if a contradiction or an incompatability exists
within a cycle and why.
When viewing the applicability of CyclePad, users can have benefits
at all stages of an engineering career. For the young engineer, just
beginning the design learning process, less time is spent doing iterations,
resulting in more time dedicated to reinforcing the fundamentals and
gaining valuable experience. In the case of the seasoned engineer, who is
well indoctrinated in the principles and has gained an engineer’s intuition,
they can augment their abilities by becoming more computer literate. The
following examples illustrate the design of vapor power cycles using
CyclePad.
Example 2.22
A four-stage turbine with reheat and three-stage regenerative steam
Rankine cycle as shown in Fig. 2.36a was designed by a junior engineer.
The following design information is provided:
p1 ¼ 103 kPa, T1 ¼ 15 C, T2 ¼ 25 C, p4 ¼ 16 MPa, T4 ¼ 570 C,
mdot4 ¼ 1000 kg/sec, p5 ¼ 8 MPa, T6 ¼ 540 C, p8 ¼ 4 MPa, p10 ¼ 2 MPa,

Figure 2.36a Four-stage turbine with reheat and three-stage regenerative Rankine
cycle.
p12 ¼ 15 kPa, x13 ¼ 0, x15 ¼ 0, x19 ¼ 0, turbine#1 ¼ 0.85, turbine#2 ¼ 0.85,

turbine#3 ¼ 0.85, turbine#4 ¼ 0.85, pump#1 ¼ 0.9, pump#2 ¼ 0.9, pump#3 ¼ 0.9,
and pump#4 ¼ 0.9.
Find cycle, Wdotinput, Wdotoutput, Wdotnet output, Qdotadd, Qdotremove,
Wdotturbine#1, Wdotturbine#2, Wdotturbine#3, Wdotturbine#4, Wdotpump#1,
Wdotpump#2, Wdotpump#3, Wdotpump#4, Qdothtr#1, Qdothtr#2, QdotHX1,
mdot20, mdot21, mdot22, mdot12, mdot15, mdot17, and mdot19.
Based on the preliminary design results, try to improve his
design. Use cycle as the objective function and p5, p8, and p10 as design
parameters.
Draw the cycle versus p5 sensitivity diagram, the cycle versus p8
sensitivity diagram, and the cycle versus p10 sensitivity diagram.
1. Build:
(a) Take a source, a sink, four pumps, a boiler (HTR1), four
turbines, a reheater (HTR2), three splitters, three mixing
chambers (open feed-water heaters), and a heat exchanger
(condenser) from the inventory shop and connect the
devices to form a four-stage turbine with reheat and three-
stage regenerative Rankine cycle.
(b) Switch to analysis mode.

2. Analysis:
(a) Assume a process for each of the devices: (1) pumps as
adiabatic, (2) boiler and reheater as isobaric, (3) turbines as
adiabatic, (4) splitters as isoparametric, (5) mixing
chambers, and (6) heat exchanger as isobaric.
(b) Input the given information: working fluid is water in
cycles A and B, p1 ¼ 103 kPa, T1 ¼ 15 C, T2 ¼ 25 C,
p4 ¼ 16 MPa, T4 ¼ 570 C, mdot4 ¼ 1000 kg/sec, p5 ¼ 8 MPa,
T6 ¼ 540 C, p8 ¼ 4 MPa, p10 ¼ 2 MPa, p12 ¼ 15 kPa, x13 ¼ 0,
x15 ¼ 0, x19 ¼ 0, turbine#1 ¼ 0.85, turbine#2 ¼ 0.85, turbine#3 ¼
0.85, turbine#4 ¼ 0.85, pump#1 ¼ 0.9, pump#2 ¼ 0.9,
pump#3 ¼ 0.9, and pump#4 ¼ 0.9 as shown in Fig. 2.36b.
3. Display the preliminary design results as shown in Figs. 2.36c
and 2.36d.
The results are: cycle ¼ 41.24%, Wdotinput ¼ 20,903 kW, Wdotoutput ¼
994,618 kW, Wdotnet output ¼ 973,716 kW, Qdotadd ¼ 2,361,193 kW,
Qdotremove ¼ 1,387,477 kW, Wdotturbine#1 ¼ 193,305 kW, Wdotturbine#2 ¼
1,76,531 kW, Wdotturbine#3 ¼ 144,004 kW, Wdotturbine#4 ¼ 480,778 kW,
Wdotpump#1 ¼ 1464 kW, Wdotpump#2 ¼ 2201 kW, Wdotpump#3 ¼
5034 kW, Wdotpump#4 ¼ 12,203 kW, Qdothtr#1 ¼ 2,163,587 kW,
Qdothtr#2 ¼ 197,605 kW, QdotHX1 ¼ 1,387,477 kW, mdot20 ¼ 93.11 kg/sec,
mdot15 ¼ 840.2 kg/sec, mdot17 ¼ 906.9 kg/sec, and mdot19 ¼ 1000 kg/sec.
Figure 2.36b Four-stage turbine with reheat and three-stage regenerative Rankine
cycle

Figure 2.36c Four-stage turbine with reheat and three-stage regenerative Rankine
cycle.
Figure 2.36d Four-stage turbine with reheat and three-stage regenerative Rankine
cycle.
4. The cycle versus p5 sensitivity diagram, the cycle versus p8

sensitivity diagram, and the cycle versus p10 sensitivity diagram are drawn
as shown in Figs. 2.36e, f, and g, respectively. Based on these sensitivity
diagrams, the cycle can be optimized.

Figure 2.36e Rankine cycle sensitivity diagram.
Figure 2.36f Four-stage turbine with reheat and three-stage regenerative Rankine
cycle sensitivity diagram.
Example 2.23
A closed-cycle steam Rankine cycle without superheating has been
designed by a junior engineer as illustrated in Fig. 2.37a with the following
preliminary design information:
Condenser pressure 5 psia
Boiler pressure 3000 psia
Mass flow rate of steam 1 lbm/sec
Flue gas temperature entering high-temperature side
heat exchanger 3500 F

Figure 2.36g Four-stage turbine with reheat and three-stage regenerative Rankine
cycle sensitivity diagram.
Flue gas pressure entering high-temperature side

heat exchanger 14.7 psia
Flue gas leaving high-temperature side heat exchanger 1500 F
Cooling water temperature entering low-temperature side
heat exchanger 60 F
Cooling water pressure entering low-temperature side
Cooling water leaving low-temperature side
heat exchanger 80 F
Pump efficiency 88%
Use net power output as the objective function and boiler pressure as the
independent design parameter. Try to improve the preliminary design.
(a) To improve the design with CyclePad, we take the following
steps:
2. Analysis.
Assume a process for each of the four devices: (1) pump as adiabatic
with 88% efficiency, (2) turbine as adiabatic with 88% efficiency, (3) heat
exchanger 1 (boiler) as isobaric on both cold and hot sides, and (4) heat
exchanger 2 (condenser) as isobaric on both cold and hot-sides.
Input the given information: (1) working fluid of heat source is air
(flue gas), p5 ¼ 14.7 psia, T5 ¼ 3500 F and T6 ¼ 1500 F, (2) working fluid
of Rankine cycle is water, p1 ¼ 5 psia, x1 ¼ 0, p3 ¼ 3000 psia, and x3 ¼ 1,

Figure 2.37a Rankine cycle preliminary design.
Figure 2.37b Rankine cycle preliminary design input data.
and (3) working fluid of heat sink is water, p7 ¼ 14.7 psia, T7 ¼ 60 F, and
T6 ¼ 80 F as shown in Fig. 2.37b.
(b) Determine the preliminary design results.
Display result: The preliminary design results are given in Fig. 2.37c
as follows:
Wdotpump ¼ 14.58 hp, Wdotturbine ¼ 389.3 hp, Wdotnet ¼ 374.7 hp,
Qdotboiler ¼ 877.5 Btu/sec, Qdotcondenser ¼ 612.6 Btu/sec, ¼ 30.18%,
mdotflue gas ¼ 1.83 lbm/sec, and mdotcold water ¼ 30.66 lbm/sec.

Figure 2.37c Rankine cycle preliminary design output data
Figure 2.37d Rankine cycle sensitivity diagram; (e) Rankine cycle optimized
design output data.
(c) Draw the net power versus p3 sensitivity diagram as shown in

Fig. 2.37d. It is shown that the maximum net power is about 430 hp at
about 1500 psia.
(d) Change design input information:
Change p3 from 3000 psia to 1500 psia and displace results. The
results are shown in Fig. 2.37e. Display result: The optimized design

results are:
Wdotpump ¼ 7.31 hp, Wdotturbine ¼ 440.5 hp, Wdotnet ¼ 433.2 hp,
Qdotboiler ¼ 1033 Btu/sec, Qdotcondenser ¼ 727.7 Btu/sec, ¼ 29.63%,
mdotflue gas ¼ 2.16 lbm/sec, and mdotcold water ¼ 36.39 lbm/sec.
Review Problems 2.17 Design

1. A four-stage turbine with reheat and three-stage regenerative
Rankine cycle as shown in Fig. 2.37a using steam as the working fluid.
The following information is provided:
p1 ¼ 103 kPa, T1 ¼ 15 C, T2 ¼ 25 C, p4 ¼ 16 MPa, T4 ¼ 600 C,
turbine#3 ¼ 0.85, turbine#4 ¼ 0.85, pump#1 ¼ 0.85, pump#2 ¼ 0.85, pump#3 ¼
0.85, and pump#4 ¼ 0.85.
Find cycle, Wdotinput, Wdotoutput, Wdotnet output, Qdotadd, Qdotremove,
Wdotturbine#1, Wdotturbine#2, Wdotturbine#3, Wdotturbine#4, Qdothtr#1,
Qdothtr#2, QdotHX1, mdot20, mdot21, mdot22, mdot12, mdot15, mdot17,
and mdot19.
ANSWERS: cycle ¼ 41.75%, Wdotinput ¼ 20,985 kW, Wdotoutput
¼ 1,067,259 kW, Wdotnet output ¼ 1,046,274 kW, Qdotadd ¼ 2,505,993 kW,
Qdotremove ¼ 1,459,718 kW, Wdotturbine#1 ¼ 193,305 kW, Wdotturbine#2
¼ 193,484 kW, Wdotturbine#3 ¼ 158,701 kW, Wdotturbine#4 ¼ 521,769 kW,
Qdothtr#1 ¼ 2,163,587 kW, Qdothtr#2 ¼ 342,405 kW, QdotHX1 ¼
1,459,718 kW, mdot20 ¼ 87.82 kg/sec, mdot21 ¼ 63.73 kg/sec, mdot22 ¼
191.5 kg/sec, mdot12 ¼ 656.9 kg/sec, mdot15 ¼ 848.5 kg/sec, mdot17 ¼ 912.2
kg/sec, and mdot19 ¼ 1000 kg/sec.
2. A four-stage turbine with reheat and three-stage regenerative
Rankine cycle as shown in Fig. 2.37a using steam as the working fluid.
The following information is provided:
p1 ¼ 103 kPa, T1 ¼ 15 C, T2 ¼ 25 C, p4 ¼ 16 MPa, T4 ¼ 600 C,
turbine#3 ¼ 0.85, turbine#4 ¼ 0.85, pump#1 ¼ 0.9, pump#2 ¼ 0.9, pump#3 ¼ 0.9,
and pump#4 ¼ 0.9.
Find cycle, Wdotinput, Wdotoutput, Wdotnet output, Qdotadd,
Qdotremove, Wdotturbine#1, Wdotturbine#2, Wdotturbine#3, Wdotturbine#4,
Qdothtr#1, Qdothtr#2, QdotHX1, mdot20, mdot21, mdot22, mdot12, mdot15,
mdot17, and mdot19.

3. A closed-cycle steam Rankine cycle without superheating was
Condenser pressure 5 psia

Boiler pressure 2000 psia
Mass flow rate of steam 1 lbm/sec
heat exchanger 3000 F
Flue gas leaving high-temperature side heat exchanger 1000 F
Cooling water temperature entering low-temperature
side heat exchanger 50 F
Cooling water pressure entering low-temperature
side heat exchanger 14.7 psia
heat exchanger 70 F
Pump efficiency 85%
4. A closed-cycle steam Rankine cycle without superheating was
Condenser pressure 10 kPa

Boiler pressure 16000 kPa
Mass flow rate of steam 1 kg/sec
heat exchanger 2000 C
heat exchanger 101 psia
Flue gas leaving high-temperature side
heat exchanger 1000 C
Cooling water temperature entering low-temperature
side heat exchanger 14 C
Cooling water pressure entering low-temperature side
heat exchanger 101 kPa

heat exchanger 20 C
Pump efficiency 85%
2.18 SUMMARY
The Carnot cycle is not a practical model for vapor power cycles because
of cavitation and corrosion problems. The modified Carnot model for
vapor power cycles is the basic Rankine cycle, which consists of two
isobaric and two isentropic processes. The basic elements of the basic
Rankine cycle are pump, boiler, turbine, and condenser. The Rankine
cycle is the most popular heat engine to produce commercial power. The
thermal cycle efficiency of the basic Rankine cycle can be improved by
adding a superheater, regenerating, and reheater, among other means.

3
Gas Closed-System Cycles
3.1 OTTO CYCLE
A four-stroke internal combustion engine was built by a German engineer,

Nicholas Otto, in 1876. The cycle patterned after his design is called the
Otto cycle. It is the most widely used internal combustion heat engine in
automobiles.
The piston in a four-stroke internal combustion engine executes four
complete strokes as the crankshaft completes two revolutions per cycle, as
shown in Fig. 3.1. On the intake stroke, the intake valve is open and the
piston moves downward in the cylinder, drawing in a premixed charge of
gasoline and air until the piston reaches its lowest point of the stroke
called bottom dead center (BDC). During the compression stroke the
intake valve closes and the piston moves toward the top of the cylinder,
compressing the fuel–air mixture. As the piston approaches the top of the
cylinder called top dead center (TDC), the spark plug is energized and
the mixture ignites, creating an increase in the temperature and pressure
of the gas. During the expansion stroke the piston is forced down by the
high-pressure gas, producing a useful work output. The cycle is then
completed when the exhaust valve opens and the piston moves toward the
top of the cylinder, expelling the products of combustion.
The thermodynamic analysis of an actual Otto cycle is complicated.
To simplify the analysis, we consider an ideal Otto cycle composed entirely
of internally reversible processes. In the Otto cycle analysis, a closed
piston–cylinder assembly is used as a control mass system.
The cycle consists of the following four processes:
2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
4-1 Constant-volume heat removal

Figure 3.1 Otto cycle.
Figure 3.2 Otto cycle p–v and T–s diagrams.
The p–v and T–s process diagrams for the ideal Otto cycle are illustrated in
Fig. 3.2.
Applying the first and second laws of thermodynamics of the closed
system to each of the four processes of the cycle yields:
Z
W12 ¼ pdV (3.1)
Q12 W12 ¼ m(u2 u1) Q12 ¼ 0 (3.2)

Z
W23 ¼ pdV ¼ 0 (3.3)
Q23 0 ¼ m(u3 u2) (3.4)

Z
W34 ¼ pdV (3.5)
Q34 W34 ¼ m(u4 u3) Q34 ¼ 0 (3.6)

Z
W41 ¼ pdV ¼ 0 (3.7)
and
Q41 0 ¼ m(u1 u4) (3.8)
Wnet ¼ W12 þ W34 ¼ Qnet ¼ Q23 þ Q41 (3.9)

¼ Wnet/Q23 ¼ Qnet/Q23 ¼ 1 Q41/Q23 ¼ 1 (u4 u1)/(u3 u2) (3.10)
This expression for the thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle can
be simplified if air is assumed to be the working fluid with constant
specific heat. Equation (3.10) is reduced to
¼ 1 (T4 T1)/(T3 T2) ¼ 1 (r)1 k (3.11)
where r is the compression ratio for the engine defined by the equation:
r ¼ V1/V2 (3.12)
The compression ratio is the ratio of the cylinder volume at the

beginning of the compression process (BDC) to the cylinder volume at the
end of the compression process (TDC).
Equation (3.11) shows that the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is
only a function of the compression ratio of the engine. Therefore, any
engine design that increases the compression ratio should result in an
increased engine efficiency. The compression ratio cannot be increased
indefinitely. As the compression ratio increases, the temperature of the
working fluid also increases during the compression process. Eventually,
a temperature is reached that is sufficiently high to ignite the air–fuel
mixture prematurely without the presence of a spark. This condition
causes the engine to produce a noise called knock. The presence of engine
knock places a barrier on the upper limit of Otto engine compression
ratios. To reduce the engine knock problem of a high compression ratio
Otto cycle, one must use gasoline with higher octane rating. In general, the
higher the octane rating number of gasoline, the higher the resistance of
engine knock.

One way to simplify the calculation of the net work of the cycle and
to provide a comparative measure of the performance of an Otto heat
engine is to introduce the concept of the mean effective pressure. The mean
effective pressure (MEP) is the average pressure of the cycle. The net work
of the cycle is equal to the mean effective pressure multiplied by the
displacement volume of the cylinder. That is,
MEP ¼ (cycle net work)/(cylinder displacement volume)
¼ Wnet/(V1 V2)
The engine with the larger MEP value of two engines of equal
cylinder displacement volume would be the better one, because it would
produce a greater net work output.
Example 3.1
An engine operates on the Otto cycle and has a compression ratio of 8.
Fresh air enters the engine at 27 C and 100 kPa. The amount of heat
addition is 700 kJ/kg. The amount of air mass in the cylinder is 0.01 kg.
Determine the pressure and temperature at the end of the combustion,
the pressure and temperature at the end of the expansion, MEP,
efficiency, and work output per kilogram of air. Show the cycle on
a T–s diagram. Plot the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus
compression ratio.
1. Build:
a. Take a compression device, a combustion chamber, an
expander, and a cooler from the closed-system inventory
shop and connect the four devices to form the Otto cycle as
shown in Fig. 3.2.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the four devices: (1)
compression device as adiabatic and isentropic, (2) combus-
tion chamber as isochoric, (3) expander as adiabatic and
isentropic, and (4) cooler as isochoric.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is air, (2) inlet
pressure and temperature of the compression device are
100 kPa and 27 C, (3) compression ratio of the compression
device is 8, (4) heat addition is 700 kJ/kg in the combustion
chamber, and (5) m ¼ 0.01 kg.

3. Display results:
cycle is a heat engine. The answers are: p ¼ 4441 kPa and
T ¼ 1393 C (the pressure and temperature at the end of the
combustion), p ¼ 241.6 kPa and T ¼ 452.1 C (the pressure
and temperature at the end of the expansion), MEP ¼
525.0 kPa, ¼ 56.47% and Wnet ¼ 3.95 kJ.
compression ratio. (See Figs. 3.3a–3.3c.)
COMMENT: Efficiency increases as compression ratio increases.
Example 3.2
The compression ratio in an Otto cycle is 8. If the air before compression
(state 1) is at 60 F and 14.7 psia, and 800 Btu/lbm is added to the cycle
and the mass of air contained in the cylinder is 0.025 lbm, calculate
(1) temperature and pressure at each point of the cycle, (2) the heat that
must be removed, (3) the thermal efficiency, and (4) the MEP of the cycle.
1. Build:
shop and connect the four devices to form the Otto cycle.
Figure 3.3a Otto cycle.

Figure 3.3b Otto cycle T–s diagram.
Figure 3.3c Otto cycle sensitivity analysis.

2. Analysis:
compression device as isentropic, (2) combustion chamber
as isochoric, (3) expander as isentropic, and (4) cooler as
isochoric.
pressure and temperature of the compression device are 60 F
and 14.7 psia, (3) compression ratio of the compression device
is 8, (4) heat addition is 800 Btu/lbm in the combustion
chamber, and (5) mass of air is 0.025 lbm.
3. Display results:
cycle is a heat engine. The answers are T2 ¼ 734.2 F,
p2 ¼ 270.2 psia, T3 ¼ 5407 F, p3 ¼ 1328 psia, T4 ¼ 2094 F,
p4 ¼ 72.24 psia, ¼ 56.47%, Q41 ¼ 8.71 Btu, and MEP ¼
213.3 psia.
b. Display the T–s diagram. (See Figs. 3.4a and 3.4b.)
The power output of the Otto cycle can be increased by turbo-
charging the air before it enters the cylinder in the Otto engine. Since the
inlet air density is increased due to higher inlet air pressure, the mass of
air in the cylinder is increased. Turbocharging raises the inlet air pressure
of the engine above atmospheric and raises the power output of the
engine, but it may not improve the efficiency of the cycle. A schematic
Figure 3.4a Otto cycle.

Figure 3.4b Otto cycle T–s diagram plot.
Figure 3.5 Otto engine with turbocharging.
diagram of the Otto cycle with turbocharging is illustrated in Fig. 3.5.

Examples 3.3 and 3.4 show the power increase due to turbocharging.
Example 3.3
Determine the heat supplied, work output, MEP, and thermal efficiency of
an ideal Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 10. The highest
temperature of the cycle is 3000 F. The volume of the cylinder before
compression is 0.1 ft3. What is the mass of air in the cylinder? The
atmosphere conditions are 14.7 psia and 70 F.
To solve this problem, we build the cycle. Then:
1. Assume isentropic for compression process 1-2, isentropic for
compression process 2-3, isochoric for heating process 3-4,
isentropic for expansion process 4-5, and isochoric for cooling
process 5-6.
2. Input p1 ¼ 14.7 psia, T1 ¼ 70 F, V1 ¼ 0.1 ft3, p2 ¼ 14.7 psia, T2 ¼
70 F, V2 ¼ 0.1 ft3 (no turbocharger), compression ratio ¼ 10,
T4 ¼ 3000 F, p6 ¼ 14.7 psia, and T6 ¼ 70 F.

Figure 3.6 Otto engine without turbocharging.
3. Display results.
The results are: W12 ¼ 0 Btu, W23 ¼ 1.03 Btu, Q34 ¼ 2.73 Btu, W45 ¼
2.67 Btu, Wnet ¼ 1.65 Btu, Q56 ¼ 1.09 Btu, MEP ¼ 98.80 psia, ¼ 60.19%,
and m ¼ 0.0075 lbm. (See Fig. 3.6.)
Example 3.4
Determine the heat supplied, work output, MEP, and thermal efficiency of
an ideal Otto cycle with a turbocharger that compresses air to 20 psia and
with a compression ratio of 10. The highest temperature of the cycle is
3000 F. The volume of the cylinder before compression is 0.1 ft3. What is
the mass of air in the cylinder? The atmosphere conditions are 14.7 psia
and 70 F.
To solve this problem, we build the cycle as shown in Fig. 3.5. Then,
(1) assume isentropic for compression process 1-2, isentropic for
compression process 2-3, isochoric for the heating process 3-4, isentropic
for expansion process 4-5, and isochoric for the cooling process 5-6;
(2) input p1 ¼ 14.7 psia, T1 ¼ 70 F; p2 ¼ 20 psia, V2 ¼ 0.1 ft3 (with turbo-
charger); compression ratio ¼ 10, T4 ¼ 3000 F, p6 ¼ 14.7 psia, and
T6 ¼ 70 F; and (3) display results. The results are: W13 ¼ 1.48 Btu,
Q34 ¼ 3.21 Btu, W45 ¼ 3.52 Btu, Wnet ¼ 2.04 Btu, Q56 ¼ 1.17 Btu, MEP ¼
96.20 psia, ¼ 63.54%, and m ¼ 0.0093 lbm. (See Fig. 3.7.)
Modern Otto engine designs are affected by environmental
constrains as well as by desires to increase gas mileage. Recent design
improvements include the use of four valves per cylinder to reduce the
restriction to air flow into and out of the cylinder, turbochargers to
increase the air and fuel flow to each cylinder, and catalytic converters to

Figure 3.7 Otto engine with turbocharging.
aid the combustion of unburned hydrocarbons that are expelled by the

engine, among others.
Review Problems 3.1 Otto Cycle

1. Do Otto heat engines operate on a closed system or an open
system? Why?
2. What is the compression ratio of an Otto cycle? How does it
affect the thermal efficiency of the cycle?
3. Do you know the compression ratio of your car? Is there any
limit to an Otto cycle? Why?
4. Which area represents cycle net work of an Otto cycle plotted on
a T–s diagram and p–v diagram?
5. How do you define MEP (mean effective pressure)?
6. What is engine knock? What causes the engine knock problem?
7. Do you get a better performance using premier gasoline (octane
number 93) for your compact car?
8. An engine operates on an Otto cycle with a compression ratio
of 8. At the beginning of the isentropic compression process, the volume,
pressure, and temperature of the air are 0.01 m3, 110 kPa, and 50 C. At the
end of the combustion process, the temperature is 900 C. Find (a) the
temperature at the remaining two states of the Otto cycle, (b) the pressure
of the gas at the end of the combustion process, (c) the heat added per unit
mass to the engine in the combustion chamber, (d) the heat removed per
unit mass from the engine to the environment, (e) the compression work
per unit mass added, (f) the expansion work per unit mass done, (g) MEP,
and (h) thermal cycle efficiency.

9. An ideal Otto Cycle with air as the working fluid has a
compression ratio of 9. At the beginning of the compression process, the
air is at 290 K and 90 kPa. The peak temperature in the cycle is 1800 K.
Determine (a) the pressure and temperature at the end of the expansion
process (power stroke), (b) the heat per unit mass added in kJ/kg during
the combustion process, (c) net work, (d) thermal efficiency of the cycle,
and (e) mean effective pressure in kPa.
10. An ideal Otto engine receives air at 15 psia, 0.01 ft3, and 65 F.
The maximum cycle temperature is 3465 F and the compression ratio of the
engine is 7.5. Determine (a) the work added during the compression
process, (b) the heat added to the air during the heating process, (c) the
work done during the expansion process, (d) the heat removed from
the air during the cooling process, and (e) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
11. An ideal Otto engine receives air at 14.6 psia and 55 F.
The maximum cycle temperature is 3460 F and the compression ratio of
the engine is 10. Determine (a) the work done per unit mass during the
compression process, (b) the heat added per unit mass to the air during
the heating process, (c) the work done per unit mass during the expansion
process, (d) the heat removed per unit mass from the air during the
cooling process, and (e) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
12. An ideal Otto engine receives air at 100 kPa and 25 C. Work is
performed on the air in order to raise the pressure at the end of the
compression process to 1378 kPa. 400 kJ/kg of heat is added to the air
during the heating process. Determine (a) the work done during the
compression process, (b) the compression ratio, (c) the work done during
the expansion process, (d) the heat removed from the air during the
cooling process, (e) the MEP (mean effective pressure), and (f) the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.
13. At the beginning of the compression process of an air-standard
Otto cycle, p ¼ 100 kPa, T ¼ 290 K, and V ¼ 0.04 m3. The maximum
temperature in the cycle is 2200 K and the compression ratio is 8.
Determine (a) the heat addition, (b) the net work, (c) the thermal
efficiency, and (d) the MEP.
ANSWERS: (a) 52.89 kJ; (b) 29.87 kJ; (c) 56.47%; (d) 853.3 kPa.
14. An Otto engine operates with a compression ratio of 8.5. The
following information is known:
Temperature prior to the compression process ¼ 70 F.
Volume prior to the compression process ¼ 0.05 ft3.
Pressure prior to the compression process ¼ 14.7 psia.
Heat added during the combustion process ¼ 345 Btu/lbm.
a. Determine the mass of air in the cylinder.

b. Determine the temperature and pressure at each process
endpoint.
c. Find the compression work and expansion work in Btu/lbm.
d. Determine the thermal efficiency.
15. The compression ratio in an Otto cycle is 8. If the air before
compression (state 1) is at 80 F and 14.7 psia, and 800 Btu/lbm is added
to the cycle and the mass of air contained in the cylinder is 0.02 lbm, find
the heat added, heat removed, work added, work produced, net work
produced, MEP, and efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWERS: heat added ¼ 16 Btu; heat removed ¼ 6.96 Btu; work
added ¼ 2.4 Btu; work produced ¼ 11.43 Btu; net work produced ¼
9.04 Btu; MEP ¼ 205.4 psia; efficiency of the cycle ¼ 56.47%.
18. An Otto engine with a turbocharger operates with a
compression ratio of 8.5. The following information is known:
Temperature prior to the turbo-charging compression process ¼

70oF.
Pressure prior to the turbo-charging compression process ¼
14.7 psia.
Pressure after the turbo-charging compression process ¼ 20 psia.
Volume after the compression process ¼ 0.05 ft3.
a. Determine the mass of air in the cylinder
b. Determine the temperature and pressure at each process
endpoint.

c. Find the compression work and expansion work in Btu/lbm.
d. Determine the thermal efficiency.
19. An ideal Otto Cycle with a turbocharger using air as the

working fluid has a compression ratio of 9. The volume of the cylinder is
0.01 m3. At the beginning of the turbocharging compression process, the air
is at 290 K and 90 kPa. The air pressure is 150 kPa after the turbocharging
compression process. The peak temperature in the cycle is 1800 K.
Determine (a) the pressure and temperature at the end of the expansion
process (power stroke), (b) the heat per unit mass added in kJ/kg during
the combustion process, (c) net work, (d) thermal efficiency of the cycle,
and (e) mean effective pressure in kPa.
3.2 DIESEL CYCLE
The Diesel cycle was proposed by Rudolf Diesel in the 1890s. The Diesel
cycle as shown in Fig. 3.8 is somewhat similar to the Otto cycle, except
that ignition of the fuel–air mixture is caused by spontaneous combustion
owing to the high temperature that results from compressing the mixture
to a very high pressure. The basic components of the Diesel cycle are the
same as those of the Otto cycle, except that the spark plug is replaced by a
Figure 3.8 Diesel cycle.

fuel injector, and the stroke of the piston is lengthened to provide a larger
compression ratio.
The Diesel cycle consists of the following four processes:
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
Since the duration of the heat-addition process is extended, this
process is modeled by a constant-pressure process. The p–v and T–s
diagrams for the Diesel cycle are illustrated in Fig. 3.9.
Applying the first law and second law of thermodynamics of the
closed system to each of the four processes of the cycle yields:
Z
W12 ¼ pdV (3.13)
Q12 W12 ¼ m(u2 u1), Q12 ¼ 0 (3.14)

Z
W23 ¼ pdV ¼ m(p3v3 p2v2) (3.15)
Q23 ¼ m(u3 u2) þ W23 ¼ m(h3 h2) (3.16)

Z
W34 ¼ pdV (3.17)
Figure 3.9 Diesel cycle p–v and T–s diagrams.

Q34 W34 ¼ m(u4 u3), Q34 ¼ 0 (3.18)
Z
W41 ¼ pdV ¼ 0 (3.19)
and
Q41 0 ¼ m(u1 u4) (3.20)
Wnet ¼ W12 þ W23 þ W34 ¼ Qnet ¼ Q23 þ Q41 (3.21)
¼ Wnet/Q23 ¼ Qnet/Q23 ¼ 1 Q41/Q23 ¼ 1 (u4 u1)/(h3 h2) (3.22)
This expression for thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle can be

simplified if air is assumed to be the working fluid with constant specific
heats. Equation (3.22) is reduced to
¼ 1 (T4 T1)/[k(T3 T2)] ¼ 1 (r)1 k{[(rc)k 1]/[k(rc 1)]} (3.23)
where r is the compression ratio and rc is the cut-off ratio for the engine
defined by the equation:
r ¼ V1/V2 (3.24)
and
rc ¼ V3/V2 (3.25)
A comparison of the thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle with that of the
Otto cycle shows that the two thermal cycle efficiencies differ by the
quantity in the brackets of Eq. (3.23). This bracket factor is always larger
than one, hence the Diesel cycle efficiency is always less than the Otto
cycle efficiency operating at the same compression ratio.
Since the fuel is not injected into the cylinder until after the air has
been completely compressed in the Diesel cycle, there is no engine knock
problem. Therefore, the Diesel engine can be designed to operate at much
higher compression ratios and with less refined fuel than those of the Otto
cycle. As a result of the higher compression ratio, Diesel engines are
slightly more efficient than Otto engines.

Example 3.5
A Diesel engine receives air at 27 C and 100 kPa. The compression ratio is
18. The amount of heat addition is 500 kJ/kg. The mass of air contained
in the cylinder is 0.0113 kg. Determine (1) the maximum cycle pressure
and maximum cycle temperature, (2) the efficiency and work output,
and (3) the MEP. Plot the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus
compression ratio.
1. Build:
shop and connect the four devices to form the Diesel cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the four devices (1) com-
pression device as isentropic, (2) combustion chamber as
isobaric, (3) expander as isentropic, and (4) cooler as
isochoric.
100 kPa and 27 C, (3) compression ratio of the compression
device is 18, (4) heat addition is 500 kJ/kg in the combustion
chamber, and (5) mass of air is 0.0113 kg.
3. Display results:
The answers are Tmax ¼ 1179 C, pmax ¼ 5720 kPa, ¼
65.53%, MEP ¼ 403.2 kPa, and Wnet ¼ 3.72 kJ.
compression ratio. (See Figs. 3.10 and 3.11.)
COMMENT: Efficiency increases as compression ratio increases.
Example 3.6
A Diesel engine receives air at 60 F and 14.7 psia, the compression ratio
is 16, the amount of heat addition is 800 Btu/lbm, and the mass of air
contained in the cylinder is 0.02 lbm. Determine the maximum cycle
temperature, heat added, heat removed, work added, work produced, net
work produced, MEP, and efficiency of the cycle.

Figure 3.11 Diesel cycle sensitivity analysis.
1. Build:
expander, and a cooler from the closed-system inventory shop
and connect the four devices to form the Diesel cycle.

2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the four devices: (1) com-
pression device as isentropic, (2) combustion chamber as iso-
baric, (3) expander as isentropic, and (4) cooler as isochoric.
temperature and pressure of the compression device are 60 F
and 14.7 psia, (3) compression ratio of the compression device
is 16, (4) heat addition is 800 Btu/lbm in the combustion
chamber, and (5) mass of air is 0.02 lbm.
3. Display cycle properties’ results. The cycle is a heat engine.
The answers are Tmax ¼ 4454 F, Qadd ¼ 16 Btu, Qremove ¼ 6.97 Btu,
Wadd ¼ 3.61 Btu, Wexpansion ¼ 12.65 Btu, Wnet ¼ 9.03 Btu, MEP ¼ 199 psia,
and ¼ 56.45%. (See Fig. 3.12.)
The power output of the Diesel cycle can be increased by
supercharging, turbocharging, and precooling the air before it enters the
cylinder in the Otto engine. The difference between a supercharger and a
turbocharger is the manner in which they are powered. Since the inlet air
density is increased due to higher inlet air pressure or lower air
temperature, the mass of air in the cylinder is increased. Turbocharging
raises the inlet air pressure of the engine above atmospheric and raises
the power output of the engine, but it may not improve the efficiency of
the cycle. The schematic diagram of the Diesel cycle with turbocharging
or supercharging is illustrated in Fig. 3.13. The schematic diagram of
Fig. 3.14 illustrates the Diesel cycle with turbocharging and precooling.
Examples 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9 show the power increase due to supercharging,
and precooling and supercharging.

Figure 3.13 Diesel cycle with supercharging.
Figure 3.14 Diesel cycle with supercharging and precooling.
Example 3.7
Find the pressure and temperature of each state of an ideal Diesel cycle
with a compression ratio of 15 and a cut-off ratio of 2. The cylinder
volume before compression is 0.16 ft3. The atmosphere conditions are
14.7 psia and 70 F. Also determine the mass of air in the cylinder, heat
supplied, net work produced, MEP, and cycle efficiency.
To solve this problem, we build the cycle as shown in Fig. 3.14.
Then, (1) assume isobaric for the precooling process 7-8, isentropic for the
compression process 8-9, isentropic for the compression process 9-10,
isobaric for the heating process 10-11, isentropic for the expansion process
11-12, and isochoric for the cooling process 12-13; (2) input p7 ¼ 14.7 psia,

Figure 3.15 Diesel cycle without precooler and without turbocharger.
T7 ¼ 70 F, p13 ¼ 14.7 psia, T13 ¼ 70 F, p8 ¼ 14.7 psia, T8 ¼ 70 F, p9 ¼

14.7 psia, V9 ¼ 0.16 ft3 (no turbocharger and no precooler); compression
ratio ¼ 15, and cut-off ratio ¼ 2; and (3) display results. The results are:
T8 ¼ 70 F, T9 ¼ 96.87 F, T10 ¼ 1105 F, T11 ¼ 2670 F, T12 ¼ 938.1 F, Qin ¼
4.5 Btu, Wnet ¼ 2.72 Btu, MEP ¼ 98.31 psia, ¼ 60.37%, and m ¼ 0.012 lbm.
(See Fig. 3.15.)
Example 3.8
with a compression ratio of 15 and a cut-off ratio of 2, and a supercharger
that compresses fresh air to 20 psia before it enters the cylinder of
the engine. The cylinder volume before compression is 0.16 ft3. The
atmosphere conditions are 14.7 psia and 70 F. Also determine the mass of
air in the cylinder, heat supplied, net work produced, MEP, and cycle
efficiency.
T7 ¼ 70 F, p13 ¼ 14.7 psia, T13 ¼ 70 F, T8 ¼ 70 F, p9 ¼ 20 psia, V9 ¼ 0.16 ft3
(with turbocharger and no precooler), compression ratio ¼ 15, and cut-off
ratio ¼ 2; and (3) display results. The results are: T8 ¼ 70 F, T9 ¼ 96.87 F,

Figure 3.16 Diesel cycle with turbocharger.
T10 ¼ 1249 F, T11 ¼ 2958 F, T12 ¼ 938.1 F, Qin ¼ 6.12 Btu, Wnet ¼ 3.90 Btu,
MEP ¼ 106.5 psia, ¼ 64.51%, and m ¼ 0.015 lbm. (See Fig. 3.16.)
Example 3.9
with a compression ratio of 15 and a cut-off ratio of 2. A precooler that
cools the atmospheric air from 70 to 50 F, and a supercharger that
compresses fresh air to 20 psia before it enters the cylinder of the engine,
are added to the engine. The cylinder volume before compression is
0.16 ft3. The atmosphere conditions are 14.7 psia and 70 F. Also determine
the mass of air in the cylinder, heat supplied, net work produced, MEP,
and cycle efficiency.
T7 ¼ 70 F, p8 ¼ 14.7 psia, p13 ¼ 14.7 psia, T13 ¼ 70 F, T8 ¼ 50 F, p9 ¼
20 psia, V9 ¼ 0.16 ft3 (with turbocharger and precooler), compression
ratio ¼ 15, and cut-off ratio ¼ 2; and (3) display results. The results
are: T8 ¼ 50 F, p8 ¼ 14.7 psia, T9 ¼ 96.87 F, p9 ¼ 20 psia, T10 ¼ 1184 F, p10 ¼
886.3 psia, T11 ¼ 2829 F, p11 ¼ 886.3 psia, T12 ¼ 864.8 F, p12 ¼ 36.76 psia,
Q78 ¼ 0.0745 Btu, W89 ¼ 0.1247 Btu, W910 ¼ 2.89 Btu, W1011 ¼ 1.75 Btu,

Figure 3.17 Diesel cycle with precooler and turbocharger.
Q1011 ¼ 6.12 Btu, W1112 ¼ 5.2 Btu, Wnet ¼ 3.93 Btu, MEP ¼ 108.2 psia,
¼ 64.25%, and m ¼ 0.0155 lbm.
Review Problems 3.2 Diesel Cycle Analysis and Optimization

1. What is the difference between the compression ratio and cut-off
ratio?
2. What is the difference between the Otto and Diesel engine?
3. Does the Diesel engine have sparkling plugs? If yes, for what
reason?
4. Does the Diesel engine have engine knock problem? Why?
5. Is the Otto cycle more efficient than a Diesel cycle with the same
compression ratio?
6. Why is the Diesel engine usually used for large trucks and the
Otto engine usually used for compact cars?
7. Can the Diesel engine afford to have a large compression ratio?
Why?
8. Suppose a large amount of power is required. Which engine
would you choose between Otto and Diesel? Why?
9. The compression ratio of an air-standard Diesel cycle is 15.
At the beginning of the compression stroke, the pressure is 14.7 psia and
the temperature is 80 F. The maximum temperature of the cycle is 4040 F.
Find the temperature at the end of the compression stroke, the
temperature at the beginning of the exhaust process, the heat addition

to the cycle, the net work produced by the cycle, the thermal efficiency,
and the MEP of the cycle.
10. An ideal Diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 17 and a
cut-off ratio of 2 has an air temperature of 105 F and a pressure of
15 psia at the beginning of the isentropic compression process. Determine
(a) the temperature and pressure of the air at the end of the isentropic
compression process, (b) the temperature and pressure of the air at the end
of the combustion process, and (c) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
11. An ideal Diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 20 and a
cut-off ratio of 2 has a temperature of 105 F and a pressure of 15 psia at
the beginning of the compression process. Determine (a) the temperature
and pressure of the gas at the end of the compression process, (b) the
temperature and pressure of the gas at the end of the combustion
process, (c) heat added to the engine in the combustion chamber, (d) heat
removed from the engine to the environment, and (e) thermal cycle
efficiency.
12. The pressure and temperature at the start of compression in an
air Diesel cycle are 101 kPa and 300 K. The compression ratio is 15, and
the amount of heat addition is 2000 kJ/kg of air. Determine (a) the
maximum cycle pressure and maximum temperature of the cycle, and (b)
the cycle thermal efficiency.
13. An ideal Diesel engine receives air at 103.4 kPa and 27 C. Heat
added to the air is 1016.6 kJ/kg, and the compression ratio of the engine is
13. Determine (a) the work added during the compression process, (b) the
cut-off ratio, (c) the work done during the expansion process, (d) the heat
removed from the air during the cooling process, (e) the MEP (mean
effective pressure), and (f) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
14. An ideal Diesel engine receives air at 15 psia and 65 F. Heat
added to the air is 160 Btu/lbm, and the compression ratio of the engine is
6. Determine (a) the work added during the compression process, (b) the
cut-off ratio, (c) the work done during the expansion process, (d) the heat
removed from the air during the cooling process, (e) the MEP, and (f) the
thermal efficiency of the cycle.
15. An ideal Diesel engine receives air at 100 kPa and 25 C. The
maximum cycle temperature is 1460 C and the compression ratio of the
engine is 16. Determine (a) the work done during the compression process,
(b) the heat added to the air during the heating process, (c) the work done
during the expansion process, (d) the heat removed from the air during the
cooling process, and (e) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
16. A Diesel engine receives air at 60 F and 14.7 psia. The
compression ratio is 20, the amount of heat addition is 800 Btu/lbm, and
the mass of air contained in the cylinder is 0.02 lbm. Determine the

maximum cycle temperature, heat added, heat removed, work added, work
produced, net work produced, MEP, and efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWERS: Tmax ¼ 4601 F; Qadd ¼ 16 Btu; Qremove ¼ 6.27 Btu;
Wadd ¼ 4.12 Btu;Wexpansion ¼ 13.85 Btu;Wnet ¼ 9.73 Btu;MEP ¼ 211.7 psia;
and ¼ 60.84%.
17. A Diesel engine receives air at 80 F and 14.7 psia. The
compression ratio is 20, the amount of heat addition is 800 Btu/lbm, and
the mass of air contained in the cylinder is 0.02 lbm. Determine the
maximum cycle temperature, heat added, heat removed, work added, work
produced, net work produced, MEP, and efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWERS: Tmax ¼ 4667 F, Qadd ¼ 16 Btu, Qremove ¼ 6.22 Btu,
Wadd ¼ 4.28 Btu, Wexpansion ¼ 14.05 Btu, Wnet ¼ 9.78 Btu, MEP ¼ 204.7 psia,
and ¼ 61.11%.
18. An ideal Diesel engine receives air at 15 psia and 70 F. The air
volume is 7 ft3 before compression. Heat added to the air is 200 Btu/lbm,
and the compression ratio of the engine is 11. Determine (a) the work
added during the compression process, (b) the maximum temperature of
the cycle, (c) the work done during the expansion process, (d) the heat
removed from the air during the cooling process, (e) the MEP, and (f) the
19. A Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18. Air-intake
conditions (prior to compression) are 72 F and 14.7 psia, and the highest
temperature in the cycle is limited to 2500 F to avoid damaging the engine
block. Calculate: (a) thermal efficiency, (b) net work, and (c) mean
effective pressure; (d) compare engine efficiency with that of a Carnot
cycle engine operating between the same temperatures.
20. A Diesel engine is modeled with an ideal Diesel cycle with a
compression ratio of 17. The following information is known:
Temperature prior to the compression process ¼ 70oF.
Pressure prior to the compression process ¼ 14.7 psia.
a. Determine the temperature and pressure at each process
endpoint.
b. Solve for the net cycle work (Btu/lbm).
c. Solve for the thermal efficiency.
21. An ideal Diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 17 and a cut-
off ratio of 2 has a temperature of 313 K and a pressure of 100 kPa at the
beginning of the isentropic compression process. Use the cold air-standard
assumptions and assume that k ¼ 1.4. Determine (a) the temperature and
pressure of the air at the end of the isentropic compression process and at
the end of the combustion process, and (b) the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.

22. Find the pressure and temperature of each state of an ideal
Diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 15 and a cut-off ratio of 2.
A precooler that cools the atmospheric air from 80 to 50 F, and a
supercharger that compresses fresh air to 20 psia before it enters the
cylinder of the engine, are added to the engine. The cylinder volume before
compression is 0.1 ft3. The atmosphere conditions are 14.7 psia and 80 F.
Also determine the mass of air in the cylinder, heat supplied, net work
produced, MEP, and cycle efficiency.
ANSWERS: MEP ¼ 106.5 psia; ¼ 64.51%.
Diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 15 and a cut-off ratio of 2.
A precooler that cools the atmospheric air from 80 to 50 F, and a
supercharger that compresses fresh air to 25 psia before it enters the
cylinder of the engine, are added to the engine. The cylinder volume before
compression is 0.1 ft3. The atmosphere conditions are 14.7 psia and 80 F.
Also determine the mass of air in the cylinder, heat supplied, net work
produced, MEP, and cycle efficiency.
ANSWERS: MEP ¼ 116.4 psia; ¼ 66.7%.
3.3 ATKINSON CYCLE
A cycle called the Atkinson cycle is similar to the Otto cycle except that the
isochoric exhaust and intake process at the end of the Otto cycle power
stroke is replaced by an isobaric process. The schematic diagram of the cycle
is shown in Fig. 3.18. The cycle consists of the following four processes:

2-3 Isochoric heat addition
4-1 Isobaric heat removal

Z
W12 ¼ pdV (3.26)
Q12 W12 ¼ m(u2 u1) Q12 ¼ 0 (3.27)

Z
W23 ¼ pdV ¼ 0 (3.28)
Q23 0 ¼ m(u3 u2) (3.29)

Figure 3.18 Atkinson cycle.
Z
W34 ¼ pdV (3.30)
Q34 W34 ¼ m(u4 u3) Q34 ¼ 0 (3.31)

Z
W41 ¼ pdV ¼ pm(v1v4) (3.32)
and
Q41 W41 ¼ m(u1 u4) (3.33)
Wnet ¼ W12 þ W34 þ W41 ¼ Qnet ¼ Q23 þ Q41 (3.34)
¼ Wnet/Q23 ¼ Qnet/Q23 ¼ 1 Q41/Q23 ¼ 1 (h4 h1)/(u3 u2) (3.35)
This expression for thermal efficiency of the cycle can be simplified

if air is assumed to be the working fluid with constant specific heat.
Equation (3.35) is reduced to
¼ 1 k(T4 T1)/(T3 T2) (3.36)
Example 3.10
Find the pressure and temperature of each state of an ideal Atkinson cycle
with a compression ratio of 8. The heat addition to the combustion
chamber is 800 Btu/lbm, the atmospheric air is at 14.7 psia and 60 F,
and the cylinder contains 0.02 lbm of air. Determine the maximum
temperature, maximum pressure, heat supplied, heat removed, work added
during the compression processes, work produced during the expansion

Figure 3.19 Atkinson cycle.
process, net work produced, MEP, and cycle efficiency. Draw the T–s
diagram of the cycle.
Then, (1) assume isentropic for the compression process 1-2 and the
expansion process 3-4, isochoric for the heating process 2-3, and isobaric
for the cooling process 4-1; (2) input p1 ¼ 14.7 psia, T1 ¼ 60 F,
mdot ¼ 0.02 lbm; r ¼ 8 for the compression process 1-2, and q ¼ 800 Btu/
lbm for the heating process 2-3; and (3) display results. The results are:
Tmax ¼ 5407 F, pmax ¼ 1328 psia, Qadd ¼ 16 Btu, Qremove ¼ 5.28 Btu,
Wcomp ¼ 3.82 Btu, Wexpan ¼ 14.54 Btu, Wnet ¼ 10.72 Btu, MEP ¼ 74.00 psia,
and ¼ 67.02%.
Review Problems 3.3 Atkinson Cycle

1. What are the four processes of the Atkinson cycle?
2. What is the difference between the Otto cycle and the Atkinson
cycle?
Atkinson cycle with a compression ratio of 16. The heat addition to the
combustion chamber is 800 Btu/lbm, the atmospheric air is at 14.7 psia and
60 F, and the cylinder contains 0.02 lbm of air. Determine the maximum
temperature, maximum pressure, heat supplied, heat removed, work added
during the compression processes, work produced during the expansion
process, net work produced, MEP, and cycle efficiency.

ANSWERS: Tmax ¼ 5789 F, pmax ¼ 2828 psia, Qadd ¼ 16 Btu, Qremove
¼ 4.17 Btu, Wcomp ¼ 4.81 Btu, Wexpan ¼ 16.63 Btu, Wnet ¼ 11.83 Btu,
MEP ¼ 73.91 psia, and ¼ 73.91%.
Atkinson cycle with a compression ratio of 16. The heat addition in
the combustion chamber is 800 Btu/lbm, the atmospheric air is at
101.4 kPa and 18 C, and the cylinder contains 0.01 kg of air. Determine
the maximum temperature, maximum pressure, heat supplied, heat
removed, work added during the compression processes, work produced
during the expansion process, net work produced, MEP, and cycle
efficiency.
ANSWERS: Tmax ¼ 3121 C, pmax ¼ 18904 kPa, Qadd ¼ 18 kJ, Qremove ¼
4.72 kJ, Wcomp ¼ 5.59 kJ, Wexpan ¼ 18.86 kJ, Wnet ¼ 13.28 kJ, MEP ¼
631 kPa, and ¼ 73.75%.
Atkinson cycle with a compression ratio of 10. The heat addition to
the combustion chamber is 800 Btu/lbm. The atmospheric air is at
101.4 kPa and 18 C, and the cylinder contains 0.01 kg of air. Determine
the maximum temperature, maximum pressure, heat supplied, heat
removed, work added during the compression processes, work produced
during the expansion process, net work produced, MEP, and cycle
efficiency.
ANSWERS: Tmax ¼ 2970 C, pmax ¼ 11289 kPa, Qadd ¼ 18 kJ, Qremove ¼
5.54 kJ, Wcomp ¼ 4.74 kJ, Wexpan ¼ 17.20 kJ, Wnet ¼ 12.46 kJ, MEP ¼
540.7 kPa, and ¼ 69.21%.
3.4 DUAL CYCLE
Combustion in the Otto cycle is based on a constant-volume process; in

the Diesel cycle, it is based on a constant-pressure process. However,
combustion in actual spark-ignition engine requires a finite amount of
time if the process is to be complete. For this reason, combustion in the
Otto cycle does not actually occur under the constant-volume condition.
Similarly, in compression–ignition engines, combustion in the Diesel cycle
does not actually occur under the constant-pressure condition, because of
the rapid and uncontrolled combustion process.
The operation of the reciprocating internal combustion engines
represents a compromise between the Otto and the Diesel cycles, and can
be described as a dual combustion cycle. Heat transfer to the system may
be considered to occur first at constant volume and then at constant
pressure. Such a cycle is called a dual cycle.

The Dual cycle as shown in Fig. 3.20 is composed of the following
five processes:
3-4 Constant-pressure heat addition
Figure 3.21 shows the dual cycle on p–v and T–s diagrams.
Figure 3.20 Dual cycle.
Figure 3.21 Dual cycle on p–v and T–s diagrams.

system to each of the five processes of the cycle yields:
Z
W12 ¼ pdV (3.37)
Q12 W12 ¼ m(u2 u1), Q12 ¼ 0 (3.38)
Z
W23 ¼ pdV ¼ 0 (3.39)
Q23 0 ¼ m(u3 u2) (3.40)
Z
W34 ¼ pdV ¼ m(p4v4 p3v3) (3.41)
Q34 ¼ m(u4 u3) þ W34 ¼ m(h4 h3) (3.42)
Z
W45 ¼ pdV (3.43)
Q45 W45 ¼ m(u5 u4), Q45 ¼ 0 (3.44)
Z
W51 ¼ pdV ¼ 0 (3.45)
and
Q51 W51 ¼ m(u1 u5) (3.46)
Wnet ¼ W12 þ W34 þ W45 ¼ Qnet ¼ Q23 þ Q34 þ Q51 (3.47)
¼ Wnet/(Q23 þ Q34) ¼ Qnet/(Q23 þ Q34) ¼ 1 Q51/(Q23 þ Q34) (3.48)
This expression for the thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle can
specific heat. Equation (3.48) is reduced to:
¼ 1 (T5 T1)/[(T3 T2) þ k(T4 T3)] (3.49)
Example 3.11
Pressure and temperature at the start of compression in a dual cycle are
14.7 psia and 540 R. The compression ratio is 15. Heat addition at
constant volume is 300 Btu/lbm of air, while heat addition at constant
pressure is 500 Btu/lbm of air. The mass of air contained in the cylinder is
0.03 lbm. Determine (1) the maximum cycle pressure and maximum cycle
temperature, (2) the efficiency and work output per kilogram of air, and

(3) the MEP. Show the cycle on T–s diagram. Plot the sensitivity diagram
of cycle efficiency versus compression ratio.
1. Build:
a. Take a compression device, two combustion chambers, an
expander, and a cooler from the closed-system inventory shop
and connect the five devices to form the Dual cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the five devices: (1) compression
device as isentropic, (2) first combustion chamber as isochoric
and second combustion chamber as isobaric, (3) expander as
isentropic, and (4) cooler as isochoric.
14.7 psia and 540 R, (3) compression ratio of the compres-
sion device is 15, (4) heat addition is 300 Btu/lbm in the
isocbaric combustion chamber, (5) heat addition is 500 Btu/
lbm in the isobaric combustion chamber, and (6) mass of air
contained in the cylinder is 0.03 lbm.
3. Display results:
cycle is a heat engine. The answers are Tmax ¼ 5434 R,
pmax ¼ 1367 psia, ¼ 63.78%, MEP ¼ 217.3 psia, and Wnet ¼
15.31 Btu.
compression ratio. (See Figs. 3.22a–3.22c.)
Review Problems 3.4 Dual Cycle

1. What five processes make up the dual cycle?
2. The combustion process in internal combustion engines as an
isobaric or isometric heat-addition process is oversimplistic and not
realistic. A real cycle p–v diagram of the Otto or Diesel cycle looks like a
curve (combination of isobaric and isometric) rather than a linear line. Are
the combustion processes in the dual cycle more realistic?
3. Can we consider the Otto or Diesel cycle to be special cases of
the dual cycle?
4. Pressure and temperature at the start of compression in a dual
cycle are 101 kPa and 15 C. The compression ratio is 8. Heat addition at
constant volume is 100 kJ/kg of air, while the maximum temperature of the
cycle is limited to 2000 C. The mass of air contained in the cylinder is

Figure 3.22a Dual cycle.
Figure 3.22b Dual cycle sensitivity analysis.
0.01 kg. Determine the maximum cycle pressure, the MEP, heat added,
heat removed, compression work added, expansion work produced, net
work produced, and efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWERS: pmax ¼ 2248 kPa, MEP ¼ 988.1 kPa, Qadd ¼ 15.77 kJ,
Qremove ¼ 8.7 kJ, Wcomp ¼ 2.68 kJ, Wexpansion ¼ 9.75 kJ, Wnet ¼ 7.07 kJ,
and ¼ 44.85%.

Figure 3.22c Dual cycle T–s diagram.
5. Pressure and temperature at the start of compression in a

dual cycle are 101 kPa and 15 C. The compression ratio is 12. Heat
addition at constant volume is 100 kJ/kg of air, while the maximum
temperature of the cycle is limited to 2000 C. The mass of air con-
tained in the cylinder is 0.01 kg. Determine the maximum cycle
pressure, the MEP, heat added, heat removed, compression work
added, expansion work produced, net work produced, and efficiency of
the cycle.
ANSWERS: pmax ¼ 3862 kPa, MEP ¼ 1067 kPa, Qadd ¼ 14.60 kJ,
Qremove ¼ 6.60 kJ, Wcomp ¼ 3.51 kJ, Wexpansion ¼ 11.51 kJ, Wnet ¼
8.00 kJ, and ¼ 57.48%.
6. Pressure and temperature at the start of compression in a
dual cycle are 101 kPa and 15 C. The compression ratio is 12. Heat
addition at constant volume is 100 kJ/kg of air, while the maxi-
mum temperature of the cycle is limited to 2200 C. The mass of air
contained in the cylinder is 0.01 kg. Determine the maximum cycle
pressure, the MEP, heat added, heat removed, compression work
added, expansion work produced, net work produced, and efficiency of
the cycle.
ANSWERS: pmax ¼ 3862 kPa, MEP ¼ 1189 kPa, Qadd ¼ 16.60 kJ,
Qremove ¼ 7.69 kJ, Wcomp ¼ 3.51 kJ, Wcomp ¼ 12.43 kJ, Wnet ¼ 8.92 kJ,
and ¼ 53.71%.

3.5 LENOIR CYCLE
The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was made by

the French engineer Lenoir in 1860. He converted a reciprocating steam
engine to admit a mixture of air and methane during the first half of the
piston’s outward suction stroke, at which point it was ignited with an
electric spark and the resulting combustion pressure acted on the piston
for the remainder of the outward expansion stroke. The following inward
stroke of the piston was used to expel the exhaust gases, and then the cycle
began over again. The Lenoir cycle as shown in Fig. 3.23 is composed of
the following three effective processes:
1-2 Isochoric combustion process
2-3 Isentropic power expansion process
3-1 Isobaric exhaust process
The p–v and T–s diagrams of the cycle is shown in Fig. 3.24.
Figure 3.23 Lenoir cycle.
Figure 3.24 Lenoir cycle p–v diagram and T–s diagram.

system to each of the three processes of the cycle yields:
W12 ¼ 0 (3.50)
Q12 0 ¼ m(u2 u1) (3.51)
Q23 ¼ 0 (3.52)
0 W23 ¼ m(u3 u2) (3.53)

Z
W31 ¼ pdV ¼ m(p1v1 p3v3) (3.54)
and
Q31 ¼ m(u1 u3) þ W31 ¼ m(h1 h3) (3.55)
Wnet ¼ W23 þ W31 ¼ Qnet ¼ Q12 þ Q31 (3.56)
¼ Wnet/Q12 ¼ Qnet/Q12 ¼ 1 þ Q31/Q12 (3.57)
This expression for thermal efficiency of the cycle can be simplified

if air is assumed to be the working fluid with constant specific heat.
Equation (3.57) is reduced to
¼ 1 (h3 h1)/(u2 u1) ¼ 1 kT2(rs 1)/(T2 T1) (3.58)
where rs is the isentropic volume compression ratio, rs ¼ v3/v1.

Because the air–fuel mixture was not compressed before ignition,
the engine efficiency was very low and fuel consumption was very
high. The fuel–air mixture was ignited by an electric spark inside the
cylinder.
Example 3.12
The isochoric heating process of a Lenoir engine receives air at 15 C
and 101 kPa. The air is heated to 2000 C, and the mass of air contained
in the cylinder is 0.01 kg. Determine the pressure at the end of the
isochoric heating process, the temperature at the end of the isentropic
expansion process, heat added, heat removed, work added, work

produced, net work produced, and efficiency of the cycle. Draw the T–s
1. Build:
a. Take a combustion chamber, an expander, and a cooler from
the closed-system inventory shop and connect the three
devices to form the Lenoir cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the three devices: (1)
combustion chamber as isochoric, (2) expander as isentropic,
and (3) cooler as isobaric.
pressure and temperature of the combustion device are
101 kPa and 15 C, (3) temperature at end of the combustion
device is 2000 C, and (4) mass of air is 0.01 kg.
3. Display results:
The answers are T3 ¼ 986.8 C, p2 ¼ 796.8 kPa, Qadd ¼
14.23 kJ, Qremove ¼ 9.75 kJ, Wcomp ¼ 2.79 kJ, Wexpan ¼
7.26 kJ, Wnet ¼ 4.48 kJ, and ¼ 31.46%.
b. Display the T–s diagram. (See Fig. 3.25.)
Figure 3.25 Lenoir cycle.

Review Problems 3.5 Lenoir Cycle
1. What are the five processes that make up the Lenoir cycle?
2. The isochoric heating process of a Lenoir engine receives air at
15 C and 101 kPa. The air is heated to 2200 C, and the mass of air
contained in the cylinder is 0.01 kg. Determine the pressure at the end of
the isochoric heating process, the temperature at the end of the isentropic
produced, net work produced, and efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWERS: T3 ¼ 1065 C, p2 ¼ 866.9 kPa, Qadd ¼ 15.66 kJ, Qremove ¼
10.54 kJ, Wcomp ¼ 3.01 kJ, Wexpan ¼ 8.13 kJ, Wnet ¼ 5.12 kJ, and
¼ 32.72%.
60 F and 14.7 psia. The air is heated to 4000 F, and the mass of air
contained in the cylinder is 0.02 lbm. Determine the pressure at the end of
ANSWERS: T3 ¼ 1953 F, p2 ¼ 126.2 psia, Qadd ¼ 13.49 Btu, Qremove ¼
9.08 Btu, Wcomp ¼ 2.59 Btu, Wexpan ¼ 7.01 Btu, Wnet ¼ 4.41 Btu, and
¼ 32.72%.
80 F and 14.7 psia. The air is heated to 4500 F, and the mass of air
contained in the cylinder is 0.02 lbm. Determine the pressure at the end of
ANSWERS: T3 ¼ 2172 F, p2 ¼ 135.1 psia, Qadd ¼ 15.13 Btu, Qremove ¼
10.03 Btu, Wcomp ¼ 2.86 Btu, Wexpan ¼ 7.97 Btu, Wnet ¼ 5.11 Btu, and
¼ 33.74%.
3.6 STIRLING CYCLE
The Stirling cycle is composed of the following four processes:
1-2 Isothermal compression

3-4 Isothermal expansion
The Stirling cycle engine is an external combustion engine. Figure 3.26

shows the Stirling cycle on p–v and T–s diagrams.

Figure 3.26 Stirling cycle on p–v and T–s diagrams.
Figure 3.27 Stirling cycle operation.
During the isothermal compression process 1-2, heat is rejected to

maintain a constant temperature TL. During the isothermal expansion
process 3-4, heat is added to maintain a constant temperature TH. There
are also heat interactions along the constant-volume heat addition process
2-3 and the constant-volume heat removal process 4-1. The quantities of
heat in these two constant-volume processes are equal but opposite in
direction.
The operation of the Stirling cycle engine is shown in Fig. 3.27. There
are two pistons in the cylinder. One is a power piston (P) and the other is
the displace piston (D). The purpose of the displace piston is to move the
working fluid around from one space to another space through the
regenerator. At state 1, the power piston is at BDC (bottom dead center),
with the displacer at its TDC (top dead center). The power piston moves
from its BDC to TDC to compress the working fluid during the compres-
sion process 1-2. From 1-2, the working fluid in the cylinder is in contact
with the low-temperature reservoir, so the temperature remains constant
(T1 ¼ T2) and heat is removed. During the heating process 2-3, the displacer
moves downward, pushing the working fluid through the regenerator

where it picks up heat to reach T3. During the expansion process 3-4, the
working fluid in the cylinder is in contact with the high-temperature
reservoir, so the temperature remains constant (T3 ¼ T4) and heat is added.
During the cooling process 4-1, the displacer moves upward, pushing the
working fluid through the regenerator where it removes heat to reach T1.
Z Z
W12 ¼ pdV, Q12 ¼ TdS ¼ T1(S2 S1) (3.59)
Q12 W12 ¼ m(u2 u1) ¼ 0 (3.60)

Z
W23 ¼ pdV ¼ 0 (3.61)
Q23 0 ¼ m(u3 u2) (3.62)

Z Z
W34 ¼ pdV, Q34 ¼ TdS ¼ T3(S4 S3) (3.63)
Q34 W34 ¼ m(u4 u3) ¼ 0 (3.64)

Z
W41 ¼ pdV ¼ 0 (3.65)
and
Q41 0 ¼ m(u1 u4) (3.66)
Wnet ¼ W12 þ W34 ¼ Qnet ¼ Q12 þ Q23 þ Q34 þ Q41 (3.67)

¼ Wnet/(Q12 þ Q41) (3.68)
Example 3.13
A Stirling cycle operates with 0.1 kg of hydrogen as a working fluid
between 1000 C and 30 C. The highest and the lowest pressures during the
cycle are 3 MPa and 500 kPa. Determine the heat and work added in each
of the four processes, net work, and cycle efficiency.
1. Build:
shop and connect the four devices to form the Stirling cycle.

2. Analysis:
compression device as isothermal, (2) combustion chamber
as isochoric, (3) expander as isothermal, and (4) cooler as
isochoric.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is helium,
(2) inlet pressure and temperature of the compression device
are 500 kPa and 30 C and m ¼ 0.1 kg, (3) inlet pressure and
temperature of the expander are 3 MPa and 1000 C.
3. Display the cycle properties’ results. The cycle is a heat engine.
The answers are: Q12 ¼ W12 ¼ 22.46 kJ, Q23 ¼ 300.7 kJ, Q34 ¼ W34 ¼
94.33 kJ, Q41 ¼ 300.7 kJ, Wnet ¼ 71.87 kJ, Qin ¼ 395.0 kJ, and ¼ 18.19%.
(See Fig. 3.28.)
The Stirling cycle is an attempt to achieve Carnot efficiency by the
use of an ideal regenerator.
A device called a regenerator can be used to absorb heat during
process 4-1 (Q41) and ideally delivering the same quantity of heat during
process 2-3 (Q23). These two quantities of heat are represented by the areas
underneath of the process 4-1 and process 2-3 of the T–s diagram in Fig. 3.26.
Using the ideal regenerator, Q41 is not counted as a part of the heat input.
The efficiency of the Stirling cycle can be reduced from Eq. (3.68) to
¼ Wnet/Q12 ¼ 1 T3/T1 (3.69)
In this respect, the Stirling cycle has the same efficiency as the Carnot cycle.
Figure 3.28 Stirling cycle.

Figure 3.29 Regenerative Stirling cycle.
The regenerative Stirling cycle is illustrated in Fig. 3.29. In this

figure, the combination of heater #1 and cooler #1 is equivalent to the
regenerator. Heat removed from the cooler #1 is added to the heater #1.
Since this energy transfer occurs within the cycle internally, the amount of
heat added to heater #1 from cooler #1 is not a part of the heat added to
the cycle from its surrounding heat reservoirs. Therefore,
Qin ¼ Q12 (3.70)
Example 3.14 illustrates the analysis of the regenerative Stirling cycle.
Practical attempts to follow the Stirling cycle present difficulties
primarily due to the difficulty of achieving isothermal compression and
isothermal expansion in a machine operating at a reasonable speed.
Example 3.14
A regenerative Stirling cycle operates with 0.1 kg of hydrogen as a working
fluid between 1000 C and 30 C. The highest and the lowest pressures
during the cycle are 3 MPa and 500 kPa. The temperature at the exit of
the regenerator (heater #1) and inlet to the heater #2 is 990 C and the
temperature at the exit of the regenerator (cooler #1) and inlet to the
cooler #2 is 40 C. Determine the heat and work added in each of the four
processes, net work, and cycle efficiency.
1. Build:
a. Take a compression device, a heater (cold-side regenerator),
combustion chamber, an expander and two coolers (cooler #1
is the hot-side regenerator) from the closed-system inventory
shop and connect the six devices to form the regenerative
Stirling cycle as shown in Fig. 3.27.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the six devices: (1) compression
device as isothermal, (2) both heaters as isochoric, (3)
expander as isothermal, and (4) both coolers as isochoric.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is helium, (2)
inlet pressure and temperature of the compression device are
500 kPa and 30 C and m ¼ 0.1 kg, (3) inlet pressure and

temperature of the expander are 3000 kPa and 1000 C, (4)
temperature at the exit of the regenerator (heater #1) ¼
990 C, and (5) temperature at the exit of the regenerator
(cooler #1) ¼ 40 C.
The answers are: Q12 ¼ W12 ¼ 22.46 kJ, Q23 ¼ Qhtr#1 ¼ Qclr#1 ¼
Qregenerator ¼ 297.6 kJ, Q34 ¼ 3.1 kJ, Q45 ¼ W45 ¼ 94.33 kJ, Q56 ¼ 3.1 kJ,
Wnet ¼ 71.87 kJ, Qin ¼ 94.33 þ 3.1 ¼ 97.43 kJ, and ¼ 71.87/97.43 ¼ 73.77%.
(See Fig. 3.30.)
COMMENT: The regenerator used in this example is not ideal. Yet, the
regenerator raises the cycle efficiency almost to the Carnot efficiency.
Review Problems 3.6 Stirling Cycle

1. What are the four processes of the basic Stirling cycle?
2. What is a regenerator?
3. What is a regenerative Stirling cycle?
4. What would be the cycle efficiency of the Stirling cycle with an
ideal regenerator?
5. A cycle is executed in a closed system with 4 g of air and is
composed of the following three processes:
1-2 Constant-volume heating from 100 kPa and 20 C to 400 kPa
2-3 Isentropic expansion to 100 kPa
3-1 Constant pressure cooling to 100 kPa and 20 C
Figure 3.30 Regenerative Stirling cycle.

Determine the net work per cycle, the thermal cycle efficiency, and MEP.
Show the cycle on a T–s diagram.
6. A proposed air standard piston–cylinder arrangement cycle
consists of an isentropic compression process, a constant-volume heat
addition process, an isentropic expansion process, and a constant-pressure
heat-rejection process. The compression ratio (v1/v2) during the isentropic
compression process is 8.5. At the beginning of the compression process,
P ¼ 100 kPa and T ¼ 300 K. The constant-volume specific heat addition is
1400 kJ/kg. Assume constant specific heats at 25 C.
a. Draw the cycle (with labels) on a T–s diagram.
b. Find the specific heat rejection during the constant-pressure
process.
c. Find the specific net work for the cycle.
d. Find the thermal efficiency for the cycle.
e. Find the mean effective pressure for the cycle.
7. A Stirling cycle operates with 1 lbm of helium as a working fluid
between 1800 R and 540 R. The highest and lowest pressures during the
cycle are 450 and 75 psia. Determine the heat added, net work, and cycle
efficiency.
ANSWERS: Wnet ¼ 367.4 Btu, Qin ¼ 1458 Btu, and ¼ 25.20%.
8. A Stirling cycle operates with 0.1 kg of air as a working fluid
between 1000 C and 30 C. The highest and lowest pressures during the
cycle are 3 MPa and 500 kPa. Determine the heat and work added in each
of the four processes, net work, and cycle efficiency.
ANSWERS: Q12 ¼ W12 ¼ 3.10 kJ, Q23 ¼ 69.52 kJ, Q34 ¼ W34 ¼
13.02 kJ, Q41 ¼ 69.52 kJ, Wnet ¼ 9.92 kJ, Qin ¼ 82.54 kJ, and ¼ 12.02%.
9. A regenerative Stirling cycle operates with 0.1 kg of air as a
working fluid between 1000 C and 30 C. The highest and lowest pressures
during the cycle are 3 MPa and 500 kPa. The temperature at the exit of
the regenerator (heater #1) and inlet to the heater #2 is 990 C and the
temperature at the exit of the regenerator (cooler #1) and inlet to the
cooler #2 is 40 C. Determine the heat and work added in each of the four
processes, net work, and cycle efficiency.
3.7 MILLER CYCLE
An alternative to lowering the compression ratio and simultaneously the

expansion ratio of an Otto or Diesel cycle is to lower compression ratio
only while the expansion ratio is kept as the original. Miller (Miller, R.H.,
Supercharging and internal cooling cycle for high output. Transactions of

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, vol. 69, pp. 453–457, 1947)
proposed a cycle having the following characteristics:
1. Effective compression stroke is shorter than expansion stroke
2. Increased charging pressure
3. Variable valve timing
Miller proposed the use of early intake valve closing to provide
internal cooling before compression so as to reduce compression work.
Miller further proposed increasing the boost pressure to compensate for
the reduced inlet duration. By proper selection of boost pressure and
variation of intake valve closing time, Miller showed that turbocharged
engines could maintain sea-level power while operating over varying
altitudes.
A modified Otto cycle is known as the Miller–Otto cycle whose
p–v and T–s diagrams are shown in Fig. 3.31. A modified Diesel cycle is
known as the Miller–Diesel cycle whose p–v and T–s diagrams are shown
in Fig. 3.32.
A four-stroke Miller–Otto cycle without supercharger and intercooler
is shown in Fig. 3.33. The intake valve is closed late at state 3.
A four-stroke Miller–Otto cycle with supercharger is shown in
Fig. 3.34. The intake valve is closed late at state 3.
Similarly, an extended expansion stroke is desirable in four-stroke
spark ignition and Diesel engines from the viewpoint of providing an
increase in thermal cycle efficiency and, for prescribed air and fuel flow
rates, an increase in engine output. Spark-ignition engines modified to
achieve extended expansion within the engine cylinder are termed Otto–
Atkinson cycles (Ma, T.H., Recent advances in variable valve timing.
Automotive Engine Alternatives, Ed. by R.L. Evans, Plenum Press,
Figure 3.31 Miller–Otto cycle.

Figure 3.32 Miller–Diesel cycle.
Figure 3.33 Miller–Otto cycle without supercharger and intercooler.
Figure 3.34 Miller–Otto cycle with supercharger.
pp. 235–252, 1986). By analogy, Diesel engines modified to achieve

extended expansion within the engine cylinder are termed Diesel–Atkinson
cycles (Kentfield, J.A.C., Diesel engines with extended strokes. SAE
Transaction Journal of Engines, vol. 98, pp. 1816–1825, 1989).
Variable valve timing is being developed to improve the performance
and reduce the pollution emissions from internal combustion heat engines
for automobiles and trucks. A unique benefit for these engines is that
changing the timing of the intake valves can be used to control the

engine’s compression ratio. These engines can be designed to have a
conventionally high compression ratio for satisfactory cold-starting
characteristics and a reduced compression ratio for better cycle efficiency,
exhaust gas emissions, and noise characteristics.
Example 3.15
Determine the temperature at the end of the compression process,
compression work, expansion work, and thermal efficiency of an ideal
Otto cycle. The volumes of the cylinder before and after compression are
3 liters and 0.3 liter. Heat added to the air in the combustion chamber is
800 kJ/kg. What is the mass of air in the cylinder? The atmosphere
conditions are 101.3 kPa and 20 C.
To solve this problem, we build the cycle as shown in Fig. 3.4a.
Then, (1) assume isentropic for the compression process 1-2, isochoric for
the heating process 2-3, isentropic for the expansion process 3-4, and
isochoric for the cooling process 4-5; (2) input p1 ¼ 101.3 kPa, T1 ¼ 20 C,
V1 ¼ 3 liters, V2 ¼ 0.3 liter, heat added to the combustion chamber is
800 kJ/kg, p5 ¼ 101.3 kPa, and T5 ¼ 20 C; and (3) display results. The
results are: T2 ¼ 463.2 C, W12 ¼ 1.15 kJ, Q23 ¼ 2.89 kJ, W34 ¼ 2.89 kJ,
Wnet ¼ 1.74 kJ, ¼ 60.19%, and m ¼ 3.62 g as shown in Fig. 3.35.
Figure 3.35 Otto cycle.

Example 3.16
Determine the temperature at the end of the compression process,
compression work, expansion work, and thermal efficiency of an Otto–
Miller cycle. The volumes of the cylinder before and after compression are
3 liters and 0.3 liter. Heat added to the air in the combustion chamber is
800 kJ/kg. A supercharger and an intercooler are used. The supercharger
pressure is 180 kPa and the temperature at the end of the intercooler is
20 C. The intake valve closes at 2.8 liters. The end temperature of the
cooling process of the cycle is 20 C. What is the mass of air in the
cylinder? The atmosphere conditions are 101.3 kPa and 20 C.
Then, (1) assume isentropic for both compression processes, isochoric for
the heating process, isentropic for the expansion process, and isochoric for
both cooling processes; (2) input p1 ¼ 101.3 kPa, T1 ¼ 20 C, p2 ¼ 180 kPa,
T3 ¼ 20 C, V3 ¼ 2.8 liters, V4 ¼ 0.3 liter, heat added in the combustion
chamber is 800 kJ/kg, V6 ¼ 3 liters, T7 ¼ 20 C; and (3) display results. The
results are: T4 ¼ 443.2 C, Wcomp ¼ 1.73 kJ, Qadd ¼ 4.07 kJ, Wexp ¼ 4.02 kJ,
Wnet ¼ 2.29 kJ, ¼ 2.29/4.07 ¼ 56.27%, and m ¼ 5.09 g as shown in
Fig. 3.36. Notice that if the supercharger is operated by the exhaust gas,
then ¼ (4.02 1.54)/4.07 ¼ 60.93%.
Review Problems 3.7 Miller Cycle

1. What is the idea of the Miller cycle?
2. What are the benefits of the Miller cycle?
Figure 3.36 Miller–Otto cycle with supercharger and intercooler.

3. Determine the temperature at the end of the compression
process, compression work, expansion work, and thermal efficiency of an
Otto–Miller cycle. The volumes of the cylinder before and after
compression are 3 liters and 0.3 liter. Heat added to the air in the com-
bustion chamber is 800 kJ/kg. A supercharger and an intercooler are
used. The supercharger pressure is 180 kPa and the temperature at
the end of the intercooler is 20 C. The intake valve closes at 2.5 liters. The
end temperature of the cooling process of the cycle is 20 C. What is the
mass of air in the cylinder? The atmosphere conditions are 101.3 kPa
and 20 C.
ANSWERS: T4 ¼ 411.4 C, Wcomp ¼ 1.44 kJ, Qadd ¼ 3.63 kJ, Wexp ¼
3.53 kJ, Wnet ¼ 2.08 kJ, ¼ 57.3%, and m ¼ 4.54 g.
process, compression work, expansion work, and thermal efficiency of an
Otto–Miller cycle. The volumes of the cylinder before and after
compression are 3 liters and 0.3 liter. Heat added to the air in the
combustion chamber is 800 kJ/kg. A supercharger and an intercooler
used. The supercharger pressure is 200 kPa and the temperature at the
end of the intercooler is 20 C. The intake valve closes at 2.0 liters. The
end temperature of the cooling process of the cycle is 20 C. What is
the mass of air in the cylinder? The atmosphere conditions are 101.3 kPa
and 20 C.
ANSWERS: T4 ¼ 353 C, Wcomp ¼ 1.11 kJ, Qadd ¼ 3.14 kJ, Wexp ¼
2.95 kJ, Wnet ¼ 1.83 kJ, ¼ 58.28%, and m ¼ 3.92 g.
process, compression work, expansion work, and thermal efficiency of
an Otto–Miller cycle. The volumes of the cylinder before and after
compression are 3 liters and 0.3 liter. Heat added to the air in the
combustion chamber is 800 kJ/kg. A supercharger and an intercooler are
used. The supercharger pressure is 180 kPa and the temperature at the end
of the intercooler is 20 C. The intake valve closes at 2 liters. The end
temperature of the cooling process of the cycle is 20 C. What is the mass
of air in the cylinder? The atmosphere conditions are 101.3 kPa and 20 C.
ANSWERS: T4 ¼ 411.4 C, Wcomp ¼ 1.44 kJ, Qadd ¼ 3.63 kJ, Wexp ¼
3.53 kJ, Wnet ¼ 2.08 kJ, ¼ 57.3%, and m ¼ 4.54 g.
3.8 WICKS CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is the ideal cycle only for the conditions of constant-
temperature hot and cold surrounding thermal reservoirs. However, such
conditions do not exist for fuel-burning engines. For these engines, the

combustion products are artificially created as a finite-size hot reservoir
that releases heat over the entire temperature range from its maximum
to ambient temperature. The natural environment in terms of air or water
bodies is the cold reservoir and can be considered as an infinite reservoir
relative to the engine. Thus, an ideal fuel-burning engine should operate
reversibly between a finite-size hot reservoir and an infinite-size cold
reservoir. Wicks (Wicks, F., The thermodynamic theory and design of an
ideal fuel burning engine. Proceedings of the Intersociety Engineering
Conference of Energy Conversion, vol. 2, pp. 474–481, 1991) proposed a
three-process ideal fuel-burning engine consisting of isothermal compres-
sion, isochoric heat addition, and adiabatic expansion processes. The
schematic Wicks cycle is shown in Fig. 3.37. The p–v and T–s diagrams
of the cycle are shown in Fig. 3.38, and an example of the cycle is given
in Example 3.17.
Example 3.17
Air is compressed from 14.7 psia and 500 R isothermally to 821.8 psia,
heated isochorically to 2500 R, and then expanded isentropically to
14.7 psia in a Wicks cycle. Determine the heat added, heat removed, work
added, work produced, net work, and cycle efficiency.
1. Build:
a. Take a begin, an end, a compression device, a heater,
and an expander from the closed-system inventory shop
Figure 3.37 Wicks cycle.
Figure 3.38 p–v and T–s diagrams of the Wicks cycle.

and connect them to form the Wicks cycle as shown in

Fig. 3.37.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the three devices: (1)
compression device as isothermal, (2) heater as isochoric,
and (3) expander as isentropic.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is air, (2) the
starting pressure and temperature of the compression device
are 14.7 psia and 500 R, and m ¼ 1 lbm, (3) the end
temperature of the heater expander is 2500 R, and (4) the
end pressure of the expander is 14.7 psia.
The answers are: Qin ¼ 342.4 Btu, Qout ¼ 137.8 Btu, Win ¼ 137.8 Btu,
Wout ¼ 342.4 Btu, Wnet ¼ 204.6 Btu, MEP ¼ 89.45 psia, and ¼ 59.76%.
(See Fig. 3.39.)
3.9 RALLIS CYCLE
The Rallis cycle is defined by two isothermal processes at temperatures TH

and TL separated by two regenerative processes that are part constant
volume and part constant pressure in any given combination. The Stirling

cycle is a special case of the Rallis cycle. Many other Rallis cycles can be
defined, which have no identifying names.
A conceptual arrangement of a Rallis heat engine is shown in
Fig. 3.40. The p–v and T–s diagrams for the cycle are shown in Fig. 3.41.
TH is the heat source temperature and TL is the heat sink temperature.
The cycle is composed of the following six processes:
1-2 Isobaric cooling
2-3 Isothermal compression at TL
4-5 Isobaric heating
5-6 Isothermal expansion at TH
Figure 3.40 Rallis cycle.
Figure 3.41 p–v and T–s diagram of Rallis cycle.

During the isothermal compression process 2-3, heat is rejected to
maintain a constant temperature TL. During the isothermal expansion
process 5-6, heat is added to maintain a constant temperature TH. There
are heat interactions along the constant-volume heat-addition process 3-4
and the constant-volume heat-removal process 6-1; the quantities of heat
in these two constant-volume processes are equal, but opposite in
direction. There are also heat interactions along the constant-pressure heat
addition process 4-5 and the constant-pressure heat-removal process 1-2.
The quantities of heat in these two constant-pressure processes are equal,
but opposite in direction.
system to each
Z of the six processes of the cycle yields:
W12 ¼ pdV ¼ p1(V2 V1) (3.71)
Q12 W12 ¼ m(u2 u1) Q12 ¼ Q34 (3.72)

Z
Q23 ¼ TdS ¼ TL(S3 S2) (3.73)
Q23 W23 ¼ m(u3 u2) ¼ 0 (3.74)

Z
W34 ¼ pdV ¼ 0 (3.75)
Q34 0 ¼ m(u4 u3), Q34 ¼ Q12 (3.76)

Z
W45 ¼ pdV ¼ p4(V5 V4) (3.77)
Q45 W45 ¼ mðu5 u4 Þ, Q45 ¼ Q61

Z
Q56 ¼ TdS ¼ TH ðS6 S5 Þ (3.78)
Q56 W56 ¼ m(u6 u5) ¼ 0 (3.79)

Z
W61 ¼ pdV ¼ 0 (3.80)
and
Q61 0 ¼ m(u1 u6), Q61 ¼ Q45 (3.81)
The net work (Wnet), which is also equal to the net heat (Qnet), is
Wnet ¼ W12 þ W23 þ W45 þ W56 ¼ Qnet

¼ Q12 þ Q23 þ Q34 þ Q45 þ Q56 þ Q61
¼ Q23 þ Q56 ð3:82Þ

¼ Wnet/Q56 (3.83)
Example 3.18
A Rallis heat engine is shown in Fig. 3.42a. The mass of helium contained
in the cylinder is 0.1 lbm. The six processes are:
The following information is given: p2 ¼ 15 psia, T2 ¼ 60 F, q34 ¼ 60 Btu/
lbm, q12 ¼ 60 Btu/lbm, p5 ¼ 100 psia, and T5 ¼ 800 F.
Determine the pressure and temperature of each state of the cycle,
work and heat of each process, work input, work output, net work output,
heat added, heat removed, MEP, and cycle efficiency. Draw the T–s
To evaluate this example by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build:
a. Take a compression device, two heaters, an expander, and
two coolers from the closed-system inventory shop and
Figure 3.42a Rallis heat engine.

connect the six devices to form the cycle as shown in
Fig. 3.42a.
2. Analysis:
device as isothermal, (2) one heater as isochoric and the other
as isobaric, (3) expander as isothermal, and (4) one cooler as
isochoric and the other as isobaric.
b. Input the given information: working fluid is air, m ¼ 0.1 lbm,
p2 ¼ 15 psia, T2 ¼ 60 F, q34 ¼ 60 Btu/lbm, q12 ¼ 60 Btu/lbm,
p5 ¼ 100 psia, and T5 ¼ 800 F as shown in Fig. 3.42b.
The results are: p1 ¼ 15 psia, T1 ¼ 108.5 F, p2 ¼ 15 psia, T2 ¼ 60 F, p3 ¼
45.11 psia, T3 ¼ 60 F, p4 ¼ 45.11 psia, T4 ¼ 108.5 F, p5 ¼ 100 psia, T5 ¼
800 F, p6 ¼ 33.25 psia, T6 ¼ 800 F; q12 ¼ 60 Btu/lbm, w12 ¼ 24.07 Btu/
lbm, q23 ¼ 283.8 Btu/lbm, w23 ¼ 283.8 Btu/lbm, q34 ¼ 60 Btu/lbm,
w34 ¼ 2.41 Btu/lbm, q45 ¼ 512 Btu/lbm, w45 ¼ 0 Btu/lbm, q56 ¼ 688 Btu/lbm,
w56 ¼ 688 Btu/lbm, q61 ¼ 512 Btu/lbm, w61 ¼ 0 Btu/lbm; Qin ¼ 126 Btu,
Qout ¼ 85.58 Btu, Qnet ¼ 40.42 Btu, Win ¼ 30.79 Btu, Wout ¼ 71.21 Btu,
Wnet ¼ 40.42 Btu, MEP ¼ 30.91 psia, and ¼ 32.08% as shown in Fig. 3.42c.
The T–s diagram of the cycle is shown in Fig. 3.43.
Review Problems 3.9 Rallis Cycle

1. What is the Rallis cycle?
2. How many regenerating processes are there in a Rallis cycle?
Figure 3.42b Rallis heat engine input.

Figure 3.42c Rallis cycle output results.
Figure 3.43 Rallis cycle T–s diagram.
3. A Rallis heat engine is shown in Fig. 3.42a. The mass of air

contained in the cylinder is 0.1 lbm. The six processes are:

4. A Rallis heat engine is shown in Fig. 3.42a. The mass of carbon
dioxide contained in the cylinder is 0.1 lbm. The six processes are:
5. A Rallis heat engine is shown in Fig. 3.42a. The mass of air
contained in the cylinder is 0.1 lbm. The six processes are:
Although the Carnot cycle is useful in determining the ideal behavior of an

ideal heat engine, it is not a practical cycle to use in the design of heat

engines. There are different reasons for developing cycles other than the
Carnot cycle. These reasons includes the characteristics of the energy
source available, working fluid chosen for the cycle, material limitations in
the hardware, and other practical consideration.
CyclePad is a powerful tool for cycle design and analysis. Due to its
capabilities, the software allows users to view the cycle effects of varying
design input parameters at once. The following examples illustrate the
design of several closed-system gas power cycles.
Example 3.19
A six-process internal combustion engine as shown in Fig. 3.44a is
proposed by a junior engineer. Air mass contained in the cylinder is
0.01 kg. The six processes are:
2-3 Isochoric heating
5-6 Isochoric cooling
The following information is given: p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 20 C, V1 ¼ 10V2,
q23 ¼ 600 kJ/kg, q34 ¼ 400 kJ/kg, and T5 ¼ 400 C.
Figure 3.44a Six-process internal combustion engine design.

heat added, heat removed, MEP, and cycle efficiency.
To evaluate this design by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build:
a. Take a compression device, two heaters, an expander, and
two coolers from the closed-system inventory shop and con-
nect the six devices to form the cycle as shown in Fig. 3.44a.
2. Analysis:
device as isentropic, (2) one heater as isochoric and the other
as isobaric, (3) expander as isentropic, and (4) one cooler as
b. Input the given information: working fluid is air, m ¼ 0.01 kg,
p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 20 C, V1 ¼ 10V2, q23 ¼ 600 kJ/kg, q34 ¼
400 kJ/kg, and T5 ¼ 400 C.
The results are: p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 20 C, p2 ¼ 2512 kPa, T2 ¼ 463.2 C, p3 ¼
5368 kPa, T3 ¼ 1300 C, p4 ¼ 5368 kPa, T4 ¼ 1699 C, p5 ¼ 124.7 kPa, T5 ¼
400 C, p6 ¼ 100 kPa, T6 ¼ 266.6 C, Q12 ¼ 0, W12 ¼ 3.18 kJ, Q23 ¼ 6 kJ,
W23 ¼ 0, Q34 ¼ 4 kJ, W34 ¼ 1.14 kJ, Q45 ¼ 0, W45 ¼ 9.31 kJ, Q56 ¼ 0.9558 kJ,
W56 ¼ 0, Q61 ¼ 2.47 kJ, W61 ¼ 0.7071 kJ, Wadd ¼ 3.88 kJ, Wout ¼
10.45 kJ, Wnet ¼ 6.57 kJ, Qin ¼ 10 kJ, Qout ¼ 3.43 kJ, MEP ¼ 448.9 kPa,
and ¼ 65.69% as shown in Fig. 3.44b.
The T–s diagram of the cycle is shown in Fig. 3.44c.
The sensitivity diagram of (cycle efficiency) versus r (compression
ratio) is plotted in Fig. 3.44d. The figure shows that the larger the
compression ratio, the better the cycle efficiency. To improve the proposed
engine, a larger compression ratio could be used.
Example 3.20
A six-process internal combustion engine as shown in Fig. 3.45a has been
proposed by a junior engineer. The mass of air contained in the cylinder is
0.01 kg. The six processes are:

Figure 3.44b Six-process internal combustion engine design results.
Figure 3.44c T–s diagram.

The following information is given: p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 20 C, V1 ¼ 10V2,
q23 ¼ 600 kJ/kg, q34 ¼ 400 kJ/kg, and T5 ¼ 400 C.

Figure 3.44d Sensitivity diagram.

heat added, heat removed, MEP, and cycle efficiency. Notice that
processes 5-6 and 6-1 of the cycle are different from processes 5-6 and 6-1
of the cycle proposed in Example 3.19.
To evaluate this design by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build:
a. Take a compression device, two heaters, an expander and two
coolers from the closed-system inventory shop and connect
the six devices to form the cycle as shown in Fig. 3.45a.
2. Analysis:
device as isentropic, (2) one heater as isochoric and the other
as isobaric, (3) expander as isentropic, and (4) one cooler as
b. Input the given information: working fluid is air, m ¼ 0.01 kg,
p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 20 C, V1 ¼ 10V2, q23 ¼ 600 kJ/kg, q34 ¼
400 kJ/kg, and T5 ¼ 400 C.
The results are: p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 20 C, p2 ¼ 2512 kPa, T2 ¼ 463.2 C,
p3 ¼ 5368 kPa, T3 ¼ 1300 C, p4 ¼ 5368 kPa, T4 ¼ 1699 C, p5 ¼ 124.7 kPa,

Figure 3.45a Six-process internal combustion engine.
Figure 3.45b Six-process internal combustion engine design results.
T5 ¼ 400 C, p6 ¼ 124.7 kPa, T6 ¼ 92.42 C, Q12 ¼ 0, W12 ¼ 3.18 kJ, Q23 ¼

6 kJ, W23 ¼ 0, Q34 ¼ 4 kJ, W34 ¼ 1.14 kJ, Q45 ¼ 0, W45 ¼ 9.31 kJ, Q56 ¼
3.09 kJ, W56 ¼ 0.8818, Q61 ¼ 0.5191 kJ, W61 ¼ 0 kJ, Wadd ¼ 4.06 kJ,
Wout ¼ 10.45 kJ, Wnet ¼ 6.39 kJ, Qin ¼ 10 kJ, Qout ¼ 3.61 kJ, MEP ¼
436.9 kPa, and ¼ 63.95%. (See Fig. 3.45b.)
It is observed that both the cycle efficiency and MEP of this cycle are
less than those of the proposed cycle given by Example 3.19.

Figure 3.45c T–s diagram and sensitivity diagram of (cycle efficiency) versus r
(compression ratio).
The T–s diagram and sensitivity diagram of (cycle efficiency) versus

r (compression ratio) are plotted in Fig. 3.45c.
Example 3.21
Adding a turbocharger and a precooler to a dual cycle is proposed as
shown in Fig. 3.46a. The cylinder volume of the engine is 0.01 m3.
Evaluate the proposed cycle. The basic dual cycle and the proposed
turbocharger and precooler dual cycle information is:
Basic dual cycle: p1 ¼ p2 ¼ p3 ¼ p8 ¼ 101 kPa, T1 ¼ T2 ¼ T3 ¼ T8 ¼ 15 C,
V3 ¼ 0.01 m3, r ¼ 10, and q45 ¼ q56 ¼ 300 kJ/kg.
Turbocharger and precooler dual cycle: p1 ¼ p8 ¼ 101 kPa, T1 ¼ T8 ¼
15 C, p2 ¼ 150 kPa, T3 ¼ 15 C, V3 ¼ 0.01 m3, r ¼ 10, and q45 ¼ q56 ¼ 300 kJ/kg.
To evaluate this proposed cycle by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build:
a. Take two compression devices, two heaters, an expander, and
two coolers from the closed-system inventory shop and
connect the devices to form the cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the seven devices: (1)
compression devices as isentropic, (2) one heater as isochoric

Figure 3.46a Turbocharger and precooler dual cycle.
Figure 3.46b Turbocharger and precooler dual cycle input.
and the other as isobaric, (3) expander as isentropic, and (4)

one cooler as isochoric and the other as isobaric.
b. Input the given information: working fluid is air, p1 ¼
p8 ¼ 101 kPa, T1 ¼ T8 ¼ 15 C, p2 ¼ 150 kPa, T3 ¼ 15 C, V3 ¼
0.01 m3, r ¼ 10, and q45 ¼ q56 ¼ 300 kJ/kg. (See Fig. 3.46b.)
The results are: p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 15 C, p2 ¼ 150 kPa, T2 ¼ 49.47 C, p3 ¼
150 kPa, T3 ¼ 15 C, p4 ¼ 3768 kPa, T4 ¼ 450.7 C, p5 ¼ 5947 kPa,

T5 ¼ 869.2 C, p6 ¼ 5947 kPa, T6 ¼ 1168 C, p7 ¼ 188.4 kPa, T7 ¼ 264.4 C,
Q12 ¼ 0, W12 ¼ 0.4486 kJ, Q23 ¼ 0.6281 kJ, W23 ¼ 0.1795, W34 ¼
5.67 kJ, Q45 ¼ 0, W45 ¼ 11.76 kJ, Q56 ¼ 3.25 kJ, Wadd ¼ 6.30 kJ,
Wout ¼ 13.32 kJ, Wnet ¼ 7.02 kJ, Qin ¼ 10.89 kJ, Qout ¼ 3.87 kJ, MEP ¼
506.8 kPa, and ¼ 64.44% as shown in Fig. 3.46c.
For the dual cycle without turbocharger and precooler, the input are:
p1 ¼ p2 ¼ p3 ¼ p8 ¼ 101 kPa, T1 ¼ T2 ¼ T3 ¼ T8 ¼ 15 C, V3 ¼ 0.01 m3, r ¼ 10,
and q45 ¼ q56 ¼ 300 kJ/kg as shown in Fig. 3.46d.
Figure 3.46c Turbocharger and precooler dual cycle result.
Figure 3.46d Dual cycle without result turbocharger and precooler.

The output results are: p1 ¼ p2 ¼ p3 ¼ 101 kPa, T1 ¼ T2 ¼ T3 ¼ 15 C,
p4 ¼ 2537 kPa, T4 ¼ 450.7 C, p5 ¼ 4004 kPa, T5 ¼ 869.2 C, p6 ¼ 4004 kPa,
T6 ¼ 1168 C,p7 ¼ 220.7 kPa,T7 ¼ 355.6 C,Q12 ¼ 0,W12 ¼ 0 kJ,Q23 ¼ 0 kJ,
W23 ¼ 0 kJ, W34 ¼ 3.82 kJ, Q45 ¼ 0, W45 ¼ 7.11 kJ, Q56 ¼ 2.99 kJ,
Wadd ¼ 3.82 kJ, Wout ¼ 8.16 kJ, Wnet ¼ 4.34 kJ, Qin ¼ 7.34 kJ, Qout ¼
2.94 kJ, MEP ¼ 482.5 kPa, and ¼ 59.20% as shown in Fig. 3.46d.
It is observed that both the cycle efficiency and MEP of the proposed
cycle are better than those of the dual cycle without turbocharger and
precooler.
1. A six-process internal combustion engine as shown in Fig. 3.45a

has been proposed by a junior engineer. The mass of air
contained in the cylinder is 0.01 kg. The six processes are:
The following information is given as shown in Fig. 3.45b: p1 ¼ 100 kPa,
T1 ¼ 15 C, V1 ¼ 8V2, q23 ¼ 300 kJ/kg, q34 ¼ 400 kJ/kg, and T5 ¼ 400 C.
heat added, heat removed, MEP, and cycle efficiency.
2. Adding a turbocharger and a precooler to a dual cycle is pro-
posed as shown in Fig. 3.46a. The cylinder volume of the engine is
0.01 m3. Evaluate the proposed cycle. The basic Dual cycle and the
proposed turbocharger and precooler dual cycle information is:
Basic dual cycle: p1 ¼ p2 ¼ p3 ¼ p8 ¼ 101 kPa, T1 ¼ T2 ¼ T3 ¼ T8 ¼ 15 C,
V3 ¼ 0.01 m3, r ¼ 8, and q45 ¼ q56 ¼ 300 kJ/kg.
Turbocharger and precooler dual cycle: p1 ¼ p8 ¼ 101 kPa, T1 ¼
T8 ¼ 15 C, p2 ¼ 120 kPa, T3 ¼ 15 C, V3 ¼ 0.01 m3, r ¼ 10, and q45 ¼ q56 ¼
300 kJ/kg.
3.11 SUMMARY
Heat engines that use gases as the working fluid in a closed-system model
were discussed in this chapter. The Otto, Diesel, Miller, and dual cycles

are internal combustion engines. The Stirling cycle is an external
combustion engine.
The Otto cycle is a spark-ignition reciprocating engine consisting of
an isentropic compression process, a constant-volume combustion process,
an isentropic expansion process, and a constant-volume cooling process.
The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle depends on its compression ratio.
The compression ratio is defined as r ¼ Vmax/Vmin. The Otto cycle
efficiency is limited by the compression ratio because of the engine knock
problem.
The Diesel cycle is a compression–ignition reciprocating engine
consisting of an isentropic compression process, a constant-pressure com-
bustion process, an isentropic expansion process, and a constant-volume
cooling process. The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle depends on its
compression ratio and cut-off ratio. The compression ratio is defined as
r ¼ Vmax/Vmin. The cut-off ratio is defined as rcutoff ¼ Vcombustion off/Vmin.
The dual cycle involves two heat-addition processes, one at constant
volume and one at constant pressure. It behaves more like an actual cycle
than either the Otto or Diesel cycles.
The Lenoir cycle was the first commercially successful internal
combustion engine.
The Stirling cycle and Wicks cycle are attempts to achieve the
efficiency of the Carnot cycle.
The Miller cycle uses variable valve timing for compression-ratio
control to improve the performance of internal combustion engines.

4
Gas Open-System Cycles
4.1 BRAYTON OR JOULE CYCLE
The ideal Brayton gas turbine cycle (sometimes called Joule cycle) is named
after an American engineer, George Brayton, who proposed the cycle in
the 1870s. The gas turbine cycle consists of four processes: an isentropic
compression process 1-2, a constant-pressure combustion process 2-3, an
isentropic expansion process 3-4, and a constant-pressure cooling process
4-1. The p–v and T–s diagrams for an ideal Brayton cycle are illustrated in
Fig. 4.1.
The gas turbine cycle may be either closed or open. The more
common cycle is the open one, in which atmospheric air is continuously
drawn into the compressor, heat is added to the air by the combustion of
fuel in the combustion chamber, and the working fluid expands through
the turbine and exhausts to the atmosphere. A schematic diagram of an
open Brayton cycle, which is assumed to operate steadily as an open
system, is shown in Fig. 4.2.
In the closed cycle, the heat is added to the fluid in a heat exchanger
from an external heat source, such as a nuclear reactor, and the fluid is
cooled in another heat exchanger after it leaves the turbine and before it
enters the compressor. A schematic diagram of a closed Brayton cycle is
shown in Fig. 4.3.
Applying the first and second laws of thermodynamics for an open
system to each of the four processes of the Brayton cycle yields:
Q12 ¼ 0 (4.1)
W12 ¼ m(h1 h2) (4.2)
W23 ¼ 0 (4.3)
Q23 0 ¼ m(h3 h2) (4.4)

Figure 4.1 Brayton cycle p–v and T–s diagrams.
Figure 4.2 Open Brayton cycle.
Figure 4.3 Closed Brayton cycle.

Q34 ¼ 0 (4.5)
W34 ¼ m(h3 h4) (4.6)
W41 ¼ 0 (4.7)
and
Q41 0 ¼ m(h1 h4) (4.8)
Wnet ¼ W12 þ W34 ¼ Qnet ¼ Q23 þ Q41 (4.9)

¼ Wnet/Q23 ¼ Qnet/Q23 ¼ 1 Q41/Q23 ¼ 1 (h4 h1)/(h3 h2)
(4.10)
This expression for thermal efficiency of an ideal Brayton cycle can

specific heats. Equation (4.3) is reduced to
¼ 1 (T4 T1)/(T3 T2) ¼ 1 (rp)(k 1)/k (4.11)
where rp is the pressure compression ratio for the compressor defined by

the equation:
rp ¼ p2/p1 (4.12)
The highest temperature in the cycle occurs at the end of the combustion
process (state 3), and it is limited by the maximum temperature that the
turbine blade can withstand. The maximum temperature does have an effect
on the optimal performance of the gas turbine cycle.
In the gas turbine cycle, the ratio of the compressor work to the
turbine work is called back-work ratio. The back-work ratio is very high,
usually more than 40%.
Example 4.1
An engine operates on the open Brayton cycle and has a compression
ratio of 8. Air, at a mass flow rate of 0.1 kg/sec, enters the engine at 27 C
and 100 kPa. The amount of heat addition is 1 MJ/kg. Determine
the efficiency, compressor power input, turbine power output, back-
work ratio, and net power of the cycle. Show the cycle on a T–s

diagram. Plot the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus compression
ratio.
1. Build:
a. Take a compressor, a combustion chamber (heater), a
turbine, and a cooler from the open-system inventory shop
and connect the four devices to form the open Brayton cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the four devices: (1) compressor
device as isentropic, (2) combustion chamber and cooler as
isobaric, and (3) turbine as isentropic.
100 kPa and 27 C, (3) compression ratio of the compressor
is 8, (4) heat addition is 1 MJ/kg in the combustion chamber,
(5) mass flow rate of air is 0.1 kg/sec, and (6) exit pressure of
the turbine is 100 kPa.
3. Display:
a. Display the T–s diagram and cycle properties, results. The
cycle is a heat engine. The answers are ¼ 44.80%, com-
pressor power ¼ 24.44 kW, turbine power ¼ 69.23 kW,
back-work ratio ¼ 35.30%, and net power ¼ 69.23 kW.
compression ratio. (see Figs. 4.4 and 4.5.)
COMMENT: The cycle efficiency increases as compressor ratio increases.
Figure 4.4 Open Brayton cycle.

Figure 4.5 Open Brayton cycle sensitivity analysis.
Figure 4.6 Actual Brayton cycle T–s diagram.
For actual Brayton cycles, many irreversibilities in various

components are present. The T–s diagram of an actual Brayton cycle
is shown in Fig. 4.6. The major irreversibilities occur within the turbine
and compressor. To account for these irreversibility effects, turbine
efficiency and compressor efficiency must be used in computing the
actual work produced or consumed. The effect of irreversibilities on the
thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle is illustrated in the following
example.

Example 4.2
An engine operates on an open actual Brayton cycle (Fig 4.7) and
has a compression ratio of 8. The air enters the engine at 27 C and 100 kPa.
The mass flow rate of air is 0.1 kg/sec and the amount of heat addition is
1 MJ/kg. The compressor efficiency is 86% and the turbine efficiency is 89%.
Determine the efficiency and work output per kilogram of air.
1. Build:
a. Take a source, a compressor, a combustion chamber (heater),
a turbine, and a sink from the open-system inventory shop
and connect the five devices to form the open actual Brayton
cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for three of the devices: (1) compressor
device as adiabatic, (2) combustion chamber as isobaric, and
(3) turbine as adiabatic.
Figure 4.7 Open actual Brayton cycle.

b.Input the given information: (1) working fluid is air, (2) inlet
100 kPa and 27 C, (3) compression ratio of the compressor
is 8, (4) heat addition is 1000 kJ/kg in the combustion
chamber, (5) compressor efficiency is 86% and the turbine
efficiency is 89%, (6) mass flow rate of air is 0.1 kg/sec, and
(7) exit pressure of the turbine is 100 kPa.
The answers are ¼ 34.79% and net power ¼ 34.79 kW.
Example 4.3
An engine operates on the closed Brayton cycle (Fig 4.8) and has a
compression ratio of 8. Helium enters the engine at 47 C and 200 kPa. The
mass flow rate of helium is 1.2 kg/sec and the amount of heat addition is
1 MJ/kg. Determine the highest temperature of the cycle, the turbine
power produced, the compressor power required, the back-work ratio, the
rate of heat added, and the cycle efficiency.
1. Build:
a. Take a compressor, a combustion chamber (heater), a turbine,
and a cooler from the open-system inventory shop and con-
nect the four devices to form the closed Brayton cycle.
Figure 4.8 Closed Brayton cycle.

2. Analysis:
device as adiabatic and isentropic, (2) combustion chamber
as isobaric, (3) turbine as adiabatic and isentropic, and
(4) cooler as isobaric.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is helium,
(2) inlet pressure and temperature of the compression device
are 200 kPa and 47 C, (3) compressor exit pressure
is 1600 kPa, (4) mass flow rate of helium is 1.2 kg/sec, and
(5) heat addition is 1 MJ/kg in the combustion chamber.
The answers are Tmax ¼ 657.4 C, turbine power ¼ 3271 kW, compressor
power ¼ 2592 kW, back-work ratio ¼ 79.24%, Qdotin ¼ 1200 kW, and
¼ 56.58%.
Review Problems 4.1 Brayton Cycle

1. The maximum and minimum temperatures and pressures of a
40 MW turbine shaft output power ideal air Brayton power plant are
1200 K (T3), 0.38 MPa (P3), 290 K (T1), and 0.095 MPa (P1), respectively.
Determine the temperature at the exit of the compressor (T2), the
temperature at the exit of the turbine (T4), the compressor work, the
turbine work, the heat added, the mass rate of flow of air, the back-work
ratio (the ratio of compressor work to the turbine work), and the thermal
2. An ideal Brayton cycle uses air as a working fluid. The air enters
the compressor at 100 kPa and 37 C. The pressure ratio of the compressor
is 12:1, and the temperature of the air as it leaves the turbine is 497 C.
Assuming variable specific heats, determine (a) the specific work required
to operate the compressor, (b) the specific work produced by the turbine,
(c) the heat transfer added to the air in the combustion chamber, and
(d) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
3. An ideal Brayton engine receives 1 lbm/sec of air at 15 psia and
70 F. The maximum cycle temperature is 1300 F and the compressor
pressure ratio of the engine is 10. Determine (a) the power added during
the compression process, (b) the rate of heat added to the air during the
heating process, (c) the power during the expansion process, and (d) the
4. A Brayton engine receives air at 15 psia and 70 F. The air
mass rate of flow is 4.08 lbm/sec. The discharge pressure of the compressor
is 78 psia. The maximum cycle temperature is 1740 F and the air turbine

discharge temperature is 1161 F. Determine (a) the power added during
the compression process, (b) the rate of heat added to the air during
the heating process, (c) the power produced during the expansion process,
(d) the turbine efficiency, and (e) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
5. A Brayton engine receives air at 103 kPa and 27 C. The
maximum cycle temperature is 1050 C and the compressor discharge
pressure is 1120 kPa. The compressor efficiency is 85% and the turbine
efficiency is 82%. Determine (a) the work added during the compression
process, (b) the heat added to the air during the heating process, (c) the
work done during the expansion process, and (d) the thermal efficiency of
the cycle.
6. An ideal Brayton engine receives air at 15 psia and 80 F. The
maximum cycle temperature is 1800 F and the compressor discharge
pressure is 225 psia. The mass rate flow of air is 135 lbm/sec. Determine (a)
the power added during the compression process, (b) the rate of heat
added to the air during the heating process, (c) the power produced during
the expansion process, (d) the net power produced by the engine, (e) the
back-work ratio, and (f ) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
7. An ideal Brayton engine receives air at 14.7 psia and 60 F. The
maximum cycle temperature is 1750 F and the compressor discharge
pressure is 147 psia. The mass rate flow of air is 15 lbm/sec. Determine (a)
the power added during the compression process, (b) the heat added to the
air during the heating process, (c) the power produced during the
expansion process, (d) the net power produced by the engine, (e) the back-
work ratio, and (f ) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
8. A Brayton engine receives air at 14 psia and 70 F. The air mass
rate of flow is 16 lbm/sec. The maximum cycle temperature is 1500 F. The
compressor efficiency is 79% and the turbine efficiency is 90%. Determine
(a) the work done during the compression process, (b) the heat added to
the air during the heating process, (c) the work done during the expansion
process, (d) the turbine efficiency, and (e) the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.
9. A Brayton engine receives air at 100 kPa and 25 C. The
maximum cycle temperature is 1082 C and the compressor discharge
pressure is 1300 kPa. The compressor efficiency is 87%. The air
temperature at the turbine exit is 536 C. Determine (a) the work done
during the compression process, (b) the heat added to the air during the
heating process, (c) the work done during the expansion process, (d) the
turbine efficiency, and (e) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
10. An ideal air Brayton cycle has air entering the compressor
at a temperature of 310 K and a pressure of 100 kPa. The pressure ratio
across the compressor is 12, and the temperature of the air leaving the

turbine is 780 K. Assuming variable specific heats, determine (a) the
compressor work required, (b) the turbine work produced, (c) the heat
added during the combustion, and (d) the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.
11. Air enters the compressor of an ideal Brayton cycle at 100 kPa
and 300 K with a volumetric flow rate of 5 m3/sec. The compressor
pressure ratio is 10. The turbine inlet temperature is 1400 K. Determine (a)
the thermal efficiency of the cycle, (b) the back-work ratio, and (c) the net
power developed.
12. Air enters the compressor of a simple gas turbine at 14.7 psia
and 520 R, and has a volumetric flow rate of 1000 ft3/sec. (The compressor
discharge pressure is 260 psia,) and the turbine inlet temperature is 2000 F.
The turbine efficiency is 87% and the compressor efficiency is 83%.
Determine (a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle, (b) the back-work ratio,
and (c) the net power developed.
4.2 SPLIT-SHAFT GAS TURBINE CYCLE
Gas turbines can be arranged either in single-shaft or split-shaft types.

The single-shaft arrangement requires the turbine to provide power
to drive both the compressor and the load. This means that the
compressor is influenced by the load. The compressor efficiency is a
function of the speed. When the load is increased, the compressor speed is
slowed down, which is not desirable. It is very desirable to make the gas
turbine a reliable shaft-driven propulsion system; therefore, the
compressor speed must be held constant. Hence, split-shaft gas turbines
are developed. In this arrangement, there are two turbines each with its
own independent shaft. The sole function of the first turbine is to drive the
compressor at a steady speed without being influenced by the load. The
net power of the gas turbine is produced by the second turbine as shown
by Fig. 4.9.
Example 4.4
An engine operates on the split-shaft actual open Brayton cycle (Fig. 4.10)
and has a compression ratio of 8. The air enters the engine at 27 C and
100 kPa. The mass flow rate of air is 0.1 kg/sec, and the amount of heat
addition is 1000 kJ/kg. The compressor efficiency is 86% and the efficiency
is 89% for both turbines. Determine the highest temperature of the cycle,
the turbine power produced, the compressor power required, the back-
work ratio, the rate of heat added, the pressure and temperature between
the two turbines, and the cycle efficiency.

Figure 4.9 Split-shaft gas turbine.
Figure 4.10 Split-shaft open Brayton cycle.
1. Build:
a. Take a source, a compressor, a combustion chamber
(heater), two turbines, and a sink from the open-system

open actual Brayton cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the four devices: (1) compres-
sor device as adiabatic and ¼ 86%, (2) combustion
chamber as isobaric, and (3) turbines as adiabatic and
¼ 89%.
100 kPa and 27 C, (3) compressor exit pressure is 800 kPa,
(4) heat addition is 1 MJ/kg in the combustion chamber,
(5) mass flow rate of air is 0.1 kg/sec, (6) Display the com-
pressor and find the power required to run the compressor
(the finding is 28.42 kW), (7) input the first turbine power
(which is used to operate the compressor) 28.42 kW, and
(8) exit pressure of the turbine is 100 kPa.
The answers are Tmax ¼ 1307 C, first turbine power ¼ 28.42 kW, second
turbine power ¼ 35.75 kW, compressor power ¼ 28.42 kW, back-work
ratio ¼ 44.28%, Qdotin ¼ 100 kW, the pressure and temperature between
the two turbines are 364.1 kPa and 1024 C, and ¼ 35.75%.
Review Problems 4.2 Split-Shaft Gas Turbine Cycle

1. Why do we need a split-shaft gas turbine engine?
2. What is the function of each turbine in a split-shaft gas turbine
engine?
3. An ideal split-shaft Brayton cycle receives air at 14.7 psia and
70 F. The upper pressure and temperature limits of the cycle are 60 psia
and 1500 F, respectively. Find the temperature and pressure of all states of
the cycle. Calculate the input compressor work, the output power turbine
work, heat supplied in the combustion chamber, and the thermal efficiency
of the cycle, based on variable specific heats.
4. An actual split-shaft Brayton cycle receives air at 14.7 psia and
70 F. The upper pressure and temperature limit of the cycle are 60 psia
and 1500 F, respectively. The turbine efficiency is 85% for both turbines.
The compressor efficiency is 80%. Find the temperature and pressure of
all states of the cycle. The mass flow rate of air is 1 lbm/sec. Calculate the
input compressor power, the output power turbine power, rate of heat

supplied in the combustion chamber, and the thermal efficiency of the
cycle, based on variable specific heats.
ANSWERS: p2 ¼ 60 psia, T2 ¼ 397.5 F, p3 ¼ 60 psia, T3 ¼ 1500 F,
p5 ¼ 14.7 psia,T5 ¼ 940.6 F,Wdotc ¼ 111.0 hp,Wdott1 ¼ 111.0 hp,Wdott2 ¼
78.7 hp, Qdots ¼ 264.3 Btu/sec, ¼ 21.04%.
5. The following are operating characteristics of a split-shaft gas
turbine:
Atmospheric conditions—p ¼ 14.7 psia, T ¼ 60 F
Compressor—inlet pressure ¼ 14.5 psia, inlet temperature ¼ 60 F,
mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec, ¼ 0.8, exit pressure ¼ 101.5 psia
Combustion chamber—exit temperature ¼ 1800 F, exit pressure ¼
99 psia
Turbine #1— ¼ 0.85
Power turbine #2— ¼ 0.85, exit pressure ¼ 14.9 psia
Find the temperatures of all states of the cycle, power required by the
compressor, power produced by turbine #1, power produced by power
turbine #2, rate of heat transfer supplied in the combustion chamber, cycle
efficiency, and indicated horse power (IHP).
ANSWERS: Tcompressor exit ¼ 543.1 F, T turbine #1 exit ¼ 1317 F,

Tpowerturbine #2 exit ¼ 981.3 F, Powercompressor ¼ 163.8 hp, Powerturbine #1 ¼
163.8 hp, Powerpower turbine #2 ¼ 113.8 hp, Qdotcombustion chamber ¼301.2
Btu/s, ¼ 26.71%, IHP ¼ 113.8 hp.
6. A split-shaft Brayton gas turbine operates with the following
information:
Inlet compressor temperature ¼ 70 F ¼ T1

Inlet compressor pressure ¼ 14.5 psia ¼ p1
Inlet combustion chamber pressure ¼ 145 psia ¼ p2
Inlet ggt (gas generator turbine) temperature ¼ 2000 F ¼ T3
Exit pt (power turbine) pressure ¼ 14.8 psia ¼ p5a
Air mass rate of flow ¼ 2 lbm/sec
Power turbine efficiency ¼ 85%
Gas generator turbine efficiency ¼ 100%
Compressor efficiency ¼ 100%
Draw the T–s diagram of the cycle.
Find the temperature at the exit of the compressor (T2), the

temperature at the exit of the gas generator turbine (T4), the temperature
at the exit of the power turbine (T5a), compressor work required per unit
mass, gas generator turbine work produced per unit mass, power turbine
work produced per unit mass, heat supplied per unit mass, net work

produced per unit mass, total power produced by the cycle, and cycle
efficiency.
ANSWERS: T2 ¼ 563.0 F, T4 ¼ 1516 F, T4a ¼ 1507 F, wc ¼ 118.1
Btu/lbm, qs ¼ 344.0 Btu/lbm, wt1 ¼ 118.1 Btu/lbm, wt2 ¼ 143.7 Btu/
lbm, wnet ¼ 143.7 Btu/lbm, Pnet ¼ 287.4 Btu/s ¼ 740.9 hp, ¼ 41.72%.
7. A split-shaft Brayton gas turbine operates with the following
information:
Inlet compressor temperature ¼ 60 F ¼ T1
Inlet compressor pressure ¼ 14.5 psia ¼ p1
Inlet combustion chamber pressure ¼ 145 psia ¼ p2
Inlet ggt temperature ¼ 2000 F ¼ T3
Exit pt pressure ¼ 14.8 psia ¼ p5a
Air mass rate of flow ¼ 2 lbm/sec
Power turbine efficiency ¼ 85%
Gas generator turbine efficiency ¼ 100%
Compressor efficiency ¼ 100%
Draw the T–s diagram of the cycle.
Find the temperature at the exit of the compressor (T2), the tempera-
ture at the exit of the gas generator turbine (T4), the temperature at the exit
of the power turbine (T5a), compressor work required per unit mass, gas
generator turbine work produced per unit mass, power turbine work
produced per unit mass, heat supplied per unit mass, net work produced
per unit mass, total power produced by the cycle, and cycle efficiency.
ANSWERS: T2 ¼ 543.7 F, T4 ¼ 1516 F, T5a ¼ 926 F, wc ¼ 115.9
Btu/lbm, qs ¼ 349.0 Btu/lbm, wt1 ¼ 115.9 Btu/lbm, wt2 ¼ 141.5 Btu/lbm,
wnet ¼ 141.5 Btu/lbm, Pnet ¼ 283.0 Btu/sec ¼ 400.4 hp, ¼ 40.54%.
4.3 IMPROVEMENTS TO BRAYTON CYCLE
The thermal efficiency or net work of the Brayton cycle can be improved
by several modifications to the basic cycle. These modifications include
increasing the turbine inlet temperature, reheating, intercooling, regenera-
tion, etc.
Increasing the turbine inlet temperature increases the thermal
efficiency of the Brayton cycle. It is limited by the metallurgical material
problem in the turbine blade.
with a reheater without increasing the compressor pressure ratio increases
the net work of the Brayton cycle. A multistage turbine is used. Gas is
reheated between stages.

Using an intercooler without increasing the compressor pressure ratio
increases the net work of the Brayton cycle. A multi-stage compressor is
used, and gas is cooled between stages.
can also be done by regenerating the gas. A multistage turbine is used. The
exhaust gas is used to preheat the air before it is heated in the combustion
chamber. In this way, the amount of heat added at the low temperature
is reduced. So the average temperature during the heat-addition process
is increased.
4.4 REHEAT AND INTERCOOL BRAYTON CYCLE
Methods for improving the gas turbine cycle performance are available.
Two ways to improve the cycle net work are to reduce the compressor
work and to increase the turbine work. The intercool may be accomplished by
compressing in stages with an intercooler, cooling the air as it passes from one
stage to another. Similarly, the reheat may be accomplished by the expansion
in stages with a reheater. Since there is more than sufficient air for
combustion, some more can be injected. The reheated products of
combustion return to the turbine. The products of combustion re-entering
the turbine are usually at the same temperature as those entering the turbine.
The schematic diagram of a reheat open Brayton cycle is illustrated
in Fig. 4.11. The schematic diagram and T–s diagram for a reheat and inter-
cool gas turbine cycle are illustrated in Figs. 4.12 and 4.13, respectively.
Notice that reheat and inter-cool increase the net work of the gas turbine
cycle, but not necessarily the efficiency, unless a regenerator is also added.
Figure 4.11 Reheat Brayton cycle.

Figure 4.12 Reheat and intercool Brayton cycle.
Figure 4.13 Reheat and intercool Brayton cycle T–s diagram.
Review Problems 4.3 Improvements to Brayton Cycle

1. Consider a simple ideal Brayton cycle with fixed turbine inlet
temperature and fixed compressor inlet temperature. What is the effect of
the pressure ratio on the cycle efficiency?
2. Consider a simple ideal Brayton cycle with fixed maximum
temperature and fixed minimum temperature. What is the effect of
reheating the gas on the cycle network?
3. Consider a simple ideal Brayton cycle with fixed maximum
temperature and fixed minimum temperature. What is the effect of
intercooling the gas on the cycle network?

Figure 4.14 Ideal reheat and intercool Brayton cycle.
Example 4.5
An engine operates on an ideal reheat and intercooling Brayton cycle
(Fig. 4.14). The low-pressure compressor has a compression ratio of 2,
and the high-pressure compressor has a compression ratio of 4. The air
enters the engine at 27 C and 100 kPa. The air is cooled to 27 C at the
inlet of the high-pressure compressor. The heat added to the combustion
chamber is 1 MJ/kg and air is heated to the maximum temperature of
the cycle. The mass flow rate of air is 0.1 kg/sec. Air expands to 200 kPa
through the first turbine. Air is heated again by the reheater to the
maximum temperature of the cycle and then expanded through the second
turbine to 100 kPa. Determine the power required for the first compressor,
the power required for the second compressor, the maximum temperature
of the cycle (at the exit of the combustion chamber), the power produced
by the first turbine, the rate of heat added in the reheater, the power
produced by the second turbine, the net power produced, back-work
ratio, and the efficiency of the cycle. Show the cycle on a T–s diagram.
1. Build:
a. Take two compressors, two coolers (one is the intercooler),
two combustion chambers (one is the reheater), and two
turbines from the open-system inventory shop and connect
the devices to form the reheat and intercooling Brayton cycle.

2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the eight devices: (1) com-
pressors as adiabatic and compressor efficiency is 86%,
(2) combustion chamber as isobaric, (3) turbines as adiabatic,
and efficiency of both turbines is 89%, (4) intercooler as iso-
baric, and (5) reheater as isobaric.
temperature and pressure of the compressor are 27 C and
100 kPa, (3) inlet temperature and pressure of the high-pres-
sure compressor are 27 C and 200 kPa, (4) the heat added to
the combustion chamber is 1 MJ/kg, (5) inlet pressure of the
reheater is 200 kPa, (6) display the exit temperature of
the combustion chamber (maximum temperature of cycle),
(7) input the exit temperature of the reheater (same as the
exit temperature of the combustion chamber as found in
point 6), (8) mass flow rate of air is 0.1 kg/sec, and (9) exit
pressure of the low-pressure turbine is 100 kPa.
3. Display the T–s diagram and cycle properties’ results. The cycle
is a heat engine. The answers are power required for the first
compressor ¼ 6.60 kW, power required for the second com-
pressor ¼ 14.64 kW, maximum temperature of the cycle ¼
1169 C, power produced by the first turbine ¼ 47.34 kW, rate
of heat added in the reheater ¼ 47.29 kW, power produced by the
second turbine ¼ 26.00 kW, net power produced ¼ 52.11 kW,
back-work ratio ¼ 28.95%, and efficiency of the cycle ¼ 35.38%.
COMMENTS: Comparing with Example 4.1, we see that (1) the efficiency
of the reheat and intercooler cycle does not increase, and (2) the net power
of the reheat and intercooler cycle does increase.
Example 4.6
An engine operates on an actual reheat open Brayton cycle (Fig. 4.15a)). The
air enters the compressor at 60 F and 14.7 psia, and exits at 120 psia.
The maximum cycle temperature (at the exit of the combustion chamber)
allowed due to material limitation is 2000 F. The exit pressure of the high-
pressure turbine is 50 psia. The air is reheated to 2000 F, and the mass flow
rate of air is 1 lbm/sec. The exit pressure of the low-pressure turbine is
14.7 psia. The compressor efficiency is 86% and the turbine efficiency is 89%.
Determine the power required for the compressor, the power produced by
the first turbine, the rate of heat added in the reheater, the power produced by
the second turbine, the net power produced, back-work ratio, and the

Figure 4.15a Actual reheat open Brayton cycle.
efficiency of the cycle. Show the cycle on a T–s diagram. Plot the sensitivity
diagram of cycle efficiency versus inlet pressure of the low-pressure turbine.
1. Build:
a. Take a source, a compressor, a combustion chamber (heater), a
reheater, two turbines, and a sink from the open-system inven-
tory shop and connect the devices to form the Brayton cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the five devices: (1) compressor
as adiabatic with 85% efficiency, (2) combustion chamber as
isobaric, (3) turbines as adiabatic with 89% efficiency, and (4)
reheater as isobaric.
pressure and temperature of the compression device are 15 psia
and 60 F, (3) exit pressure of the compressor is 120 psia, (4) exit
temperature of the combustion chamber is 2000 F, (5) exit
pressure of the high-pressure turbine is 50 psia, (6) inlet tem-
perature of the low-pressure turbine is 2000 F, (7) mass flow
rate of air is 1 lbm/sec, and (8) exit pressure of the turbine is
15 psia.
3. Display results:
a. Display the cycle properties’ results. The cycle is a heat engine.
The answers are power required for the compressor ¼
170.4 hp, power produced by the first turbine ¼ 164.3 hp,
rate of heat added to the combustion chamber ¼ 334.5 Btu/
sec, rate of heat added in the reheater ¼ 116.1 Btu/sec, power

Figure 4.15b Actual reheat open Brayton cycle sensitivity analysis.
produced by the second turbine ¼ 219.1 hp, net power produ-

ced ¼ 213.0 hp, back-work ratio ¼ 44.45%, and efficiency of
the cycle ¼ 32.68%.
b. Display the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus inlet
pressure of the low-pressure turbine. It is seen that the optimal
pressure is about 77 psia, which gives a maximum cycle effi-
ciency of about 32%. (see Fig. 4.15b.)
Review Problems 4.4 Reheat and Intercool Brayton Cycle

1. Does reheat or intercooling increase the net work of the Brayton
cycle?
2. Does reheat or intercooling increase the efficiency of the Brayton
cycle?
3. An ideal Brayton cycle is modified to incorporate multistage
compression with intercooling, and multistage expansion with reheating.
As a result of these modifications, does the efficiency increase?
compression with intercooling, and multistage expansion with reheating.
As a result of these modifications, does the net work increase?
5. Atmospheric air is at 100 kPa and 300 K. 1 kg/sec of air at 800 kPa
and 1200 K enters an actual two-stage (high-pressure stage and low-pressure
stage) adiabatic turbine at steady state and exits to 100 kPa. Air is reheated to
1200 K and enters the low-pressure turbine. Air pressure at 300.1 kPa is
measured at the exit of the high-pressure stage turbine. The high-pressure
stage turbine, low-pressure stage turbine, and the compressor all are known
to have an isentropic efficiency of 85%. Determine (a) the actual temperature

at the exit of the high-pressure stage turbine, (b) the actual temperature at the
exit of the low-pressure stage turbine, (c) the cycle efficiency, (d) net power
produced by the cycle, (e) power required by the compressor, (f ) power
produced by the high-pressure turbine, (g) power produced by the low-
pressure turbine, (h) the back-work ratio, (i) the rate of heat added in the
combustion chamber, and ( j) the rate of heat added in the reheater.
6. An ideal Brayton cycle with a one-stage compressor and a two-
stage turbine has an overall pressure ratio of 10. Atmospheric air is at
101 kPa and 292 K. The high-pressure stage turbine, low-pressure stage
turbine, and the compressor all are known to have an isentropic efficiency
of 85%. Air enters each stage of the turbine at 1350 K. The mass rate of
air flow is 0.56 kg/sec. The air pressure at the inlet of the second stage
turbine is 307 kPa. Determine (a) the power required by the compressor,
(b) power produced by the turbine, (c) rate of heat added, (d) back-work
ratio, (e) net power produced, and (f ) the cycle efficiency.
101 kPa and 292 K. The high-pressure stage turbine, low-pressure stage
of 85%. Air enters each stage of the turbine at 1350 K. The mass rate of
air flow is 0.56 kg/sec. Use air pressure at the inlet of the second-stage
turbine as a parameter (from 400 to 800 kPa). Determine (a) the maximum
cycle efficiency by showing the sensitivity diagram, (b) the optimum air
pressure at the inlet of the second-stage turbine at the maximum cycle
efficiency condition, (c) power required by the compressor, (d) power
produced by the turbine, (e) rate of heat added, (f ) back-work ratio, and
(g) net power produced.
14.6 psia and 65 F. The high-pressure stage turbine, low-pressure stage
of 85%. Air enters each stage of the turbine at 2000 F. The mass rate of
air flow is 1.5 lbm/sec. The air pressure at the inlet of the second-stage
turbine is 50 psia. Determine (a) the power required by the compressor, (b)
power produced by the turbine, (c) rate of heat added, (d) back-work
ratio, (e) net power produced, and (f ) the cycle efficiency.
4.5 REGENERATIVE BRAYTON CYCLE
The thermal efficiency of the gas turbine cycle is not high. It is observed
that the exhaust temperature of the turbine is quite high, indicating that

Figure 4.16 Regenerative Brayton cycle.
Figure 4.17 Regenerative Brayton cycle T–s diagram.
a large portion of available energy is wasted. One way to put this high-
temperature available energy to use is to preheat the combustion air before
it enters the combustion chamber. This increases the overall efficiency by
decreasing the fuel required, hence heat added. The schematic diagram and
T–s diagram for an ideal regenerative gas turbine cycle are illustrated in
Fig. 4.16 and 4.17, respectively.
Example 4.7
An engine operates on the actual regenerative Brayton cycle (Fig. 4.18a).
Air enters the engine at 60 F and 14.7 psia. The maximum cycle
temperature and the maximum pressure are 2000 F and 120 psia. The
compressor efficiency is 85% and the turbine efficiency is 89%. The mass
flow rate of air is 1 lbm/sec. Determine the power required for the

Figure 4.18a Actual regenerative Brayton cycle.
compressor, the power produced by the turbine, the rate of heat added in
the combustion chamber, the net power produced, the back-work ratio,
and the efficiency of the cycle. Show the cycle on a T–s diagram. Plot the
sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus inlet pressure of the low-
pressure turbine. Plot the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency versus exit
temperature of the turbine exhaust stream in the heat exchanger.
1. Build:
a. Take a source, a compressor, a combustion chamber (heater),
a heat exchanger, a turbine, and a sink from the open-system
inventory shop and connect the devices to form the actual
regenerative Brayton cycle.
2. Analysis:
as adiabatic with efficiency of 85%, (2) combustion chamber
as isobaric, (3) turbine as adiabatic with efficiency of 89%,
and (4) heat exchanger as isobaric on both hot and cold sides.
14.7 psia and 60 F, (3) inlet pressure and temperature of the
turbine are 120 psia and 2000 F, (4) mass flow rate of air is
1 lbm/sec, (5) exit pressure of the turbine is 14.7 psia, (6) dis-
play the exit temperature of the compressor (it is 562.5 F),
and (7) input the exit temperature of the exhaust turbine gas

Figure 4.18b Actual Regenerative Brayton cycle sensitive analysis.
to be the same as the compressor exit temperature, 562.5 F,

by assuming perfect regeneration.
3. Display the T–s diagram and cycle properties results. The cycle is a
heat engine. The answers are power required for the compres-
sor ¼ 170.4 hp, the power produced by the turbine ¼ 334.9 hp,
the rate of heat added in the combustion chamber ¼ 236.7 Btu/sec,
the net power produced ¼ 164.5 hp, back-work ratio ¼ 50.88%,
and the efficiency of the cycle ¼ 49.12%. (See Fig. 4.18b.)
COMMENT: The cycle efficiency is increased because the rate of heat
added is decreased by making use of the waste energy. The higher the exit
temperature of the heat exchanger in the exhaust turbine gas stream, the less
waste energy is used, and therefore the less the efficiency as shown by the
sensitivity diagram.
Review Problems 4.5 Regenerative Brayton Cycle

1. What is regeneration?
2. Why is regeneration added to a Brayton cycle?
3. How does regeneration affect the efficiency of the Brayton cycle?
compression with intercooling, multistage expansion with reheating, and
regeneration. As a result of these modifications, does the efficiency increase?
5. An ideal Brayton cycle with regeneration has a pressure ratio of
10. Air enters the compressor at 101 kPa and 290 K. Air leaves the regene-
rator and enters the combustion chamber at 580 K. Air enters the turbine
at 1220 K. The air mass flow rate is 0.46 kg/sec. Determine (a) the power
required by the compressor, (b) power produced by the turbine, (c) rate of

heat added, (d) back-work ratio, (e) net power produced, and (f ) the cycle
efficiency.
6. An ideal Brayton cycle with regeneration has a pressure ratio of
10. Air enters the compressor at 14.7 psia and 29 F. Air enters the
combustion chamber at 610 F. Air enters the turbine at 1520 F. The
turbine exit air pressure is 15.0 psia. The air mass flow rate is 0.41 lbm/sec.
The turbine efficiency is 85%, and the compressor efficiency is 82%.
Determine (a) the exit air temperature of the compressor, (b) the inlet air
temperature of the combustion chamber, (c) the power required by the
compressor, (d) power produced by the turbine, (e) rate of heat added,
(f ) back-work ratio, (g) net power produced, and (h) the cycle efficiency.
7. A regenerative gas-turbine power plant is to be designed accord-
ing to the following specifications:
Maximum cycle temperature ¼ 1200 K.
Turbine efficiency ¼ 85%.
Compressor efficiency ¼ 82%.
Inlet air temperature of the combustion chamber is 20 K higher
than the exit air temperature of the compressor.
Inlet air pressure to the compressor ¼ 100 kPa.
Turbine exit air pressure ¼ 110 kPa.
Exit air pressure of the compressor ¼ 800 kPa.
Mass flow rate of air ¼ 1.4 kg/sec.
Determine (a) the exit air temperature of the compressor, (b) the inlet air
temperature of the combustion chamber, (c) the power required by the
compressor, (d) power produced by the turbine, (e) rate of heat added,
(f ) back-work ratio, (g) net power produced, and (h) the cycle efficiency.
4.6 BLEED AIR BRAYTON CYCLE
Real gas turbine engines send a portion of the air supplied by the
compressor through alternative flow paths to provide cooling to the
outside of the engine, to protect nearby components, to be remixed with
the combustion products, and to drive ancillary equipments such as air
conditioning and ventilation. The rate of the bleed air can be controlled.
The schematic diagram for the bleed air Brayton cycle is illustrated in
Fig. 4.19. It can be seen from the diagram that the engine’s entire flow
passes through the compressor, but only a fraction of the flow passes
through the combustion chamber and the turbine.
Bleed air is a necessary feature of practical gas turbine engines. For
example, when one enters a commercial aircraft, the cabin temperature is

Figure 4.19 Bleed air Brayton cycle.
normally pleasant and the small vents above the seats are providing plenty
of fresh air. The ventilation reduces dramatically as the aircraft prepares to
take off, because the pilot has temporarily reduced the bleed air so that
more air will flow through the combustion chamber to give the pilot more
power available to get airborne. Bleed air does not improve the efficiency
of the Brayton cycle.
Example 4.8
An open, split-shaft, bleed air Brayton cycle as illustrated in Fig. 4.19 has
the following information:
Compressor efficiency ¼ 80%, turbine efficiency ¼ 80%, compressor
inlet pressure ¼ 14.5 psia, compressor inlet temperature ¼ 60 F, compressor
exit pressure ¼ 145 psia, combustion chamber exit temperature ¼ 1800 F,
power turbine exit pressure ¼ 14.9 psia, air mass flow rate through
compressor ¼ 1 lbm/sec, and air mass flow rate through combustion
chamber ¼ 0.9 lbm/sec.
Find the temperature of all states, power required by the compressor,
power produced by turbine #1, which drives the compressor, power
produced by the power turbine, rate of heat supplied by the combustion
chamber, and cycle efficiency.

1. Build the cycle as shown by Fig. 4.19.

2. Assume compressor as adiabatic and 80% efficient, combustion
chamber and mixing chamber as isobaric, and turbines as
adiabatic and 80% efficient.
3. Input working fluid is air, compressor inlet pressure ¼ 14.5
psia, compressor inlet temperature ¼ 60 F, compressor exit
pressure ¼ 145 psia, combustion chamber exit temperature ¼
1800 F, power turbine exit pressure ¼ 14.9 psia, air mass flow
rate through compressor ¼ 1 lbm/sec, air mass flow rate through
state 9 ¼ 0 lbm/sec, and air mass flow rate through combustion
4. Display compressor power ( 205 hp); input turbine #1
power ¼ 205 hp.
5. Display the cycle properties results and state results.
The answers are T2 ¼ 664.6 F, T3 ¼ T4 ¼ T8 ¼ T9 ¼ T10 ¼ 664.6 F,

T6 ¼ 1128 F, T7 ¼ 913.1 F, compressor power ¼ 205 hp, turbine #1
power ¼ 205 hp, turbine #2 power ¼ 65.66 hp, rate of heat added in the
combustion chamber ¼ 244.9 Btu/sec, net cycle power ¼ 65.66 hp, and cycle
efficiency ¼ 18.95%. (See Fig. 4.20.)

Example 4.9
An open, split-shaft, air-bleed Brayton cycle as illustrated in Fig. 4.19 has
the following information:
exit pressure ¼ 145 psia, combustion chamber exit temperature ¼ 1800 F,
power turbine exit pressure ¼ 14.9 psia, air mass flow rate through
compressor ¼ 1 lbm/sec, and air mass flow rate through combustion
Find the temperature of all states, power required by the compressor,
power produced by turbine #1, which drives the compressor, power
produced by the power turbine, rate of heat supplied by the combustion
chamber, and cycle efficiency.

2. Assume compressor as adiabatic and 80% efficient, combustion
chamber and mixing chamber as isobaric, and turbines as
adiabatic and 80% efficient.
3. Input working fluid is air, compressor inlet pressure ¼ 14.5 psia,
compressor inlet temperature ¼ 60 F, compressor exit pres-
sure ¼ 145 psia, combustion chamber exit temperature ¼ 1800 F,
power turbine exit pressure ¼ 14.9 psia, air mass flow rate
through compressor ¼ 1 lbm/sec, air mass flow rate through state
9 ¼ 0.05 lbm/sec, and air mass flow rate through combustion
4. Display compressor power ( 205 hp); input turbine #1
power ¼ 205 hp.
The answers are T2 ¼ 664.6 F, T3 ¼ T4 ¼ T8 ¼ T9 ¼ T10 ¼ 664.6 F, T6 ¼

1164 F, T7 ¼ 911.1 F, compressor power ¼ 205 hp, turbine #1 power ¼
205 hp, turbine #2 power ¼ 81.33 hp, rate of heat added in the combustion
chamber ¼ 258.5 Btu/sec, net cycle power ¼ 81.33 hp, and cycle effici-
ency ¼ 22.24%. (See Fig. 4.21.)
Example 4.10
An open, split-shaft, air bleed Brayton cycle with two compressors
(CMP1 and CMP2), three turbines (TUR1, TUR2, and TUR3), one
intercooler (CLR1), one combustion chamber (HTR1), one reheater

Figure 4.22a Bleed air Brayton cycle.
(HTR2), and one regenerator (HX1), illustrated in Fig. 4.22a, has the
following information:
#1 exit pressure ¼ 40 psia, intercooler exit temperature ¼ 100 F, compres-
sor #2 exit pressure ¼ 140 psia, combustion chamber exit temperature ¼

1800 F, reheater exit temperature ¼ 1800 F, regenerator hot-side exit
temperature ¼ 500 F, power turbine exit pressure ¼ 14.9 psia, air mass flow
rate through compressor #2 ¼ 1 lbm/sec, air mass flow rate through
combustion chamber ¼ 0.9 lbm/sec, air mass flow rate through state
15 ¼ 0.1 lbm/sec, air mass flow rate through state 17 ¼ 0.01 lbm/sec, and air
mass flow rate through state 13 ¼ 0 lbm/sec (regenerator is off ).
Find the temperature of all states, power required by the
compressors, power produced by turbine #1, which drives compressor
#1, power produced by turbine #2, which drives compressor #2, power
produced by power turbine #3, rate of heat supplied by the combustion
chamber, rate of heat supplied by the reheater, rate of heat removed from
the intercooler, and cycle efficiency.
1. Build the cycle as shown by Fig. 4.27a.
2. Assume all compressors as adiabatic and 80% efficient, com-
bustion chamber, reheater, intercooler, heat exchanger (both hot
and cold side), and mixing chamber as isobaric, and all turbines
as adiabatic and 80% efficient.
compressor inlet temperature ¼ 60 F, compressor #1 exit pres-
sure ¼ 40 psia, intercooler exit temperature ¼ 100 F, compressor #2
exit pressure ¼ 140 psia, combustion chamber exit temperature ¼
1800 F, reheater exit temperature ¼ 1800 F, regenerator hot-side
exit temperature ¼ 500 F, power turbine exit pressure ¼ 14.9 psia,
air mass flow rate through compressor #2 ¼ 1 lbm/sec, air mass
flow rate through combustion chamber ¼ 0.9 lbm/sec, air mass flow
rate through state 15 ¼ 0.1 lbm/sec, air mass flow rate through state
17 ¼ 0.01 lbm/sec, and air mass flow rate through state 13 ¼ 0 lbm/
sec (regenerator is off ).
4. Display compressor power #1 ( 74.08 hp), input turbine #1
power ¼ 74.08 hp; display compressor power #2 ( 102.1 hp),
input turbine #2 power ¼ 102.1 hp.
The answers are T2 ¼ 278.5 F, T3 ¼ 100 F, T4 ¼ 401.1 F ¼ T5 ¼ T15 ¼
T17 ¼ 401.1 F, T7 ¼ T11 ¼ 1800 F, T8 ¼ 1673 F, T9 ¼ 1452 F, T10 ¼
1148 F, T12 ¼ 1359 F, compressor #1 power ¼ 74.08 hp, turbine #1
power ¼ 74.08 hp, compressor #2 power ¼ 102.1 hp, turbine #2 power ¼
102.1 hp, turbine #3 power ¼ 148.1 hp, rate of heat added in the com-
bustion chamber ¼ 301.8 Btu/sec, rate of heat added in the reheater ¼
154.7 Btu/sec, rate of heat removed in the intercooler ¼ 42.78 Btu/sec, net
cycle power ¼ 148.1 hp, and cycle efficiency ¼ 22.94%. (See Fig. 4.22b.)

Figure 4.22b Bleed air Brayton cycle (regenerator off ).
Example 4.11
An open, split-shaft, air-bleed Brayton cycle with two compressors
(CMP1 and CMP2), three turbines (TUR1, TUR2, and TUR3), one inter-
cooler (CLR1), one combustion chamber (HTR1), one reheater (HTR2),
and one regenerator (HX1) is illustrated in Fig. 4.23 has the following
information:
#1 exit pressure ¼ 40 psia, intercooler exit temperature ¼ 100 F, compres-
sor #2 exit pressure ¼ 140 psia, combustion chamber exit temperature ¼
1800 F, reheater exit temperature ¼ 1800 F, regenerator hot-side exit
temperature ¼ 500 F, power turbine exit pressure ¼ 14.9 psia, air mass flow
rate through compressor #2 ¼ 1 lbm/sec, air mass flow rate through
combustion chamber ¼ 0.9 lbm/sec, air mass flow rate through state
15 ¼ 0.1 lbm/sec, air mass flow rate through state 17 ¼ 0.01 lbm/sec, and air
mass flow rate through state 13 ¼ 0.99 lbm/sec (regenerator is on).
Find the temperature of all states, power required by the
compressors, power produced by turbine #1, which drives compressor #1,
power produced by turbine #2, which drives compressor #2, power
produced by the power turbine #3, rate of heat supplied by the
combustion chamber, rate of heat supplied by the reheater, rate of heat
removed from the intercooler, and cycle efficiency.

Figure 4.23 Bleed air Brayton cycle (regenerator on).

2. Assume all compressors as adiabatic and 80% efficient,
combustion chamber, reheater, intercooler, heat exchanger
(both hot and cold side), and mixing chamber as isobaric, and
all turbines as adiabatic and 80% efficient.
compressor inlet temperature ¼ 60 F, compressor #1 exit
pressure ¼ 40 psia, intercooler exit temperature ¼ 100 F, com-
pressor #2 exit pressure ¼ 140 psia, combustion chamber exit
temperature ¼ 1800 F, reheater exit temperature ¼ 1800 F, regen-
erator hot-side exit temperature ¼ 500 F, power turbine exit
pressure ¼ 14.9 psia, air mass flow rate through compressor
#2 ¼ 1 lbm/sec, air mass flow rate through combustion cham-
ber ¼ 0.9 lbm/sec, air mass flow rate through state 15 ¼ 0.1 lbm/
sec, air mass flow rate through state 17 ¼ 0.01 lbm/sec, and air
mass flow rate through state 13 ¼ 0.99 lbm/sec (regenerator is on).
4. Display compressor power #1 ( 74.08 hp), input turbine #1
power ¼ 74.08 hp; display compressor power #2 (102.1 hp) and
input turbine #2 power ¼ 102.1 hp.

The answers are T2 ¼ 278.5 F, T3 ¼ 100 F, T4 ¼ 401.1 F ¼ T5 ¼ T15 ¼
T17 ¼ 401.1 F, T7 ¼ T11 ¼ 1800 F, T8 ¼ 1673 F, T9 ¼ 1452 F, T10 ¼
1148 F, T12 ¼ 1359 F, compressor #1 power ¼ 74.08 hp, turbine #1
power ¼ 74.08 hp, compressor #2 power ¼ 102.1 hp, turbine #2
power ¼ 102.1 hp, turbine #3 power ¼ 148.1 hp, rate of heat added in the
combustion chamber ¼ 301.8 Btu/sec, rate of heat added in the reheater ¼
154.7 Btu/sec, rate of heat removed in the intercooler ¼ 42.78 Btu/sec, net
cycle power ¼ 148.1 hp, and cycle efficiency ¼ 22.94%.
Review Problems 4.6 Bleed Air Brayton Cycle

1. Why do we need bleed air in practical gas turbine cycles?
2. How do you control the power output of a real gas turbine cycle
using bleed air?
3. Does the efficiency of a real gas turbine cycle increase using
bleed air?
4. Bleed air is used in a split-shaft gas turbine cycle. The following
information is provided:
Compressor—air inlet temperature and pressure are 60 F and

14.5 psia, efficiency ¼ 85%, exit pressure is 145 psia, and
mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec.
Combustion chamber—qsupply ¼ 400 Btu/lbm, and mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec
(no bleed air).
Turbine #1—efficiency ¼ 92.3%.
Turbine #2—efficiency ¼ 92.3%, and air exit pressure ¼ 15 psia.
Determine temperature of all states of the cycle, compressor power

required, power produced by turbine #1, power produced by turbine #2,
ANSWERS: T2 ¼ 629 F, T3 ¼ 629 F, T4 ¼ 1881 F, T5 ¼ 1881 F, T6 ¼
1312 F, T7 ¼ 837.6 F, Wdotcompressor ¼ 192.9 hp, Wdotturbine #1 ¼ 192.9 hp,

Wdotturbine #2 ¼ 160.8 hp, ¼ 37.88%.

Compressor—air inlet temperature and pressure are 60 F

and14.5 psia, efficiency ¼ 85%, exit pressure is 145 psia, and
mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec.
Combustion chamber—qsupply ¼ 400 Btu/lbm, and mdot ¼ 0.95 lbm/
sec.

Determine the temperature of all states of the cycle, compressor

power required, power produced by turbine #1, power produced by
turbine #2, and cycle efficiency.

Wdotturbine #2 ¼ 143.2 hp, ¼ 35.49%.


14.5 psia, efficiency ¼ 85%, exit pressure is 145 psia, and
mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec.
Combustion chamber—qsupply ¼ 400 Btu/lbm, and mdot ¼ 0.9 lbm/
sec.
Determine temperature of all states of the cycle, compressor power


Wdotturbine #2 ¼ 125.4 hp, ¼ 32.83%.


14.5 psia, efficiency ¼ 85%, exit pressure is 145 psia, and mdot ¼
1 lbm/sec.
Combustion chamber—qsupply ¼ 400 Btu/lbm, and mdot ¼ 0.9 lbm/sec.
Turbine #1—efficiency ¼ 92.3%, and mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec.
Turbine #2—efficiency ¼ 92.3%, air exit pressure ¼ 15 psia, and
mdot ¼ 1lbm/sec.
Determine the temperature of all states of the cycle, compressor power



Wdotturbine #2 ¼ 141.9 hp, ¼ 37.14%.
4.7 FEHER CYCLE
The Feher cycle as shown in Fig. 4.24 is a single-phase cycle operating

above the critical point of the working fluid. It incorporates the efficient
pumping of the Rankine cycle with the regenerative heating features of the
Brayton cycle to achieve higher theoretical efficiencies. The components of
the cycle are identical to those of the Brayton cycle except that the higher
pressures permit a substantial reduction in the size of all components. The
T–s diagram of the cycle is shown in Fig. 4.7.2. The four processes of the
Feher cycle are isentropic compression process 1-2, isobaric heat-addition
process 2-3, isentropic expansion process 3-4, and isobaric heat removal
process 4-1. Carbon dioxide with a critical pressure of 73.9 bars (1072 psia)
and critical temperature of 304 K (88 F) appears to be the most suitable
working fluid for such a cycle.
Q12 W12 ¼ m(h2 h1), Q12 ¼ 0 (4.13)
Figure 4.24 Feher cycle.

Q23 W23 ¼ m(h3 h2),W23 ¼ 0 (4.14)
Q34 W34 ¼ m(h4 h3),Q34 ¼ 0 (4.15)
and
Q41 W41 ¼ m(h1 h4), W41 ¼ 0 (4.16)
Wnet ¼ W12 þ W34 ¼ Qnet ¼ Q23 þ Q41 (4.17)
¼ Wnet/Q23 (4.18)
Example 4.12
A proposed Feher cycle using carbon dioxide has the following design
information: turbine efficiency ¼ 0.88, compressor efficiency ¼ 0.88, mass rate
flow of carbon dioxide ¼ 1 lbm/sec, compressor inlet pressure ¼ 1950 psia,
compressor inlet temperature ¼ 100 F, turbine inlet pressure ¼ 4000 psia,
and turbine inlet temperature ¼ 1300 F.
Determine the compressor power, turbine power, rate of heat added,
rate of heat removed, and cycle efficiency.
The answers are: Wdotcompressor ¼ 31.66 hp, Wdotturbine ¼ 65.59 hp,
Qdotheater ¼ 218.5 Btu/sec, Qdotcooler ¼ 194.5 Btu/sec, and ¼ 10.98%.
If a regenerator is added to the Feher cycle, as shown in Fig. 4.25
and the following example, the cycle would have an efficiency of 39.82%,
which is comparable to today’s best steam power plant.
Example 4.13
A proposed Feher cycle with a regenerator (Fig. 4.26) using carbon
dioxide has the following design information: turbine efficiency ¼ 0.88,
compressor efficiency ¼ 0.88, mass rate flow of carbon dioxide ¼ 1 lbm/sec,
compressor inlet pressure ¼ 1950 psia, compressor inlet temperature ¼
100 F, combustion chamber inlet temperature ¼ 1000 F, turbine inlet
pressure ¼ 4000 psia, and turbine inlet temperature ¼ 1300 F.
The answers are: Wdotcompressor ¼ 31.66 hp, Wdotturbine ¼
65.59 hp, Qdotheater ¼ 218.5 Btu/sec, Qdotcooler ¼ 194.5 Btu/sec, and
¼ 39.82%.

Figure 4.25 Feher cycle with regenerator.
Figure 4.26 Feher cycle with regenerator.
Review Problems 4.7 Feher Cycle

1. What are the four processes of the Feher cycle?
2. What is the difference between the Feher and the Brayton cycle?

3. A proposed Feher cycle using carbon dioxide has the following
design information: turbine efficiency ¼ 0.9, compressor efficiency ¼ 0.85,
mass rate flow of carbon dioxide ¼ 1 lbm/sec, compressor inlet pressure ¼
1950 psia, compressor inlet temperature ¼ 120 F, turbine inlet pres-
sure ¼ 4200 psia, and turbine inlet temperature ¼ 1400 F.s
4. A proposed Feher cycle with a regenerator using carbon dioxide
has the following design information: turbine efficiency ¼ 0.9, compressor
efficiency ¼ 0.85, mass rate flow of carbon dioxide ¼ 1 lbm/sec, compressor
inlet pressure ¼ 1950 psia, compressor inlet temperature ¼ 120 F, combus-
tion chamber inlet temperature ¼ 1000 F, turbine inlet pressure ¼
4200 psia, and turbine inlet temperature ¼ 1300 F.
4.8 ERICSSON CYCLE
The thermal cycle efficiency of a Brayton cycle can be increased by adding

more intercoolers, compressors, reheaters, turbines, and regeneration.
However, there is an economic limit to the number of stages of inter-
coolers, compressors, reheaters, and turbines.
If an infinite number of intercoolers, compressors, reheaters, and
turbines are added to a basic ideal Brayton cycle, the intercooling and
multicompression processes approach an isothermal process. Similarly, the
reheat and multiexpansion processes approach another isothermal process.
This limiting Brayton cycle becomes an Ericsson cycle.
The schematic Ericsson cycle is shown in Fig. 4.27. The p–v and T–s
diagrams of the cycle are shown in Fig. 4.28. The cycle consists of two
isothermal processes and two isobaric processes. The four processes of the
Ericsson cycle are isothermal compression process 1-2 (compressor),
isobaric compression heating process 2-3 (heater), isothermal expansion
process 3-4 (turbine), and isobaric expansion cooling process 4-1 (cooler).
Applying the basic laws of thermodynamics, we have
q12 w12 ¼ h2 h1 (4.19)

q23 w23 ¼ h3 h2, w23 ¼ 0 (4.20)
q34 w34 ¼ h4 h3 (4.21)

q41 w41 ¼ h1 h4, w41 ¼ 0 (4.22)

Figure 4.27 Schematic Ericsson cycle.
Figure 4.28 Ericsson cycle p–v and T–s diagram.
The net work produced by the cycle is

wnet ¼ w12 þ w34 (4.23)
The heat added to the cycle is
qadd ¼ q23 þ q34 (4.24)

The cycle efficiency is
¼ wnet/qadd (4.25)
Example 4.14
Air, at a mass flow rate of 1 kg/sec, is compressed and heated from
100 kPa and 100 C in an Ericsson cycle to a turbine inlet at 1 MPa and
1000 C. Determine the pressure and temperature of each of the four states,
power and rate of heat added in each of the four devices, and cycle
efficiency.
1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig. 4.27. Assuming the compressor
is isothermal, the heater is isobaric, the turbine is isothermal, and
the cooler is isobaric.
2. Input working fluid ¼ air, mass flow rate ¼ 1 kg/sec, compressor
inlet pressure ¼ 100 kPa, compressor inlet temperature ¼ 100 C,
turbine inlet pressure ¼ 1000 kPa, and turbine inlet
temperature ¼ 1000 C.
3. Display results
The answers are: T2 ¼ 100 C, p2 ¼ 1000 kPa, T4 ¼ 1000 C, p2 ¼ 100
kPa, Qdothtr ¼ 903.1 kW, Qdotclr ¼ 903.1 kW, Qdotcmp ¼ 246.3 kW,
Wdotcmp ¼ 246.3 kW, Qdottur ¼ 840.4 kW, Wdotcmp ¼ 840.4 kW, and
¼ 34.08. Notice that Carnot ¼ 70.69%. (See Fig. 4.29.)
An attempt to achieve Carnot cycle efficiency is made by the
Ericsson cycle using an ideal regenerator. Figure 4.30 shows a schematic
Ericsson cycle with a regenerator. In the regenerator, gas from the
compressor enters as a cold-side stream at a low temperature (T2) and
leaves at a high temperature (T1). The gas from the turbine enters as a
hot-side stream at a high temperature (T5) and leaves at a low temperature
(T6). Suppose there is only a small temperature difference between the two
gas streams at any one section of the regenerator, so that the operation of
the regenerator is almost ideal. Then the heat loss by the hot-side stream
gas (Q56) equals to the heat gain by the cold-side stream gas (Q23).
The cycle efficiency is close to that of the Carnot cycle operating between
the same two temperatures.
Example 4.15
Air, at a mass flow rate of 1 kg/sec, is compressed and heated from
100 kPa and 100 C in an Ericsson cycle to a turbine inlet at 1 MPa and

Figure 4.29 Ericsson cycle.
Figure 4.30 Schematic Ericsson cycle with a regenerator.

1000 C. A regenerator is added. The inlet temperature of the hot stream in
the regenerator is 995 C. Determine the pressure and temperature of each
of the four states, power and rate of heat added in each of the four
devices, and cycle efficiency.
1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig.4.30. Assume that the compressor

is isothermal, the heater is isobaric, the turbine is isothermal, the
cooler is isobaric, and the hot and cold sides of the regenerator
are isobaric.
2. Input working fluid ¼ air, mass flow rate ¼ 1 kg/sec, compressor
inlet pressure ¼ 100 kPa, compressor inlet temperature ¼ 100 C,
turbine inlet pressure ¼ 1000 kPa, turbine inlet temperature ¼
1000 C, and regenerator hot-side inlet temperature ¼ 995 C.
3. Display results.
The answers are: T2 ¼ 100 C, p2 ¼ 1000 kPa, T3 ¼ 995 C, T4 ¼

1000 C, p4 ¼ 100 kPa, T6 ¼ 105 C, Qdothtr ¼ 903.1 kW, Qdotclr ¼

903.1 kW, Qdotcmp ¼ 246.3 kW, Wdotcmp ¼ 246.3 kW, Qdottur ¼

840.4 kW, Wdotcmp ¼ 840.4 kW, and ¼ 70.52. Notice that ¼ 70.52 is
very close to Carnot ¼ 70.69%. (See Fig. 4.31.)
Figure 4.31 Ericsson cycle with regenerator.

Review Problems 4.8 Ericsson Cycle
1. What are the four processes of the Ericsson cycle?
2. What is the function of a regenerator?
3. Does the regenerator improve the efficiency of the Ericsson cycle?
4. Suppose an ideal regenerator is added to an Ericsson cycle. The
regenerator would absorb heat from the system during part of the cycle
and return exactly the same amount of heat to the system during another
part of the cycle. What would be the difference between the Ericsson cycle
efficiency and the Carnot cycle efficiency?
5. Air, at a mass flow rate of 1.2 kg/sec, is compressed and heated
from 100 kPa and 300 K in an Ericsson cycle to a turbine inlet at 1200 kPa
and 1500 K. The turbine efficiency is 85% and the compressor efficiency is
88%. Determine the pressure and temperature of each of the four states,
power and rate of heat added in each of the four devices, and cycle
efficiency.
6. Air, at a mass flow rate of 1.2 kg/sec, is compressed and heated
from 100 kPa and 300 K in an Ericsson cycle to a turbine inlet at 1200 kPa
and 1500 K. The turbine efficiency is 85% and the compressor efficiency is
88%. A regenerator is added. The inlet temperature of the hot stream in
the regenerator is 1495 K. Determine the pressure and temperature of each
of the states, power and rate of heat added in each of the four devices, and
cycle efficiency. What would be the efficiency of the Carnot cycle
operating between 300 and 1500 K?
4.9 BRAYSSON CYCLE
A Braysson cycle, proposed by Frost et al. (Frost, T.H., Anderson, A., and
Agnew, B., A hybrid gas turbine cycle (Brayton/Ericsson): an alternative
to conventional combined gas and steam turbine power plant. Proceedings
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A, Journal of Power
and Energy, vol. 211, no. A2, pp. 121–131, 1997), is an alternative to
the Brayton/Rankine combined gas and steam turbine power plant. The
Braysson cycle is a combination of a single Brayton cycle and an Ericsson
cycle. The cycle takes advantage of the high-temperature heat-addition
process of the Brayton cycle and the low-temperature heat-rejection
process of the Ericsson cycle. It employs one working fluid in the two
cycles in such a way that the full waste heat from the top Brayton cycle
serves as the heat source for the bottom Ericsson cycle. The total power
output of the Braysson cycle is the summation of the power produced by
the top and bottom cycles.

A design of such a novel Braysson cycle (Wu, C., Intelligent
computer aided optimization of power and energy systems. Proceedings of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A, Journal of Power and
Energy, vol. 213, no. A1, pp. 1–6, 1999), consisting of four compressors,
one combustion chamber, two turbines, and two coolers, is shown in
Fig. 4.32. The T–s diagram of the Braysson cycle is shown in Fig. 4.33.
Another arrangement of the Braysson cycle, consisting of four
compressors, one combustion chamber, two turbines, and two coolers, is
shown in Fig. 4.34.
Neglecting kinetic and potential energy changes, a steady state and
steady flow mass and energy balance on the components of the Braysson
cycle have the general forms:
X X
mdote ¼ mdoti ð4:26Þ
and
X X
Qdot Wdot ¼ mdote he mdoti hi ð4:27Þ
Figure 4.32 Braysson cycle.
Figure 4.33 Braysson cycle T–s diagram.

Figure 4.34 Braysson cycle.
The energy input of the cycle is the heat added by the heater. The net
energy output of the cycle is the sum of the work added to the individual
compressors and work produced by the turbines:
X X
Wdotnet ¼ Wdotcompressor þ Wdotturbine ð4:28Þ
and the efficiency of the cycle is
¼ Wdot/Qdotheater (4.29)
The following examples illustrate the analysis of the Braysson cycle.
Example 4.16
A Braysson cycle (Fig. 4.32) uses air as the working fluid with 1 kg/sec of
mass flow rate through the cycle. In the cycle, air enters from the
atmospheric source to an isentropic compressor at 20 C and 1 bar (state 1)
and leaves at 8 bars (state 2); air enters an isobaric heater (combustion
chamber) and leaves at 1100 C (state 3); air enters a high-pressure isent-
ropic turbine and leaves at 1 bar (state 4). Air enters a low-pressure
isentropic turbine and leaves at 0.04 bar (state 5); air enters a first-stage
isentropic compressor and leaves at 0.2 bar (state 6); air enters an isobaric
intercooler and leaves at 20 C (state 7); air enters a second-stage isentropic

compressor and leaves at 1 bar (state 8); and air is discharged to the
atmospheric sink.
Determine the thermodynamic efficiency and the net power output of
the Braysson combined plant. Plot the sensitivity diagram of (cycle
efficiency) versus p6 (pressure at state 6) and sensitivity diagram of (cycle
efficiency) versus p8 (pressure at state 8).
1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig. 4.32. Assume that the compressors
are adiabatic and isentropic, the heater is isobaric, the turbines
are adiabatic and isentropic, and the coolers are isobaric.
2. Input working fluid ¼ air, p1 ¼ 1 bar, T1 ¼ 20 C, mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec,
p2 ¼ 8 bar, T3 ¼ 1100 C, p4 ¼ 1 bar, p5 ¼ 0.04 bar, p6 ¼ 0.2 bar,
compressor inlet temperature ¼ 100 C, turbine inlet pressure ¼
1 MPa, turbine inlet temperature ¼ 1000 C, T7 ¼ 20 C,

p8 ¼ 0.6 bar, T9 ¼ 20 C, and p10 ¼ 1 bar.
3. Display results. The answers are ¼ 59.67%, power input ¼
570.4 kW, power output ¼ 1075 kW, net power output ¼
504.2 kW, and Qdotin ¼ 845.0 kW. (see Fig. 4.35a.)
4. Display sensitivity diagrams of (cycle efficiency) versus p6
(pressure at state 6) and of (cycle efficiency) versus p8 (pressure
at state 8). (see Figs. 4.35b and 4.35c.)
The design of differently arranged Braysson cycles such as a simple
Braysson cycle with a two-stage compressor, and a Braysson cycle with a
four-stage compressor can be made. The four-stage compressor Braysson
Figure 4.35a Braysson cycle.

Figure 4.35b Braysson cycle sensitivity diagram.
Figure 4.35c Braysson cycle sensitivity diagram.
cycle is a refinement of the three-stage compressor Braysson cycle. Other

improvement include (1) a reheater added in the Brayton cycle of the
combined cycle, (2) more reheaters and more turbines added in the
Brayton cycle, (3) more compressors and more intercoolers added in
the Ericsson cycle, etc.
Review Problems 4.9 Braysson Cycle

1. What is a Braysson cycle?
2. Why is the efficiency of the Braysson cycle high?
3. A Braysson cycle (Fig. 4.32) uses air as the working fluid with 1 kg/
sec of mass flow rate through the cycle. In the Brayton cycle, air enters from
the atmospheric source to a compressor at 20 C and 1 bar (state 1) and
leaves at 8 bars (state 2); air enters an isobaric heater (combustion chamber)
and leaves at 1100 C (state 3); and air enters a high-pressure turbine and

leaves at 1 bar (state 4). In the Ericsson cycle, air enters a low-pressure
turbine and leaves at 0.04 bar (state 5); air enters a first-stage compressor
and leaves at 0.2 bar (state 6); air enters an isobaric inter-cooler and leaves
at 20 C (state 7); air enters a second-stage compressor and leaves at 1 bar
(state 8); and air is discharged to the atmospheric sink. Assume that all
turbines and compressors have 85% efficiency.
Determine the thermodynamic efficiency and the net power output
of the Braysson cycle combined plant. Plot the sensitivity diagrams of
(cycle efficiency) versus p6 (pressure at state 6) and of (cycle efficiency)
versus p8 (pressure at state 8).
ANSWERS: ¼ 26.34%, power input ¼ 749.3 kW, power output ¼
960.7 kW, Qdotin ¼ 802.9 kW.
4. A Braysson cycle (Fig. 4.32) uses air as the working fluid
with 1 kg/sec mass flow rate through the cycle. In the Brayton cycle, air
enters from the atmospheric source to a compressor at 20 C and 1 bar
(state 1) and leaves at 8 bars (state 2); air enters an isobaric heater
(combustion chamber) and leaves at 1100 C (state 3); air enters a
high-pressure isentropic turbine and leaves at 1 bar (state 4). In the
Ericsson cycle, air enters a low-pressure isentropic turbine and leaves at
0.04 bar (state 5); air enters a first-stage compressor and leaves at 0.2 bar
(state 6); air enters an isobaric intercooler and leaves at 20 C (state 7); air
enters a second-stage compressor and leaves at 1 bar (state 8); and air is
discharged to the atmospheric sink. Assume all compressors have 85%
efficiency.
Determine the thermodynamic efficiency and the net power output
of the Braysson combined plant. Plot the sensitivity diagrams of
(cycle efficiency) versus p6 (pressure at state 6) and of (cycle efficiency)
ANSWERS: ¼ 50.26%, power input ¼ 671.1 kW, Power output ¼
1075 kW, Qdotin ¼ 802.9 kW.
4.10 STEAM INJECTION GAS TURBINE CYCLE
The injection of water or steam in gas turbines has been known (Nicolin, C.,
A gas turbine with steam injection. Swedish Patent application No.8112/51,
Stockholm, Sweden, 1951) as an efficient method for NOx abatement and
power boosting. Several cycle configurations are possible with respect to
water/steam injection. Figure 4.36 is the schematic diagram of the Steam-
injection gas turbine cycle. Air is compressed from state 1 to state 2. Water is
pumped from state 7 to state 8. Steam at state 9 is generated in a recovery
boiler (heat exchanger) from state 8 by the hot exhaust gas. Steam at state 8

Figure 4.36 Steam-injection gas turbine cycle.
is injected into air at state 2 in a mixing chamber. Air and steam is then
heated in the combustion chamber from state 3 to state 4, expanded in
the gas turbine from state 4 to state 5, and exhausted to the recovery boiler
from state 5 to state 6. The mixing chamber can be located either between
the compressor and the combustion chamber (heater), or between the
combustion chamber (heater) and the turbine. The mass flow rate of injected
steam is of the order of 15% of the mass flow rate of air supplied to the
gas turbine. Comparing the cycle with a gas turbine cycle without steam
injection, we can see that the compressor work is not effected, but the
turbine work increases considerably due to increase of gas mass and
increase of substance specific heat (cp). Therefore, the net output work of
the steam-injection gas turbine cycle increases.
The beneficial influences of the steam-injection gas turbine cycle
include:
1. It provides an increase in both power output and overall
efficiency. For a given temperature at inlet to the gas turbine,
extra fuel has to be supplied in order to heat the injected steam
to that temperature, but the additional power arising from
the expansion of the injected steam as it passes through
the gas turbine more than offsets the otherwise adverse effect
on the overall efficiency of the cycle of the increase in fuel
supply.
2. As a result of the cooling effect of the steam in the
primary flame zone of the combustion chamber, it results in a
reduction in the emission of noxious oxides of nitrogen, NOx, from
the cycle.
CyclePad is not able to perform the steam-injection gas turbine cycle,
because there is no binary working fluid in the substance menu of the
software.

Review Problems 4.10 Steam-Injection Gas Turbine Cycle
1. Draw the schematic diagram of the steam-injection gas turbine
cycle by placing the mixing chamber between the combustion chamber
(heater) and the turbine.
2. What are the main beneficial influences of the steam-injection
gas turbine cycle?
4.11 FIELD CYCLE
The Field cycle is a supergenerative cycle that makes use of the high-
temperature heat addition of the Brayton cycle and the low-temperature
heat removal of the Rankine cycle (Field, J.F., The application of gas
turbine technique to steam power, Proc. of the Inst. of Mech. Eng., 1950).
Therefore, it is able to achieve a high mean temperature of heat addition.
The gain due to high-temperature heat addition, however, is offset by the
reduction in cycle efficiency resulting from the irreversibility of the mixing
process. The schematic diagram of the Field cycle is shown in Fig. 4.37.
The arrangement includes one compressor, five turbines, three pumps, one
boiler and one reheater (heaters), one regenerator (heat exchanger), one
condenser (cooler), three mixing chambers, and two splitters. Processes
1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, 5-6, and 6-7 take advantage of the high-temperature heat
addition of Brayton cycle, and the other processes take advantage of the
low-temperature heat removal and regenerative condensing of the Rankine
cycle.
Figure 4.37 Field cycle schematic diagram.

Example 4.17
An ideal Field cycle with perfect regeneration, as shown in Fig. 4.37, is
designed according to the following data: p16 ¼ 10 kPa, x16 ¼ 0, p19 ¼
200 kPa, x19 ¼ 0, p22 ¼ 1 MPa, x22 ¼ 0, p23 ¼ 2 MPa, p2 ¼ 6 MPa, T4 ¼ 500 C,
mdot4 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p5 ¼ 4 MPa, T6 ¼ 500 C, T8 ¼ 300 C, mdot10 ¼ 0.9 kg/sec,
and mdot17 ¼ 0.1 kg/sec.
Determine (1) the pressure and temperature of each state of the
cycle, (2) power produced by each of the five turbines, rate of heat added
by each of the two heaters, power reuired by the compressor and each of
the three pumps, rate of heat removed by the condenser, and (3) net power
produced by the cycle, and cycle efficiency.
1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig. 4.37. Assume that the
compressor, turbines, and pump are adiabatic and isentropic, the
heaters, mixing chambers, cooler, and regenerator are isobaric,
and the splitters are isoparametric.
2. Input working fluid ¼ water, p16 ¼ 10 kPa, x16 ¼ 0, p19 ¼ 200 kPa,
x19 ¼ 0, p22 ¼ 1 MPa, x22 ¼ 0, p23 ¼ 2 MPa, p2 ¼ 6 MPa, T4 ¼ 500 C,
mdot4 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p5 ¼ 4 MPa, T6 ¼ 500 C, T8 ¼ 300 C, mdot10 ¼
0.9 kg/sec, and mdot17 ¼ 0.9 kg/sec.
3. Display results as shown in Fig. 4.38.
The answers are: (1) p1 ¼ 2 MPa, T1 ¼ 212.4 C, p2 ¼ 6 MPa, T2 ¼
237.3 C, p3 ¼ 6 MPa, T3 ¼ 275.6 C, p4 ¼ 6 MPa, T4 ¼ 500 C, p5 ¼
Figure 4.38 Field cycle.

4 MPa, T5 ¼ 432.8 C, p6 ¼ 4 MPa, T6 ¼ 500 C, p7 ¼ 2 MPa, T7 ¼ 388.9 C,
p8 ¼ 2 MPa, T8 ¼ 300 C, p9 ¼ 2 MPa, T9 ¼ 300 C, p10 ¼ 2 MPa, T10 ¼ 300 C,
p11 ¼ 1 MPa, T11 ¼ 214.6 C, p12 ¼ 1 MPa, T12 ¼ 214.6 C, p13 ¼ 200 kPa,
T13 ¼ 120.2 C, p14 ¼ 200 kPa, T14 ¼ 120.2 C, p15 ¼ 10 kPa, T15 ¼ 45.82 C,
p16 ¼ 10 kPa, T16 ¼ 45.82 C, p17 ¼ 200 kPa, T17 ¼ 120.2 C, p18 ¼ 200 kPa,
T18 ¼ 45.83 C, p19 ¼ 200 kPa, T19 ¼ 120.2 C, p20 ¼ 1 MPa, T20 ¼ 214.6 C,
p21 ¼ 1 MPa, T21 ¼ 120.3 C, p22 ¼ 2 MPa, T17 ¼ 179.9 C, p23 ¼ 2 MPa,
and T17 ¼ 185.7 C; (2) WdotT#1 ¼ 131.9 kW, WdotT#2 ¼ 222.4 kW,
WdotT#3 ¼ 144.7 kW, WdotT#4 ¼ 238.9 kW, WdotT#5 ¼ 293.2 kW,
WdotP#1 ¼ 0.1598 kW, WdotP#2 ¼ 0.6973 kW, WdotP#3 ¼ 28.45 kW,
WdotCompressor ¼ 7.57 kW, QdotHtr#1 ¼ 2197 kW, QdotHtr#2 ¼ 155 kW,
and QdotCondenser ¼ 1358 kW, (3) Wdotnet ¼ 994.0 kW, and ¼ 42.26%.
Review Problems 4.11 Field Cycle

1. What is the concept of the Field cycle?
2. An ideal Field cycle with perfect regeneration, as shown in
Fig. 4.37, is designed according to the following data: p16 ¼ 10 kPa,
x16 ¼ 0, p19 ¼ 200 kPa, x19 ¼ 0, p22 ¼ 1 MPa, x22 ¼ 0, p23 ¼ 2 MPa,
p2 ¼ 7 MPa, T4 ¼ 500 C, mdot4 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p5 ¼ 4 MPa, T6 ¼ 500 C,
T8 ¼ 300 C, mdot10 ¼ 0.9 kg/sec, and mdot17 ¼ 0.1 kg/sec.
Determine rate of heat added by the heaters, total power produced
by the turbines, total power required by the pumps and compressor, net
power produced by the cycle, and cycle efficiency.
ANSWERS: Qdotadd ¼ 2393 kW, WdotTurbines ¼ 1073 kW, WdotPumps
and Compressor ¼ 38.1 kW, Wdotnet ¼ 1035 kW, and ¼ 43.26%.
3. An ideal field cycle with perfect regeneration as shown in
Fig. 4.37 is designed according to the following data: p16 ¼ 10 kPa, x16 ¼ 0,
p19 ¼ 200 kPa, x19 ¼ 0, p22 ¼ 1 MPa, x22 ¼ 0, p23 ¼ 2 MPa, p2 ¼ 7 MPa,
T4 ¼ 500 C, mdot4 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p5 ¼ 4 MPa, T6 ¼ 500 C, T8 ¼ 300 C,
mdot10 ¼ 0.9 kg/sec, and mdot17 ¼ 0.12 kg/sec.
4.12 WICKS CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is the ideal cycle only for the conditions of constant-
temperature hot and cold surrounding thermal reservoirs. However, such
conditions do not exist for fuel-burning engines. For these engines, the

combustion products are artificially created as a finite-size hot reservoir
that releases heat over the entire temperature range from its maximum to
ambient temperature. The natural environment in terms of air or water
bodies is the cold reservoir and can be considered as an infinite reservoir
relative to the engine. Thus, an ideal fuel-burning engine should operate
reversibly between a finite-size hot reservoir and an infinite-size cold
reservoir. Wicks (Wicks, F., The thermodynamic theory and design of an
ideal fuel burning engine. Proceedings of the Intersociety Engineering
Conference of Energy Conversion, vol. 2, pp. 474–481, 1991) proposed a
three-process ideal fuel-burning engine consisting of an isothermal
compression, an isobaric heat addition, and an adiabatic expansion
process. The schematic Wicks cycle is shown in Fig. 4.39, and an example
of the cycle is given in Example 4.18.
Example 4.18
A Wicks cycle as shown in Fig. 4.39 is designed according to the following
data: p1 ¼ 101 kPa, T1 ¼ 5 C, p2 ¼ 28 MPa, T3 ¼ 1100 C, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec,
and T4 ¼ 5 C.
Determine the power produced, rate of heat added, power input, net
1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig. 4.39. Assume that the compressor,
heater, and turbine are isothermal, isobaric, and isentropic.
2. Input working fluid ¼ air, p1 ¼ 101 kPa, T1 ¼ 5 C, mdot1 ¼ 1
kg/sec, p2 ¼ 28 MPa, T3 ¼ 1100 C, and T4 ¼ 5 C.
3. Display results.
The answers are: Wdotin ¼ 448.5 kW, Wdotout ¼ 1099 kW, Wdotnet ¼
650.2 kW, Qdotin ¼ 1099 kW, Qdotout ¼ 448.5 kW, and ¼ 59.18%, as
shown in Fig. 4.40.
Review Problems 4.12 Wicks Cycle

1. What is the concept of the Wicks cycle?
2. A Wicks cycle as shown in Fig. 4.39 is designed according to the
following data: p1 ¼ 101 kPa, T1 ¼ 10 C, p2 ¼ 28 MPa, T3 ¼ 1050 C,
mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, and T4 ¼ 10 C.

Determine power produced, rate of heat added, power input, net

4.13 ICE CYCLE
Silverstein (Silverstein, C.C., The Ice Cycle: High gas turbine efficiency at
moderate temperature. Proceedings of the Intersociety Energy Conversion
Engineering Conference, paper number 889341, pp. 285–289, 1988)
proposed an ice cycle, which consists of isothermal compression, isentropic
compression, isothermal expansion, and isentropic expansion processes as
shown in Fig. 4.41. Its efficiency is the same as that of the Carnot cycle.
An actual ice cycle is characterized by efficiencies of 35–40%, peak
temperatures below 1080 K, and overall pressure ratios of 300–500.
Isothermal compression and isothermal expansion are approximated by
the use of a heat exchanger after each stage, which is an integral part of
the rotating equipment. A heat-pipe heat exchanger appears to be
particularly well adapted to integral intercooling and reheat. The T–s
diagram of the cycle is shown in Fig. 4.42. The use of pressure rather than
temperature and/or regenerative heat exchange to achieve high cycle
efficiency can lead to major design and economic benefits for gas
turbine cycles. Compressors and turbines can be fabricated from
materials that will retain good strength characteristics at peak operating
temperatures.

Figure 4.41 Ice cycle.
Figure 4.42 Ice cycle T–s diagram.
Example 4.19
An ice cycle as shown in Fig. 4.41 is designed according to the following
data: p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 300 K, p2 ¼ 200 kPa, and T3 ¼ 1200 K, and
mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec.
1. Build the ice cycle as shown in Fig. 4.41. Assume that the
compressors and turbines are isothermal and isentropic.
2. Input working fluid ¼ air, p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 300 K, mdot1 ¼
1 kg/sec, p2 ¼ 200 kPa, and T3 ¼ 1200 K.
3. Display results.
The answers are: Wdotin ¼ 962.7 kW, Wdotout ¼ 1142 kW, Wdotnet ¼
178.8 kW, Qdotin ¼ 238.5 kW, Qdotout ¼ 59.62 kW, and ¼ 75%, as
shown in Fig. 4.43.

Figure 4.43 Ice cycle.
Review Problems 4.13 Ice Cycle

1. What is the concept of the ice cycle?
2. An ice cycle as shown in Fig. 4.13 is designed according to the
following data: p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 290 K, p2 ¼ 200 kPa, T3 ¼ 1400 K, and
mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec.
Typically, CyclePad’s ‘‘build’’ mode allows the designer to select parts

from one of its two inventory shops (closed system and open system) and
connect them. Each component is clearly labeled with its input and output
denoted by arrows. After connecting the parts in a complete cycle, the
software will prompt the designer to stay in the ‘‘build’’ mode or move on
to ‘‘analysis’’ mode. In the ‘‘analysis’’ mode, CyclePad combines user
input and thermodynamic principles to solve cycles numerically. Here, the
designer selects the working fluid, component properties, and boundary
conditions. CyclePad solves all possible variables as the designer adds
conditions to the cycle. When all necessary entries have been made, the
software will have solved for properties such as total heat input, total heat
output, net power, thermal efficiency, etc. In the event that the designer
enters conflicting conditions, CyclePad enters the ‘‘contradiction’’ mode.

In this mode, the designer is told of a conflict and the program will not
proceed until the contradiction is resolved. This is done in a pop-up
window which shows all inputs that contribute to the error. In this way,
the designer does not necessarily have to remove the entry that forced the
contradiction, a very useful function indeed. If the designer wishes,
CyclePad will explain what the contradiction is and how the current
assumptions cannot be correct. This editing technique is very similar to the
senior design engineer monitoring junior engineers who are not yet
experienced enough to see the error in advance.
The intelligent computer software CyclePad is a very effective tool in
design cycles. Any complicated gas cycle can be easily designed and
analyzed using CyclePad. Optimization of design parameters of the cycle is
demonstrated by the following examples.
Example 4.20
A four-stage reheat and four-stage intercool Brayton air cycle as shown in
Fig. 4.44a has been designed by a junior engineer with the following design
input information:
p1 ¼ p21 ¼ p22 ¼ 100 kPa, p2 ¼ p3 ¼ p20 ¼ p19 ¼ 200 kPa, p4 ¼ p5 ¼ p17 ¼
p18 ¼ 400 kPa, p6 ¼ p7 ¼ p15 ¼ p16 ¼ 600 kPa, p8 ¼ p9 ¼ p13 ¼ p14 ¼ 800 kPa,
p10 ¼ p11 ¼ p12 ¼ 1 MPa, T1 ¼ T3 ¼ T5 ¼ T7 ¼ T9 ¼ 20 C, T12 ¼ T14 ¼ T16 ¼
T18 ¼ T20 ¼ 1200 C, T22 ¼ 400 C, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, tur1 ¼ tur2 ¼ tur3 ¼
tur4 ¼ tur5 ¼ 85%, and cmpr1 ¼ cmpr2 ¼ cmpr3 ¼ cmpr4 ¼ cmpr5 ¼ 85%.
(See Fig. 4.44b.)
The following output results as shown in Fig. 4.44c are obtained
from his design:
cycle ¼ 55.16%, Wdotinput ¼ 589.8 kW, Wdotoutput ¼ 1334 kW,
Wdotnet output ¼ 744.1 kW, Qdotadd ¼ 1349 kW, Qdotremove ¼ 605.0 kW,
Wdotcmp1 ¼ 75.79 kW, Wdotcmp2 ¼ 75.79 kW, Wdotcmp3 ¼ 42.50 kW,
Wdotcmp4 ¼ 29.65 kW, Wdotcmp5 ¼ 366.1 kW, Wdottur1 ¼ 645.9 kW,
Wdottur2 ¼99.14 kW, Wdottur3 ¼ 137.4 kW, Wdottur4 ¼ 225.7 kW, Wdottur5 ¼
225.7 kW, Qdothtr1 ¼ 241.0 kW, Qdothtr2 ¼ 645.9 kW, Qdothtr3 ¼ 99.14 kW,
Qdothtr4 ¼ 137.4 kW, Qdothtr5 ¼ 225.7 kW, Qdotclr1 ¼ 381.4 kW, Qdotclr2 ¼
75.79 kW, Qdotclr3 ¼ 75.79 kW, Qdotclr4 ¼ 42.50 kW, Qdotclr5 ¼
29.65 kW, T10 ¼ 384.8 C, T11 ¼ 959.8 C, and T21 ¼ 400 C.
The T–s diagram of the cycle is shown in Fig. 4.44d.
Try to modify his design (use p16, p18, p6 and p8 as design parameters
only) to get a better cycle thermal efficiency than his cycle ¼ 55.16%.
The sensitivity analyses of cycle versus p16, and cycle versus p18 are
shown in Figs. 4.44e and 4.44f. The optimization design values of p16 and
p18 can be easily identified.

Figure 4.44a Four-stage reheat and four-stage intercool Brayton air cycle.
Figure 4.44b Brayton air cycle design input.

A four-stage reheat and four-stage intercool Brayton air cycle as shown in
Fig. 4.44a has been designed by a junior engineer with the following design
input information:
p1 ¼ p21 ¼ p22 ¼ 100 kPa, p2 ¼ p3 ¼ p20 ¼ p19 ¼ 200 kPa, p4 ¼ p5 ¼ p17 ¼
p18 ¼ 500 kPa, p6 ¼ p7 ¼ p15 ¼ p16 ¼ 700 kPa, p8 ¼ p9 ¼ p13 ¼ p14 ¼ 900 kPa,

Figure 4.44c Brayton air cycle design output.
Figure 4.44d Brayton air cycle T–s diagram.
p10 ¼ p11 ¼ p12 ¼ 1100 kPa, T1 ¼ T3 ¼ T5 ¼ T7 ¼ T9 ¼ 20 C, T12 ¼ T14 ¼ T16¼

T18¼T20 ¼ 1200 C, T22 ¼ 400 C,mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, tur1 ¼ tur2¼ tur3 ¼
tur4 ¼ tur5 ¼ 83%, and cmpr1 ¼ cmpr2 ¼ cmpr3 ¼ cmpr4 ¼ cmpr5 ¼ 80%.
Try to modify his design (use p16, p18, p6, and p8 as design parameters
only) to get a better cycle thermal efficiency than his cycle efficiency.

Figure 4.44e Brayton air cycle design parameter optimization.
Figure 4.44f Brayton air cycle design parameter optimization.
4.15 SUMMARY
Heat engines that use gases as the working fluid in an open system model
are treated in this chapter. The modern gas turbine engine operates on the
Brayton cycle. The basic Brayton cycle consists of an isentropic
compression process, an isobaric combustion process, an isentropic

expansion process, and an isobaric cooling process. The thermal efficiency
of the basic Brayton cycle depends on the compression ratio across the
compressor. The compression ratio is defined as rp ¼ pcompressor exit/
pcompressor inlet. The thermal efficiency of the basic Brayton cycle can be
improved by a split shaft and regeneration. The net work of the basic
Brayton cycle can be improved by intercooling and reheating. The power
of the basic Brayton cycle can be controlled by air-bleed.
The Ericsson, Wicks, and ice cycles are modified Brayton cycles with
many stages of intercooling and reheat. It has the same efficiency of the
Carnot cycle operating between the same temperature limits. The Feher
cycle is a cycle operating above the critical point of the working fluid.

5
Combined Cycle and Cogeneration
5.1 COMBINED CYCLE
There are situations where it is desirable to combine several cycles in series

in order to take advantage of a very wide temperature range or to utilize
what would otherwise be waste heat to improve efficiency. Such a cycle is
called a cascaded cycle. A cascaded cycle made of three Rankine cycles in
series is shown schematically in Fig. 5.1. The cascaded cycle is made of
three subcycles. Subcycle A, 1-2-3-4-1, is the topping cycle; subcycle B,
5-6-7-8-5, is the middle cycle; and subcycle C, 9-10-11-12-9, is the bottom
cycle. The waste heat of the upstream cycle is the heat input of the
downstream cycle. Since the net work output is equal to the sum of the
three outputs and the heat input is that of the topping cycle alone, a
substantial efficiency increase is possible.
A cascaded cycle made of two cycles in series, called a combined
cycle, is shown schematically in Fig. 5.2. The combined cycle is made of
two subcycles. Subcycle A, 1-2-3-4-1, is the upstream topping cycle;
subcycle B, 5-6-7-8-5, is the downstream bottom cycle. The waste heat of
the upstream topping cycle is the heat added to the downstream bottom
cycle. The power output is the sum of the output of the upstream topping
cycle and the output of the downstream bottom cycle.
The energy flow of the combined cycle is shown in Fig. 5.3.
The overall efficiency of the combined cycle is the total output work
(W1 þ W2) divided by the heat input, Q1. Referring to Fig. 5.3, we have
¼ (W1 þ W2) / Q1 (5.1)

W1 ¼ AQ1 (5.2)
and
W2 ¼ BQ 2 (5.3)

Figure 5.1 Cascaded cycle.
Figure 5.2 Combined cycle.
By substituting W1 and W2 into Eq. (5.1), the following efficiency

expression is obtained:
¼ 1 (1 A)(1 B) (5.4)
The combined cycle efficiency may, therefore, be substantially greater
than the cycle efficiency of any of its components operating alone.

Figure 5.3 Combined cycle energy flow diagram.
A numerical example is given in the following to illustrate the cycle

analysis of the combined cycle.
Example 5.1
A combined cycle made of two cycles is shown in Fig. 5.2. The upstream
topping cycle is a steam Rankine cycle and the downstream bottom cycle
is an ammonia Rankine cycle. The following information is provided:
steam boiler pressure ¼ 2 MPa, steam superheater temperature ¼ 400 C,
steam condenser (heat exchanger) pressure ¼ 20 kPa, ammonia boiler (heat
exchanger) pressure ¼ 1200 kPa, ammonia condenser pressure ¼ 800 kPa,
and mass flow rate of steam ¼ 1 kg/sec.
Determine the total pump power input, total turbine power output,
rate of heat added, rate of heat removed, cycle efficiency, and mass flow
rate of ammonia.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the seven devices: (1) pumps as
adiabatic with 100% efficiency, (2) turbines as adiabatic
with 100% efficiency, (3) heat exchanger as isobaric on both
cold and hot sides, (4) ammonia condenser as isobaric, and (5)
steam boiler as isobaric.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid of cycle B is
ammonia, and working fluid of cycle A is water, (2) inlet
pressure and quality of the ammonia pump are 800 kPa and
0, (3) inlet temperature and pressure of the steam turbine are

Figure 5.4 Combined Rankine cycle.
400 C and 2 MPa, (4) inlet quality and pressure of the ammo-
nia turbine are 1 and 1200 kPa, (5) inlet pressure and quality
of the water pump are 20 kPa and 0, and (6) steam mass flow
rate is 1 kg/sec.
3. Display results.
The answers are: combined cycle—power input ¼ 13.28 kW, power
output ¼ 988.0 kW, net power output ¼ 974.7 kW, rate of heat
added ¼ 2994 kW, rate of heat removed ¼ 2019 kW, and ¼ 32.56%;
topping steam cycle—power input ¼ 2.02 kW, power output ¼ 898.5 kW,
net power output ¼ 896.5 kW, rate of heat added ¼ 2994 kW, rate of heat
removed ¼ 2098 kW, and ¼ 29.94%; bottom ammonia cycle—power
input ¼ 11.26 kW, power output ¼ 89.53 kW, net power output ¼
78.27 kW, rate of heat added ¼ 2098 kW, rate of heat removed ¼
2019 kW, ¼ 3.73%, and mass rate flow ¼ 1.75 kg/sec. (See Fig. 5.4.)
Example 5.2
Figure 5.5a depicts a combined plant in which a closed Brayton helium
nuclear plant releases heat to a recovery steam generator, which supplies
heat to a Rankine steam plant. The generator is provided with a gas
burner for supplementary additional heat when the demand of steam
power is high. The Rankine plant is a regenerative cycle.

Figure 5.5a Combined Rankine cycle.
The data given below correspond approximately to the design con-

ditions for the combined plant: p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 30 C, p2 ¼ 800 kPa,
T3 ¼ 1400 C, T5 ¼ 200 C, p6 ¼ 5 kPa, x6 ¼ 0, p8 ¼ 1 MPa, x8 ¼ 0, p9 ¼ 6 MPa,
T10 ¼ 400 C, mdot10 ¼ 1 kg/sec, T11 ¼ 500 C, and compressor ¼ turbine ¼
pump ¼ 100%.
Determine the power required by the compressor, power required by
pumps #1 and #2, power produced by turbines #1, #2, and #3, rate of heat
added by the nuclear reactor, net power produced by the Brayton gas
turbine plant, net power produced by the Rankine plant, rate of heat
removed by coolers #1 and #2, rate of heat exchanged in the heat exchanger,
rate of heat added in the gas burner, mass rate flow of helium in the Brayton
cycle, mass rate flow of steam extracted to the feed-water heater (mixing
chamber), cycle efficiency of the Brayton plant, cycle efficiency of the
Rankine plant, and cycle efficiency of the combined Brayton–Rankine plant.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the twelve devices: (1) pumps as
adiabatic with 100% efficiency, (2) turbines as adiabatic with
100% efficiency, (3) heat exchanger as isobaric on both cold
and hot sides, (4) nuclear reactor, mixing chamber, heater, and
coolers as isobaric, and (5) splitter as isoparametric.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid of cycle A is
helium, and working fluid of cycle B is water, (2) p1 ¼ 100 kPa,
T1 ¼ 30 C, p2 ¼ 800 kPa, T3 ¼ 1400 C, T5 ¼ 200 C, p6 ¼ 5 kPa,

Figure 5.5b Combined Rankine cycle.
x6 ¼ 0, p8 ¼ 1 MPa, x8 ¼ 0, p9 ¼ 6 MPa, T10 ¼ 400 C, mdot10 ¼

1 kg/sec, and T11 ¼ 500 C.
3. Display results.
The answers are: Wdotcompressor ¼ 3756 kW, Wdotpump #1 and #2 ¼
6.46 kW, Wdotturbine#1 ¼ 9001 kW, Wdotturbine#2 ¼ 512.7 kW,
Wdotturbine#3 ¼637.5 kW, Qdotreactor ¼ 9270 kW, Wdotnet Brayton ¼ 5245 kW,
Wdotnee Rankine ¼ 1134 kW, Qdotcooler#1 ¼ 1616 kW, Qdotcooler#2 ¼
1520 kW, QdotHX ¼ 2408 kW, Qdotgas burner ¼ 245.3 kW, mdothe-
lium ¼ 1.84 kg/sec, mdot15 ¼ 0.2245 kg/sec, Brayton ¼ 5245/9270 ¼ 56.58%,
Rankine ¼ 1134/2654 ¼ 42.73%, and combined ¼ (5245 þ 1134)/
(9270 þ 245.3) ¼ 67.04%. (See Fig. 5.5b.)
The combined cycle is designed to gain maximum efficiency from the
primary heat source. In most cases, both cycles are used for the same
purpose—usually to generate electricity. The major combined-cycle options
currently under development include open-cycle gas turbines, closed-cycle
turbines, fuel cells, and magnetohydrodynamics with vapor cycles.
Other combined cycles include the Diesel/Rankine cycle (Boretz, J.E.,

Rankine engine compounding of Diesel engines. Proceedings of the
Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, vol. 2, pp. 193–197,
1990) and dual gas turbine combined cycle (Weston, K.C., Proceedings of the
Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, vol. 1, pp. 955–958,
1993), etc.
Review Problems 5.1 Combined Cycle
1. What is a combined cycle?

2. What is the heat input to the whole combined cycle?
3. What is the total work output of the whole combined cycle?
4. Is the efficiency of the combined cycle better than that of any of
the individual cycles that made the combined cycle? Why?
5. Redo Example 5.2 without the gas burner.
5.2 TRIPLE CYCLE IN SERIES
A cascaded cycle made of three cycles in series, called a triple cycle, is

shown schematically in Fig. 5.6. The combined cycle is made of three
subcycles. Subcycle A, 1-2-3-4-5, is the upstream topping cycle; subcycle C,
6-7-8-9-6, is the midcycle, and subcycle B, 10-11-12-13-10, is the
downstream bottom cycle. A part of the waste heat of the upstream
topping cycle is the heat added to the midcycle, and the waste heat of the
Figure 5.6 Triple cycle.

midcycle is the heat added to the downstream bottom cycle. The power
output is the sum of the output of the upstream topping cycle, the output
of the midcycle, and the output of the downstream bottom cycle.
The energy flow of the combined cycle is shown in Fig. 5.7.
The overall efficiency of the triple cycle is the total output work
(W1 þ W2 þ W3) divided by the heat input, Q1. Referring to Fig. 5.7,
we have
¼ (W1 þ W2 þ WCo)/Q1 (5.5)
W1 ¼ A Q 1 (5.6)
W2 ¼ BQ 2 (5.7)
and
W3 ¼ CQ3 (5.8)
Substituting W1, W2, and W3 into Eq. (5.5), the following efficiency
¼ 1 (1 A)(1 B)(1 C) (5.9)
The triple cycle efficiency may, therefore, be substantially greater
analysis of the triple cycle in series.
Figure 5.7 Triple cycle in series energy flow diagram.

Example 5.3
Figure 5.6 depicts a triple cycle in which an open Brayton plant releases
heat to a recovery steam generator, which supplies heat to a Rankine
steam plant. The Rankine steam plant releases heat to a recovery R-12
generator, which supplies heat to a Rankine R-12 plant. The data given
below correspond approximately to the design conditions for the triple
plant: p1 ¼ 101.3 kPa, T1 ¼ 15 C, p2 ¼ 8 p1, T3 ¼ 1200 C, p4 ¼ 101.3 kPa,
T5 ¼ 450 C, p6 ¼ 20 kPa, x6 ¼ 0, T7 ¼ 60.1 C, p8 ¼ 2 MPa, T8 ¼ 400 C,
x10 ¼ 0, p10 ¼ 500 kPa, T10 ¼ 400 C, p12 ¼ 900 kPa, x12 ¼ 1, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec,
and compressor ¼ turbine ¼ pump ¼ 100%.
Determine the power required by the compressor, power required
by pumps #1 and #2, power produced by turbine #1, #2, and #3, rate of
heat added to the Brayton cycle, net power produced by the Brayton gas
turbine plant, net power produced by the steam Rankine plant, rate of
heat exchanged in the heat exchanger #1, rate of heat added to the R-12
Rankine plant, mass rate flow of air in the Brayton cycle, mass rate flow
of steam in the Rankine steam plant, mass rate flow of R-12 in the
Rankine R-12 plant, cycle efficiency of the Brayton plant, cycle efficiency
of the steam Rankine plant, cycle efficiency of the R-12 Rankine plant,
and cycle efficiency of the triple plant.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the devices: (1) pumps as adiabatic
with 100% efficiency, (2) turbines as adiabatic with 100%
efficiency, (3) heat exchanger as isobaric on both cold and
hot sides, and (4) heater and coolers as isobaric.
b. Input the given information as shown in Fig. 5.8a: (1) working
fluid of cycle A is air, working fluid of cycle B is R-12, and
working fluid of cycle C is water, (2) p1 ¼ 101.3 kPa,
T1 ¼ 15 C, p2 ¼ 8 p 1, T3 ¼ 1200 C, p4 ¼ 101.3 kPa,
T5 ¼ 450 C, p6 ¼ 20 kPa, x6 ¼ 0, T7 ¼ 60.1 C, p8 ¼ 2 MPa,

T8 ¼ 400 C, x10 ¼ 0, p10 ¼ 500 kPa, T10 ¼ 400 C, p12 ¼

900 kPa, x12 ¼ 1, and mdot1 ¼1 kg/sec.
3. Display results.
The answers shown in Fig. 5.8b are: Wdotcompressor #1 ¼ 234.6 kW,
Wdotpump #1 ¼ 0.0609 kW, Wdotpump #2 ¼ 0.9171 kW, Wdotturbine #1 ¼
662.2 kW, Wdotturbine #2 ¼ 27.13 kW, Wdotturbine #3 ¼ 4.32 kW,
QdotHTR #1 ¼ 954.4 kW, Wdotnet Brayton ¼ 427.5 kW, Wdotnet steam
Rankine ¼ 27.07 kW, Wdotnet R12 Rankine ¼ 3.40 kW, Wdotnet triple ¼

Figure 5.8a Input information;
Figure 5.8b Output information.
458.0 kW, Qdotcooler #1 ¼ 59.93 kW, mdotsteam ¼ 0.0302 kg/sec, mdotR12 ¼

0.4237 kg/sec, Brayton ¼ 44.8%, steam Rankine ¼ 29.94%, R12 Rankine ¼
5.38%, and triple ¼ 47.99%.
Review Problems 5.2 Triple Cycle in Series

Redo Example 5.3 with compressor ¼ turbine ¼ 83% and pump ¼ 100%.

5.3 TRIPLE CYCLE IN PARALLEL
A cycle made of three cycles in parallel is shown schematically in Fig. 5.9.

The triple cycle is made of three subcycles: Subcycle A, 1-2-3-4-5-6, is the
upstream topping open gas turbine cycle; subcycle C, 7-8-9-10-7, and
subcycle B, 11-12-13-14-11, are the downstream parallel bottom cycles. A
part of the waste heat of the upstream topping cycle is the heat added to
subcycle C, and another part of the waste heat of the upstream topping
cycle is the heat added to subcycle B. The power output is the sum of the
output of subcycles A, B, and C. The overall efficiency of the triple cycle
in parallel is the total output work (Wnet,A þ Wnet,B þ WNet,C) divided by
the heat input added to the heater in the gas turbine cycle, Q1.
¼ (Wnet,A þ Wnet,B þ WNet,C)/Q1 (5.10)
The triple cycle efficiency may, therefore, be substantially greater
analysis of the triple cycle in parallel.
Example 5.4
An open Brayton plant releases a part of its waste heat to a recovery
steam generator, which supplies heat to a Rankine steam plant, and
another part of its waste heat to a recovery R-12 generator, which supplies
Figure 5.9 Triple cycle in parallel.

heat to a Rankine R-12 plant. The data given below correspond
approximately to the design conditions for a triple plant in parallel:
p1 ¼ 101.3 kPa, T1 ¼ 15 C, p2 ¼ 8 p1, T3 ¼ 1200 C, p4 ¼ 101.3 kPa,
T5 ¼ 450 C, T6 ¼ 40 C, x7 ¼ 0, p7 ¼ 20 kPa, p9 ¼ 2 MPa, T9 ¼ 400 C,
x11 ¼ 0, p11 ¼ 500 kPa, p13 ¼ 900 kPa, x13 ¼ 1, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, and
compressor ¼ turbine ¼ pump ¼ 100%.
Determine the power required by the compressor, power required by
pumps #1 and #2, power produced by turbines #1, #2, and #3, rate of heat
added to the Brayton cycle, net power produced by the Brayton gas
turbine plant, net power produced by the steam Rankine plant, rate of
heat exchanged in the heat exchanger #1, rate of heat added to the R-12
Rankine plant, mass rate flow of air in the Brayton cycle, mass rate flow
of steam in the Rankine steam plant, mass rate flow of R-12 in the
Rankine R-12 plant, cycle efficiency of the Brayton plant, cycle efficiency
of the steam Rankine plant, cycle efficiency of the R-12 Rankine plant,
and cycle efficiency of the triple plant.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the devices: (1) pumps as adiabatic
with 100% efficiency, (2) turbines as adiabatic with 100%
efficiency, (3) heat exchanger as isobaric on both cold and
hot sides, and (4) heater and coolers as isobaric.
b. Input the given information as shown in Fig. 5.9a: (a) working
fluid of cycle A is air, working fluid of cycle B is R-12, and
working fluid of cycle C is water, (2) p1 ¼ 101.3 kPa,
Figure 5.9a Input information.

Figure 5.9b Output information.
T1 ¼ 15 C, p2 ¼ 8 p1, T3 ¼ 1200 C, p4 ¼ 101.3 kPa, T5 ¼ 450 C,

T6 ¼ 40 C, x7 ¼ 0, p7 ¼ 20 kPa, p9 ¼ 2 MPa, T9 ¼ 400 C,
x11 ¼ 0, p11 ¼ 500 kPa, p13 ¼ 900 kPa, x13 ¼ 1, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/
sec, and mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec.
3. Display results.
The answers shown in Fig. 5.9b are: Wdotcompressor #1 ¼ 234.6 kW,
Wdotpump #1 ¼ 0.0609 kW, Wdotpump #2 ¼ 5.96 kW, Wdotturbine #1 ¼
662.2 kW, Wdotturbine #2 ¼ 27.13 kW, Wdotturbine #3 ¼ 28.07 kW,
QdotHTR #1 ¼ 954.4 kW, Wdotnet Brayton ¼ 427.5 kW, Wdotnet steam Rankine ¼
27.07 kW, Wdotnet R12 Rankine ¼ 22.12 kW, Wdotnet triple ¼ 476.7 kW,
Qdotcooler #1 ¼ 63.33 kW, mdotsteam ¼ 0.0302 kg/sec, mdotR12 ¼ 2.75 kg/sec,
Brayton ¼ 44.8%, steam Rankine ¼ 29.94%, R12 Rankine ¼ 5.38%, and
triple ¼ 49.95%.
Review Problems 5.3 Triple Cycle in Parallel

Redo Example 5.4 with compressor ¼ turbine ¼ 81% and pump ¼ 100%.
5.4 CASCADED CYCLE
There are applications when the temperature difference between the heat
source and the heat sink is quite large. A single power cycle usually cannot
be used to utilize the full range of the available temperature difference.
A cascade cycle must be used to gain maximum possible efficiency from the

primary heat source. A cascade cycle is several (n) power cycles connecting
in series or in parallel. A cascade cycle of three cycles in series is shown in
Fig. 5.10. The energy flow diagram of n cycles in series is illustrated in
Fig. 5.11. The cooler of the highest temperature cycle (cycle A) provides the
Figure 5.10 Cascade cycle with n ¼ 3.
Figure 5.11 Cascade cycle energy flow diagram.

heat input to the heater of the second-highest temperature cycle (cycle B), . . . ,
and the cooler of the next-to-the-lowest temperature cycle provides the heat
input to the heater of the lowest temperature cycle (cycle N).
The overall efficiency of the cascaded cycle is the total output
work (W1 þ W2 þ þ WN) divided by the heat input, Q1. Referring to
Fig. 5.11, we have
¼ (W1 þ W2þ þWN)/Q1 (5.11)
W1 ¼ AQ1 (5.12)
W 2 ¼ BQ 2 (5.13)
.............
and
WN ¼ NQn (5.14)
Substituting W1, W2, . . . , WN into Eq. (5.11), the following efficiency

cascaded ¼ 1 (1 1)(1 2). . .(1 N) (5.15)
where cascaded is the efficiency of a cascaded cycle with n-component cycles.

The cascaded cycle efficiency may, therefore, be substantially greater
Review Problems 5.4 Cascaded Cycle
1. Build a cascaded cycle in series with n ¼ 5 using CyclePad.

2. Build a cascaded cycle in parallel with n ¼ 5 using CyclePad. The
topping cycle is an open gas turbine cycle.
5.5 BRAYTON/RANKINE COMBINED CYCLE
Advances in the combined cycle power plant focus on a high-temperature

gas turbine cycle combined with a steam vapor cycle. Improvement in
cycle efficiency can be achieved by using the hot exhaust waste heat of a
high-temperature cycle to power, either partially or totally, a low-
temperature cycle. For example, since the boiler temperature of the basic
Rankine cycle is about 500 C, the exhaust gases of the gas turbine cycle with a
temperature of 500 C could be used for the boiler heat input. One arrange-
ment of the Brayton/Rankine cycle, which is a combination of a two-stage
reheat Brayton cycle and a two-stage reheat Rankine cycle, is shown in

Fig. 5.12. In general, modifications of both the Brayton and Rankine cycles
could also be included. Since the net work output is equal to the sum of the
two outputs and the heat input is that of the topping cycle alone, a substantial
increase in cycle efficiency is possible. Another arrangement of the Brayton/
Rankine cycle, which is a combination of a two-stage reheat Brayton cycle
and a two-stage reheat Rankine cycle, is shown in Fig. 5.13.
Example 5.5
A Brayton/Rankine cycle (Fig. 5.12) uses water as the working fluid with
1 kg/sec mass flow rate through the Rankine cycle, and air as the working
Figure 5.12 Brayton/Rankine combined cycle.
Figure 5.13 Two-stage Brayton/two-stage Rankine combined cycle.

fluid in the Brayton cycle. In the Rankine cycle, the condenser pressure
is 15 kPa (p1), the boiler pressure is 8 MPa (p2), the reheater pressure is
5 MPa (p4), and the superheater and reheater temperatures (T3 and T5) are
both 400 C. In the Brayton cycle, air enters from the atmospheric source
to an isentropic compressor at 20 C and 100 kPa (T7 and p7) and leaves at
1 MPa (p8); air enters an isobaric heater (combustion chamber) and leaves
at 1800 C (T9); and air enters a high-pressure isentropic turbine and leaves
at 600 kPa (p11). Air enters a low-pressure isentropic turbine and leaves at
100 kPa (p12); air enters an isobaric regenerator and leaves at 500 C (T13);
and air is discharged to the atmospheric sink.
Determine the mass rate flow of air through the Brayton cycle, and
the thermodynamic efficiency and net power output of the Brayton/
Rankine combined plant. Plot the sensitivity diagram of (cycle efficiency)

compressor, turbines, and pump are adiabatic and isentropic,
and the heater, cooler, and regenerator are isobaric.
2. Input working fluid ¼ air, p1 ¼ 15 kPa, x1 ¼ 0, mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec,
p3 ¼ 8 MPa, T3 ¼ 400 C, p5 ¼ 5 MPa, T5 ¼ 400 C, p7 ¼ 100 kPa,
T7 ¼ 20 C, p9 ¼ 1 MPa, T9 ¼ 1800 C, p11 ¼ 600 kPa, T11 ¼ 1600 C,
p12 ¼ 100 kPa, and T13 ¼ 500 C.
3. Display results. The answers shown in Fig. 5.14a are: (1) cycle A:
¼ 37.52%, power input ¼ 8.12 kW, power output ¼ 1165 kW,
net power output ¼ 1157 kW, Qdotin ¼ 3084 kW; (2) cycle B:
¼ 47.79%, power input ¼ 2267 kW, power output ¼ 8575 kW,
net power output ¼ 6308 kW, Qdotin ¼ 13,200 kW, mdot ¼
8.28 kg/sec; and (3) combined cycle: ¼ 55.79%, power input ¼
2275 kW, power output ¼ 9740 kW, net power output ¼ 7465 kW,
Qdotin ¼ 13,380 kW.
4. Display sensitivity diagram of (cycle efficiency) versus p11
(pressure at state 11) as shown in Fig. 5.14b.
Review Problems 5.5 Brayton/Rankine Combined Cycle

1. What is a combined Brayton/Rankine cycle? What is its purpose?
2. What is the heat source for the Rankine cycle in the combined
Brayton/Rankine cycle?
3. Why is the combined Brayton/Rankine cycle more efficient than
either of the cycles operating alone?

Figure 5.14a Brayton/Rankine combined cycle.
Figure 5.14b Brayton/Rankine combined cycle.

4. A Brayton/Rankine cycle (Fig. 5.12) uses water as the working
fluid with 1 kg/sec mass flow rate through the Rankine cycle, and air
as the working fluid in the Brayton cycle. In the Rankine cycle, the
condenser pressure is 15 kPa (p1), the boiler pressure is 8 MPa (p2), the
reheater pressure is 5 MPa (p4), and the superheater and reheater
temperatures (T3 and T5) are both 400 C. In the Brayton cycle,
air enters from the atmospheric source to an isentropic compressor
at 20 C and 100 kPa (T7 and p7) and leaves at 1 MPa (p8); air enters
an isobaric heater (combustion chamber) and leaves at 1800 C (T9);
air enters a high-pressure isentropic turbine and leaves at 600 kPa (p11).
Air enters a low-pressure isentropic turbine and leaves at 100 kPa (p12); air
enters an isobaric regenerator and leaves at 500 C (T13); and air
is discharged to the atmospheric sink. Assume that the compressor
efficiency is 85%.
Determine the mass flow rate of air through the Brayton cycle, and
Rankine combined plant.
ANSWERS: (1) cycle A: ¼ 37.52%, power input ¼ 8.12 kW,
power output ¼ 1165 kW, net power output ¼ 1157 kW, Qdotin ¼ 3084 kW;
(2) cycle B: ¼ 46.16%, power input ¼ 2667 kW, power output ¼
8575 kW, net power output ¼ 5908 kW, Qdotin ¼ 12,800 kW, mdot ¼
8.28 kg/sec; and (3) combined cycle: ¼ 54.43%, power input ¼ 2675 kW,
power output ¼ 9740 kW, net power output ¼ 7065 kW, Qdotin ¼ 12,980 kW.
fluid with 1 kg/sec of mass flow rate through the Rankine cycle, and air
as the working fluid in the Brayton cycle. In the Rankine cycle, the
condenser pressure is 15 kPa (p1), the boiler pressure is 8 MPa (p2), the
reheater pressure is 5 MPa (p4), and the superheater and reheater
temperatures (T3 and T5) are both 400 C. In the Brayton cycle, air enters
from the atmospheric source to an isentropic compressor at 20 C and
100 kPa (T7 and p7) and leaves at 1 MPa (p8); air enters an isobaric heater
(combustion chamber) and leaves at 1800 C (T9); air enters a high-
pressure isentropic turbine and leaves at 600 kPa (p11). Air enters a low-
pressure isentropic turbine and leaves at 100 kPa (p12); air enters an
isobaric regenerator and leaves at 500 C (T13); and air is discharged to the
atmospheric sink. Assume that the efficiency of the gas turbines and
compressor is 85%.
Determine the mass rate flow of air through the Brayton cycle, and
power output ¼ 1165 kW, net power output ¼ 1157 kW, Qdotin ¼ 3084 kW;

(2) cycle B: ¼ 37.12%, power input ¼ 2017 kW, power
output ¼ 5513 kW, net power output ¼ 3496 kW, Qdotin ¼ 9416 kW,
mdot ¼ 6.26 kg/sec; and (3) combined cycle: ¼ 48.48%, power
input ¼ 2025 kW, power output ¼ 6678 kW, net power output ¼
4653 kW, Qdotin ¼ 9596 kW.
fluid with 1 kg/sec mass rate of flow through the Rankine cycle, and air as
the working fluid in the Brayton cycle. In the Rankine cycle, the condenser
pressure is 15 kPa (p1), the boiler pressure is 8 MPa (p2), the reheater
pressure is 5 MPa (p4), and the superheater and reheater temperatures
(T3 and T5) are both 400 C. In the Brayton cycle, air enters from the
atmospheric source to an isentropic compressor at 20 C and 100 kPa
(T7 and p7), and leaves at 1 MPa (p8); air enters an isobaric heater
(combustion chamber) and leaves at 1800 C (T9); air enters a high-pressure
isentropic turbine and leaves at 600 kPa (p11). Air enters a low-pressure
isentropic turbine and leaves at 100 kPa (p12); air enters an isobaric
regenerator and leaves at 500 C (T13); and air is discharged to the
atmospheric sink. Assume that all turbine and compressor efficiencies
are 85%.
Determine the mass flow rate of air through the Brayton cycle, and
power output ¼ 990.3 kW, net power output ¼ 982.2 kW,
Qdotin ¼ 3066 kW; (2) cycle B: ¼ 37.12%, power input ¼ 2017 kW,
power output ¼ 5513 kW, net power output ¼ 3496 kW, Qdotin ¼ 9416 kW,
mdot ¼ 6.26 kg/sec; and (3) combined cycle: ¼ 46.75%, power
input ¼ 2025 kW, power output ¼ 6503 kW, net power output ¼
4478 kW, Qdotin ¼ 9578 kW.
5.6 BRAYTON/BRAYTON COMBINED CYCLE
The Brayton gas turbine engine has low capital cost compared with steam
power plants. It has environmental advantages and short construction lead
time. However, conventional industrial Brayton gas turbine engines have
lower efficiencies. One of the technologies adopted nowadays for efficiency
improvement is the utilization of Brayton/Brayton combined cycles
(Najjar, Y.S.H. and Zaamout, M.S., Performance analysis of gas turbine
air-bottoming combined system. Energy Conversion and Management,
vol. 37, no. 4, 399–403, 1996). An air-bottoming cycle instead of steam
bottoming reduces the cost of hardware installations and could achieve a

thermal efficiency of about 49%, which does not deteriorate at part load
as happens with the basic Brayton gas turbine engine. A Brayton/Brayton
combined cycle is shown in Fig. 5.15. In this system, an air turbine is used
to convert the split-shaft turbine exhaust heat from the top cycle. Three
intercooled compressor stages are used to reduce the compressor work
and the temperature of the air delivered to an air-to-gas heat exchanger.
Air, heated by the exhaust gas, is then delivered to the air turbine which,
in turn, produces power. The combined system is expected to be simpler
and much less expensive to build, operate, and maintain than the Brayton/
Rankine combined system.
Example 5.6
A Brayton/Brayton cycle (Fig. 5.15) uses air as the working fluid with
1 kg/sec mass flow rate through the top Brayton split-shaft turbine cycle,
and air as the working fluid in the bottom Brayton cycle.
In the top Brayton cycle, air at a mass flow rate of 1 kg/sec enters
from the atmospheric source to an isentropic compressor at 290 K and
100 kPa (T1 and p1) and leaves at 1 MPa (p2); air enters an isobaric heater
(combustion chamber) and leaves at 1400 K (T3); air goes through a high-
pressure isentropic turbine (TUR1) and a low-pressure isentropic turbine
(TUR2); air enters an isobaric heat exchanger and leaves at 700 K (T6) and
100 kPa (p6); and air is discharged to the atmospheric sink. In the bottom
Brayton cycle, air at a mass flow rate of 0.12 kg/sec enters from the
atmospheric source to an isentropic compressor (CMP2) at 290 K and
100 kPa (T7 and p7), and leaves at 200 kPa (p2); air enters an isobaric inter-
cooler (CLR1) and leaves at 290 K (T9); air leaves an isentropic
compressor (CMP3) at 400 kPa (p10); air enters an isobaric intercooler
(CLR2) and leaves at 290 K (T11); air leaves another isentropic compressor
Figure 5.15 Brayton/Brayton combined cycle.

(CMP4) at 800 kPa (p12); and air at 473 K and 100 kPa (T14 and p14) is
discharged to the atmospheric sink.
Determine the pressure and temperature of each state, power
required by the top-cycle compressor, power produced by the top-cycle
turbines, thermal efficiency of the combined cycle, thermal efficiency of
the top cycle, thermal efficiency of the bottom cycle, power input to
the combined cycle, power output by the combined cycle, power net
output of the combined cycle, rate of heat added to the combined cycle,
rate of heat removed from the combined cycle, power input to the top
cycle, power output by the top cycle, power net output of the top
cycle, rate of heat added to the top cycle, rate of heat removed from
the top cycle, power input to the bottom cycle, power output by
the bottom cycle, power net output of the bottom cycle, rate of heat
added to the bottom cycle, and rate of heat removed from the bottom
cycle.

compressors and turbines are adiabatic and isentropic, and the
heater, coolers, and heat exchanger are isobaric.
2. Input working fluid ¼ air, p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 290 K, mdot ¼
1 kg/sec, p2 ¼ 1 MPa, T3 ¼ 1400 K, p6 ¼ 100 kPa, T6 ¼ 700 K, p7 ¼
100 kPa, T7 ¼ 290 K, p9 ¼ 200 kPa, T9 ¼ 290 K, p11 ¼ 400 kPa,
T11 ¼ 290 K, p12 ¼ 800 kPa, p14 ¼ 100 kPa, and T14 ¼ 473 K.
Read Wdotcmp1 ¼ 270.8 kW and input Wdottur1 ¼ 270.8 kW.
3. Display results.
The answers are: (1) p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 290 K, p2 ¼ 1 MPa,

T2 ¼ 559.9 K, p3 ¼ 1 MPa, T3 ¼ 1400 K, p4 ¼ 472.6 kPa, T4 ¼ 1130 K,
p5 ¼ 100 kPa, T5 ¼ 725.1 K, p6 ¼ 100 kPa, T6 ¼ 700 K, p7 ¼ 100 kPa,
T7 ¼ 290 K, p8 ¼ 200 kPa, T8 ¼ 353.5 K, p9 ¼ 100 kPa, T9 ¼ 290 K,
p10 ¼ 400 kPa, T10 ¼ 353.5 K, p11 ¼ 400 kPa, T11 ¼ 290 K, p12 ¼ 800 kPa,
T12 ¼ 353.5 K, p13 ¼ 800 kPa, T13 ¼ 562.9 K, p14 ¼ 100 kPa,
T14 ¼ 310.7 K, and Wdotcmp1 ¼ 270.8 kW as shown in Fig. 5.15a; (2)
comb ¼ 49.09%, top ¼ 48.21%, bot ¼ 29.43%, (power input)comb ¼
293.8 kW, (power input)top ¼ 270.2 kW, (power input)bot ¼ 22.94 kW,
(power output)comb ¼ 707.5 kW, (power output)top ¼ 677.2 kW, (power
output)bot ¼ 30.36 kW, (net power output)comb ¼ 413.8 kW, (net power
output)top ¼ 406.4 kW, (net power output)bot ¼ 7.42 kW, (Qdotin)comb ¼
843.0 kW, (Qdotin)top ¼ 843.0 kW, (Qdotin)bot ¼ 25.21 kW; (Qdotout)comb ¼
15.3 kW, (Qdotout)top ¼ 25.21 kW, and (Qdotout)bot ¼ 15.3 kW as
shown in Fig. 5.15b.

Figure 5.15a Brayton/Brayton combined cycle result.
Figure 5.15b Brayton/Brayton combined cycle result.
Review Problems 5.6 Brayton/Brayton Combined Cycle

1. What are the advantages of a combined Brayton/Brayton cycle?
2. A Brayton/Brayton cycle (Fig. 5.15) uses air as the working fluid
with 1.2 kg/sec mass flow rate through the top Brayton split-shaft turbine
cycle, and air as the working fluid in the bottom Brayton cycle.
In the top Brayton cycle, air at a mass flow rate of 1 kg/sec
enters from the atmospheric source to an isentropic compressor at 290 K
and 100 kPa (T1 and p1), and leaves at 1 MPa (p2); air enters an isobaric
heater (combustion chamber) and leaves at 1400 K (T3); air goes through
a high-pressure isentropic turbine (TUR1) and a low-pressure isentropic
turbine (TUR2); air enters an isobaric heat exchanger and leaves at
700 K (T6) and 100 kPa (p6); and air is discharged to the atmospheric sink.
In the bottom Brayton cycle, air at a mass flow rate of 0.12 kg/sec enters

from the atmospheric source to an isentropic compressor (CMP2) at
290 K and 100 kPa (T7 and p7), and leaves at 200 kPa (p2); air enters an
isobaric intercooler (CLR1) and leaves at 290 K (T9); air leaves an
isentropic compressor (CMP3) at 400 kPa (p10); air enters an isobaric
intercooler (CLR2) and leaves at 290 K (T11); air leaves another isentropic
compressor (CMP4) at 800 kPa (p12); and air at 473 K and 100 kPa (T14
and p14) is discharged to the atmospheric sink.
required by the top-cycle compressor, power produced by the top-
cycle turbines, thermal efficiency of the combined cycle, thermal effi-
ciency of the top cycle, thermal efficiency of the bottom cycle, power
input to the combined cycle, power output by the combined cycle,
power net output of the combined cycle, rate of heat added to the
combined cycle, rate of heat removed from the combined cycle, power
input to the top cycle, power output by the top cycle, power net output
of the top cycle, rate of heat added to the top cycle, rate of heat
removed from the top cycle, power input to the bottom cycle, power
output by the bottom cycle, power net output of the bottom cycle, rate of
heat added to the bottom cycle, and rate of heat removed from the bottom
cycle.
3. A Brayton/Brayton cycle (Fig. 5.15) uses air as the working fluid
with 1.2 kg/sec mass flow rate through the top Brayton split-shaft turbine
cycle, and air as the working fluid in the bottom Brayton cycle.
In the top Brayton cycle, air at a mass flow rate of 1 kg/sec enters
from the atmospheric source to an isentropic compressor at 290 K and
100 kPa (T1 and p1), and leaves at 1 MPa (p2); air enters an isobaric heater
(combustion chamber) and leaves at 1500 K (T3); air goes through a high-
pressure isentropic turbine (TUR1) and a low-pressure isentropic turbine
(TUR2); air enters an isobaric heat exchanger and leaves at 700 K (T6) and
100 kPa (p6); and air is discharged to the atmospheric sink. In the bottom
Brayton cycle, air at a mass flow rate of 0.12 kg/sec enters from the
atmospheric source to an isentropic compressor (CMP2) at 290 K and
100 kPa (T7 and p7), and leaves at 200 kPa (p2); air enters an isobaric
intercooler (CLR1) and leaves at 290 K (T9); air leaves an isentropic
compressor (CMP3) at 400 kPa (p10); air enters an isobaric intercooler
(CLR2) and leaves at 290 K (T11); air leaves another isentropic compressor
(CMP4) at 800 kPa (p12); and air at 473 K and 100 kPa (T14 and p14) is
discharged to the atmospheric sink.
required by the top-cycle compressor, power produced by the top-cycle
turbines, thermal efficiency of the combined cycle, thermal efficiency of
the top cycle, thermal efficiency of the bottom cycle, power input to

the combined cycle, power output by the combined cycle, power
net output of the combined cycle, rate of heat added to the
combined cycle, rate of heat removed from the combined cycle,
power input to the top cycle, power output by the top cycle, power
net output of the top cycle, rate of heat added to the top cycle, rate of
heat removed from the top cycle, power input to the bottom cycle,
power output by the bottom cycle, power net output of the bottom
cycle, rate of heat added to the bottom cycle, and rate of heat
removed from the bottom cycle.
5.7 RANKINE/RANKINE COMBINED CYCLE
A Rankine/Rankine combined cycle is shown in Fig. 5.16. The exhaust

from the top steam turbine (TUR1) is hot enough to generate freon vapor
in a waste-heat boiler. The freon vapor generated can power a freon
turbine, thus increasing the total work produced. The Rankine/Rankine
combined cycle has a thermal efficiency greater than either a steam or
freon cycle may have by itself. The power plant occupies less area, and the
fuel requirements are less.
Figure 5.16 Rankine/Rankine combined cycle.

Example 5.7
A Rankine/Rankine cycle (Fig. 5.16) uses steam as the working fluid with
1 kg/sec mass flow rate through the top Rankine cycle, and Freon12 as the
working fluid in the bottom Rankine cycle. The steam condenser (HX1)
pressure is 20 kPa, the boiler pressure is 3 MPa, and the steam superheater
temperature is 400 C. The steam mass flow rate is 1 kg/sec.
In the bottom cycle, the freon condenser (CLR1) temperature is
20 C, and the freon boiler temperature is 35 C. There is no superheater in
the freon cycle.
Determine (1) the temperature and pressure of each state, and (2)
the mass flow rate of the freon cycle, thermal efficiency of the
combined cycle, thermal efficiency of the top cycle, thermal efficiency of
the bottom cycle, power input to the combined cycle, power output by
the combined cycle, power net output of the combined cycle, rate of
heat added to the combined cycle, rate of heat removed from the
combined cycle, power input to the top cycle, power output by
the top cycle, power net output of the top cycle, rate of heat added to
the top cycle, rate of heat removed from the top cycle, power input to the
bottom cycle, power output by the bottom cycle, power net output of
the bottom cycle, rate of heat added to the bottom cycle, and rate of
heat removed from the bottom cycle.
1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig. 5.16. Assume that the pumps
and turbines are adiabatic and isentropic, and the heater, cooler,
and heat exchanger are isobaric.
2. Input top cycle working fluid ¼ steam, p1 ¼ 20 kPa, x1 ¼ 0,
mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec, p3 ¼ 3 MPa, T3 ¼ 400 C, bottom cycle working
fluid ¼ Freon12, x7 ¼ 1, T7 ¼ 35 C, x5 ¼ 0, and T5 ¼ 20 C.
3. Display results.
The answers are given in Figs. 5.16a and 5.16b as: (1) p1 ¼ 20 kPa,
T1 ¼ 60.7 C, p2 ¼ 3 MPa, T2 ¼ 60.20 C, p3 ¼ 3 MPa, T3 ¼ 400 C, p4 ¼ 20 kPa,
T4 ¼ 60.07 C, p5 ¼ 567.3 kPa, T5 ¼ 20 C, p6 ¼ 847.9 kPa, T6 ¼ 20.96 C,
p7 ¼ 847.9 kPa, T7 ¼ 35 C, p8 ¼ 567.3 kPa, T8 ¼ 20 C; and (2) mdotFreon ¼
14.06 kg/sec, Wdotpump top cycle ¼ 3.04 kW, Wdotturb top cycle ¼ 941.1 kW,
combined cycle ¼ 34.06%, top cycle ¼ 31.52%, bottom cycle ¼ 3.70%, Wdotin
combined cycle ¼ 25.76 kW, Wdotout combined cycle ¼ 1039 kW, Wdotnet combined
cycle ¼ 1014 kW, Qdotin combined cycle ¼ 2976 kW, Qdotout combined
cycle ¼ 1962 kW, Wdotin top cycle ¼ 3.04 kW, Wdotout top cycle ¼ 941.1 kW,
Wdotnet top cycle ¼ 938.1 kW, Qdotin combined cycle ¼ 2976 kW, Qdotout combined
cycle ¼ 2038 kW, Wdotin bottom cycle ¼ 22.71 kW, Wdotout bottom cycle ¼

Figure 5.16a Rankine/Rankine combined cycle.
Figure 5.16b Rankine/Rankine combined cycle.
98.19 kW, Wdotnet bottom cycle ¼ 75.46 kW, Qdotin combined cycle ¼ 2038 kW,
and Qdotout combined cycle ¼ 1962 kW.
Review Problems 5.7 Rankine/Rankine Combined Cycle

1. A Rankine/Rankine cycle (Fig. 5.16) uses steam as the working
fluid with 1 kg/sec mass flow rate through the top Rankine cycle, and

Freon134a as the working fluid in the bottom Rankine cycle. The steam
condenser (HX1) pressure is 20 kPa, the boiler pressure is 2 MPa, and
the steam superheater temperature is 400 C. The steam mass flow rate
is 1 kg/sec.
the freon cycle.
Determine the mass flow rate of the freon cycle, thermal efficiency of
the combined cycle, power input to the combined cycle, power output by
the combined cycle, power net output of the combined cycle, rate of heat
added to the combined cycle, and rate of heat removed from the combined
cycle.
ANSWERS: mdotFreon ¼ 11.16 kg/sec, combined cycle ¼ 32.52%, Wdotin
combined cycle ¼ 24.94 kW, Wdotout combined cycle ¼ 998.6 kW, Wdotnet combined
cycle ¼ 973.6 kW, Qdotin combined cycle ¼ 2994 kW, Qdotout combined cycle ¼
2020 kW.
2. A Rankine/Rankine cycle (Fig. 5.16) uses steam as the working
fluid with 1 kg/sec mass flow rate through the top Rankine cycle, and
Freon134a as the working fluid in the bottom Rankine cycle. The steam
condenser (HX1) pressure is 20 kPa, the boiler pressure is 3 MPa, and the
steam superheater temperature is 400 C. The steam mass flow rate is
1 kg/sec.
the freon cycle.
Determine the mass flow rate of the freon cycle, thermal efficiency of
the combined cycle, power input to the combined cycle, power output by
the combined cycle, power net output of the combined cycle, rate of heat
added to the combined cycle, and rate of heat removed from the combined
cycle.
ANSWERS: mdotFreon ¼ 10.84 kg/sec, combined cycle ¼ 34.04%,
Wdotin combined cycle ¼ 25.31 kW, Wdotout combined cycle ¼
1038 kW, Wdotnet combined cycle ¼ 1013 kW, Qdotin combined cycle ¼ 2976 kW,
Qdotout combined cycle ¼ 1963 kW.
5.8 FIELD CYCLE
The Field cycle is a supergenerative cycle that makes use of the high-
temperature heat addition of the Brayton cycle and the low-temperature
heat removal of the Rankine cycle. Therefore, it is able to achieve a high
mean temperature of heat addition. The gain due to high-temperature

heat addition, however, is offset by the reduction in cycle efficiency
resulting from the irreversibility of the mixing process. A schematic
diagram of the Field cycle is shown in Fig. 5.17. The arrangement
includes one compressor, five turbines, three pumps, one boiler and one
reheater (heaters), one regenerator (heat exchanger), one condenser
(cooler), three mixing chambers, and two splitters. Processes 1-2, 2-3, 3-4,
4-5, 5-6, and 6-7 take advantage of the high-temperature heat addition
of Brayton cycle, and the other processes take advantage of the
low-temperature heat removing and regenerative condensing of the
Rankine cycle.
Example 5.8
An ideal field cycle with perfect regeneration as shown in Fig. 5.17 is
designed according to the following data: p16 ¼ 10 kPa, x16 ¼ 0, p19 ¼
200 kPa, x19 ¼ 0, p22 ¼ 1 MPa, x22 ¼ 0, p23 ¼ 2 MPa, p2 ¼ 6 MPa, T4 ¼ 500 C,
mdot4 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p5 ¼ 4 MPa, T6 ¼ 500 C, T8 ¼ 300 C, mdot10 ¼ 0.9 kg/sec,
and mdot17 ¼ 0.1 kg/sec.
Determine (1) the pressure and temperature of each state of the
cycle, (2) power produced by each of the five turbines, rate of heat added
by each of the two heaters, power required by the compressor and each of
the three pumps, rate of heat removed by the condenser, and (3) net power
produced by the cycle and cycle efficiency.
Figure 5.17 Field cycle schematic diagram.


compressor, turbines, and pump are adiabatic and isentropic; the
heaters, mixing chambers, cooler, and regenerator are isobaric;
and the splitters are isoparametric.
2. Input working fluid ¼ water, p16 ¼ 10 kPa, x16 ¼ 0, p19 ¼ 200 kPa,
x19 ¼ 0, p22 ¼ 1 MPa, x22 ¼ 0, p23 ¼ 2 MPa, p2 ¼ 6 MPa, T4 ¼
500 C, mdot4 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p5 ¼ 4 MPa, T6 ¼ 500 C, T8 ¼ 300 C,
3. Display results.
The answers are: (1) p1 ¼ 2 MPa, T1 ¼ 212.4 C, p2 ¼ 6 MPa,

T2 ¼ 237.3 C, p3 ¼ 6 MPa, T3 ¼ 275.6 C, p4 ¼ 6 MPa, T4 ¼ 500 C,
p5 ¼ 4 MPa, T5 ¼ 432.8 C, p6 ¼ 4 MPa, T6 ¼ 500 C, p7 ¼ 2 MPa,

T7 ¼ 388.9 C, p8 ¼ 2 MPa, T8 ¼ 300 C, p9 ¼ 2 MPa, T9 ¼ 300 C,
p10 ¼ 2 MPa, T10 ¼ 300 C, p11 ¼1 MPa, T11 ¼ 214.6 C, p12 ¼ 1 MPa,
T12 ¼ 214.6 C, p13 ¼ 200 kPa, T13 ¼ 120.2 C, p14 ¼ 200 kPa,
T14 ¼ 120.2 C, p15 ¼ 10 kPa, T15 ¼ 45.82 C, p16 ¼ 10 kPa, T16 ¼ 45.82 C,

p17 ¼ 200 kPa, T17 ¼ 120.2 C, p18 ¼ 200 kPa, T18 ¼ 45.83 C,

p19 ¼ 200 kPa, T19 ¼ 120.2 C, p20 ¼ 1 MPa, T20 ¼ 214.6 C, p21 ¼ 1 MPa,
T21 ¼ 120.3 C, p22 ¼ 2 MPa, T17 ¼ 179.9 C, p23 ¼ 2 MPa, and

T17 ¼ 185.7 C; (2) WdotT#1 ¼ 131.9 kW, WdotT#2 ¼ 222.4 kW,
WdotT#3 ¼144.7 kW, WdotT#4 ¼ 238.9 kW, WdotT#5 ¼ 293.2 kW,
WdotP#1 ¼ 0.1598 kW, WdotP#2 ¼ 0.6973 kW, WdotP#3 ¼ 28.45 kW,
WdotCompressor ¼ 7.57 kW, QdotHtr#1 ¼ 2197 kW, QdotHtr#2 ¼ 155 kW,
and QdotCondenser ¼ 1358 kW; and (3) Wdotnet ¼ 994.0 kW and
¼ 42.26%. (See Fig. 5.18.)
Review Problems 5.8 Field Cycle

1. What is the concept of the Field cycle?

Figure 5.18 Field cycle.

5.9 COGENERATION
The cycles considered so far in this chapter are power cycles. However,
there are applications in which Rankine cycles are used for the combined
supply of power and process heat. The heat may be used as process steam
for industrial processes, or steam to heat water for central or district
heating. This type of combined heat and power plant is called
cogeneration. A schematic cogeneration plant is illustrated in Fig. 5.19.
A different schematic cogeneration plant is illustrated in Fig. 5.20.

Figure 5.19 Cogeneration plant.
Figure 5.20 Cogeneration plant.
The one regenerative Rankine basic cycle is composed of the

following seven processes:
7-8 Constant enthalpy throttling

Applying the mass balance and the first and second laws of
thermodynamics of the open system to the mixing chamber and the splitter
of the cogeneration Rankine cycle yields:
m3 ¼ m2 þ m10 (5.16)
m4 ¼ m7 þ m5 (5.17)
Q89 ¼ m9(h9 h8) (5.18)
and
W56 ¼ m5(h5 h6) (5.19)
The net work (Wnet) is

Wnet ¼ W56 þ W9–10 þ W12 (5.20)
¼ Wnet/Q34 (5.21)
To take account of the desired heat output from process 8-9 (Q89), the
cogeneration ratio l is
l ¼ Q89/Q34 (5.22)
Therefore, the combined power and heat cogeneration energy utility factor
(EUF) is
EUF ¼ þ l (5.23)
Example 5.9
A cogeneration cycle as shown in Fig. 5.19 is to be designed according
to the following specifications: boiler temperature ¼ 500 C, boiler
pressure ¼ 7 MPa, condenser pressure ¼ 5 kPa, process steam (cooler #2)
pressure ¼ 500 kPa, mass rate flow through the boiler ¼ 15 kg/sec, and
mass rate flow through the turbine ¼ 14 kg/sec.
Determine the rate of heat supply, net power output, process heat
output, cycle efficiency, cogeneration ratio, and energy utility factor of
the cycle.

2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process each for the following devices: (1) pumps as
100% efficiency, (3) splitter as isoparametric, (4) mixing
chamber as isobaric, (5) condenser and cooler as isobaric,
and (6) boiler as isobaric.
(2) inlet pressure and quality of pump #1 are 5 kPa and 0,
(3) inlet temperature and pressure of the turbine are 500 C
and 7 MPa, (4) inlet quality and pressure of pump #2 are 0
and 500 kPa, (5) steam mass flow rate is 15 kg/sec at state 4,
and (6) steam mass flow rate is 14 kg/sec at state 5.
3. Display results.
The answers are: rate of heat supply ¼ 48,482 kW, net power
output ¼ 18,607 kW, process heat output ¼ 2770 kW, cycle efficiency ¼
0.3838, cogeneration ratio ¼ 2770/48,482 ¼ 0.0571, and energy utility factor
of the cycle ¼ 0.3838 þ 0.0571 ¼ 0.4409. (See Fig. 5.21.)
Example 5.10
The cogeneration cycle as shown in Fig. 5.19 is to produce power only
according to the following specifications: boiler temperature ¼ 500 C,
Figure 5.21 Cogeneration.

boiler pressure ¼ 7 MPa, condenser pressure ¼ 5 kPa, process steam
(cooler #2) pressure ¼ 500 kPa, mass rate flow through the boiler ¼
15 kg/sec, and mass rate flow through the turbine ¼ 15 kg/sec.
Determine the net power output, rate of heat supply, and cycle
2. Analysis:
(2) inlet pressure and quality of pump #1 are 5 kPa and 0,
(3) inlet temperature and pressure of the turbine are
500 C and 7 MPa, (4) inlet quality and pressure of pump #2
are 0 and 500 kPa, (5) steam mass flow rate is 15 kg/sec at state
4, and (6) steam mass flow rate is 15 kg/sec at state 5.
3. Display results.
The answers are: rate of heat supply ¼ 48,985 kW, net power
output ¼ 19,944 kW, and cycle efficiency ¼ 0.4071. (See Fig. 5.22.)
Figure 5.22 Cogeneration without heat output.

Example 5.11
A cogeneration cycle as shown in Fig. 5.20 is to be designed according to
the following specifications: boiler temperature ¼ 400 C, boiler pressure ¼
40 bars, inlet pressure of low-pressure turbine ¼ 10 bars, condenser
pressure ¼ 0.1 bar, process steam (cooler #2) pressure ¼ 10 bars, mass rate
flow through the boiler ¼ 1 kg/sec, mass rate flow through the turbine
#1 ¼ 0.98 kg/sec, and mass rate flow through the turbine #1 ¼ 0.95 kg/sec.
output, cycle efficiency, cogeneration ratio, and energy utility factor of the
cycle.
2. Analysis:
(2) p1 ¼ 0.1 bar, x1 ¼ 0, p2 ¼ 40 bars, p6 ¼ 10 bars,
mdot4 ¼ 1 kg/sec, mdot9 ¼ 0.02 kg/sec, mdot11 ¼ 0.03 kg/sec,
T4 ¼ 400 C, and x13 ¼ 0.
3. Display results.
The answers are: rate of heat supply ¼ 2989 kW, net power output ¼
1023 kW, process heat output ¼ 112 kW, cycle efficiency ¼ 0.3421, cogener-
ation ratio ¼ 112/2989 ¼ 0.03747, and energy utility factor of the
cycle ¼ 0.3421 þ 0.03747 ¼ 0.3796. (See Fig. 5.23.)
There are cogeneration applications in which gas cycles are used to
supply both gas power and process heat. The heat may be used as process
steam for industrial processes, or steam to heat water for central or
district heating. A schematic cogeneration plant is illustrated in Fig. 5.24.
Figure 5.25 depicts a cogeneration plant in which an open Brayton
gas turbine plant exhausts to a heat recovery steam generator (heat
exchanger), which supplies process steam to a dairy factory. The generator
is provided with a gas burner (heater #2) for supplementary heat when the
demand for process steam is high. The open Brayton gas turbine is a split-
shaft plant.
The cogeneration cycle is composed of the following six processes:



Applying the first law of thermodynamics of the open system to the

cogeneration cycle yields:
Wdot12 ¼ Wdot34, (5.24)
mdot5(h5 h6) ¼ mdot7 (h8 h7) (5.25)
The net work (Wnet) is
Wnet ¼ W12 þ W34 þ W45 ¼ W45 (5.26)
and
The combined power and heat cogeneration energy utility factor
(EUF) is
EUF ¼ [Wnet þ mdot5(h5 h6)]/(Qdot23 þ Qdot89) (5.27)
Example 5.12
The data given below correspond approximately to the design conditions
for a dairy factory cogeneration plant: mdot1 ¼ 20.45 kg/sec, p1 ¼ 1 bar,
T1 ¼ 25 C, p2 ¼ 7 bars, T3 ¼ 850 C, p5 ¼ 1 bar, T6 ¼ 138 C, compressor ¼
turbine #1 ¼ turbine #2 ¼ 85%, T7 ¼ 90 C, p7 ¼ 13 bars, and x9 ¼ 1.
Determine the power required by the compressor, power produced
by turbines #1 and #2, rate of heat added to the combustion chamber, net

power produced by the open Brayton gas turbine plant, cycle efficiency of
the open Brayton gas turbine plant, rate of heat added to the process
steam, rate of process steam, and energy utility of the cogeneration plant.
1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig. 5.25. Assume that compressor
and turbines are adiabatic and 85% efficient, and the heaters and
heat exchanger are isobaric.
2. Input cycle A working fluid ¼ air, p1 ¼ 1 bar, T1 ¼ 25 C, mdot1 ¼
20.45 kg/sec, p2 ¼ 7 bars, T3 ¼ 850 C, Wdot12 ¼ Wdot34, T6 ¼
138 C, cycle B working fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 90 C, p8 ¼ 13 bars,
and x8 ¼ 1.
3. Display results.
The answers are: Wdotcompressor ¼ 5352 kW, Wdotturbine #1 ¼
5352 kW, Wdotturbine #2 ¼ 3172 kW, Wdotnet ¼ 3172 kW, Qdotcomb chamber ¼
11,576 kW, ¼ 3172/11576 ¼ 27.40%, QdotHX ¼ 6086 kW, mdotsteam ¼
2.53 kg/sec, and EUF ¼ (3172 þ 6086)/11576 ¼ 0.7998. (See Fig. 5.26.)
Example 5.13
Referring to the dairy factory cogeneration design conditions where
5 kg/sec of process steam is needed, determine the rate of heat provided by
the gas burner.

To solve this problem by CyclePad, we do the same thing as in
Example 5.12, delete x8 ¼ 1, and let x9 ¼ 1 and mdot8 ¼ 5 kg/sec.
The answers are Qdot ¼ 5960 kW and EUF ¼ (3172 þ 6086)/
(11576 þ 5960) ¼ 0.5279. (See Fig. 5.27.)
Review Problems 5.9 Cogeneration

1. What is cogeneration?
2. How is the cogeneration ratio defined?
3. How is the cogeneration energy utility factor defined?
4. A cogeneration cycle as shown in Fig. 5.19 is to be designed
according to the following specifications: turbine efficiency ¼ 89%, boiler
temperature ¼ 500 C, boiler pressure ¼ 7 MPa, condenser pressure ¼ 5 kPa,
process steam (cooler #2) pressure ¼ 500 kPa, mass rate flow through the
boiler ¼ 15 kg/sec, and mass rate flow through the turbine ¼ 13 kg/sec.
cycle.
ANSWERS: cycle efficiency ¼ 32.01%, rate of heat supply ¼
47,980 kW, rate of cogeneration heat ¼ 5540 kW.

cycle.
48,173 kW, rate of cogeneration heat ¼ 5564 kW.
cycle.
ANSWERS: cycle efficiency ¼ 38.38%, rate of heat
supply ¼ 48,482 kW, rate of cogeneration heat ¼ 2770 kW.
according to the following specifications: high-pressure turbine
efficiency ¼ 84%, low-pressure turbine efficiency ¼ 100%, boiler
temperature ¼ 400 C, boiler pressure ¼ 40 bars, inlet pressure of low-
pressure turbine ¼ 10 bars, condenser pressure ¼ 0.1 bar, process steam
(cooler #2) pressure ¼ 10 bars, mass rate flow through the boiler ¼ 1 kg/sec,
mass rate flow through the turbine #1 ¼ 0.98 kg/sec, and mass rate flow
through the turbine #1 ¼ 0.95 kg/sec.
cycle.
2989 kW, rate of cogeneration heat ¼ 113.7 kW.
8. Referring to the dairy factory design conditions, except that the
compressor efficiency is 80% and the mass flow rate of process steam is
4 kg/sec, determine the power required by the compressor, power produced
by turbines #1 and #2, rate of heat added to the combustion chamber, net
power produced by the open Brayton gas turbine plant, cycle efficiency of
the open Brayton gas turbine plant, rate of heat added to the process
steam, rate of heat added in the gas burner, and energy utility of the
cogeneration plant.
ANSWERS: Wdotcompressor ¼ 5352 kW, Wdotturbine #1 ¼ 5352 kW,
Wdotturbine #2 ¼ 3172 kW, Wdotnet ¼ 3172 kW, Qdotcomb chamber ¼11,576 kW,
¼ 3172/11,576 ¼ 27.40%, QdotHX ¼ 6086 kW, Qdotgas burner ¼ 2.53 kg/
sec, and EUF ¼ (3172 þ 6086)/11576 ¼ 0.7998.

One of the purposes of this book is to illuminate elements of conceptual

thermodynamic cycle design. In this endeavor, the intent is to build upon
and extend information previously acquired in thermodynamics. Possible
steps in an intelligent computer-aided design process, as shown in Example
5.14, involves the following steps:
1. The first step is to identify a need. For example, a power plant

manager might decide that use of a combined cycle would
increase cycle efficiency.
2. The second step is to develop several conceptual plants (e.g.,
cycles A, B, and C) to meet the identified need. One of the
several plants is described in Example 5.14. In this example, a
three-stage regenerative steam Rankine cycle and a four-stage
intercool and four-stage reheat air Brayton cycle are combined to
meet the need.
3. The third step is to model the components of the conceptual
plant. For example, a steam turbine may be modeled as an
adiabatic process with 85% isentropic efficiency.
4. The fourth step is to estimate input numerical values for the
major parameters. For example, the inlet gas temperature to a
gas turbine is 1200 C based on physical feasibility.
5. The fifth step is to analyze the conceptual thermodynamic cycle.
6. The sixth step is to refine and optimize the conceptual
thermodynamic cycle with sensitivity analysis.
7. The seventh step is to compare the optimal cycles and choose the
best cycle.
Example 5.14
A three-stage regenerative steam Rankine cycle and a four-stage intercool
and four-stage reheat air Brayton cycle is combined by a heat exchanger as
shown in Fig. 5.28a has been designed by a junior engineer with the
following design input information, as shown in Fig. 5.28b.
The preliminary design information is:
Brayton cycle
p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T1 ¼ 20 C, p3 ¼ 200 kPa, T3 ¼ 20 C, p5 ¼ 300 kPa, T5 ¼ 20 C,
p7 ¼ 500 kPa, T7 ¼ 20 C, p9 ¼ 800 kPa, T9 ¼ 20 C, p11 ¼ 1200 kPa, T11 ¼

Figure 5.28a Combined Brayton–Rankine cycle.
Figure 5.28b Combined Brayton–Rankine cycle input.
1200 C, p13 ¼ 800 kPa, T13 ¼ 1200 C, p15 ¼ 500 kPa, T15 ¼ 1200 C, p17 ¼
300 kPa, T17 ¼ 1200 C, p19 ¼ 200 kPa, T19 ¼ 1200 C, p20 ¼ 100 kPa,
T21 ¼ 550 C, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, tur1 ¼ tur2 ¼ tur3 ¼ tur4 ¼ tur5 ¼ 85%,
and cmp1 ¼ cmp2 ¼ cmp3 ¼ cmp4 ¼ cmp5 ¼ 85%.

Figure 5.28c Combined Brayton–Rankine cycle output.
Rankine cycle
p22 ¼ 7 kPa, x22 ¼ 0, p24 ¼ 2 MPa, x24 ¼ 0, p26 ¼ 4 MPa, x26 ¼ 0, p28 ¼ 8 MPa,
x28 ¼ 0, p30 ¼ 12 MPa, T30 ¼ 500 C, tur6 ¼ tur7 ¼ tur8 ¼ tur9 ¼ 85%, and
pmp1 ¼ pmp2 ¼ pmp3 ¼ pmp4 ¼ 85%.
The following output results as shown in Fig. 5.28c are obtained
from his design:
Combined cycle
cycle ¼ 41.67%, Wdotinput ¼ 280.1 kW, Wdotoutput ¼ 1007 kW, Wdotnet
output ¼ 727.1 kW, Qdotadd ¼ 1745 kW, Qdotremove ¼ 486.0 kW.
Brayton cycle
cycle ¼ 32.33%, Wdotinput ¼ 264.9 kW, Wdotoutput ¼ 829.1 kW,
Wdotnet output ¼ 564.2 kW, Qdotadd ¼ 1745 kW, Qdotremove ¼ 648.9 kW,
Wdotcmp1 ¼ 75.79 kW, Wdotcmp2 ¼ 42.50 kW, Wdotcmp3 ¼ 54.38 kW,
Wdotcmp4 ¼ 49.74 kW, Wdotcmp5 ¼ 42.50 kW, Wdottur1 ¼ 137.4 kW,
Wdottur2 ¼ 157.9 kW, Wdottur3 ¼ 170.6 kW, Wdottur4 ¼ 137.4 kW,
Wdottur5 ¼ 225.7 kW, Qdotclr1 ¼ 75.79 kW, Qdotclr2 ¼ 42.50 kW,
Qdotclr3 ¼ 54.38 kW, Qdotclr4 ¼ 49.74 kW, Qdothtr1 ¼ 1142 kW,

Qdothtr2 ¼ 137.4 kW, Qdothtr3 ¼ 157.9 kW, Qdothtr4 ¼ 170.6 kW,
Qdothtr5 ¼ 137.4 kW, and Qdotheat exch ¼ 426.5 kW.
Rankine cycle
cycle ¼ 38.20%, Wdotinput ¼ 15.20 kW, Wdotoutput ¼ 178.1 kW,
Wdotnet output ¼ 162.9 kW, Qdotadd ¼ 426.5 kW, Qdotremove ¼ 263.6 kW,
Wdotpmp1 ¼ 13.26 kW, Wdotpmp2 ¼ 1.14 kW, Wdotpmp3 ¼ 0.4943 kW,
Wdotpmp4 ¼ 0.3131 kW, Wdottur6 ¼ 22.91 kW, Wdottur7 ¼ 31.64 kW,
Wdottur8 ¼ 25.56 kW, Wdottur9 ¼ 98.01 kW, Qdotclr5 ¼ 263.6 kW,
Qdotheat exch ¼ 426.5 kW, mdot24 ¼ 0.1782 kg/sec, mdot26 ¼ 0.1939 kg/sec,
Let us try to modify his design (use p5, p7, p15, and p17 as design
parameters only) to get a better cycle thermal efficiency than his
cycle ¼ 41.67%.
The sensitivity analyses of cycle versus p5, cycle versus p7, cycle
versus p15, and cycle versus p17 are shown in Figs. 5.28d–5.28g.
Figure 5.28d Combined Brayton–Rankine cycle sensitivity diagram.

Figure 5.28e Combined Brayton–Rankine cycle sensitivity diagram.
Figure 5.28f Combined Brayton–Rankine cycle sensitivity diagram.

Figure 5.28g Combined Brayton–Rankine cycle sensitivity diagram; Review
Problems 5.10 Design.
The optimization design values of p5, p7, p15, and p18 can be easily
identified.
Review Problem 5.10 Design

1. A three-stage regenerative steam Rankine cycle and a four-stage
intercool and four-stage reheat air Brayton cycle combined with a heat
exchanger, as shown in Fig. 5.28a, has been designed by a junior engineer
with the following design input information:
Brayton cycle
p7 ¼ 500 kPa, T7 ¼ 20 C, p9 ¼ 800 kPa, T9 ¼ 20 C, p11 ¼ 1200 kPa,
T11 ¼ 1300 C, p13 ¼ 800 kPa, T13 ¼ 1300 C, p15 ¼ 500 kPa, T15 ¼ 1300 C,
T21 ¼ 550 C, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, tur1 ¼ tur2 ¼ tur3 ¼ tur4 ¼ tur5 ¼ 85%, and
cmp1 ¼ cmp2 ¼ cmp3 ¼ cmp4 ¼ cmp5 ¼ 85%.

Rankine cycle
p22 ¼ 7 kPa, x22 ¼ 0, p24 ¼ 2 MPa, x24 ¼ 0, p26 ¼ 4 MPa, x26 ¼ 0,
p28 ¼ 8 MPa, x28 ¼ 0, p30 ¼ 12 MPa, T30 ¼ 500 C, tur6 ¼ tur7 ¼ tur8 ¼
tur9 ¼ 85%, and pmp1 ¼ pmp2 ¼ pmp3 ¼ pmp4 ¼ 85%.
The following output results are obtained from his design:
Combined cycle
cycle ¼ 43.26%, Wdotinput ¼ 283.2 kW, Wdotoutput ¼ 1099 kW, Wdotnet
output ¼ 815.9 kW, Qdotadd ¼ 1886 kW, Qdotremove ¼ 538.5 kW.
Try to improve his design (use p3, p5, p7, p9, p24, p26, and p28 as
design parameters only) and get a better cycle thermal efficiency than his
cycle ¼ 43.26%.
2. A three-stage regenerative steam Rankine cycle and a four-stage
inter-cool and four-stage reheat air Brayton cycle combined with a heat
exchanger, as shown in Fig. 5.28a, has been designed by a junior engineer
with the following design input information:
Brayton cycle
T11 ¼ 1300 C, p13 ¼ 800 kPa, T13 ¼ 1300 C, p15 ¼ 500 kPa, T15 ¼ 1300 C,
T21 ¼ 550 C, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, tur1 ¼ tur2 ¼ tur3 ¼ tur4 ¼ tur5 ¼ 85%, and
cmp1 ¼ cmp2 ¼ cmp3 ¼ cmp4 ¼ cmp5 ¼ 88%.
Rankine cycle
p22 ¼ 7 kPa, x22 ¼ 0, p24 ¼ 2 MPa, x24 ¼ 0, p26 ¼ 4 MPa, x26 ¼ 0,
p28 ¼ 8 MPa, x28 ¼ 0, p30 ¼ 12 MPa, T30 ¼ 500 C, tur6 ¼ tur7 ¼ tur8 ¼ tur9 ¼
85%, and pmp1 ¼ pmp2 ¼ pmp3 ¼ pmp4 ¼ 85%.
The following output results are obtained from his design:
Combined cycle
cycle ¼ 43.70%, Wdotinput ¼ 274.1 kW, Wdotoutput ¼ 1099 kW,
Wdotnet output ¼ 824.9 kW, Qdotadd ¼ 1888 kW, Qdotremove ¼ 530.9 kW.
Try to improve his design (use p3, p5, p7, p9, p24, p26, and p28 as
design parameters only) and get a better cycle thermal efficiency than his
cycle ¼ 43.70%.

5.11 SUMMARY
Combined- and cascaded-cycle heat engines of several types discussed in

this chapter can improve cycle efficiency and reduce the fuel required for
producing work or electrical energy. In a similar fashion, cogeneration,
which produces thermal energy and electrical energy, can also result in
significant energy savings.

6
Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles
6.1 CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT PUMP
A system is called a refrigerator or a heat pump depending on the purpose

of the system. If the purpose of the system is to remove heat from a low-
temperature thermal reservoir, it is a refrigerator. If the purpose of the
system is to deliver heat to a high-temperature thermal reservoir, it is a
heat pump.
The Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle. Reversing the cycle will also
reverse the directions of heat and work interactions. The reversed Carnot
heat engine cycles are Carnot refrigeration and heat pump cycles.
Therefore, a reversed Carnot vapor heat engine is either a Carnot vapor
refrigerator or a Carnot vapor heat pump, depending on the function of
the cycle.
A schematic diagram of the Carnot refrigerator or Carnot heat pump
is illustrated in Fig. 6.1.
2-3 Isothermal cooling
4-1 Isothermal heating
system to each of the four processes of the basic vapor refrigeration cycle
under steady-flow and steady-state conditions yields:
Q12 ¼ 0 (6.1)
0 W12 ¼ m(h2 h1) (6.2)
W23 ¼ 0 (6.3)
Q23 0 ¼ m(h3 h2) (6.4)

Figure 6.1 Carnot refrigerator or Carnot heat pump.
Q34 ¼ 0 (6.5)
0 W34 ¼ m(h3 h4) (6.6)
W41 ¼ 0 (6.7)
and
Q41 0 ¼ m(h1 h4) (6.8)
The desirable energy output of the refrigeration cycle is the heat

added to the evaporator (or heat removed from the inner space or the low-
temperature reservoir of the refrigerator). The energy input to the cycle
is the compressor work required. The energy produced is the turbine work.
The net work (Wnet) required to operate the cycle is (W12 þ W34). Thus,
the coefficient of performance (COP) of the cycle is
R ¼ Q41 /Wnet (6.9)
The rate of heat removed from the inner space of the refrigerator is
called the cooling load or cooling capacity. The cooling load of a
refrigeration system is sometimes given a unit in tons of refrigeration. A
ton of refrigeration is the removal of heat from the cold space at a rate of
200 Btu/min (12,000 Btu/hr) or 211 kJ/min (3.52 kW). A ton of refrigera-
tion is the rate of cooling required to make a ton of ice per day.

Example 6.1
Determine the COP, horsepower required, and cooling load of a Carnot
vapor refrigeration cycle using R-12 as the working fluid and in which the
condenser temperature is 100 F and the evaporation temperature is 20 F.
The circulation rate of fluid is 0.1 lbm/sec. Determine the compressor
power required, turbine power produced, net power required, cooling load,
quality at the inlet of the evaporator, quality at the inlet of the
compressor, and COP of the refrigerator.
1. Build:
a. Take a compressor, a cooler (condenser), a turbine, and a
heater (evaporator) from the open-system inventory shop and
connect the four devices to form the basic vapor refrigeration
cycle.
2. Analysis:
as isentropic, (2) condenser as isobaric, (3) turbine as
isentropic, and (4) evaporator as isobaric.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is R-12,
(2) inlet temperature and quality of the compressor are 20 F
and 1, (3) inlet temperature and quality of the turbine are
100 F and 0, (4) phase of the exit refrigerant from the turbine
is a saturated mixture, and (5) mass flow rate is 0.1 lbm/sec.
3. Display the cycle properties’ results. The cycle is a refrigerator.
The answers are: compressor power required ¼ 1.36 hp, turbine power
produced ¼ 0.2234 hp, net power required ¼ 1.13 hp, cooling load ¼
4.79 Btu/sec, quality at the inlet of the evaporator ¼ 0.2504, and COP ¼
5.99. (See Fig. 6.2.)
COMMENTS: (1) The turbine work produced is very small. It does not pay
to install an expansion device to produce a small amount of work. The
expansion process can be achieved by a simple throttling valve. (2) The
compressor handles the refrigerant as a mixture of saturated liquid and
saturated vapor. It is not practical. Therefore, the compression process
should be moved out of the mixture region to the superheated region.
Review Problems 6.1 Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump

1. Does the area enclosed by the Carnot heat pump cycle on a T–s
diagram represent the network input for the heat pump?

Figure 6.2 Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle.
2. Does the Carnot heat pump cycle involve any internal

irreversibilities?
6.2 BASIC VAPOR REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The Carnot refrigerator is not a practical cycle, because the compressor is

designed to handle superheated vapor or gas. The turbine in a small
temperature and pressure range produces a very small amount of work. It
is not worth having an expensive turbine in the cycle to produce a very
small amount of work. Therefore, the Carnot refrigeration cycle is
modified to have the compression process completely in the superheated
region and the turbine is replaced by an inexpensive throttling valve
termed a thermal expansion valve to form a basic vapor refrigeration
cycle. The schematic diagram of the basic vapor refrigeration system is
shown in Fig. 6.3. The components of the basic vapor refrigeration cycle
include a compressor, a condenser, an expansion valve, and an evaporator.
The T–s diagram of the cycle is shown in Fig. 6.4. Notice that the
throttling process 3-4 is an irreversible process and is indicated by a
broken line on the T–s diagram.
The basic vapor refrigeration cycle consists of the following four
processes:

Figure 6.3 Basic vapor refrigeration system.
Figure 6.4 T–s diagram of the basic vapor refrigeration cycle.
3-4 Throttling
system to each of the four processes of the basic vapor refrigeration cycle
yields:
Q12 ¼ 0 (6.10)
0 W12 ¼ m(h2 h1) (6.11)
W23 ¼ 0 (6.12)
Q23 0 ¼ m(h3 h2) (6.13)

Q34 ¼ 0 and W34 ¼ 0 (6.14)
0 0 ¼ m(h3 h4) (6.15)
W41 ¼ 0 (6.16)
and
Q41 0 ¼ m(h1 h4) (6.17)
The desirable energy output of the basic vapor refrigeration cycle is

the heat added to the evaporator (or heat removed from the inner space of
the refrigerator, Q41). The energy input to the cycle is the compressor work
required (W12). Thus, the coefficient of performance (COP) of the basic
refrigeration cycle is
R ¼ Q41/W12 ¼ (h4 h1)/(h2 h1) (6.18)
The rate of heat removed from the inner space of the refrigerator is
called the cooling load or cooling capacity. The cooling load of a
refrigeration system is sometimes given a unit in tons of refrigeration. A
ton of refrigeration is the removal of heat from the cold space at a rate of
12,000 Btu/hr.
Example 6.2
Determine the COP, horsepower required, and cooling load of a basic
vapor refrigeration cycle using R-12 as the working fluid and in which the
condenser pressure is 130 psia and the evaporation pressure is 35 psia. The
circulation rate of fluid is 0.1 lbm/sec. Determine the compressor power
required, cooling load, quality at the inlet of the evaporator, and COP of
the refrigerator.
1. Build:
a. Take a compressor, a condenser, a valve, and a heater
(evaporator) from the open-system inventory shop and
cycle.
2. Analysis:
as isentropic, (2) condenser as isobaric, (3) valve as constant
enthalpy, and (4) evaporator as isobaric.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is R-12, (2) inlet
pressure and quality of the compressor are 35 psia 20 F and 1,

Figure 6.5 Basic vapor refrigeration cycle.
(3) inlet pressure and quality of the valve are 130 psia and 0,
and (4) mass flow rate is 0.1 lbm/sec.
The answers are: compressor power required ¼ 1.27 hp, cooling load ¼
4.84 Btu/sec ¼ 1.45 ton, quality at the inlet of the evaporator ¼ 0.2738, and
COP ¼ 5.38. (See Fig. 6.5.)
Example 6.3
Determine the COP, horsepower required, and cooling load of a basic vapor
refrigeration cycle using R-12 as the working fluid and in which the condenser
pressure is 130 psia and the evaporation pressure is 35 psia. The circulation
rate of fluid is 0.1 lbm/sec. The temperature of the refrigerant at the exit of the
compressor is 117 F. Determine the compressor power required, cooling
load, quality at the inlet of the evaporator, and COP of the refrigerator.
1. Build:
cycle.
2. Analysis:
as adiabatic, (2) condenser as isobaric, (3) valve as constant

Figure 6.6 Actual vapor refrigeration cycle.

(2) inlet pressure and quality of the compressor are 35 psia
and 1, (3) temperature of the refrigerant at the exit of the
compressor is 117 F, (4) inlet pressure and quality of the valve
are 130 psia and 0, and (5) mass flow rate is 0.1 lbm/sec.
The answers are: compressor power required ¼ 1.54 hp, cooling load ¼
4.84 Btu/sec ¼ 1.45 ton, quality at the inlet of the evaporator ¼ 0.2738, and
COP ¼ 4.44. (See Fig. 6.6.)
Review Problems 6.2 Basic Vapor Refrigeration Cycle

1. Why is the Carnot refrigeration cycle executed within the
saturation dome not a realistic model for refrigeration cycles?
2. What is the difference between a refrigerator and a heat pump?
3. Why is the throttling valve not replaced by an isentropic turbine
in the ideal refrigeration cycle?
4. What is the area enclosed by the refrigeration cycle on a T–s
diagram?
5. Does the ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle involve any
internal irreversibility?
6. A steady-flow ideal 0.4 ton refrigerator uses refrigerant R-134a as
the working fluid. The evaporator pressure is 120 kPa. The
condenser pressure is 600 kPa. Determine (a) the mass rate flow,
(b) the compressor power required, (c) the rate of heat absorbed

from the refrigerated space, (d) the rate of heat removed from
the condenser, and (e) the COP.
7. An actual vapor compression refrigeration cycle operates at
steady state with R-134a as the working fluid. Saturated vapor
enters the compressor at 263 K. Superheated vapor enters the
condenser at 311 K. Saturated liquid leaves the condenser at
301 K. The mass flow rate of refrigerant is 0.1 kg/sec. Determine
(a) the cooling load, (b) the compressor work required, (c) the
condenser pressure, (d) the rate of heat removed from the
condenser, (e) the compressor efficiency, and (f) the COP.
8. An actual vapor compression refrigeration cycle operates at
steady state with R-134a as the working fluid. The evaporator
pressure is 120 kPa and the condenser pressure is 600 kPa. The
mass flow rate of refrigerant is 0.1 kg/sec. The efficiency of
the compressor is 85%. Determine (a) the compressor power,
(b) the refrigerating capacity, and (c) the COP.
9. R-134a enters the compressor of a steady-flow vapor compres-
sion refrigeration cycle as superheated vapor at 0.14 MPa
and 10 C at a rate of 0.04 kg/sec, and it leaves at 0.7 MPa and
50 C. The refrigerant is cooled in the condenser to 24 C and
saturated liquid. Determine (a) the compressor power required,
(b) the rate of heat absorbed from the refrigerated space, (c) the
compressor efficiency, and (d) the COP.
10. Find the compressor power required, quality of the refrigerant
at the end of the throttling process, cooling load, and COP for
a refrigerator that uses R-12 as the working fluid and is
designed to operate at an evaporator temperature of 5 C and a
condenser temperature of 30 C. The compressor efficiency is
68%. The mass rate flow of R-12 is 0.22 kg/sec.
11. Consider an ideal refrigerator that uses R-12 as the working
fluid. The temperature of the refrigerant in the evaporator is
10 C and in the condenser it is 38 C. The refrigerant is
circulated at a rate of 0.031 kg/sec. Determine the compressor
power required, quality of the refrigerant at the end of the
throttling process, cooling load, and COP of the refrigerator.
12. An ideal refrigerator uses ammonia as the working fluid. The
temperature of the refrigerant in the evaporator is 20 F and the
pressure in the condenser is 140 psia. The refrigerant is
circulated at the rate of 0.051 lbm/sec. Determine the
compressor power required, cooling load, and COP of the
refrigerator.

13. An ice-making machine operates on an ideal refrigeration cycle
using R-134a. The refrigerant enters the compressor as
saturated vapor at 20 psia and leaves the condenser as saturated
liquid at 80 psia. For 1 ton (12,000 Btu/hr) of refrigeration,
determine the compressor power required, mass rate flow of
R-134a, and COP of the refrigerator.
14. An ice-making machine operates on an ideal refrigeration cycle
using R-134a. The refrigerant enters the compressor at 18 psia and
0 F, and leaves the condenser at 125 psia and 90 F. For 1 ton
(12,000 Btu/hr) of refrigeration, determine the compressor power
required, mass rate flow of R-134a, and COP of the refrigerator.
15. Find the compressor power required, cooling load, and COP
for a refrigerator that uses R-12 as the working fluid and is
designed to operate at an evaporator temperature of 5 C and a
condenser temperature of 30 C. The mass flow rate of R-12 is
0.22 kg/sec.
16. Consider a 2-ton (24,000 Btu/hr) air-conditioning unit that
operates on an ideal refrigeration cycle with R-134a as the
working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as
saturated vapor at 140 kPa and is compressed to 800 kPa.
Determine the compressor power required, mass rate flow of
R-134a, quality of the refrigerant at the end of the throttling
process, and COP of the refrigerator.
6.3 ACTUAL VAPOR REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The actual vapor refrigeration cycle deviates from the ideal cycle primarily
because of the inefficiency of the compressor, as shown in Fig. 6.7.
Figure 6.7 T–s diagram of actual vapor refrigeration cycle.

Figure 6.8 T–s diagram of actual vapor refrigeration cycle.
In industry, pressure drops associated with fluid flow and heat transfer
to or from the surroundings are also considered. The vapor that enters
the compressor is usually superheated rather than at saturated vapor state.
The degree of superheat of the refrigerant at the inlet of the compressor
determines the extent of opening of the expansion valve. This is a principal
way to control the refrigeration cycle. The refrigerant that enters the
throttling valve is usually compressed rather than at saturated liquid
state. The T–s diagram of the actual vapor refrigeration cycle is shown
in Fig. 6.8.
Example 6.4
Determine the COP, horsepower required, and cooling load of an actual
air conditioning unit using R-12 as the working fluid. The refrigerant
enters the compressor at 100 kPa and 5 C. The compressor efficiency is
87%. The refrigerant enters the throttling valve at 1.2 MPa and 45 C. The
circulation rate of fluid is 0.05 kg/sec. Show the cycle on a T–s diagram.
Determine the COP and cooling load of the air-conditioning unit, and the
power required for the compressor. Plot the sensitivity diagram of COP
versus condenser pressure.
1. Build:
connect the four devices to form the actual vapor refrigeration
cycle.

2. Analysis:
as adiabatic, (2) condenser as isobaric, (3) valve as constant
(2) inlet temperature and pressure of the compressor are 5 C
and 100 kPa, (3) inlet pressure and temperature of the valve
are 1.2 MPa and 45 C, (4) mass flow rate is 0.05 kg/sec, and
(5) compressor efficiency is 87%.
3. Display results:
cycle is a refrigerator. The answers are: COP ¼ 2.09, cooling
load ¼ 5.88 kW ¼ 1.67 tons, and net power input ¼ 2.81 kW.
b. Display the sensitivity diagram of cycle COP versus condenser
pressure. (See Figs. 6.9a and 6.9b.)
Review Problems 6.3 Actual Vapor Refrigeration Cycle

1. Does the ideal vapor refrigeration cycle involve any internal
irreversibility?
2. Why is the inlet state of the compressor of the actual vapor
refrigeration cycle in the superheated vapor region?
3. Why is the inlet state of the throttling process of the actual
vapor refrigeration cycle in the compressed liquid region?
4. R-134a enters the compressor of an actual refrigerator at 140 kPa
and 10 C at a rate of 0.05 kg/sec and leaves at 800 kPa.
Figure 6.9a Actual refrigeration cycle.

Figure 6.9b Actual refrigeration cycle sensitivity analysis.
The compressor efficiency is 80%. The refrigerant is cooled in

the condenser to 26 C. Determine the rate of heat added, rate of
heat removed, power input, cooling load, and COP of the actual
refrigerator.
5. R-22 enters the compressor of an actual refrigerator at 140 kPa
and 10 C at a rate of 0.05 kg/sec and leaves at 800 kPa. The
compressor efficiency is 80%. The refrigerant is cooled in the
condenser to 26 C. Determine the rate of heat added, rate of
refrigerator.
6. Ammonia enters the compressor of an actual refrigerator at
140 kPa and 10 C at a rate of 0.05 kg/sec and leaves at 800 kPa.
The compressor efficiency is 80%. The refrigerant is cooled in
the condenser to 26 C. Determine the rate of heat added, rate of
refrigerator.
6.4 BASIC VAPOR HEAT PUMP CYCLE
A system is called a refrigerator or a heat pump depending on the purpose

of the system. If the purpose of the system is to remove heat from a

low-temperature thermal reservoir, it is a refrigerator. If the purpose of the
system is to deliver heat to a high-temperature thermal reservoir, it is a
heat pump. Consequently, the methodology of analysis for a heat pump is
identical to that for a refrigerator.
The components of the basic vapor heat pump include a compressor,
a condenser, an expansion valve, and an evaporator.
The T–s diagram of the basic vapor heat pump cycle, which consists
of the following four processes, is shown in Fig. 6.10:
3-4 Throttling
Applying the first and second laws of thermodynamics of the
open system to each of the four processes of the basic vapor heat pump
yields:
Q12 ¼ 0 (6.19)
0 W12 ¼ m(h2 h1) (6.20)
W23 ¼ 0 (6.21)
Q23 0 ¼ m(h3 h2) (6.22)
Q34 ¼ 0 and W34 ¼ 0 (6.23)
0 0 ¼ m(h3 h4) (6.24)
W41 ¼ 0 (6.25)
Figure 6.10 Basic vapor heat pump T–S diagram.

and
Q41 0 ¼ m(h1 h4) (6.26)
The desirable energy output of the basic vapor heat pump is the heat
removed from the condenser (or heat added to the high-temperature
thermal reservoir). The energy input to the cycle is the compressor work
required. Thus, the COP of the cycle is
HP ¼ Q23/W12 ¼ (h3 h2)/(h2 h1) (6.27)
The rate of heat removed from the inner space of the heat pump is
called the heating load or heating capacity.
Example 6.5
Determine the COP, horsepower required, and heating load of a basic
vapor heat pump cycle using R-134a as the working fluid and in
which the condenser pressure is 900 kPa and the evaporation pressure is
240 kPa. The circulation rate of fluid is 0.1 kg/sec. Show the cycle on
a T–s diagram. Plot the sensitivity diagram of COP versus condenser
pressure.
1. Build:
connect the four devices to form the basic heat pump cycle.
2. Analysis:
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is R-134a,
(2) inlet pressure and quality of the compressor are 240 kPa
and 1, (3) inlet pressure and quality of the valve are 900 kPa
and 0, and (4) mass flow rate is 0.1 kg/sec.
3. Display results:
cycle is a heat pump. The answers are COP ¼ 6.28, heating
load ¼ 17.27 kW, and net power input ¼ 2.75 kW.

b. Display the sensitivity diagram of cycle COP versus evapora-
tion pressure. (See Figs. 6.11a and 6.11b.)
Review Problems 6.4 Heat Pump

1. Find the compressor power required, quality of the refrigerant at
the end of the throttling process, heating load, and COP for a
heat pump that uses R-12 as the working fluid and is designed to
operate at an evaporator saturation temperature of 10 C and a
Figure 6.11a Basic vapor heat pump cycle.
Figure 6.11b Basic vapor heat pump cycle sensitivity analysis.

condenser saturation temperature of 40 C. The mass rate flow of
R-12 is 0.22 kg/sec.
2. Consider an ideal heat pump which uses R-12 as the working
fluid. The saturation temperature of the refrigerant in the
evaporator is 6 C and in the condenser it is 58 C. The refrigerant
is circulated at the rate of 0.021 kg/sec. Determine the com-
pressor power required, quality of the refrigerant at the end
of the throttling process, heating load, and COP of the heat
pump.
3. An ideal heat pump uses ammonia as the working fluid. The
saturation temperature of the refrigerant in the evaporator is
22 F and in the condenser it is 98 F. The refrigerant is circulated
at the rate of 0.051 lbm/sec. Determine the compressor power
required, heating load, and COP of the heat pump.
4. Find the compressor power required, heating load, and COP
for a heat pump that uses R-12 as the working fluid and is
designed to operate at an evaporator saturation temperature
of 2 C and a condenser temperature of 39 C. The com-
pressor efficiency is 78%. The mass rate flow of R-12 is
0.32 kg/sec.
5. Find the compressor power required, turbine power produced,
heating load, and COP for a heat pump that uses R-12 as the
working fluid and is designed to operate at an evaporator
saturation temperature of 2 C and a condenser saturation
temperature of 39 C. The mass rate flow of R-12 is 0.32 kg/sec.
The throttling valve is replaced by an adiabatic turbine with 74%
efficiency.
6.5 ACTUAL VAPOR HEAT PUMP CYCLE
The actual vapor heat pump cycle deviates from the ideal cycle primarily
because of inefficiency of the compressor, pressure drops associated with
fluid flow and heat transfer to or from the surroundings. The vapor
entering the compressor must be superheated slightly rather than a
saturated vapor. The refrigerant entering the throttling valve is usually
compressed liquid rather than a saturated liquid.
Example 6.6
Determine the COP, horsepower required, and heating load of a basic
vapor heat pump cycle using R-134a as the working fluid and in which

the condenser pressure is 900 kPa and the evaporation pressure is 240 kPa.
The circulation rate of fluid is 0.1 kg/sec. The compressor efficiency is 88%.
Show the cycle on a T–s diagram.
1. Build:
a. Take a compressor, a cooler (condenser), a valve, and a heater
(evaporator) from the open-system inventory shop and connect
the four devices to form the basic heat pump cycle.
2. Analysis:
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is R-134a,
(2) inlet pressure and quality of the compressor are 240 kPa
and 1, (3) inlet pressure and quality of the valve are 900 kPa
and 0, (4) compressor efficiency is 88%, and (5) mass flow rate
is 0.1 kg/sec.
3. Display the T–s diagram and cycle properties’ results. The cycle
is a heat pump.
The answers are COP ¼ 5.65, heating load ¼ 14.52 kW, and net power
input ¼ 3.12 kW. (See Fig. 6.12.)
Figure 6.12 Basic vapor heat pump cycle.

Review Problems 6.5 Actual Vapor Heat Pump
1. Find the compressor power required, quality of the refrigerant at
the end of the throttling process, heating load, and COP for a heat
pump that uses R-12 as the working fluid and is designed to
condenser saturation temperature of 40 C. The compressor
efficiency is 68%. The mass rate flow of R-12 is 0.22 kg/sec.
2. Consider a heat pump that uses R-12 as the working fluid. The
compressor efficiency is 80%. The saturation temperature of the
refrigerant in the evaporator is 6 C and in the condenser it is
58 C. The refrigerant is circulated at the rate of 0.021 kg/sec.
Determine the compressor power required, quality of the
refrigerant at the end of the throttling process, heating load,
and COP of the heat pump.
3. A heat pump uses ammonia as the working fluid. The
compressor efficiency is 80%. The saturation temperature of
the refrigerant in the evaporator is 22 F and in the condenser it
is 98 F. The refrigerant is circulated at the rate of 0.051 lbm/sec.
Determine the compressor power required, heating load, and
COP of the heat pump.
4. Find the compressor power required, heating load, and COP for a
heat pump that uses R-12 as the working fluid and is designed to
condenser temperature of 39 C. The compressor efficiency is
78%. The mass rate flow of R-12 is 0.32 kg/sec.
5. Find the compressor power required, turbine power produced,
heating load, and COP for a heat pump that uses R-12 as the
working fluid and is designed to operate at an evaporator
temperature of 2 C and a condenser temperature of 39 C. The
compressor efficiency is 78%. The mass rate flow of R-12 is
0.32 kg/sec. The throttling valve is replaced by an adiabatic
turbine with 74% efficiency.
6. Determine the COP, horsepower required, and heating load of a
basic vapor heat pump cycle using R-134a as the working fluid
in which the condenser pressure is 900 kPa and the evaporator
pressure is 240 kPa. The circulation rate of fluid is 0.1 kg/sec.
The compressor efficiency is 78%.
7. R-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator at 0.14 MPa and
10 C at a rate of 0.1 kg/sec and leaves at 0.7 MPa and 50 C.
The refrigerant is cooled in the condenser to 24 C and 0.65 MPa.
The refrigerant is throttled to 0.15 MPa. Determine the

compressor efficiency, power input to the compressor, cooling
effect, and COP of the refrigerator.
10 C at a rate of 0.1 kg/sec and leaves at 0.7 MPa. The
condenser to 24 C and 0.65 MPa. The refrigerant is throttled to
0.15 MPa. Determine the power input to the compressor, cooling
10 C at a rate of 0.1 kg/sec and leaves at 0.8 MPa. The
condenser to 26 C and 0.75 MPa. The refrigerant is throttled to
0.15 MPa. Determine the power input to the compressor, cooling
6.6 WORKING FLUIDS FOR VAPOR REFRIGERATION AND

HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS
Ammonia, carbon dioxide, and sulphur dioxide were used widely in the
early years of refrigeration in industrial refrigeration applications. For
domestic and industrial applications now, the principal refrigerants have
been synthetic freons. This family of substances are known by an
R number of the general form RN, R signifying refrigerant and the
number N specifically identifying the chemical compound. The number
allocated to the halogenated hydrocarbons (freons) are derived as follows:
for refrigerants derived from methane (CH4), N is a two-digit integer. The
first digit indicates the number of hydrogen atoms þ1 and the second digit
indicates the number of fluorine atoms, e.g., CCl2F2 is R-12. For
refrigerants derived from ethane (C2H6), N is a three-digit integer. The
first digit is always 1, the second digit is the number of hydrogen atoms
þ1, and the third digit is the number of fluorine atoms, e.g., C2Cl2F4
is R-114.
There are three R number refrigerants on the substance menu of
CyclePad. The three refrigerants are R-12, R-22, and R-134a.
The desirable properties of working fluids for vapor refrigeration and
heat pump systems include high critical temperature and low pressure, low
specific volume, inexpensive, nonflammable, nonexplosive, nontoxic,
noncorrosive, inert and stable, etc.
In recent years, the effects of freons on the ozone layer have been
critically evaluated. Some freons such as R-12, having leaked from
refrigeration systems into the atmosphere, spend many years slowly

diffusing upward into the stratosphere. There it is broken down, releasing
chlorine, which depletes the protective ozone layer surrounding the Earth’s
stratosphere. Ozone is a critical component of the atmospheric system
both for climate control and for reducing solar radiation. It is, therefore,
important to human beings to ban these freons such as the widely
used, but life threatening, R-12. New desirable refrigerants which
contain no chlorine atoms are found to be suitable and acceptable
replacements.
Review Problems 6.6 Working Fluids for Vapor

Refrigeration and Heat Pump Systems
1. Why are ammonia, carbon dioxide, and sulphur dioxide no

longer used in domestic refrigerators and heat pumps?
2. What devastating consequence results in our environment by
refrigerants leaking out from refrigeration systems into the
atmosphere?
3. List five desirable properties of working fluids for vapor
refrigeration and heat pump systems.
4. What does the refrigerant number mean?
6.7 CASCADE AND MULTISTAGED VAPOR

REFRIGERATORS
There are several variations of the basic vapor refrigeration cycle. A

cascade cycle is used when the temperature difference between the
evaporator and the condenser is quite large. The multistaged cycle is used
to reduce the required compressor power input.
6.7.1 Cascade Vapor Refrigerators

There are applications when the temperature difference between the
evaporator and the condenser is quite large. A single vapor refrigeration
cycle usually cannot be used to achieve the large difference. To solve this
problem and still using vapor refrigeration cycles, a cascade vapor
refrigeration cycle must be used. A cascade cycle is several vapor
refrigeration cycles connected in series. A cascade cycle made of three
cycles in series is illustrated in Fig. 6.13. The condenser of the lowest-
temperature cycle (cycle A, 1-2-3-4-1) provides the heat input to the
evaporator of the midtemperature cycle (cycle B, 5-6-7-8-5) and the
condenser of the midtemperature cycle (cycle B) provides the heat input to

Figure 6.13 Cascade vapor refrigerator.
the evaporator of the highest-temperature cycle (cycle C, 9-10-11-12-9).

Different working fluids may be used in each of the individual cycles.
Neglecting kinetic and potential energy changes, a steady-state and
steady-flow mass and energy balance on the components of the cascade
vapor refrigeration cycle have the general forms:
X X
and X X
The cooling load of the cascade vapor refrigeration cycle is the rate of heat
added in the evaporator of the lowest temperature cycle. The power added
to the cycle is the sum of the power added to the individual compressors:
X
Wdot ¼ Wdotcompressor ð6:30Þ
and the COP of the cycle is
¼ Qdotlowest T evaporator/Wdot (6.31)
The following example illustrates the analysis of the cascade vapor

refrigeration cycle.

Example 6.7
A cascade vapor refrigeration cycle made of two separate vapor
refrigeration cycles has the following information:
Top cycle: working fluid ¼ R-134a, p5 ¼ 200 kPa, x5 ¼ 1, p7 ¼ 500 kPa,
and x7 ¼ 0.
Bottom cycle: working fluid ¼ R-134a, p1 ¼ 85 kPa, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec,
x1 ¼ 1, p3 ¼ 250 kPa, and x3 ¼ 0
Determine the mass rate flow of the top cycle, power required by
compressors #1 and #2, total power required by the compressors, rate of
heat added to the evaporator, cooling load, and COP of the cascade vapor
To solve the problem by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig. 6.14a.
2. Assume compressors are adiabatic with 100% efficiency, heater
and cooler are isobaric, and both hot and cold sides of the heat
exchanger are isobaric.
3. Input working fluid is R-134a at state 1, p1 ¼ 85 kPa,
mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, x1 ¼ 1, p3 ¼ 250 kPa, and x3 ¼ 0; working fluid
is R-134a at state 5, p5 ¼ 200 kPa, x5 ¼ 1, p7 ¼ 500 kPa, and
x7 ¼ 0.
Figure 6.14a Cascade refrigerator.

Figure 6.14b Cascade refrigerator.
4. Display the cycle properties’ results:

The answers are: mdot5 ¼ 1.21 kg/sec, COP ¼ 4.17, power input by
compressor 1 ¼ 21.64 kW, power input by compressor 2 ¼ 22.87 kW,
power input by compressors ¼ 44.5 kW, rate of heat removed by the
condenser ¼ 230.2 kW, rate of heat added to the evaporator ¼ 185.7 kW,
cooling load ¼ 52.81 tons, and COP ¼ 4.17. (See Fig. 6.14b.)
Review Problems 6.7.1 Cascade Vapor Refrigerators

1. What is the purpose of cascade vapor refrigerators?
2. A cascade vapor refrigeration cycle made of two separate
vapor refrigeration cycles as shown in Fig. 6.14a has the following
information:
Top cycle: working fluid ¼ R-12, p5 ¼ 200 kPa, x5 ¼ 1, p7 ¼ 500 kPa,

and x7 ¼ 0
Bottom cycle: working fluid ¼ R-12, p1 ¼ 85 kPa, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec,
x1 ¼ 1, p3 ¼ 250 kPa, and x3 ¼ 0
Determine the total power required by the compressors, rate of heat added
the evaporator, cooling load, and COP of the cascade vapor refrigeration
cycle.

ANSWERS: power input by compressors ¼ 44.5 kW, rate of heat
removed by the condenser ¼ 179.9 kW, rate of heat added to the
evaporator ¼ 142.2 kW, cooling load ¼ 40.42 tons, and COP ¼ 3.77.
3. A cascade vapor refrigeration cycle made of two separate
vapor refrigeration cycles as shown in Fig. 6.14a has the following
information:
Top cycle: working fluid ¼ ammonia, p5 ¼ 200 kPa, x5 ¼ 1, p7 ¼
500 kPa, and x7 ¼ 0
Bottom cycle: working fluid ¼ ammonia, p1 ¼ 85 kPa, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/
sec, x1 ¼ 1, p3 ¼ 250 kPa, and x3 ¼ 0
Determine total power required by the compressors, rate of heat

added to the evaporator, cooling load, and COP of the cascade vapor
added to the evaporator ¼ 1276 kW, cooling load ¼ 362.9 tons, and
COP ¼ 4.56.
6.7.2 Multistaged Vapor Refrigerators

A flash chamber may have better heat-transfer characteristics than those
of the heat exchanger employed between the upstream cycle and
downstream cycle of the cascaded cycle. It is, therefore, used to replace
the heat exchanger in multistaged vapor refrigerators. In this arrangement,
the working fluid flowing throughout the whole system must be the same.
A schematic diagram of a two-stage vapor refrigerator is shown in
Fig. 6.15. The liquid leaving the condenser is throttled into a flashing
chamber (separator used to separate mixture into vapor and liquid)
maintained at a pressure between the evaporator pressure and condenser
pressure. Saturated vapor separated from the liquid in the flashing
chamber enters a mixing chamber, where it mixes with the vapor leaving
the low-pressure compressor at state 2. The saturated liquid is throttled to
the evaporator pressure at state 9. By adjusting the mass flow rate in the
separator, the cooling load of the refrigeration cycle can be controlled. The
analysis of the cycle is illustrated in Example 6.8.
Neglect kinetic and potential energy changes. A steady-state and
steady-flow mass and energy balance on the components of the cascade
vapor refrigeration cycle have the general forms:
X X

Figure 6.15 Multistage vapor refrigerator.
and X X
The cooling load of the cascade vapor refrigeration cycle is the rate
of heat added to the evaporator of the lowest temperature cycle. The
power added to the cycle is the sum of the power added to the individual
compressors: X
Wdot ¼ Wdotcompressor ð6:34Þ
¼ Qdotlowest T evaporator/Wdot (6.35)
The following examples illustrate the analysis of the cascade vapor

Example 6.8
A two-stage vapor refrigeration cycle as shown in Fig. 6.15 has the
following information: working fluid ¼ R-134a, p1 ¼ 85 kPa, x1 ¼ 0, p2 ¼
200 kPa, p4 ¼ 500 kPa, m4 ¼ 1 kg/sec, m7 ¼ 0.8 kg/sec, and x5 ¼ 0.
Determine the power required by compressors #1 and #2, total
power required by the compressors, rate of heat added to the evaporator,
cooling load, and COP of the cycle. Plot the cooling load versus m7

1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig. 6.16.
3. Input working fluid is R-134a at state 1, p1 ¼ 85 kPa, x1 ¼ 0, p2 ¼
200 kPa, p4 ¼ 500 kPa, m4 ¼ 1 kg/sec, m7 ¼ 0.8 kg/sec, and x5 ¼ 0.
4. Display the cycle properties’ results:
The answers are: COP ¼ 4.84, power input by compressor 1 ¼ 18.35 kW,
power input by compressor 2 ¼ 13.58 kW, power input by compressors ¼
31.93 kW, rate of heat removed by the condenser ¼ 186.6 kW, rate of
heat added to the evaporator ¼ 154.7 kW, and cooling load ¼ 43.99 tons.
(See Fig. 6.17.)
An arrangement of either a cascaded or multistaged refrigerator can
be made as illustrated in Fig. 6.18. In this arrangement, the system can be
either a cascaded refrigerator or a multistaged refrigerator.
Suppose that mdot3 ¼ 0 and mdot8 ¼ 0, then the working fluids of the
top and that of the bottom cycle do not mix. Therefore, it is a cascaded
refrigerator.
Suppose that mdot3 ¼ 1, then the working fluids of the top and that
of the bottom cycle do mix. It becomes a multistaged refrigerator.
Example 6.9 illustrates the system as a multistaged refrigerator if
mdot3 ¼ 1.
Figure 6.16 Two-stage vapor refrigerator.

Figure 6.17 Two-stage vapor refrigerator cooling load sensitivity analysis.
Figure 6.18 Cascaded or multistaged refrigerator.
Example 6.9
A cycle as shown in Fig. 6.18 has the following information: working
fluid ¼ R-134a, p1 ¼ 85 kPa, x1 ¼ 0, p2 ¼ 200 kPa, p5 ¼ 500 kPa, m4 ¼
1 kg/sec, m11 ¼ 0 kg/sec, x6 ¼ 0, x8 ¼ 0, and x13 ¼ 1.

cooling load, and COP of the cycle.
1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig. 6.18.
3. Input working fluid is R-134a at state 1, p1 ¼ 85 kPa, x1 ¼ 0,
p2 ¼ 200 kPa, p5 ¼ 500 kPa, m4 ¼ 1 kg/sec, m11 ¼ 0 kg/sec, x6 ¼ 0,
x8 ¼ 0, and x13 ¼ 1.
4. Display the cycle properties’ results.
The answers are: COP ¼ 4.81, power input by compressor 1 ¼ 33.37 kW,
rate of heat removed by the condenser ¼ 193.9 kW, rate of heat added to
the evaporator ¼ 160.5 kW, and cooling load ¼ 45.64 tons. (See Fig. 6.19.)
Review Problems 6.7.2 Multistage Vapor Refrigerators

1. What is the purpose of multistaged vapor refrigerators?
2. What is the difference between cascaded and multistaged vapor
refrigerators?
Figure 6.19 Cascaded or multistaged refrigerator.

3. A two-stage vapor refrigeration cycle as shown in Fig. 6.19
has the following information: working fluid ¼ R-22, p1 ¼ 85 kPa, x1 ¼ 0,
p2 ¼ 200 kPa, p4 ¼ 500 kPa, m4 ¼ 1 kg/sec, m7 ¼ 0.8 kg/sec, and x5 ¼ 0.
4. A two-stage vapor refrigeration cycle as shown in Fig. 6.19 has
the following information: working fluid ¼ ammonia, p1 ¼ 85 kPa, x1 ¼ 0,
power required by the compressors, rate of heat added in the evaporator,
removed by the condenser ¼ 1257 kW, rate of heat added to the
evaporator ¼ 1040 kW, cooling load ¼ 295.6 tons, and COP ¼ 4.78.
5. A two-stage vapor refrigeration cycle as shown in Fig. 6.19
has the following information: working fluid ¼ R-134a, p1 ¼ 85 kPa, x1 ¼ 0,
power required by the compressors, rate of heat added in the evaporator,
6.8 DOMESTIC REFRIGERATOR-FREEZER SYSTEM AND

AIR-CONDITIONING–HEAT PUMP SYSTEM
6.8.1 Domestic Refrigerator–Freezer System

The household refrigerator–freezer combination uses one evaporator
(heater) in the freezer section to keep that region at the desired
temperature (18 C or 0 F). Cold air from the freezer is transferred into
the refrigerator section to keep it at a higher temperature (2 C or 35 F).
The COP of the refrigerator–freezer combination suffers because the COP
of the combination is equal to the COP of the freezer. It is known that the

COP of a refrigeration cycle is inversely proportional to (THTL). The
lower the TL, the lower the COP.
One method of improving the COP of the refrigerator–freezer
combination is to employ an evaporator for both the refrigerator region
and the freezer region with a single compressor, as illustrated in Fig. 6.20.
A numerical example of this arrangement is shown in Example 6.10.
Example 6.10
A two-region section refrigerator requires refrigeration at 37 C and
19 C. Using ammonia as the refrigerant, design a dual evaporator
refrigerator and find the COP, compressor input power, and cooling load
of the refrigerator based on one unit mass flow rate of refrigerant.
To design the refrigerator by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build the two-region section refrigerator as shown in Fig. 6.20.
2. Assume that the compressor is adiabatic and 100% efficient, and
cooler and heaters are isobaric.
3. Let working fluid be ammonia, T1 ¼ 37 C, x1 ¼ 1, mdot ¼
1 kg/sec, p2 ¼ 800 kPa, x3 ¼ 0, T4 ¼ 19 C, and x6 ¼ 0.4.
4. Display cycle properties’ results.
The answers are: COP ¼ 3.39, Qdothtr#1 ¼ 301.3 kW, Qdothtr#2 ¼ 828.2 kW,
compressor input power ¼ 333.4 kW, and cooling load ¼ 321.2 tons. (See
Fig. 6.21.)
Figure 6.20 Refrigerator and freezer with dual evaporator.

Figure 6.21 Refrigerator and freezer with dual evaporator.
Review Problems 6.8.1 Refrigerator and Freezer with Dual

Evaporator
1. What is the purpose of the refrigerator and freezer with dual
evaporator?
2. A two-region section refrigerator requires refrigeration at 17 C
and 2 C. Using ammonia as the refrigerant, design a dual
evaporator refrigerator and find the COP, compressor input
power, and cooling load of the refrigerator based on one unit
mass flow rate of refrigerant.
6.8.2 Domestic Air-Conditioning–Heat Pump System

Refrigerators and heat pumps have the same energy flow diagram and
have the same components. A domestic air-conditioning and heat pump
system as shown in Fig. 6.22 can, therefore, be used as a heat pump in the
winter as well as an air-conditioning unit in the summer. Notice that both
the domestic air-conditioning and heat pump system share the same
equipment. Thus, the investment in the heat pump can also be used for
air-conditioning to provide year-round house comfort control.
In the air-conditioning mode, the cycle (cycle A) is 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-
10-1. The heat exchanger removes heat from the building, replacing the
evaporator. Atmospheric hot air entering the dwelling at state 11 of cycle
B is cooled by the heat exchanger by removing heat from the building to
vaporize the refrigerant and leaving the dwelling at state 12 of cycle B.

Figure 6.22 Domestic air-conditioning and heat pump system.
In the heat-pump mode, the cycle (cycle A) is 1-2-15-8-9-16-5-6-13-

14-1. The heat exchanger adds heat to the building, replacing the
condenser. Atmospheric cold air entering the dwelling at state 11 of cycle
B is heated by the heat exchanger by discharging heat to the building to
condense the refrigerant and leaving the dwelling at state 12 of cycle B.
Notice that the heat exchanger is an evaporator in the air-
conditioning mode, and a condenser in the heat-pump mode. Therefore,
the refrigerant is on the hot side in the heat-pump mode and on the cold
side in the air-conditioning mode when the system is built using CyclePad.
Example 6.11
In the air-conditioning mode, a domestic air-conditioning and heat-pump
system as shown in Fig. 6.22 uses R-134a as the refrigerant. The
refrigerant-saturated vapor is compressed from 140 to 700 kPa. Summer
ambient air at 30 C is to be cooled down to 17 C. Find the compressor
power required, heat removed from the ambient air in the heat exchanger,
COP of the system, and mass rate of air flow per unit of mass rate of
refrigerant flow.
1. Build the system as shown in Fig. 6.22.
2. Assume that the compressor is adiabatic and 100% efficient, and
cooler and heaters are isobaric.

Figure 6.23 Domestic air-conditioning system.
3. Let working fluid be R-134a, p1 ¼ 140 kPa, x1 ¼ 1, mdot ¼

1 kg/sec, p2 ¼ 700 kPa, x3 ¼ 0, T11 ¼ 30 C, T12 ¼ 17 C, mdot13 ¼ 0,
mdot15 ¼ 0, and mdot16 ¼ 0.
4. Display results. The answers are: compressor input power ¼
33.46 kW, QdotHX1 ¼ 149.8 kW, and mdot11 ¼ 11.49 kg/sec.
5. The COP of the system is QdotHX1/compressor input
power ¼ 149.8/33.46 ¼ 4.477. (See Fig. 6.23.)
6.9 ABSORPTION AIR-CONDITIONING
The absorption air-conditioning or refrigeration system shown in Fig. 6.24

is a system in which heat instead of work is employed to produce a
refrigeration effect. In a conventional refrigeration system, high quality
and expensive electrical work is consumed by the compressor, which
compresses vapor from a low to a high pressure. Since pumping involves
only a liquid, the pump consumes very little electrical work. Therefore, the
compressor of the basic vapor refrigeration cycle is replaced by a
refrigerant generator (heater), an absorber (mixing chamber), a separator
(splitter), a valve, and a liquid pump in the absorption air-conditioning
system. The major energy input to the absorption system is heat added to
the refrigerant generator, which generates refrigerant.

Figure 6.24 Absorption air-conditioning.
To illustrate the operation of the absorption air-conditioning or

refrigeration system, consider the working fluids employed to be ammonia–
water. Ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the absorber in the
absorption air-conditioning or refrigeration system shown in Fig. 6.24.
The vaporized ammonia refrigerant leaving the evaporator at state 9 is
absorbed by the weak absorber solution at state 5 and is accompanied by a
release of heat. The absorbent solution with a high concentration
of refrigerant at state 1 is pumped to an upper pressure at state 2
corresponding to that of the condenser system. The heat input to the
refrigerant generator from state 2 to state 3 boils off the refrigerant to
state 6, leaving a weak absorber solution at state 4. The vaporized
refrigerant that enters the condenser at state 6, the expansion valve at state
7, and then the evaporator at state 9 completes the refrigeration cycle as in
the basic vapor refrigeration cycle. The most commonly used working
fluid combinations in the absorption air-conditioning or refrigeration
systems is water and lithium bromide, where water is the refrigerant and
lithium bromide is the absorber.
Neglect kinetic and potential energy changes. A steady-state and
steady-flow mass and energy balance on the components of the cycle have
the general forms:
X X

and X X
QdotWdot ¼ mdote he mdoti hi ð6:37Þ
The cooling load of the cycle is the rate of heat added to the
evaporator (heater between state 8 and 9). The rate of energy added to the
cycle is the sum of the pump power and the rate of heat added to
the generator (heater between state 2 and 3). Since the pump requires very
little power (neglect pump power), the rate of energy added to the cycle is
the rate of heat added to the generator:
Qdotin ¼ Qdot23 (6.38)

¼ Qdot89/Qdot23 (6.39)
The absorption cycle efficiency can be improved by placing a heat

exchanger between the generator and the absorber as a regenerator, as
shown in Fig. 6.25.
Review Problems 6.9 Absorption Air-Conditioning

1. What is absorption refrigeration?
2. How does an absorption refrigeration system differ from a vapor
compression refrigeration system?
3. What are the advantages of absorption refrigeration?
Figure 6.25 Absorption air-conditioning with regenerator.

6.10 BRAYTON GAS REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The basic gas Brayton refrigeration cycle is the reversed Brayton gas power
cycle. The components of the basic gas refrigeration cycle include a
compressor, a cooler, a turbine, and a heater, as shown in Fig. 6.26.
The T–s diagram of the basic gas Brayton refrigeration cycle, which
consists of the following four processes, is shown in Fig. 6.27:
system to each of the four processes of the basic gas refrigeration yields:
Q12 ¼ 0 (6.40)
0 W12 ¼ m(h2 h1) (6.41)
W23 ¼ 0 (6.42)
Q23 0 ¼ m(h3 h2) (6.43)
Q34 ¼ 0 (6.44)
0 W34 ¼ m(h3 h4) (6.45)
W41 ¼ 0 (6.46)
Figure 6.26 Basic Brayton refrigeration cycle.

Figure 6.27 T–s diagram of the basic Brayton refrigeration cycle.
and
Q41 0 ¼ m(h1 h4) (6.47)
The net work (Wnet) added to the cycle is the sum of the compressor
work (W12) and the turbine work (W34):
Wnet ¼ W12 þ W34 (6.48)
The desirable energy output of the basic gas refrigeration cycle is the
heat added to the heater (or heat removed from the inner space of the
refrigerator). The energy input to the cycle is the net work required. Thus,
the coefficient of performance (COP) of the cycle is
R ¼ Q41/Wnet ¼ (h4 h1)/[(h1 h2) þ (h4 h3)] (6.49)
Assuming that the gas has constant specific heat, Eq. (6.49) can be
simplified to
R ¼ 1/{[rp](k 1)/k 1} (6.50)
where rp ¼ p2/p1 ¼ p3/p4 is the pressure ratio.

The basic gas Brayton refrigeration cycle analysis is given by
Example 6.12.
Example 6.12
Consider the design of an ideal air refrigeration cycle according to the
following specifications:
Pressure of air at compressor inlet ¼ 15 psia
Pressure of air at turbine inlet ¼ 60 psia

Figure 6.28 Ideal gas refrigeration cycle.
Temperature of air at compressor inlet ¼ 20 F

Temperature of air at turbine inlet ¼ 80 F
Mass rate of air flow ¼ 0.1 lbm/sec
Determine the COP, the compressor horsepower required, turbine
power produced, net power required, and cooling load for the cycle.
1. Build:
a. Take a compressor, a cooler, a turbine, and a heater from the
open-system inventory shop and connect the four devices to
form the gas refrigeration cycle.
2. Analysis:
as isentropic, (2) cooler as isobaric, (3) turbine as isentropic,
and (4) heater as isobaric.
temperature and pressure of the compressor are 20 F and
15 psia, (3) inlet temperature and pressure of the turbine are
80 F and 60 psia, and (4) mass flow rate is 0.1 lbm/sec.
3. Display results:
a. Display the T–s diagram and cycle properties’ results. The cycle
is a refrigerator. The answers as shown in Fig. 6.29a are COP ¼
2.06, compressor horsepower required ¼ 7.90 hp, turbine
power produced ¼ 5.98 hp, net power required ¼ 1.92 hp,
cooling load ¼ 2.79 Btu/sec ¼ 0.8377 ton, and net power
input ¼ 7.90 hp.

Figure 6.29a Gas refrigeration systems comparison.
b. Display the sensitivity diagram of cycle COP versus compres-

sion pressure ratio. (See Fig. 6.29b.)
COMMENT: The sensitivity diagram of cycle COP versus compression
ratio indicates that the COP is increased as the compression pressure ratio
is decreased. Unfortunately, the volume of the gas also increases when the
compression pressure ratio decreases. Thus, this type of air refrigeration
cycle is very bulky when the compression pressure ratio is too low.
Example 6.13
The refrigeration cycle shown at the left in Fig. 6.29a is proposed to
replace the more conventional cycle at the right. The compressor of the
conventional system is isentropic. The low-pressure compressor of the
nonconventional system is isentropic, but the high-pressure compressor is
isothermal. The circulating fluid is CO2 and the temperature entering
(100 F) and leaving (10 F) the cooler are to be the same for both systems
(same refrigeration cooling load), and the cooling water temperature
entering (50 F) and leaving (70 F) the heat exchanger are also to be the
same for both systems. The heater pressure (1100 psia) and cooler pressure
(150 psia) are also to be the same for both systems. The CO2 pressure
between the two compressors is 420 psia. With the same refrigeration
cooling load, find the compressor power required for both systems.
1. Build:
a. Take three compressors, two coolers, two throttling valves,
two heat exchangers, two sources, and two sinks from the

Figure 6.29b Gas refrigeration systems comparison.
open-system inventory shop and connect the devices to form

the two gas refrigeration cycles (cycles A and D).
2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the following devices: (1) com-
pressors #1 and #2 as isentropic, (2) coolers and heat
exchangers as isobaric, and (3) compressor #3 as isothermal.
b. Input the given information: (1) working fluid is CO2 and the
mass flow rate is 1 lbm/sec (mdot3 ¼ mdot10), (2) inlet
temperatures and pressure of the coolers are 100 F
(T3 ¼ T10) and 10 F (T4 ¼ T11) and 150 psia (p3 ¼ p10),
(3) water inlet and outlet temperature and pressure of the
heat exchangers are 50 F (T5 ¼ T12) and 70 F (T6 ¼ T13) at
atmospheric pressure 14.7 psia (p5 ¼ p12), (4) working fluid
high pressure of the cycles are 1100 psia (p9 ¼ p2), (5) working
fluid low pressure of the cycles are 150 psia (p4 ¼ p11), and
(6) working fluid pressure between the two compressors of the
cycle at the left is 420 psia (p7).
3. Display results.
The answers are: compressor power required for the system (cycle D) at
the left ¼ 71.13 hp, and compressor power required for the system (cycle
A) at the right ¼ 75.36 hp. (See Fig. 6.29b.)

Review Problems 6.10 Gas Refrigeration
1. A 5-ton air ideal Brayton refrigeration system is to be designed
according to the following specifications:
Air pressure at compressor inlet: 100 kPa
Air pressure at turbine inlet: 420 kPa
Air temperature at compressor inlet: 5 C
Air temperature at turbine inlet: 25 C
Determine (a) the air mass rate flow, (b) the compressor power required,
(c) the turbine power produced, and (d) the cycle COP.
2. A 5-ton air Brayton refrigeration system is to be designed
according to the following specifications:
Compressor efficiency: 82%
Turbine efficiency: 84%
Air pressure at compressor inlet: 100 kPa
Air pressure at turbine inlet: 420 kPa
Air temperature at compressor inlet: 5 C
Air temperature at turbine inlet: 25 C
Determine (a) the air mass rate flow, (b) the compressor power required,
(c) the turbine power produced, and (d) the cycle COP.
3. An ideal Brayton refrigeration system uses air as a refrigerant.

The pressure and temperature of air at compressor inlet are 14.7 psia and
100 F. The pressure and temperature of air at the turbine inlet are 60 psia
and 260 F. The mass rate of air flow is 0.03 lbm/sec. Determine (a) the
cooling load, (b) the compressor power required, (c) the turbine power
produced, and (d) the cycle COP.
4. An ideal air Brayton refrigeration system is operated between
10 F and 120 F. The air pressure at the compressor inlet is 14.5 psia,
and the air pressure at the turbine inlet is 75.5 psia. The mass rate of
air flow is 0.031 lbm/sec. Determine (a) the cooling load, (b) the
compressor power required, (c) the turbine power produced, and (d) the
cycle COP.
6.11 STIRLING REFRIGERATION CYCLE
An ideal reciprocating Stirling refrigeration cycle is shown in Fig. 6.30.

It is the reversible Stirling heat engine cycle, which is composed of two
isothermal processes and two isochoric processes. Working fluid is

compressed in an isothermal process 1-2 at TH. Heat is then removed at a
constant volume process 2-3. Working fluid is expanded in an isothermal
process 3-4 at TL. The cycle is completed by a constant-volume heat-
addition process 4-1. The T–s diagram of the cycle is illustrated in
Fig. 6.31. Work has been done recently on developing a practical
refrigeration device based on the Stirling refrigeration cycle at extremely
low temperatures (less than 200 K or 100 F). In the presence of an ideal
regenerator in the cycle, the heat quantity Q23 and Q41, which are equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign, are exchanged between fluid streams
within the device. Hence, the only external heat transfer occurs in
Figure 6.30 Stirling refrigeration cycle.
Figure 6.31 Stirling refrigeration cycle T–s diagram.

Figure 6.32 Stirling refrigeration cycle with regeneration.
processes 1-2 at constant temperature TH and 3-4 at constant temperature

TL. Consequently, the coefficient of performance (COP) of the Stirling
refrigeration cycle theoretically equals that of the Carnot refrigeration
cycle, TL/(TH TL). The Stirling refrigeration cycle with regenerator is
shown in Fig. 6.32. In this figure, the heater #1 and cooler #1 comprise the
regenerator. Heat removed from cooler #1 is added to heater #1.
Example 6.14
In an ideal reciprocating Stirling refrigeration cycle, 0.01 kg of air at 235 K
and 10 bars is expanded isothermally to 1 bar. It is then heated to 320 K
isometrically. Compression at 320 K isothermally follows, and the cycle is
completed by isometric heat removal. Determine the heat added, heat
removed, work added, work done, and COP of the cycle.
1. Build:
a. Take a compression device, a cooling device, an expansion
device, and a heating device from the closed-system inventory
shop and connect the four devices to form the Stirling

2. Analysis:
a. Assume a process for each of the four devices: (1) compression
and expansion devices as isothermal, and (2) cooling and
heating devices as isochoric.
temperature and pressure of the expansion are 235 K and
10 bars, m ¼ 0.01 kg, (3) inlet temperature of the compression
is 320 K, and exit pressure of the expansion is 1 bar.
The answers are: COP ¼ 3.05, Qin ¼ 2.16 kJ, Qout ¼ 2.72 kJ, Win ¼
2.11 kJ, and Wout ¼ 1.55 kJ. (See Fig. 6.33.)
Review Problems 6.11 Stirling Refrigeration Cycle

1. What are the four basic processes of the Stirling refrigeration
cycle?
2. What temperature range is the main application of the Stirling
refrigeration cycle?
3. In an ideal reciprocating Stirling refrigeration cycle, 0.01 kg of
CO2 at 235 K and 10 bars is expanded isothermally to 1 bar. It is
then heated to 320 K isometrically. Compression at 320 K
isothermally follows, and the cycle is completed by isometric heat
Figure 6.33 Stirling refrigeration cycle.

removal. Determine the heat added, heat removed, work added,
work done, and COP of the cycle.
ANSWER: COP ¼ 4.26
4. In an ideal reciprocating Stirling refrigeration cycle, 0.01 kg of
helium at 235 K and 10 bars is expanded isothermally to 1 bar. It
is then heated to 320 K isometrically. Compression at 320 K
isothermally follows, and the cycle is completed by isometric heat
removal. Determine the heat added, heat removed, work added,
work done, and COP of the cycle.
ANSWER: COP ¼ 3.41
6.12 ERICSSON CYCLE
The Ericsson refrigeration cycle is a reversible Ericsson power cycle. The

schematic Ericsson cycle is shown in Fig. 6.34. The working fluid usually
used in the Ericsson refrigerator is helium or hydrogen; the refrigerator
may be used for very low-temperature application. The cycle consists of
two isothermal processes and two isobaric processes. The four processes of
the Ericsson refrigeration cycle are isothermal compression process 1-2
(compressor), isobaric cooling process 2-3 (cooler), isothermal expansion
process 3-4 (turbine), and isobaric heating process 4-1 (heater).
Figure 6.34 Ericsson refrigeration cycle.

Applying the basic laws of thermodynamics, we have
q12 w12 ¼ h2 h1 (6.51)
q23 w23 ¼ h3 h2, w23 ¼ 0 (6.52)
q34 w34 ¼ h4 h3 (6.53)
q41 w41 ¼ h1 h4, w41 ¼ 0 (6.54)
The net work produced by the cycle is

wnet ¼ w12 þ w34 (6.55)
The heat added to the cycle in the heater is q41, and the cycle COP is
R ¼ q41/wnet (6.56)
Example 6.15
The mass flow rate (1 g/sec) of helium is compressed and heated from
100 kPa and 300 K in an Ericsson refrigeration cycle to a turbine inlet at
800 kPa and 100 K. Determine power required by the compressor, power
produced by the turbine, rate of heat removed from the cooler, rate of heat
added in the heater, and cycle COP. Draw the T–s diagram of the cycle.
1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig. 6.34. Assume the compressor is
isothermal, the heater is isobaric, the turbine is isothermal, and
the cooler is isobaric.
2. Input working fluid ¼ helium, mass flow rate ¼ 1 g/sec, compres-
sor inlet pressure ¼ 100 kPa, compressor inlet temperature ¼
300 K, turbine inlet pressure ¼ 800 kPa, and turbine inlet tem-
perature ¼ 100 K.
3. Display results.
The answers are: Qdothtr ¼ 1.47 kW, Qdotclr ¼ 2.33 kW, Wdotcmp ¼
1.3 kW, Wdottur ¼ 0.4319 kW, Wdotnet ¼ 0.8638 kW, and R ¼ 1.7.
(See Fig. 6.35.)
Review Problems 6.12 Ericsson Refrigeration Cycle

A mass flow rate (1 g/sec) of helium is compressed and heated from
100 kPa and 300 K in an Ericsson refrigeration cycle to a turbine inlet at
500 kPa and 100 K. Determine power required by the compressor, power

Figure 6.35 Ericsson refrigeration cycle.
produced by the turbine, rate of heat removed from the cooler, rate of
heat added in the heater, and cycle COP.
ANSWERS: Qdothtr ¼ 1.37 kW, Qdotclr ¼ 2.04 kW, Wdotcmp ¼
1.0 kW, Wdottur ¼ 0.3343 kW, Wdotnet ¼ 0.6685 kW, and R ¼ 2.05.
6.13 LIQUEFACTION OF GASES
The liquefaction of gases is a very important area in refrigeration at very

low temperature. Methods of producing very low temperatures refrigera-
tion, liquefying gases, or solidification solids are based on the adiabatic
expansion of a high-pressure gas either through a throttling valve or in an
expansion turbine. The schematic and T–s diagrams for an ideal
Hampson–Linde gas liquefaction system are shown in Figs. 6.36 and
6.37 (Linde, C., The refrigerating machine of today, ASME Trans., 1893).
Makeup gas at state 1 is mixed with the uncondensed portion of the gas at
state 15 from the previous cycle, and the mixture at state 2 is compressed
by a four-stage compressor with intercoolers (compressor 1, intercooler 1,
compressor 2, intercooler 2, compressor 3, intercooler 3, and compressor
4) to state 9. After the multistage compression, the gas is cooled from state
9 to state 10 at constant pressure in a cooler. The gas is further cooled to
state 11 in a regenerative heat exchanger. After expansion through a
throttle valve, the fluid at state 12 is in the liquid–vapor mixture state and
is separated into liquid (state 13) and vapor (state 14) states. The liquid at

Figure 6.36 Hampson–Linde gas liquefaction system schematic diagram.
Figure 6.37 Hampson–Linde gas liquefaction system T–s diagram.
state 13 is drawn off as the desired product, and the vapor at state 14
flows through the regenerative heat exchanger to cool high-pressure gas
flowing toward the throttle valve. The gas at state 15 is finally mixed with
fresh makeup gas, and the cycle is repeated. This cycle can also be used for
the solidification of gases at even lower temperature.
Figure 6.38 is the Claude gas liquefaction system, a modification of
the Hampson–Linde gas liquefaction system. The Claude system has a
turbine in the expansion process to replace a part of the highly irreversible
throttling process of the Hampson–Linde system. From state 1 to state 10,
the Claude system processes are the same as those of the Hampson–Linde
system. After the gas is cooled to state by the regenerative cooler (heat

Figure 6.38 Claude gas liquefaction system.
exchanger 1), most of it is expanded through a turbine from state 12 to

state 19 and then is mixed with vapor at state 11 from the separator
(splitter 2) and the mixture flows back toward the compressor through a
heat exchanger, which precools the small fraction of the flow that is
directed toward the throttle valve instead of the turbine.
Review Problems 6.13 Liquefaction of Gases

1. What are the methods used to produce liquefying gases?
2. Describe the Hampson–Linde gas liquefaction system.
3. Describe the Claude gas liquefaction system.
6.14 NONAZEOTROPIC MIXTURE REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The thermodynamic performance of a single working fluid vapor

refrigeration cycle may be improved potentially by using a nonazeotropic
mixture working fluid such as ammonia–water (Wu, C., Non-azeotropic
mixture energy conversion. Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 25,
no. 2, pp. 199–206, 1985). A mixture of two or more different fluids is
classified as an azeotrope when such a mixture possesses its own
thermodynamic properties, quite unlike the thermal and chemical
characteristics of its components. A distinguishing feature of this type of
fluid is its ability to maintain a permanent composition and uniform
boiling point during evaporation, much the same as a pure simple fluid in
that its transition from liquid to vapor phase (or vice versa) occurs at a
constant pressure and temperature without any change in the composition.

Otherwise, the mixture is called a nonazeotrope. A nonazeotropic mixture
has a temperature distribution parallel to that of the thermal reservoir.
Note that one of the requirements for the nonazeotropic mixture energy
conversion improvement is to have a nonconstant temperature heat source
and heat sink. The proper choice of best combination of the nonazeotropic
mixture is still not entirely understood. Uncertainties in modeling the
thermodynamic and heat-transfer aspects of the nonazeotropic mixture
refrigeration cycle are such that the probability of realizing significant net
benefits in actual application is also not fully known.
An ideal nonazeotropic mixture refrigeration cycle and an ideal
Carnot refrigeration cycle operating between a nonconstant temperature
heat source and a nonconstant temperature heat sink are shown in
Fig. 6.39. The ideal Carnot refrigeration cycle consists of an isentropic
compression process from state 1 to state 2, an isobaric heat-removing
process from state 2 to state 3, an isentropic expansion process from state
3 to state 4, and an isobaric heat-addition process from state 4 to state 1.
The ideal nonazeotropic mixture refrigeration cycle consists of an
isentropic compression process from state 6 to state 2, an isobaric heat-
removing process from state 2 to state 5, an isentropic expansion process
from state 5 to state 4, and an isobaric heat-addition process from state 4
to state 6, respectively. The inlet and exit temperature of the cooling fluid
(finite-heat-capacity heat sink) in the hot-side heat exchanger are Tb and
Ta, and the inlet and exit temperature of the heating fluid (finite-heat-
capacity heat source) in the cold-side heat exchanger are Td and Tc,
respectively. It is clearly demonstrated that the temperature distribution
curves of the ideal nonazeotropic mixture refrigeration cycle (curves 4-6
Figure 6.39 T–s diagram of ideal nonazeotropic refrigeration cycle and Carnot
cycle.

and 2-5) are more closely matched to the temperature distribution curves
of the heat source and heat sink (curves d-c and b-a) than the temperature
distribution curves of the Carnot refrigeration cycle (curves 4-1 and 2-3).
Referring to Fig. 6.39, the net work added and heat removed to the
ideal nonazeotropic mixture refrigeration cycle are Wnet,nonaze ¼ area 46254
and Qnonaze ¼ area 46871, and the net work added and heat removed to the
Carnot refrigeration cycle are Wnet Carnot ¼ area 12341 and QCarnot ¼ area
4178, respectively. The cycle COP of the ideal nonazeotropic mixture
refrigeration cycle is nonaze ¼ Qnonaze/Wnet,nonaze ¼ area 46871/area 46254.
Similarly, the cycle COP of the Carnot refrigeration cycle is
Carnot ¼ QCarnot/Wnet,Carnot ¼ area 4178/area 12341.
Since Qnonaze ¼ area 46871 is larger than QCarnot ¼ area 4178 and
Wnet,nonaze ¼ area 46254 is smaller than Wnet Carnot ¼ area 12341, it is
apparent that nonaze is larger than Carnot.
A numerical example (Wu, C., Non-azeotropic mixture energy
conversion. Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 199–
206, 1985), using an R-114 and R-12 nonazeotropic mixture to predict the
COP of the ideal nonazeotropic mixture refrigeration cycle, is carried out.
The COP performance results of the cycle are displayed in Fig. 6.40. At an
R-114 mass concentration of 25%, a mixed R-12/R-114 nonazeotrope
refrigeration cycle experiences COP improvements of 4.4 and 9.2% over
single R-12 and single R-114 refrigeration cycles, respectively.
A nonazeotropic mixture of two refrigerants does not always make a
better refrigerant. The R-12/R-114 pair may not be the best combination
for a nonazeotropic mixture. The proper choice of the best combination is
still not entirely understood. Uncertainties in modeling the thermo-
dynamics and heat-transfer aspects of the nonazeotropic mixture
Figure 6.40 COP of ideal nonazeotropic R-114 and R-12 refrigeration cycle.

refrigeration cycle are such that the probability of realizing significant net
benefits in actual applications is also not fully known.
Review Problems 6.14 Nonazeotropic Mixture

Refrigeration Cycle
1. What is a nonazeotropic mixture refrigerant?
2. Draw an isobaric heating process on a T–s diagram for a non-
azeotropic mixture from a superheated vapor state to a
compressed liquid state. Does temperature remain the same
during the condensation?
3. Why may the COP of a vapor refrigeration cycle be improved
potentially by using a nonazeotropic mixture working fluid?
The design of refrigeration and heat pump cycles would typically be

tedious. With the use of the intelligent computer-aided software CyclePad,
however, the design can be completed rapidly and modifications are simple
to make. CyclePad makes designing a refrigeration or heat pump plant as
simple as point and click. To demonstrate the power CyclePad offers
designers in the design of refrigeration and heat-pump cycles, the following
design examples are considered.
Example 6.16
A combined split-shaft gas turbine power plant and gas refrigeration
system to be used in an airplane, as illustrated in Fig. 6.41a, has been
designed by a junior engineer.
The following design information is provided: mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec,
p1 ¼ 101 kPa, T1 ¼ 15 C, p2 ¼ 1M Pa, T5 ¼ 1200 C, p7 ¼ 102 kPa, T11 ¼ 400 C,
p12 ¼ 102 kPa, T13 ¼ 15 C, turbine ¼ 85%, and compressor ¼ 85%.
1. During the cruise condition, the split-shaft gas turbine power
plant required to produce 240 kW and 10% of the compressed
air, is used in the gas refrigeration system, which is required to
remove 7 kW from the cabin.
2. During the take-off condition, the split-shaft gas turbine power
plant is required to produce 300 kW.
3. During the high-wind condition, the split-shaft gas turbine power
plant is required to produce 270 kW while at least 3.5 kW of
cabin refrigeration is to be provided.
Check if all these conditions can be met by the design.

Figure 6.41a Combined gas turbine power plant and gas refrigeration system
design.
To check this design by CyclePad, we take the following steps:

1. Build the cycle as shown in Fig. 6.41a. Assume that
the compressor and turbines are adiabatic with 85% efficiency,
the heaters, mixing chambers, and cooler are isobaric, and the
splitters are isoparametric.
2. Input working fluid ¼ air, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p1 ¼ 101 kPa,
T1 ¼ 15 C, p2 ¼ 1 MPa, T5 ¼ 1200 C, p7 ¼ 102 kPa, T11 ¼ 400 C,
p12 ¼ 102 kPa, T13 ¼ 15 C, turbine ¼ 85%, and compressor ¼ 85%.
Display the compressor power (314.7 kW) and input
Wdotturbine #1 ¼ 314.7 kW, as shown in Fig. 6.41b.
3. Cruise condition: input mdot8 ¼ 0.1 kg/sec and mdot9 ¼ 0 kg/sec.
Display results. The answers are: Wdotturbine #2 ¼ 240.2 kW and
Qdotheater #2 ¼ 7.16 kW as shown in Fig. 6.41c. The design
requirement is met.
4. Take-off condition: input mdot9 ¼ 0.01 kg/sec and mdot10 ¼
0 kg/sec. Display results. The answers are: Wdotturbine #2 ¼
301.7 kW and Qdotheater #2 ¼ 0 kW as shown in Fig. 6.41d. The
design requirement is met.
5. High-wind condition: input mdot9 ¼ 0.05 kg/sec and mdot10 ¼
0.05 kg/sec. Display results. The answers are: Wdotturbine #2 ¼
271.0 kW and Qdotheater #2 ¼ 3.58 kW as shown in Fig. 6.41e. The
design requirement is met.

Figure 6.41b Combined gas turbine power plant and gas refrigeration system
design input.
Figure 6.41c Combined gas turbine power plant and gas refrigeration system
design at cruise condition.
Example 6.17
An engineer claims that the performance of a simple refrigeration cycle can
be improved by using his three-stage compression process as shown in
Fig. 6.42a. Refrigerant enters all compressors as a saturated vapor, and

Figure 6.41d Combined gas turbine power plant and gas refrigeration system
design at take-off condition.
Figure 6.41e Combined gas turbine power plant and gas refrigeration system
design at high-wind condition.
enters the throttling valve as a saturated liquid. The highest and lowest pres-
sure of the cycle are 1200 and 150 kPa, respectively. His design information is:
Refrigerant: R-12, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p1 ¼ 150 kPa, x1 ¼ 1, p3 ¼ 300 kPa,
x3 ¼ 1, p5 ¼ 600 kPa, x5 ¼ 1, p7 ¼ 1200 kPa, x7 ¼ 0, and compressor ¼ 85%.

Figure 6.42a Single-stage compressor and three-stage compressor refrigeration
systems.
His design results are: (COP) ¼ 2.16, Wdotin ¼ 43.64 kW, Qdotin ¼
94.48 kW, Qdotout ¼ 138.1 kW, and cooling load ¼ 26.87 tons.
Check on his claim.
What is the performance of the cycle if ammonia, R-134a, or R-22
is used instead of R-12.
Try to improve the COP by varying p3 and p5.
To check this design by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build the three-stage-compressor refrigeration cycle as shown in
Fig. 6.42a. Assume the compressors are adiabatic with 85%
efficiency, and the heater and cooler are isobaric.
2. Input working fluid ¼ R-12, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p1 ¼ 150 kPa,
x1 ¼ 1, p3 ¼ 300 kPa, x3 ¼ 1, p5 ¼ 600 kPa, x5 ¼ 1, p7 ¼ 1200 kPa,
x7 ¼ 0, and compressor ¼ 85%.
3. Display results: The answers are: COP ¼ 2.22, compressor power
(42.56 kW), Qdotin ¼ 94.48 kW, Qdotout ¼ 137.0 kW and cool-
ing capacity ¼ 26.87 tons as shown in Fig. 6.42b.
For the one-compressor refrigeration system using R-12:
1. Retract p3 ¼ 300 kPa, x3 ¼ 1, p5 ¼ 600 kPa, and x5 ¼ 1.
2. Let Wdotcompressor #1 ¼ 0, Wdotcompressor #2 ¼ 0, Qdotcooler #1 ¼ 0,
and Qdotcooler #2 ¼ 0.

Figure 6.42b Three-stage compressor refrigeration system using R-12.
Figure 6.42c One-stage compressor refrigeration system using R-12.
3. Display results:
The answers are: COP ¼ 2.16, compressor power (43.64 kW),
Qdotin ¼ 94.48 kW, Qdotout ¼ 138.1 kW and cooling capacity ¼ 26.87 tons
tons as shown in Fig. 6.42c. The COP is indeed improved.

For the three-compressor refrigeration system using ammonia:
1. Retract working fluid and let the working fluid be ammonia.
2. Display results:
Qdotin ¼ 1084 kW, Qdotout ¼ 1407 kW, and cooling capacity ¼ 308.2 tons
as shown in Fig. 6.42d.
For the three-compressor refrigeration system using R-134a:
1. Retract working fluid and let the working fluid be R-134a.
2. Display results:
Qdotin ¼ 121.6 kW, Qdotout ¼ 172.1 kW, and cooling capacity ¼
34.59 tons as shown in Fig. 6.42e.
For the three-compressor refrigeration system using R-22:
1. Retract working fluid and let the working fluid be R-22.
2. Display results:
The answers are: COP ¼ 2.64, compressor power (58.82 kW), Qdotin ¼
155.2 kW, Qdotout ¼ 214.0 kW, and cooling capacity ¼ 44.13 tons as
shown in Fig. 6.42f.
Figure 6.42d Three-stage compressor refrigeration system using ammonia.

Figure 6.42e Three-stage compressor refrigeration system using R-134a.
Figure 6.42f Three-stage-compressor refrigeration system using R-22.

Figure 6.42g Three-stage compressor refrigeration system sensitivity diagrams.
To improve the COP by varying p3 and p5, draw the COP versus p3
and COP versus p5 sensitivity diagrams as shown in Fig. 6.42g. The
maximum COP is about 2.225 when p3 is about 309.7 kPa, and the
maximum COP is about 2.384 when p5 is about 898.8 kPa.
Review Problems 6.15 Design Examples

1. The performance of a simple refrigeration cycle can be improved
by using a cascaded refrigeration cycle. An engineer claims that he has
developed a separate three-loop cascaded refrigeration cycle. The cascaded
cycle consists of three separate loops—one at high pressure, one at low
pressure, and one at midpressure using R-12 as working fluid in all three
loops. The three loops are connected by two heat exchangers. His design
information is:
Low-pressure loop—mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec, high pressure ¼ 60 psia, low
pressure ¼ 20 psia, compressor ¼ 85%, R-12 quality at inlet of com-
pressor ¼ 1, and R-12 quality at inlet of throttling valve ¼ 0. Midpressure
loop—high pressure ¼ 110 psia, low pressure ¼ 60 psia, compressor ¼ 85%,
R-12 quality at inlet of compressor ¼ 1, and R-12 quality at inlet of
throttling valve ¼ 0. High-pressure loop—high pressure ¼ 160 psia, low
pressure ¼ 110 psia, compressor ¼ 85%, R-12 quality at inlet of com-
pressor ¼ 1, and R-12 quality at inlet of throttling valve ¼ 0.

His design results are—whole system: (COP) ¼ 2.74, Wdotin ¼
29.59 hp, Qdotin ¼ 57.21 Btu/sec, Qdotout ¼ 78.12 Btu/sec, and cooling
load ¼ 17.16 tons; low-pressure loop: Wdotin ¼ 13.53 hp, Qdotin ¼
57.21 Btu/sec, Qdotout ¼ 66.78 Btu/sec, and mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec; midpressure
loop: Wdotin ¼ 9.41 hp, Qdotin ¼ 66.78 Btu/sec, Qdotout ¼ 73.43 Btu/sec,
and mdot ¼ 1.23 lbm/sec; and high-pressure loop: Wdotin ¼ 6.65 hp,
Qdotin ¼ 73.43 Btu/sec, Qdotout ¼ 78.12 Btu/sec, and mdot ¼ 1.43 lbm/sec.
Check on his claim.

What is the performance of the cycle if ammonia, or R-22 is used
instead of R-12?
Try to improve the COP by varying the two pressures of the
midpressure loop as design variables.
ANSWERS: Ammonia—whole system: (COP) ¼ 3.42, Wdotin ¼

load ¼ 159.0 tons; low-pressure loop: Wdotin ¼ 104.2 hp, Qdotin ¼
529.9 Btu/sec, Qdotout ¼ 603.6 Btu/sec, and mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec; midpressure
loop: Wdotin ¼ 68.13 hp, Qdotin ¼ 603.6 Btu/sec, Qdotout ¼ 651.7 Btu/sec,
and mdot ¼ 1.18 lbm/sec; and high-pressure loop: Wdotin ¼ 46.65 hp,
R-22—whole system: (COP) ¼ 2.95, Wdotin ¼ 40.72 hp,
Qdotin ¼ 85.05 Btu/sec, Qdotout ¼ 113.8 Btu/sec, and cooling load ¼
25.51 tons; low-pressure loop: Wdotin ¼ 18.78 hp, Qdotin ¼ 85.05 Btu/sec,
Qdotout ¼ 98.32 Btu/sec, and mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec; midpressure loop:
Wdotin ¼ 12.84 hp, Qdotin ¼ 98.32 Btu/sec, Qdotout ¼ 107.4 Btu/sec, and
mdot ¼ 1.22 lbm/sec; and high-pressure loop: Wdotin ¼ 9.10 hp,
2. The performance of a simple refrigeration cycle can be improved
by using a cascaded refrigeration cycle. An engineer claims that he has
developed a separate four-loop cascaded refrigeration cycle. The cascaded
cycle consists of four separate loops—one between 20 and 40 psia, one
between 40 and 80 psia, one between 80 and 120 psia, and one between
120 and 160 psia. The four loops are connected by three heat exchangers.
His design information is:
Loop A—mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec, high pressure ¼ 40 psia, low pressure ¼ 20

psia, compressor ¼ 85%, R-12 quality at inlet of compressor ¼ 1,
and R-12 quality at inlet of throttling valve ¼ 0.
Loop B—high pressure ¼ 80 psia, low pressure ¼ 40 psia, compressor ¼
85%, R-12 quality at inlet of compressor ¼ 1, and R-12 quality at
inlet of throttling valve ¼ 0.

Loop C—high pressure ¼ 120 psia, low pressure ¼ 80 psia, compressor ¼
Loop D— high pressure ¼ 160 psia, low pressure ¼ 120 psia, compressor ¼
His design results are—whole system: (COP) ¼ 2.84, Wdotin ¼

load ¼ 18.68 tons; loop A: Wdotin ¼ 8.33 hp, Qdotin ¼ 62.26 Btu/sec,
Qdotout ¼ 68.15 Btu/sec, and mdot ¼ 1 lbm/sec; loop B: Wdotin ¼
10.37 hp, Qdotin ¼ 68.15 Btu/sec, Qdotout ¼ 75.48 Btu/sec, and mdot ¼
1.20 lbm/sec; loop C: Wdotin ¼ 6.86 hp, Qdotin ¼ 75.48 Btu/sec, Qdotout ¼
80.32 Btu/sec, and mdot ¼ 1.38 lbm/sec; and loop D: Wdotin ¼ 5.50 hp,
Check on his claim.

What are the performance of the cycle if ammonia, R-134a, or R-22
is used instead of R-12.
Try to improve the COP by varying the three pressures (40, 80, and
120 psia) of the loops as design variables.
6.16 SUMMARY
The reversed Carnot cycle is modified for the most widely used vapor heat
pump and refrigerator. The basic vapor heat pump and refrigerator cycle
consists of an isentropic compression process, an isobaric cooling process,
an irreversible throttling process, and an isobaric heating process. The
coefficient of performance (COP) of refrigerators is defined as QL
(desirable heat output or cooling effect)/Wnet. The coefficient of per-
formance (COP) of heat pumps is defined as QH (desirable heat output or
heating effect)/Wnet.
Large temperature differences can be achieved by cascaded

refrigerators and heat pumps.
Multistaged refrigerators and heat pumps reduce the compressor
power.
Stirling and Ericsson refrigerators have practical applications at very
low temperatures.
Domestic refrigerator–freezer and air-conditioning–heat pump systems
share equipments to reduce cost.

An absorption refrigerator or heat pump is economically attractive
because it uses inexpensive heat input rather than the expensive electrical
work input to produce the refrigeration or heat pump effect.
The Brayton gas refrigeration cycle is a reversed Brayton gas
power cycle.
Liquefaction and solidification of gases are obtained by compression
of gas followed by cooling and throttling, leading to a change of phase for
part of the fluid.

7
Finite-Time Thermodynamics
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Among the important topics in thermodynamics is the formulation of

criteria for comparing the performance of real and ideal processes. Carnot
showed that any heat engine absorbing heat from a high-temperature heat
source reservoir to produce work must transfer some heat to a heat sink
reservoir of lower temperature. He also showed that no heat engine could
be better than the Carnot heat engine. The early tradition was carried on
by Clausius, Kelvin, and others, using thermodynamics as a tool to find
limits on work, heat transfer, efficiency, coefficient of performance, energy
effectiveness, and energy figure of merit of energy conversion devices. The
basic laws of thermodynamics were all conceived on the basis of
irreversible processes. However, since Gibbs, the subsequent development
of thermodynamics has turned from the process variable of heat and work
toward state variables. The Carnot–Clausius–Kelvin view emphasizes the
interaction of a thermodynamic system with its surroundings, while the
Gibbs view makes the properties of the system dominant and focuses on
equilibrium states. Contemporary classical thermodynamics gives a fairly
complete description of equilibrium states and reversible processes. The
only fact that it tells about real processes is that these irreversible processes
always produce less work and more entropy than the corresponding
reversible processes. Reversible processes are defined only in the limit of
infinitely slow execution.
In the real engineering world, actual changes in enthalpy and free
energy in an irreversible process rarely approach the corresponding ideal
enthalpy and free energy changes. No practicing engineer wants to design
a heat engine that runs infinitely slowly without producing power. The
need to produce power in real energy conversion devices is one reason why
the high efficiency of ideal, reversible performance is seldom approached.

Classical equilibrium thermodynamics can be extended to quasi-
static processes. Conventional irreversible thermodynamics has become
increasingly powerful, but its microscopic view does not lend itself to
the macroscopic view preferred by practicing engineers. This is a
significant extension, since quasistatic processes happen in finite time,
produce entropy, and provide a better approximation of real processes
than provided by equilibrium thermodynamics. System parameters in
equilibrium thermodynamics are the measurable quantities: volume,
temperature, pressure, and heat capacity. To model real-time dependent
processes rigorously, the set of parameters must also include transport
properties, relaxation time, etc. In general, irreversible thermodynamic
problems are too difficult for practicing engineers to solve exactly.
The literature of finite-time thermodynamics started with Curzon
and Ahlborn (Curzon, F.L. and Ahlborn, B., Efficiency of a Carnot
engine at maximum power output. American Journal of Physics, 1975,
vol. 41, no.1, pp. 22–24) in 1975. They treated an endo-reversible Carnot
engine power output being limited by the rates of heat transfer to and
from the working substance. They remarked that the Carnot efficiency
[Carnot ¼ 1 (TL/TH), where TL and TH are the temperatures of the heat
sink and heat source for the engine] is realized only by a completely
reversible heat engine operating at zero speed and hence at zero power.
They showed that the efficiency of an engine operating at maximum
power is given by a remarkably simple formula [Curzon-Ahlborn ¼ 1 (TL/
TH)1/2], which of course always gives a lower value than the Carnot
formula. They also verified that their formula agrees much better with
the measured efficiencies of operating installations.
Finite-time thermodynamics is an extension to traditional thermo-
dynamics in order to obtain more realistic limits to the performance
of real processes, and to deal with processes or devices with finite-
time characteristics. Finite-time thermodynamics is a method for the
modeling and optimization of real devices that owe their thermo-
dynamic imperfection to heat transfer, mass transfer, and fluid flow
irreversibility.
A literature survey of finite-time thermodynamics is given by
Wu, Chen, and Chen (Wu, C., Chen, L., and Chen, J., Recent Advances
in Finite-Time Thermodynamics, Nova Science Publ. Inc., New York,
1999).
Engineering thermodynamic cycle analysis is based on the
concept of equilibrium and does not deal with time. Heat transfer does
deal with time but not cycle analysis. Finite-time thermodynamics fills
in a gap that has long existed between equilibrium thermodynamics and
heat transfer.

Review Problems 7.1 Introduction
1. What is the basic concept of classical engineering equilibrium
thermodynamics? Does engineering thermodynamic cycle analy-
sis deal with time?
2. Are the heat transfers between the Carnot heat engine and its
surrounding heat source and heat sink reversible?
3. Why cannot the Carnot cycle efficiency be approached in the
real world?
4. What is finite-time thermodynamics?
7.2 RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is an amount of microscopic energy transfer across the boundary of

a system in an energy interaction with its surroundings. The symbol Q is
used to denote heat.
The rate of heat transfer is an amount of microscopic energy transfer
per unit time across the boundary of a system in an energy interaction
with its surroundings. The symbol Qdot is used to denote rate of heat
transfer.
The relationships between Q and Qdot are
Qdot ¼ dQ/dt (7.1)
and
Z
Q¼ ðQdotÞdt ð7:2Þ
There are three modes of rate of heat transfer: conduction (Qdotk),

convection (Qdotc), and radiation (Qdotr).
Conduction is the rate of heat transfer through a medium without
mass transfer. The basic rate of conduction heat-transfer equation is
Fourier’s law:
Qdotk ¼ kA(dT/dx) (7.3)
where k is a heat-transfer property called thermal conductivity, A is the

cross-sectional area normal to the heat transfer, and dT/dx is the
temperature gradient in the direction of the heat transfer.
For example, in the case of a linear temperature gradient, the rate
of conduction heat transfer from a high temperature TH on one side to

a low temperature TL on the other side through a solid wall with thickness
L is
Qdotk ¼ kA(TH TL)/L (7.4)
Convection is the rate of heat transfer leaving a surface to a fluid. The
basic rate of convection heat-transfer equation is Newton’s law:
Qdotc ¼ hA(Tsurface Tfluid) (7.5)

where h is a heat-transfer transport property called the convection
coefficient, A is the surface area, and (Tsurface Tfluid) is the temperature
difference between the surface and the fluid.
Radiation is the rate of heat transfer by electromagnetic waves
emitted by matter. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not
require an intervening medium to propagate. The basic rate of radiation
heat-transfer equation between a high temperature (TH) black body and a
low temperature (TL) black body is Stefan–Boltzmann’s law:
Qdotr ¼ sA[(TH)4 (TL)4] (7.6)

where s is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and A is the emitting surface
area.
Radiation heat transfer is usually not important in ordinary heat
exchanger design and analysis, unless significant temperature differences
are present.
Equations (7.4) and (7.5) can be rewritten in the form of Ohm’s law:
Qdotk ¼ (TH TL)/(L/kA) ¼ (TH TL)/Rk (7.7)

and
Qdotc ¼ (Tsurface Tfluid)/(1/hA) ¼ (Tsurface Tfluid)/Rc (7.8)

where Rk is the conduction heat-transfer resistance and Rc is the
convection heat-transfer resistance.
Usually, the rate of heat transfer is a combination of conduction and
convection in a heat exchanger system as illustrated in Fig. 7.1 and only
the fluid temperature on either side of the solid surface is known. For
steady state, the rate of conduction heat transfer and the rate of
convection heat transfer are equal. The total resistance (R) of the
combined rate of heat transfer is
X X
R¼ Rk þ Rc ð7:9Þ

Figure 7.1 Rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger.
The rate of the combined heat transfer (Qdot) is

Qdot ¼ (TH TL)/(1/UA) ¼ (TH TL)/R (7.10)
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient.
Review Problems 7.2 Rate of Heat Transfer

1. What are the three modes of heat transfer?
2. How does conduction differ from convection?
3. What is the mechanism of radiation heat transfer?
4. What is the overall heat-transfer coefficient, U?
7.3 HEAT EXCHANGER
One of the most important thermodynamic devices is the heat exchanger.

Heat exchangers can be classified as mixed flow, recuperative, and
regenerative types.
In the mixed flow-type heat exchanger, one fluid being cooled and
another fluid being heated are mixed together.
In the recuperative flow-type heat exchanger, the fluid being cooled is
physically separated from the fluid being heated by some solid boundary.
In the regenerative flow-type heat exchanger, there is only one set of
flow channels. The hot fluid enters through the channels and heats the
material in the heat exchanger surrounding the channels. The hot fluid
then exits the heat exchanger. Next, the cold fluid enters through the
channels and is heated by the material in the heat exchanger surrounding
the channels. The cold fluid then exits the heat exchanger.
The three commonly used recuperative flow-type heat exchangers in
the power and refrigeration industry are parallel-flow, counter-flow,
and cross-flow heat exchangers. Consider the case where a fluid is flowing

through a pipe and exchanging energy with another fluid flowing around
the pipe. When the fluids flow in the same direction, it is a parallel-flow
heat exchanger. When the fluids flow in the opposite directions, it is a
counter-flow heat exchanger. When the fluids flow in the normal direction,
it is a cross-flow heat exchanger. The operation of parallel-flow and
counter-flow heat exchangers and their associated temperature profiles are
shown in Fig. 7.2.
As can be seen from the nonlinear temperature profiles, the
temperature difference between the fluids varies from one end of the heat
exchanger to the other. To find an effective temperature difference
between the two fluids, a logarithmic mean temperature difference
(LMTD) is defined as
LMTD ¼ [(TB1 TA1) (TB2 TA2)]/ln[(TB1 TA1)
/(TB2 TA2)] (7.11)
The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids is
Qdot ¼ UA(LMTD) (7.12)
where U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient and A is the surface area of
the tube(s), respectively.
Figure 7.2 Operation of parallel-flow and counter-flow heat exchangers and their
associated temperature profiles.

Usually, the counter-flow heat exchanger is smaller than the parallel-
flow heat exchanger because the LMTD of the former exchanger is larger
than that of the latter exchanger when the inlet and outlet temperatures of
the hot fluid and the inlet and outlet temperatures of the cold fluid are
identical. The following example illustrates this comparison.
Example 7.1
A counter-flow lubricating oil cooler with a net heat-transfer area of
258 ft2 cools 60,000 lbm of oil per hour from a temperature of 145 F to
120 F. The temperature of the cooling water entering and leaving are 75 F
and 90 F. The specific heat of the oil is 0.5 Btu/[lbm ( F)]. Find the
LMTD and overall heat-transfer coefficient under these operating
conditions. Also, find the required area for a parallel-flow heat exchanger
under these identical operating conditions. The temperature profiles of the
counter-flow and parallel-flow heat exchangers are shown in Fig. 7.2.
Solution:
Qdot ¼ [mdot(c)(Tin Texit)]oil ¼ 60,000(0.5)(145 120)
¼ 750,000 Btu/hr
LMTD ¼ [(145 90) (120 75)]/ln[(145 90)/(120 75)] ¼ 49.8 F
U ¼ Qdot/[A (LMTD)] ¼ 750,000/[258(49.8)] ¼ 58.4 Btu/[hr (ft2) F]
For the parallel-flow heat exchanger:
LMTD ¼ [(145 75) (120 90)]/ln[(145 75)/(120 90)] ¼ 47.2 F
and
A ¼ Qdot/[U(LMTD)] ¼ 750,000/[58.4(47.2)] ¼ 272 ft2. This area is
larger than 258 ft2.
Example 7.2
A counter-flow heater as shown in Fig. 7.3a heats helium at 101 kPa from
a temperature of 20 C to 800 C. The temperature of the heating flue gas
(air) entering and leaving are 1800 C and 1200 C at 101 kPa. Find (A) the
LMTD, rate of helium flow, and heat transfer based on a unit of heating
flue gas, and (B) the LMTD, rate of helium flow, and heat transfer for a
parallel-flow heat exchanger under these identical operating conditions.
Problem (A)
1. Build the heat exchanger as shown in Fig. 7.3a.

Figure 7.3a Heat exchanger.
Figure 7.3b Heat exchanger input and output results.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume that both hot and cold sides of the heat exchanger
are isobaric, and the type is counter flow.
b. Input hot-side fluid ¼ air, T1 ¼ 1800 C, p1 ¼ 101 kPa,
mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, and T2 ¼ 1200 C; cold-side fluid ¼ helium,
T3 ¼ 20 C, p3 ¼ 101 kPa, and T4 ¼ 800 C.
3. Display results:
The answers are: LMTD ¼ 1088 C, Qdot ¼ 602 kW, and mdot3 ¼
0.1491 kg/sec, as shown in Fig. 7.3b.

Problem (B)
1. Analysis:
a. Retract the heat exchanger type to counter flow.
b. Input the heat exchanger type as co-current (parallel) flow.
2. Display results:
The answers are: LMTD ¼ 924.4 C, Qdot ¼ 602 kW, and mdot3 ¼
0.1491 kg/sec, as shown in Fig. 7.3c.
Example 7.3
A counter-flow heat exchanger heats water at 101 kPa from saturated liquid
state to saturated vapor state. The temperature of the heating flue gas (air)
entering and leaving are 1800 C and 1200 C at 101 kPa. Find (A) the
LMTD, rate of water flow, and heat transfer based on a unit mass of heating
flue gas, and (B) the LMTD, rate of helium flow, and heat transfer for a
parallel-flow heat exchanger under these identical operating conditions.
Problem (A)
1. Build the heat exchanger as shown in Fig. 7.3a.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume that both hot and cold sides of the heat exchanger
are isobaric, and the type is counter flow.
Figure 7.3c Heat exchanger input and output results.

b. Input hot-side fluid ¼ air, T1 ¼ 1800 C, p1 ¼ 101 kPa,
mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, and T2 ¼ 1200 C; cold-side fluid ¼ water,
p3 ¼ 101 kPa, x3 ¼ 0, and x4 ¼ 1.
3. Display results:
0.2668 kg/sec, as shown in Fig. 7.4a.
Figure 7.4 Heat exchanger input and output results. (a) Counter current;
(b) co-current.

Problem (B)
1. Analysis:
a. Retract the heat exchanger of counter-flow.
b. Input the heat exchanger type as co-current (parallel) flow.
2. Display results:
0.2668 kg/sec, as shown in Fig. 7.4b.
Review Problems 7.3 Heat Exchanger

A counter-flow heater heats ammonia at 101 kPa from saturated liquid
state to saturated vapor state. The temperature of the heating air entering
and leaving are 33 C and 17 C at 101 kPa. Find (a) the LMTD, rate of
water flow, and heat transfer based on a unit of heating flue gas, and (b)
the LMTD, rate of helium flow, and heat transfer for a parallel-flow heat
exchanger under these identical operating conditions.
ANSWERS: (a) LMTD ¼ 58.05 C, Qdot ¼ 16.05 kW, and mdot3 ¼
0.0117 kg/sec; (b) LMTD ¼ 58.05 C, Qdot ¼ 16.05 kW, and mdot3 ¼
0.0117 kg/sec.
7.4 CURZON AND AHLBORN (ENDOREVERSIBLE

CARNOT) CYCLE
The T–s diagram and schematic diagram of the Curzon and Ahlborn
(endoreversible Carnot) cycle are shown in Figs. 7.5 and 7.6, respectively
(Cuzon, F.L. and Ahlborn, B., Efficiency of a Carnot engine at maximum
Figure 7.5 Curzon and Ahlborn cycle T–s diagram.

Figure 7.6 Curzon and Ahlborn cycle schematic diagram.
output, Am. Jrnl. of Phys., 1975). The cycle operates between a heat source at
temperature TH and a heat sink at temperature TL. The temperatures of the
working fluid in the isothermal heat-addition and heat-rejection processes
are TW and TC. The finite temperature difference (TH TW) allows a finite
heat transfer from the heat source to the working fluid in the heat-addition
process. Similarly, the finite temperature difference (TC TL) allows a heat
transfer from the working fluid to the heat sink in the heat-rejection process.
The cycle is a modified Carnot cycle. Other than the external irreversibility
due to the two heat-transfer processes, the modified cycle is an internal
reversible heat engine.
Assume that the working fluid flows through the heat engine in a
steady-state fashion. The rates of heat rejection and addition of the heat
engine are
QdotH ¼ UHAH(TH TW) (7.13)
QdotL ¼ ULAL(TC TL) (7.14)
where UH is the heat-transfer coefficient, AH is the heat-transfer surface
area of the high-temperature side heat exchanger between the heat engine
and the heat source, UL is the heat transfer coefficient, and AL is the heat-
transfer surface area of the low-temperature side heat exchanger between
the heat engine and the heat sink.
The total heat-transfer surface area (A) of the two heat exchangers is
assumed to be a constant:
A ¼ AH þ AL (7.15)
The power output (P) of the heat engine according to the first law of
thermodynamics is
P ¼ QdotH QdotL (7.16)

The second law of thermodynamics requires that
QdotH/TW ¼ QdotL/TC (7.17)
The efficiency () of the heat engine is
¼ P/QdotH (7.18)
We define a heat-transfer surface area ratio ( f ) as
f ¼ AH/AL (7.19)
Combining Eqs. (7.13)–(7.19) gives the optimum value of f at maxi-
mum power output (fa) and the optimal power output for given values of
TH, TL, UH, UL, A, and .
f ¼ fa ¼ (UL/UH)1/2 (7.20)
P ¼ [TH TL/(1 )]B1 (7.21)
where
B1 ¼ (UHA)/[1 þ (UL/UH)1/2]2 (7.22)
Equation (7.21) is the optimal performance characteristics of the
endoreversible Carnot heat engine. It indicates that P ¼ 0 when ¼ 0 and
¼ c ¼ 1 TL/TH. Taking the derivative of P with respect to and setting
it equal to zero (dP/d ¼ 0) gives
¼ CA ¼ 1 (TL/TH)1/2 (7.23)
and the optimal power output delivered by the cycle is
Pmax ¼ B1[(TH)1/2 (TL)1/2]2 (7.24)
The power versus efficiency characteristics of the endoreversible
Carnot heat engine is a parabolic curve. The endoreversible heat engine is
a simple model, which considers the external heat-transfer irreversibility
between the heat engine and its surrounding heat reservoirs only.
The required optimum intermediate temperatures at maximum power
condition are
TW ¼ {(TH)0.5 þ [ULAL/(UHAH)](TL)0.5}/{1 þ [ULAL/(UHAH)]}(TH)0.5
(7.25)
and
TC ¼ {(TH)0.5 þ [ULAL/(UHAH)](TL)0.5}/{1 þ [ULAL/(UHAH)]}(TL)0.5
(7.26)

By taking into account the rate of heat transfer associated with the
endoreversible cycle, the upper bound of the power output of the cycle can
be found. This bound provides a practical basis for a real power plant
design. The industrial view is that the heat engine efficiency is secondary
to the power output in power plants whose worth is constrained by
economic considerations.
Another important industrial design objective function for power
cycle design is net power per unit conductance of heat exchangers.
The conductance of the high-temperature side heat exchanger is UHAH in
Eq. (7.13), and the conductance of the low-temperature side heat
exchanger is ULAL in Eq. (7.14). The net power per unit conductance of
the heat exchanger [Wdotnet/(UHAH þ ULAL)] represents the initial and
operational costs of the heat exchanger, which is a very important part of
the power plant.
For many power plants, such as waste-heat plants, geothermal,
plants, and OTEC (ocean thermal energy conversion) plants, which have
relatively small fuel costs, the industrial design objective function for these
power cycle designs is specific net power. The specific net power is defined
as Wdotnet/(AH þ AL). The total cost of these plants is determined mainly
by the construction cost. From the viewpoints of cost and size, the most
important component of these plants is the heat exchanger. The volume
of supporting structure, the weight of buoyance-adjusting ballast, the
length of pipe, head loss, pump power, and all other major components
increase as the size of the heat exchanger increases. High performance
of these plants is essential for producing power. For this reason, the
performance evaluation objective function of these plants is taken to be
the specific power.
Example 7.4
An endoreversible (Curzon and Ahlborn) cycle operates between a heat
source at temperature TH ¼ 1600 K and a heat sink at temperature
TL ¼ 400 K. Suppose that UH ¼ 100 kW/m2 (overall heat-transfer coefficient
of the high-temperature side heat exchanger between the heat engine and
the heat source), AH ¼ 1 m2 (heat-transfer surface area of the high-
temperature side heat exchanger between the heat engine and the heat
source), and UL ¼ 100 kW/m2 (overall heat-transfer coefficient of the low-
temperature side heat exchanger between the heat engine and the heat sink).
Determine the maximum power output of the cycle. Find the heat-
transfer added, heat transfer removed, heat transfer surface area of the
low-temperature side heat exchanger between the heat engine and the heat
sink, and efficiency of the cycle at the maximum power output condition.

Solution:
QdotH ¼ UHAH(TH TW) ¼ 100(1)(1600 1200) ¼ 40,000 kW ¼
40 MW.
QdotH/TW ¼ 40,000/1200 ¼ QdotL /TC ¼ QdotL/600 gives QdotL ¼
20,000 kW ¼ 2 MW
QdotL ¼ 20,000 ¼ ULAL(TC TL) ¼ 100AL(600 400) gives AL ¼ 1 m2
P ¼ QdotH QdotL ¼ 40,000 20,000 ¼ 20,000 kW ¼ 20 MW
and
¼ 1 (TC/TW) ¼ 1 (400/1600)1/2 ¼ 50%.
Example 7.5
An endoreversible (Curzon and Ahlborn) steam cycle operates between a
heat source at temperature TH ¼ 640 K and a heat sink at temperature
TL ¼ 300 K. The following information is given:
Heat source: fluid ¼ water, T5 ¼ 640 K, x5 ¼ 1, T6 ¼ 640 K, and x6 ¼ 0
Heat sink: fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 300 K, x7 ¼ 0, T8 ¼ 300 K, and x8 ¼ 1
Steam cycle: fluid ¼ water, x2 ¼ 0, T3 ¼ 500 K, x3 ¼ 1, T4 ¼ 400 K, and
mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
Determine the rate of heat added from the heat source, rate of heat
removed to the heat sink, power required by the isentropic pump, power
produced by the isentropic turbine, net power produced, and efficiency of
the cycle.
1. Build the cycle and its surroundings as shown in Fig. 7.6.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume that the heat exchangers are isobaric (notice that
isobaric is also isothermal in the saturated mixture region),
and the turbine and pump are isentropic.
b. Input heat source fluid ¼ water, T5 ¼ 640 K, x5 ¼ 1,
T6 ¼ 640 K, and x6 ¼ 0; heat sink fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 300 K,
x7 ¼ 0, T8 ¼ 300 K, and x8 ¼ 1; steam cycle fluid ¼ water,
x2 ¼ 0, T3 ¼ 500 K, x3 ¼ 1, T4 ¼ 400 K, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
3. Display results:
The answers are: rate of heat added from the heat source ¼ 1827 kW,
rate of heat removed to the heat sink ¼ 1462 kW, power required by the
isentropic pump ¼ 50.53 kW, power produced by the isentropic
turbine ¼ 416.0 kW, net power produced ¼ 365.4 kW, and efficiency of
the cycle ¼ 20%. (See Fig. 7.7.)

Figure 7.7 Endoreversible (Curzon and Ahlborn) steam cycle.
Example 7.6
heat source at temperature TH ¼ 640 K and a heat sink at temperature
TL ¼ 300 K. The following information is given:
Steam cycle: fluid ¼ water, x2 ¼ 0, x3 ¼ 1, T4 ¼ 400 K, and mdot ¼
1 kg/sec.
Determine the maximum net power produced and working fluid
temperature at the inlet of the turbine.
2. Analysis:
and the turbine and pump are isentropic.
b. Input heat source fluid ¼ water, T5 ¼ 640 K, x5 ¼ 1,
T6 ¼ 640 K, and x6 ¼ 0; heat sink fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 300 K,
x7 ¼ 0, T8 ¼ 300 K, and x8 ¼ 1; steam cycle fluid ¼ water,
3. Sensitivity analysis: plot net power versus T3 diagram as shown in
Fig. 7.8.

Figure 7.8 Endoreversible cycle sensitivity analysis.
The answers are: maximum net power is about 427.0 kW and T3 is

about 558.6 K.
COMMENT: The partial optimization is only for @(net power)/@(T3) ¼ 0.
To have the full optimization, we must let @(net power)/@(T4) ¼ 0 also.
Example 7.7
An endoreversible (Curzon and Ahlborn) steam cycle as shown in Fig. 7.9a
operates between a heat source at temperature TH ¼ 300 C and a heat sink
at temperature TL ¼ 20 C. The following information is given:
Heat source: fluid ¼ water, T1 ¼ 300 C, x1 ¼ 1, T2 ¼ 300 C, and
x2 ¼ 0
Heat sink: fluid ¼ water, T3 ¼ 20 C, x3 ¼ 0, T4 ¼ 20 C, and x4 ¼ 1
Carnot cycle: fluid ¼ water, T5 ¼ 100 C, s5 ¼ 3.25 kJ/kg(K), T7 ¼
200 C, s7 ¼ 5.70 kJ/kg(K), and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
The heat exchangers are counter-flow type: UH ¼ 0.4 kJ/(m2)K and
UL ¼ 0.4 kJ/(m2)K
the cycle.

Figure 7.9a Finite-time Carnot cycle.
Taking the specific net power output (net output power per unit total
heat exchanger surface area) as the design objective function, optimize the
warm-side (heater or high-temperature side heat exchanger) and cold-side
(cooler or low-temperature side heat exchanger) working fluid temperatures.
2. Analysis: (a) Assume that the heat exchangers are isobaric and
counter flow, and turbine and pump are isentropic. (b) Input heat source:
fluid ¼ water, T1 ¼ 300 C, x1 ¼ 1, T2 ¼ 300 C, and x2 ¼ 0; heat sink:
fluid ¼ water, T3 ¼ 20 C, x3 ¼ 0, T4 ¼ 20 C, and x4 ¼ 1; Carnot cycle:
fluid ¼ water, T5 ¼ 100 C, s5 ¼ 3.25 kJ/kg(K), T7 ¼ 200 C, s7 ¼ 5.70 kJ/
kg(K), and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
3. Display results: The answers are: LMTDH ¼ 100 K, LMTDH ¼
80 K, rate of heat added from the heat source ¼ 1159 kW, rate of heat
removed to the heat sink ¼ 914.2 kW, power required by the isentropic
pump ¼ 143.2 kW, power produced by the isentropic turbine ¼ 388.2 kW,
net power produced ¼ 245.0 kW, and efficiency of the cycle ¼ 21.14%, as
shown in Fig. 7.9b.
4. Calculate UHAH ¼ QH/LMTDH ¼ 1159/100 ¼ 11.59 kW/K,
ULAL ¼ QL/LMTDL ¼ 914.2/80 ¼ 11.43 kW/K, UHAH þ ULAL ¼ 11.59 þ
11.43 ¼ 23.02 kW/K, and specific net power output ¼ Wdotnet/(AH þ AL) ¼
245.0/(11.59/0.4 þ 11.43/0.4) ¼ 13.31 kW/m2.

Figure 7.9b Finite-time Carnot cycle input and output.
5. To optimize the specific power output of the cycle, we let

@ (specific power output)/@T7 ¼ 0 first and then @ (specific power output)/
@T7 ¼ 0 as shown in Tables 7.1a and 7.1b.
It is seen that @ (specific power output)/@T7 ¼ 0 occurs at T7 ¼ 220 C
as shown in Table 7.1a.
6. Let @ (specific power output)/@T5 ¼ 0. It is seen that @ (specific
power output)/@T5 ¼ 0 occurs at T5 ¼ 80 C as shown in Table 7.1b.
7. Let T5 ¼ 80 C and T7 ¼ 220 C; the optimized specific power
output of the cycle is 14.53 kW/m2. At the maximum optimized specific
power output condition, LMTDH ¼ 80 K, LMTDH ¼ 60 K, rate of heat
added from the heat source ¼ 1208 kW, rate of heat removed to the heat
sink ¼ 865.2 kW, power required by the isentropic pump ¼ 201.8 kW,
power produced by the isentropic turbine ¼ 544.9 kW, net power
produced ¼ 343.0 kW, and efficiency of the cycle ¼ 28.39%, as shown in
Fig. 7.9c.

Table 7.1a Specific Power Optimization with Respect to T7
T1 ¼ T2 ¼ 300 T3 ¼ T4 ¼ 20
power power heat heat

T5 T7 pnet/UA pnet/A efficiency in out powernet in out LMTDH LMTDL UHAH U LA L
100 100.1 0.015276 0.019096 0.0267 0.195 0.4395 0.2444 914.2 914.2 200 80 4.571 11.4275
100 120 2.920981 3.651226 5.09 36.72 85.74 49.01 963.2 914.2 180 80 5.351111 11.4275
100 140 5.522602 6.903253 9.69 69.22 167.3 98.04 1012 914.2 160 80 6.325 11.4275
100 160 7.734371 9.667963 13.85 97.68 244.7 147 1061 914.2 140 80 7.578571 11.4275
100 180 9.478902 11.84863 17.66 122.3 318.3 196 1110 914.2 120 80 9.25 11.4275
100 200 10.64408 13.30509 21.14 143.2 388.2 245 1159 914.2 100 80 11.59 11.4275
100 220 11.08284 13.85355 24.34 160.6 454.6 294 1208 914.2 80 80 15.1 11.4275
100 240 10.59378 13.24222 27.28 174.6 517.6 343 1257 914.2 60 80 20.95 11.4275
100 260 8.893426 11.11678 30.01 185.5 577.5 392 1306 914.2 40 80 32.65 11.4275
100 280 5.569764 6.962205 32.54 193.2 634.2 441 1355 914.2 20 80 67.75 11.4275
100 299.9 0.034822 0.043528 34.86 198.4 687.7 489.3 1404 914.2 0.1 80 14040 11.4275
assume UH ¼ UL ¼ 0.4 kJ/m2(K).

Table 7.1b Specific Power Optimization with Respect to T5
power power heat heat
T5 T7 pnet/UA pnet/A efficiency in out powernet in out LMTDH LMTDL UHAH U LA L
20.1 220 0.068036 0.085045 40.54 354.9 844.5 489.8 1208 718.4 80 0.1 15.1 71.84
40 220 8.249158 10.31145 36.5 298.7 739.8 441 1208 767.2 80 20 15.1 38.36
60 220 11.0407 13.80087 32.45 247.8 639.8 392 1208 816.2 80 40 15.1 20.405
80 220 11.61924 14.52405 28.39 201.8 544.9 343 1208 865.2 80 60 15.1 14.42
100 220 11.08284 13.85355 24.34 160.6 454.6 294 1208 914.2 80 80 15.1 11.4275
120 220 9.906194 12.38274 20.28 123.9 368.9 245 1208 963.2 80 100 15.1 9.632
140 220 8.328612 10.41076 16.22 91.38 287.4 196 1208 1012 80 120 15.1 8.433333
160 220 6.48189 8.102362 12.17 62.92 209.9 147 1208 1061 80 140 15.1 7.578571
180 220 4.446965 5.558707 8.11 38.35 136.3 98 1208 1110 80 160 15.1 6.9375
200 220 2.274955 2.843694 4.06 17.4 66.41 49 1208 1159 80 180 15.1 6.438889
219.9 220 0.011569 0.014461 0.0202 0.0787 0.3233 0.2446 1208 1208 80 199.9 15.1 6.043022

Figure 7.9c Finite-time Carnot cycle optimization result.
Review Problems 7.4 Curzon and Ahlborn Cycle with

Infinite Heat Capacity Heat Source and Sink
1. An endoreversible (Curzon and Ahlborn) cycle operates between
a heat source at temperature TH ¼ 3600 K and a heat sink at temperature
TL ¼ 300 K. The temperatures of the working fluid in the isothermal heat-
addition and heat-rejection processes are TW ¼ 2000 K and TC ¼ 400 K.
Suppose that UH ¼ 100 kW/m2 (overall heat-transfer coefficient of the
high-temperature side heat exchanger between the heat engine and the heat
source), AH ¼ 1 m2 (heat-transfer surface area of the high-temperature side
heat exchanger between the heat engine and the heat source), and
UL ¼ 100 kW/m2 (overall heat-transfer coefficient of the low-temperature
side heat exchanger between the heat engine and the heat sink). Determine
the heat transfer added, heat transfer removed, heat-transfer surface area
of the low-temperature side heat exchanger between the heat engine and
the heat sink, power output, and efficiency of the cycle.
2. Referring to Problem 1 and with fixed heat source and heat sink
temperatures, determine the maximum power output of the cycle. Find the
working fluid temperatures in the isothermal heat addition and heat

rejection processes, heat transfer added, heat transfer removed, heat
the heat engine and the heat sink, and efficiency of the cycle at the
maximum power output condition.
3. An endoreversible (Curzon and Ahlborn) steam cycle operates
between a heat source at temperature TH ¼ 640 K and a heat sink at
temperature TL ¼ 300 K. The following information is given:
mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
produced, by the isentropic turbine, net power produced, and efficiency of
the cycle.
temperatures as well as working fluid temperatures in the isothermal heat-
rejection processes, determine the maximum power output of the cycle.
Find the working fluid temperatures in the isothermal heat addition, heat
transfer added, heat transfer removed, and efficiency of the cycle at the
maximum power output condition. Draw the sensitivity diagram.
temperatures as well as working fluid temperatures in the isothermal heat-
addition processes, determine the maximum power output of the cycle.
Find the working fluid temperatures in the isothermal heat removal, heat
transfer added, heat transfer removed, and efficiency of the cycle at the
maximum power output condition. Draw the sensitivity diagram.
6. An endoreversible (Curzon and Ahlborn) steam cycle as shown
in Fig. 7.10 operates between a heat source at temperature TH ¼ 300 C
and a heat sink at temperature TL ¼ 40 C. The following information is
given:
Heat source: fluid ¼ water, T1 ¼ 300 C, x1 ¼ 1, T2 ¼ 300 C, and
x2 ¼ 0
Heat sink: fluid ¼ water, T3 ¼ 40 C, x3 ¼ 0, T4 ¼ 40 C, and x4 ¼ 1
Carnot cycle: fluid ¼ water, T5 ¼ 100 C, s5 ¼ 3.25 kJ/kg(K),
T7 ¼ 200 C, s7 ¼ 5.70 kJ/kg(K), and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
The heat exchangers are counter-flow type, UH ¼ 0.4 kJ/(m2)K and
UL ¼ 0.4 kJ/(m2)K

the cycle.
Taking the specific net power output (net output power per unit total
heat exchanger surface area) as the design objective function, optimize
the warm-side (heater or high-temperature side heat exchanger) and
cold-side (cooler or low-temperature side heat exchanger) working fluid
temperatures.
7.5 CURZON AND AHLBORN CYCLE WITH FINITE HEAT

CAPACITY HEAT SOURCE AND SINK
The T–s diagram and schematic diagram of the Curzon and Ahlborn (endo-
reversible Carnot) cycle are shown in Fig. 7.10 and Fig. 7.11, respectively.
The cycle operates between a heat source and a heat sink with finite heat
capacity. The fluid of the heat source enters the hot-side heat exchanger at T5
and exits at T6. The fluid of the heat sink enters the cold-side heat exchanger
at T7 and exits at T8. The temperatures of the working fluid in the isothermal
heat-addition and heat-rejection processes are TW and TC. The finite mean
temperature difference LMTDH {LMTDH ¼ (T5 T6)/[ln (T5 TW)/
(T6 TW)]} allows a finite heat transfer from the heat source to the working
fluid in the heat-addition process. Similarly, the finite mean temperature
difference LMTDL {LMTDL ¼ (T8 T7)/[ln(TC T7)/(TC T8)]} allows a
heat transfer from the working fluid to the heat sink in the heat-rejection
process. The cycle is a modified Carnot cycle. Other than the external
Figure 7.10 Curzon and Ahlborn cycle with finite heat capacity source and sink
T–s diagram.

Figure 7.11 Curzon and Ahlborn cycle with finite heat capacity source and sink
schematic diagram.
irreversibility due to the two heat-transfer processes, the modified cycle is an

internal reversible heat engine.
engine are
QdotH ¼ UHAHLMTDH (7.27)
QdotL ¼ ULALLMTDL (7.28)
and the heat source, UL is the heat-transfer coefficient, and AL is the heat-
The total heat transfer surface area (A) of the two heat exchangers is
A ¼ AH þ AL (7.29)
thermodynamics is
The second law of thermodynamics requires that
QdotH/TW ¼ QdotL/TC (7.31)
¼ P/QdotH (7.32)

Example 7.8
finite heat capacity heat source and a finite heat capacity heat sink. The
following information is given:
Heat source: fluid ¼ air, T5 ¼ 1500 K, p5 ¼ 1 bar, T6 ¼ 650 K, and
p6 ¼ 1 bar
Heat sink: fluid ¼ air, T7 ¼ 290 K, p7 ¼ 1 bar, T8 ¼ 400 K, and p8 ¼ 1 bar
mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec
Determine the rate of heat added from the heat source, rate of heat removed
to the heat sink, power required by the isentropic pump, power produced,
by the isentropic turbine, net power produced, and efficiency of the cycle.
2. Analysis:
a. Assume that the heat exchangers are isobaric, and turbine and
pump are isentropic.
b. Input heat source fluid ¼ air, T5 ¼ 1500 K, p5 ¼ 1 bar, T6 ¼
650 K, and p6 ¼ 1 bar; heat sink: fluid ¼ air, T7 ¼ 290 K, p7 ¼
1 bar, T8 ¼ 400 K, and p8 ¼ 1 bar; steam cycle: fluid ¼ water,
3. Display results:
The answers are: rate of heat added from the heat source ¼ 1827 kW,
rate of heat removed to the heat sink ¼ 1535 kW, power required by the
isentropic pump ¼ 32.83 kW, power produced by the isentropic turbine ¼
325.1 kW, net power produced ¼ 292.3 kW, and efficiency of the cycle ¼
16%. (See Fig. 7.12.)
Example 7.9
finite heat capacity heat source and a finite heat capacity heat sink. The
following information is given:
p6 ¼ 1 bar
Heat sink: fluid ¼ air, T7 ¼ 290 K, p7 ¼ 1 bar, T8 ¼ 400 K, and p8 ¼ 1 bar
Steam cycle: fluid ¼ water, x2 ¼ 0, x3 ¼ 1, T4 ¼ 420 K, and mdot ¼
1 kg/sec
temperature at the inlet of the turbine with fixed condenser temperature.

Figure 7.12 Curzon and Ahlborn cycle with finite heat capacity heat source
and sink.

2. Analysis:
and turbine and pump are isentropic.
b. Input heat source: fluid ¼ air, T5 ¼ 1500 K, p5 ¼ 1 bar,
T6 ¼ 650 K, and p6 ¼ 1 bar; heat sink: fluid ¼ air, T7 ¼ 290 K,
p7 ¼ 1 bar, T8 ¼ 400 K, and p8 ¼ 1 bar; steam cycle: fluid ¼
water, x2 ¼ 0, x3 ¼ 1, T4 ¼ 420 K, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
3. Sensitivity analysis: plot net power versus T3 diagram as shown in
Fig. 7.13.
The answers are: maximum net power is about 375.2 kW and T3 is
about 563.7 K.
COMMENT: The partial optimization is only for @(net power)/@ðT3 Þ ¼ 0.
To have the full optimization, we must let @(net power)/@ðT4 Þ ¼ 0 also.
Review Problems 7.5 Curzon and Ahlborn Cycle with Finite

Heat Capacity Heat Source and Sink
between a finite heat capacity heat source and a finite heat capacity heat
sink. The following information is given:
p6 ¼ 1 bar

Figure 7.13 Endoreversible cycle with finite heat capacity heat source and sink
sensitivity analysis.
Heat sink: fluid ¼ air, T7 ¼ 290 K, p7 ¼ 1 bar, T8 ¼ 400 K, and

p8 ¼ 1 bar
mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec
the cycle.
ANSWERS: rate of heat added from the heat source ¼ 2026 kW, rate of
heat removed to the heat sink ¼ 1891 kW, power required by the isentropic
pump ¼ 4.99 kW, power produced by the isentropic turbine ¼ 140.0 kW,
net power produced ¼ 135.0 kW, and efficiency of the cycle ¼ 6.67%.
p6 ¼ 1 bar
p8 ¼ 1 bar
mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec

the cycle.
ANSWERS: rate of heat added from the heat source ¼ 1913 kW, rate
of heat removed to the heat sink ¼ 1634 kW, power required by the
14.58%.
p6 ¼ 1 bar
p8 ¼ 1 bar
Steam cycle: fluid ¼ water, x2 ¼ 0, T4 ¼ 480 K, x3 ¼ 1, T4 ¼ 420 K,
and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec
temperature at the inlet of the turbine with fixed condenser temperature.
ANSWERS: maximum net power is about 401.2 kW and T3 is about
564.3 K.
7.6 FINITE-TIME RANKINE CYCLE WITH INFINITELY

LARGE HEAT RESERVOIRS
The ideal finite-time Rankine cycle and its T–s diagram are shown in
Figs. 7.14 and 7.15, respectively. The cycle is an endoreversible cycle that
consists of two isentropic processes and two isobaric heat-transfer
processes. The cycle exchanges heats with its surroundings in the two
isobaric external irreversible heat-transfer processes. The heat source and
heat sink are infinitely large. Therefore, the temperature of the heat source
and heat sink are unchanged during the heat-transfer processes.
engine are
QdotH ¼ UHAHLMTDH (7.33)
QdotL ¼ ULALLMTDL (7.34)


Figure 7.14 Finite-time ideal Rankine cycle with infinitely large heat reservoirs.
Figure 7.15 Finite-time ideal Rankine cycle T–s diagram.
and the heat source, UL is the heat-transfer coefficient, and AL is the heat-
The total heat transfer surface area (A) of the two heat exchangers is
A ¼ AH þ AL (7.35)
thermodynamics is
¼ P/QdotH (7.37)

Example 7.10
An endoreversible Rankine steam heat engine with its infinitely large
steam heat source and heat sink is shown in Fig. 7.14. The following
information is given: p1 ¼ 1 bar, x1 ¼ 0, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p3 ¼ 100 bars,
x3 ¼ 1, p5 ¼ 200 bars, x5 ¼ 1, p6 ¼ 200 bars, x6 ¼ 0, T5 ¼ 639 K, x5 ¼ 1,
T6 ¼ 639 K, x6 ¼ 0, p7 ¼ 0.02 bar, x7 ¼ 0, p8 ¼ 0.02 bar, and x8 ¼ 1.
Determine the power required by the pump, power produced by the
turbine, net power produced by the cycle, rate of heat added by the heat
source, rate of heat removed to the heat sink, and cycle efficiency.
Optimize the net power produced by the cycle with fixed p1. Draw the
sensitivity diagram of net power versus p3. Find the maximum net power
and p3 at the maximum net power condition.
2. Analysis: (a) Assume that the heat exchangers are isobaric, and
turbine and pump are isentropic. (b) Input heat source fluid ¼ steam,
T5 ¼ 639 K, x5 ¼ 1, T6 ¼ 639 K, and x6 ¼ 0; heat sink: fluid ¼ steam,
p7 ¼ 0.02 bar, x7 ¼ 0, p7 ¼ 0.02 bar, p8 ¼ 0.02 bar, and x8 ¼ 1; steam cycle:
fluid ¼ water, x1 ¼ 0, p1 ¼ 1 bar, x3 ¼ 1, p3 ¼ 200 bars, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
3. Display results. The results shown in Fig. 7.16a are: rate of heat
Figure 7.16a Finite-time ideal Rankine cycle with infinitely large heat reservoirs.

Figure 7.16b Finite-time ideal Rankine cycle with infinitely large heat reservoirs
sink ¼ 1507 kW, power required by the isentropic pump ¼ 10.30 kW,
produced ¼ 689.6 kW, and efficiency of the cycle ¼ 30.02%.
4. Optimization. Draw the sensitivity diagram of net power versus
p3 as shown in Fig. 7.16b. The maximum net power is about 692.4 kW,
and p3 at the maximum net power condition is about 116.1 bar with fixed
condenser pressure.
COMMENT: The partial optimization is only for @(net power)/@ðp3 Þ ¼ 0.
To have the full optimization, we must let @(net power)/@ðp1 Þ ¼ 0 also.
Review Problems 7.6 Finite Time Ideal Rankine Cycle with

Infinitely Large Heat Reservoirs
1. An endoreversible Rankine steam heat engine with its infinitely
large steam heat source and heat sink is shown in Fig. 7.14. The following
information is given: p1 ¼ 0.1 bar, x1 ¼ 0, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p3 ¼ 120 bars,

ANSWERS: power required by the pump ¼ 12.13 kW, power
produced by the turbine ¼ 948.0 kW, net power produced by the cycle ¼
935.9 kW, rate of heat added by the heat source ¼ 2481 kW, rate of heat
removed to the heat sink ¼ 1545 kW, and cycle efficiency ¼ 37.73%.
information is given: p1 ¼ 0.1 bar, x1 ¼ 0, mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p3 ¼ 150 bars,
produced by the turbine ¼ 699.0 kW, net power produced by the
cycle ¼ 683.5 kW, rate of heat added by the heat source ¼ 2177 kW, rate
of heat removed to the heat sink ¼ 1494 kW, and cycle
efficiency ¼ 31.40%.
7.7 ACTUAL RANKINE CYCLE WITH INFINITELY LARGE

HEAT RESERVOIRS
The actual finite-time Rankine cycle is shown in Fig. 7.17. The cycle is an
external and internal irreversible cycle that consists of two irreversible
internal adiabatic processes (pump and turbine) and two irreversible
external isobaric heat-transfer processes. The heat source and heat sink are
infinitely large.
Example 7.11
An endoreversible Rankine steam heat engine with its infinitely large
steam heat source and heat sink is shown in Fig. 7.17. The following
information is given: turbine ¼ 85%, pump ¼ 100%, p1 ¼ 1 bar, x1 ¼ 0,

Figure 7.17 Finite-time actual Rankine cycle with infinitely large heat reservoirs.
mdot1 ¼ 1 kg/sec, p3 ¼ 100 bars, x3 ¼ 1, p5 ¼ 200 bars, x5 ¼ 1, p6 ¼ 200 bars,

x6 ¼ 0, p5 ¼ 639 K, x5 ¼ 1, T6 ¼ 639 K, x6 ¼ 0, p7 ¼ 0.02 bar, x7 ¼ 0,
p8 ¼ 0.02 bar, and x8 ¼ 1.

turbine and pump are isentropic. (b) Input heat source fluid ¼ steam,
T5 ¼ 639 K, x5 ¼ 1, T6 ¼ 639 K, and x6 ¼ 0; heat sink: fluid ¼ steam,
p7 ¼ 0.02 bar, x7 ¼ 0, p7 ¼ 0.02 bar, p8 ¼ 0.02 bar, and x8 ¼ 1; steam cycle:
fluid ¼ water, x1 ¼ 0, p1 ¼ 1 bar, x3 ¼ 1, p3 ¼ 200 bars, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
3. Display results. The results shown in Fig. 7.18a are: rate of heat

Figure 7.18a Finite-time actual Rankine cycle with infinitely large heat reservoirs.
Figure 7.18b Finite-time actual Rankine cycle with infinitely large heat reservoirs
4. Optimization. Draw the sensitivity diagram of net power versus p3

as shown in Fig. 7.18b. The maximum net power is about 586.2 kW, and
p3 at the maximum net power condition is about 107.4 kPa.

Review Problems 7.7 Finite-Time Actual Rankine Cycle with
Infinitely Large Heat Reservoirs
information is given: turbine ¼ 85%, pump ¼ 100%, p1 ¼ 1 bar, x1 ¼ 0,
x6 ¼ 0, p5 ¼ 639 K, x5 ¼ 1, T6 ¼ 639 K, x6 ¼ 0, p7 ¼ 0.02 bar, x7 ¼ 0,
p8 ¼ 0.02 bar, and x8 ¼ 1.
cycle ¼ 578.7 kW, rate of heat added by the heat source ¼ 2177 kW, rate of
heat removed to the heat sink ¼ 1598 kW, and cycle efficiency ¼ 26.58%.
information is given: turbine ¼ 85%, pump ¼ 100%, p1 ¼ 0.5 bar, x1 ¼ 0,
x6 ¼ 0, p5 ¼ 639 K, x5 ¼ 1, T6 ¼ 639 K, x6 ¼ 0, p7 ¼ 0.02 bar, x7 ¼ 0,
p8 ¼ 0.02 bar, and x8 ¼ 1.
cycle ¼ 653.3 kW, rate of heat added by the heat source ¼ 2374 kW, rate
of heat removed to the heat sink ¼ 1720 kW, and cycle efficiency ¼
27.52%; maximum net power ¼ approximately 653.7 kW and p3 ¼
102.3 bars at the maximum net power condition.
7.8 IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE WITH FINITE CAPACITY HEAT

RESERVOIRS
The ideal finite-time Rankine cycle is shown in Fig. 7.19. The cycle is an
endoreversible cycle that consists of two isentropic processes and two

Figure 7.19 Finite-time ideal Rankine cycle with finite heat reservoirs.
isobaric heat-transfer processes. The cycle exchanges heat with its

surroundings in the two isobaric external irreversible heat-transfer
processes. The heat source and heat sink are not infinitely large.
Therefore, the temperature of the heat source and heat sink are unchanged
during the heat-transfer processes.
Example 7.12
A finite-time ideal Rankine cycle operates between a finite heat capacity
heat source and a finite heat capacity heat sink. The following information
is given:
Heat source: fluid ¼ air, T5 ¼ 2000 C, p5 ¼ 1 bar, T6 ¼ 800 C, and
p6 ¼ 1 bar
Heat sink: fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 17 C, p7 ¼ 1 bar, T8 ¼ 30 C, and
p8 ¼ 1 bar
Steam cycle: fluid ¼ water, x2 ¼ 0, p3 ¼ 150 bars, x3 ¼ 1, p4 ¼ 1 bar,
the cycle.

Optimize the net power produced by the cycle with fixed p1. Draw
the sensitivity diagram of net power versus p3. Find the maximum net
power and p3 at the maximum net power condition.
1. Build the cycle and its surroundings as shown in Fig. 7.20a.

turbine and pump are isentropic. (b) Input heat source fluid ¼ air,
T5 ¼ 2000 C, p5 ¼ 1 bar, T6 ¼ 800 C, and p6 ¼ 1 bar; heat sink: fluid ¼
water, T7 ¼ 17 C, p7 ¼ 1 bar, T8 ¼ 30 C, and p8 ¼ 1 bar; and steam cycle:
fluid ¼ water, x2 ¼ 0, p3 ¼ 150 bars, x3 ¼ 1, p4 ¼ 1 bar, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
3. Display results. The answers are: rate of heat added from the
heat source ¼ 2177 kW, rate of heat removed to the heat sink ¼ 1494 kW,
power required by the isentropic pump ¼ 15.5 kW, power produced by
the isentropic turbine ¼ 699.0 kW, net power produced ¼ 683.5 kW, and
efficiency of the cycle ¼ 31.40%. (See Fig. 7.20a.)
and p3 at the maximum net power condition is about 103.6 bars.

Figure 7.20a Finite-time ideal Rankine cycle with finite capacity heat reservoirs.

Figure 7.20b Finite-time ideal Rankine cycle with finite heat reservoirs sensitivity
diagram.
Example 7.13
A finite-time ideal Rankine cycle operates between a finite heat capacity
is given:
Heat source: fluid ¼ water, p5 ¼ 200 bars, x5 ¼ 1 bar, x6 ¼ 0, and
p6 ¼ 200 bars
Heat sink: fluid ¼ water, x7 ¼ 0, p7 ¼ 0.02 bar, x8 ¼ 1, and
p8 ¼ 0.02 bar
Steam cycle: fluid ¼ water, x1 ¼ 0, p1 ¼ 1 bar, x3 ¼ 1, p3 ¼ 117.6 bars,
Heat exchangers are counter-flow type
the cycle.

Optimize the net power produced by the cycle with variable p3 based
on the criterion of (a) net power per unit conductance of heat exchanger,
and (b) specific net power per unit surface area of heat exchangers with
UH ¼ UH ¼ 0.5 kW/[m2(K)].
turbine and pump are isentropic. (b) Input heat source fluid ¼ water,
p5 ¼ 200 bars, x5 ¼ 1 bar, x6 ¼ 0, and p6 ¼ 200 bars; heat sink: fluid ¼ water,
x7 ¼ 0, p7 ¼ 0.02 bar, x8 ¼ 1, and p8 ¼ 0.02 bar; heat exchangers are
counter-flow type; and steam cycle: fluid ¼ water, x1 ¼ 0, p1 ¼ 1 bar,
x3 ¼ 1, p3 ¼ 117.6 bars, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec, as shown in Fig. 7.21a.
heat source (QdotH) ¼ 2260 kW, logarithm mean temperature difference of
the high-temperature side heat exchanger (LMTDH) ¼ 121.8 C, rate of
heat removed to the heat sink (QdotL) ¼ 1567 kW, logarithm mean
temperature difference of the low-temperature side heat exchanger
(LMTDL) ¼ 82.13 C, net power produced ¼ 693.0 kW, and efficiency of
the cycle ¼ 30.66%. (See Fig. 7.21b.)
The conductances of the heat exchanger are UHAH ¼ 2260/
121.8 ¼ 18.56 kW/K and ULAL ¼ 1567/82.13 ¼ 19.08 kW/K. The total
conductance of the heat exchanger is 18.56 þ 19.08 ¼ 37.64 kW/K. The
Figure 7.21a Finite-time ideal Rankine cycle with finite heat capacity source and
sink input.

Figure 7.21b Finite-time ideal Rankine cycle with finite heat capacity source and
sink output.
net power output per unit conductance of the heat exchanger is 693.0/
37.64 ¼ 18.41 kW/K.
The surface areas of the heat exchanger are AH ¼ 18.56/0.5 ¼
37.12 m2 and AL ¼ 19.08/0.5 ¼ 38.16 m2. The total surface area of the heat
exchanger is 37.12 þ 38.16 ¼ 75.28 m2. The specific power per unit total
surface area of the heat exchanger is 693.0/75.28 ¼ 9.206 m2.
Using p3 as a design parameter, Table 7.2 is prepared. Based on the
criterion of (1) net power per unit conductance of heat exchanger, the
optimization p3 ¼ 120 bars, and (2) specific net power per unit surface area
of heat exchanger, the optimization p3 ¼ 80 bars. (See Fig. 7.21c.)
Example 7.14
A finite-time ideal Rankine OTEC (ocean thermal energy conversion) cycle
as shown in Fig. 7.22a operates between a finite heat capacity heat source
and a finite heat capacity heat sink. The following information is given:
Heat source: fluid ¼ warm ocean surface water, T1 ¼ 26 C,
p1 ¼ 101 kPa, T2 ¼ 22 C, and p2 ¼ 101 kPa
Heat sink: fluid ¼ cold deep ocean water, T3 ¼ 5 C, p3 ¼ 101 kPa,
T4 ¼ 9 C, and p4 ¼ 101 kPa
Steam cycle: fluid ¼ ammonia, x5 ¼ 0, T5 ¼ 12 C, x7 ¼ 1, T7 ¼ 20 C,
and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
UL ¼ 0.4 kJ/(m2)K

Table 7.2 Net Power Per Unit Conductance of Heat Exchanger
p3 LMTDH LMTDL QDOTH QDOTL UH A H U LA L SUM(UA) PNET sppnet
bar K K kW kW kW/K kW/K kW/K kW kW/(kW/K)
2 254.4 82.13 2277 2171 8.950472 26.4337 35.38417 105.6 2.984385

10 223.6 82.13 2359 1969 10.55009 23.97419 34.52428 389.8 11.29061
30 191.2 82.13 2383 1820 12.46339 22.15999 34.62338 562.6 16.24914
50 170.9 82.13 2371 1741 13.87361 21.1981 35.07171 630.3 17.97175
80 147.3 82.13 2332 1655 15.83164 20.15098 35.98262 676.8 18.80908 MAXsppnet
100 133.5 82.13 2297 1607 17.20599 19.56654 36.77253 689.6 18.75313
110 126.8 82.13 2277 1584 17.95741 19.2865 37.24391 692.3 18.58827
120 120.2 82.13 2255 1562 18.7604 19.01863 37.77903 693 18.34351 MAXPNET
130 113.6 82.13 2231 1539 19.63908 18.73859 38.37767 691.7 18.0235
150 99.86 82.13 2177 1494 21.80052 18.19067 39.99119 683.5 17.09126
180 75.15 82.13 2073 1418 27.58483 17.26531 44.85014 656 14.62649

Figure 7.21c Net power per unit conductance of heat exchangers.
Figure 7.22a Finite-time OTEC cycle.
the cycle.
Since the fuel cost of the OTEC is free, the primary cost is that of
initial construction. The heat exchangers are the major concern of the

initial construction cost. Let us take the specific net power output (net
output power per unit total heat exchanger surface area) as the design
objective function, and optimize the warm-side (heater or high-
temperature side heat exchanger) and cold-side (cooler or low-temperature
side heat exchanger) working fluid temperatures.
counter-flow type, and turbine and pump are isentropic. (b) Input heat
source: fluid ¼ warm ocean surface water, T1 ¼ 26 C, p1 ¼ 101 kPa,
T2 ¼ 22 C, and p2 ¼ 101 kPa; heat sink: fluid ¼ cold deep ocean water,
T3 ¼ 5 C, p3 ¼ 101 kPa, T4 ¼ 9 C, and p4 ¼ 101 kPa; steam cycle: fluid ¼
ammonia, x5 ¼ 0, T5 ¼ 12 C, x7 ¼ 1, T7 ¼ 20 C, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
3. Display results. The results shown in Fig. 7.22b are:
LMTDH ¼ 7.56 K, LMTDL ¼ 4.72 K, rate of heat added from the heat
source ¼ 1219 kW, rate of heat removed to the heat sink ¼ 1191 kW,
the isentropic turbine ¼ 33.20 kW, net power produced ¼ 28.82 kW, and
efficiency of the cycle ¼ 2.36%.
Figure 7.22b Finite-time OTEC cycle input and output.

4. Calculate UHAH ¼ QH/LMTDH ¼ 1219/7.56 ¼ 161.2 kW/K,
ULAL ¼ QL/LMTDL ¼ 1191/4.72 ¼ 252.3 kW/K, UHAH þ ULAL ¼ 161.2 þ
252.3 ¼ 413.5 kW/K, and specific net power output ¼ Wdotnet/(AH þ AL) ¼
28.82/(161.2/0.4 þ 252.3/0.4) ¼ 0.1742 kW/m2.
5. To optimize the specific power output of the cycle, we let
@ (specific power output)/@T7 ¼ 0 first and then @ (specific power output)/
@T7 ¼ 0. It is seen that @ (specific power output)/@T7 ¼ 0 occurs at
T7 ¼ 24 C as shown in Table 7.3a.
6. Then let @ (specific power output)/ @T5 ¼ 0. It is seen that @ (specific
power output)/@T5 ¼ 0 occurs at T5 ¼ 12 C as shown in Table 7.3b.
7. Let T5 ¼ 12 C and T7 ¼ 24 C; the optimized specific power
output of the cycle is 0.1036 kW/m2. At the maximum optimized specific
power output condition, LMTDH ¼ 4.67 K, LMTDH ¼ 4.72 K, rate of heat
produced ¼ 42.33 kW and efficiency of the cycle ¼ 3.47%, as shown in
Fig. 7.22c.
Review Problems 7.8 Finite-Time Ideal Rankine Cycle with

Finite Heat Capacity Reservoirs
between a finite heat capacity heat source and a finite heat capacity
heat sink. The following information is given:
p6 ¼ 1 bar
Heat sink: fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 17 C, p7 ¼ 1 bar, T8 ¼ C, and
p8 ¼ 1 bar
Steam cycle: fluid ¼ water, x2 ¼ 0, p3 ¼ 200 bars, x3 ¼ 1, p4 ¼ 1 bar,
the cycle.
31.49%.

Table 7.3a Specific Power Optimization with Respect to T7
OTEC T1 ¼ 26 T2 ¼ 22 T3 ¼ 5 T4 ¼ 9 Counter Flow HX
12 12.1 0.001028 0.001285 0.0304 0.0561 0.4267 0.3706 1217 1217 11.84 4.72 102.7872 257.839
12 14 0.020189 0.025236 0.611 1.09 8.53 7.44 1218 1211 10.88 4.72 111.9485 256.5678
12 16 0.038816 0.04852 1.21 2.21 16.92 14.71 1219 1204 9.84 4.72 123.8821 255.0847
12 18 0.055613 0.069516 1.79 3.28 25.14 21.86 1219 1197 8.74 4.72 139.4737 253.6017
12 20 0.069685 0.087107 2.36 4.38 33.2 28.82 1219 1191 7.56 4.72 161.2434 252.3305
12 21.9 0.07957 0.099463 2.9 5.42 40.73 35.32 1220 1184 6.32 4.72 193.038 250.8475
12 22 0.079947 0.099933 2.92 5.47 41.13 35.66 1220 1184 6.25 4.72 195.2 250.8475
12 23 0.082671 0.103339 3.2 6.03 45.02 38.99 1220 1181 5.51 4.72 221.4156 250.2119
12 24 0.082867 0.103584 3.47 6.58 48.91 42.33 1220 1178 4.67 4.72 261.242 249.5763
12 24.5 0.081377 0.101722 3.6 6.86 50.83 43.97 1220 1176 4.19 4.72 291.1695 249.1525
12 24.6 0.080922 0.101152 3.63 6.91 51.21 44.3 1220 1176 4.09 4.72 298.2885 249.1525
12 24.7 0.080328 0.10041 3.66 6.97 51.59 44.62 1220 1175 3.98 4.72 306.5327 248.9407
12 24.8 0.079672 0.09959 3.68 7.02 51.97 44.95 1220 1175 3.87 4.72 315.2455 248.9407

Table 7.3b Specific Power Optimization with Respect to T5
OTEC T1 ¼ 26 T2 ¼ 22 T3 ¼ 5 T4 ¼ 9 Counter Flow HX
12 12.1 0.001028 0.001285 0.0304 0.0561 0.4267 0.3706 1217 1217 11.84 4.72 102.7872 257.839
12 14 0.020189 0.025236 0.611 1.09 8.53 7.44 1218 1211 10.88 4.72 111.9485 256.5678
12 16 0.038816 0.04852 1.21 2.21 16.92 14.71 1219 1204 9.84 4.72 123.8821 255.0847
12 18 0.055613 0.069516 1.79 3.28 25.14 21.86 1219 1197 8.74 4.72 139.4737 253.6017
12 20 0.069685 0.087107 2.36 4.38 33.2 28.82 1219 1191 7.56 4.72 161.2434 252.3305
12 21.9 0.07957 0.099463 2.9 5.42 40.73 35.32 1220 1184 6.32 4.72 193.038 250.8475
12 22 0.079947 0.099933 2.92 5.47 41.13 35.66 1220 1184 6.25 4.72 195.2 250.8475
12 23 0.082671 0.103339 3.2 6.03 45.02 38.99 1220 1181 5.51 4.72 221.4156 250.2119
12 24 0.082867 0.103584 3.47 6.58 48.91 42.33 1220 1178 4.67 4.72 261.242 249.5763
12 24.5 0.081377 0.101722 3.6 6.86 50.83 43.97 1220 1176 4.19 4.72 291.1695 249.1525
12 24.6 0.080922 0.101152 3.63 6.91 51.21 44.3 1220 1176 4.09 4.72 298.2885 249.1525
12 24.7 0.080328 0.10041 3.66 6.97 51.59 44.62 1220 1175 3.98 4.72 306.5327 248.9407
12 24.8 0.079672 0.09959 3.68 7.02 51.97 44.95 1220 1175 3.87 4.72 315.2455 248.9407
9.1 24 0.040529 0.050661 4.32 7.8 61.09 53.29 1232 1179 5.52 1.08 223.1884 1091.667
9.5 24 0.059103 0.073878 4.21 7.64 59.4 51.76 1231 1179 5.4 1.82 227.963 647.8022
10 24 0.0705 0.088125 4.06 7.44 57.28 49.84 1228 1179 5.26 2.49 233.4601 473.494
11 24 0.080891 0.101114 3.77 7.01 53.11 46.1 1224 1178 4.97 3.64 246.2777 323.6264
12 24 0.082867 0.103584 3.47 6.58 48.91 42.33 1220 1178 4.67 4.72 261.242 249.5763
15 24 0.066312 0.082889 2.6 5.14 36.5 31.36 1207 1176 3.74 7.83 322.7273 150.1916
18 24 0.037198 0.046497 1.72 3.59 24.18 20.6 1195 1174 2.68 10.88 445.8955 107.9044
20 24 0.018341 0.022927 1.15 2.45 16.08 13.62 1186 1173 1.82 12.9 651.6484 90.93023
21 24 0.010039 0.012549 0.8623 1.86 12.05 10.19 1182 1172 1.27 13.9 930.7087 84.31655
21.5 24 0.005931 0.007414 0.7177 1.57 10.03 8.47 1180 1171 0.8762 14.41 1346.724 81.26301

Figure 7.22c Finite-time OTEC cycle optimization.

p6 ¼ 1 bar
Heat sink: fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 17 C, p7 ¼ 1 bar, T8 ¼ C, and p8 ¼ 1 bar
Steam cycle: fluid ¼ water, x2 ¼ 0, p3 ¼ 200 bars, x3 ¼ 1, p4 ¼ 0.2 bar,
the cycle.
isentropic pump ¼ 20.25 kW, power produced by the isentropic
turbine ¼ 795.5 kW, net power produced ¼ 775.2 kW, and efficiency of
the cycle ¼ 36.20%.
p6 ¼ 1 bar

Heat sink: fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 17 C, p7 ¼ 1 bar, T8 ¼ C, and p8 ¼ 1 bar
ANSWERS: The maximum net power is about 691.7 kW, and p3 at

the maximum net power condition is about 103.6 bars.
4. A finite-time ideal Rankine OTEC cycle as shown in Fig. 7.22a
operates between a finite heat capacity heat source and a finite heat
capacity heat sink. The following information is given:
p1 ¼ 101 kPa, T2 ¼ 20 C, and p2 ¼ 101 kPa
T4 ¼ 10 C, and p4 ¼ 101 kPa
UL ¼ 0.4 kJ/(m2)K
the cycle.
initial construction. The heat exchangers are the major concern of the
5. A finite time ideal Rankine OTEC cycle as shown in Fig. 7.22a
p1 ¼ 101 kPa, T2 ¼ 20 C, and p2 ¼ 101 kPa
T4 ¼ 10 C, and p4 ¼ 101 kPa

The heat exchangers are co-current (parallel) flow type, UH ¼ 0.4 kJ/
(m2)K and UL ¼ 0.4 kJ/(m2)K
the cycle.
initial construction. The heat exchanger is the major concern of the initial
construction cost. Let us take the specific net power output (net output
power per unit total heat exchanger surface area) as the design objective
function, and optimize the warm-side (heater or high-temperature side heat
exchanger) and cold-side (cooler or low-temperature side heat exchanger)
working fluid temperatures.
7.9 ACTUAL RANKINE CYCLE WITH FINITE CAPACITY

HEAT RESERVOIRS
The actual finite time Rankine cycle is shown in Fig. 7.23. The cycle is an
actual Rankine cycle that consists of two adiabatic processes and two
isobaric heat-transfer processes. The cycle exchanges heat with its sur-
roundings in the two isobaric external irreversible heat-transfer processes.
Figure 7.23 Finite-time actual Rankine cycle with finite heat reservoirs.

The heat source and heat sink are not infinitely large. Therefore, the
temperature of the heat source and heat sink change during the heat-
transfer processes.
Example 7.15
A finite-time actual Rankine cycle operates between a finite heat capacity
is given:
p6 ¼ 1 bar
p8 ¼ 1 bar
and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec, turbine ¼ 85%
the cycle.
fluid ¼ water, x2 ¼ 0, p3 ¼ 200 bars, x3 ¼ 1, p4 ¼ 0.2 bar, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/
sec, turbine ¼ 85%.
the turbine ¼ 676.1 kW, net power produced ¼ 655.9 kW, and efficiency of
the cycle ¼ 30.63%. (See Fig. 7.24a.)

Figure 7.24a Finite-time actual Rankine cycle with finite capacity heat reservoirs.
Figure 7.24b Finite-time actual Rankine cycle with finite heat reservoirs
Example 7.16
A finite time actual Rankine cycle operates between a finite heat capacity
is given:
p6 ¼ 1 bar

p8 ¼ 1 bar
Steam cycle: fluid ¼ water, x2 ¼ 0, p3 ¼ 150 bars, T8 ¼ 400 C (super-
heated vapor), p4 ¼ 0.1 bar, mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec, and turbine ¼ 85%
to the heat sink, power required by the isentropic pump, power produced by
the isentropic turbine, net power produced, and efficiency of the cycle.
fluid ¼ water, x2 ¼ 0, p3 ¼ 150 bars, T8 ¼ 400 C (superheated vapor),
p4 ¼ 0.1 bar, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec, and turbine ¼ 85%.
power required by the pump ¼ 15.14 kW, power produced by the
turbine ¼ 947.3 kW, net power produced ¼ 932.1 kW, and efficiency of the
cycle ¼ 33.68%. (See Fig. 7.25a.)
Figure 7.25a Finite-time actual Rankine cycle with finite capacity heat reservoirs.

Figure 7.25b Finite-time actual Rankine cycle with finite heat reservoirs sensitiv-
ity diagram.

Review Problems 7.9 Finite-Time Ideal Rankine Cycle with

Finite Heat Capacity Reservoirs
1. A finite-time actual Rankine cycle operates between a finite heat
capacity heat source and a finite heat capacity heat sink. The following
information is given:
p6 ¼ 1 bar
p8 ¼ 1 bar

to the heat sink, power required by the isentropic pump, power produced by
the turbine, net power produced, and efficiency of the cycle.
pump ¼ 12.13 kW, power produced by the turbine ¼ 959.2 kW, net power
p6 ¼ 1 bar
p8 ¼ 1 bar
produced by the turbine, net power produced, and efficiency of the cycle.
pump ¼ 12.32 kW, power produced by the turbine ¼ 802.2 kW, net power

p6 ¼ 1 bar
p8 ¼ 1 bar

the maximum net power condition is about 100.9 bars.

4. A finite-time actual Rankine OTEC cycle as shown in Fig. 7.25a
Pump efficiency ¼ 85% and turbine efficiency ¼ 85%
p1 ¼ 101 kPa, T2 ¼ 20 C, and p2 ¼ 101 kPa
T4 ¼ 10 C, and p4 ¼ 101 kPa
UL ¼ 0.4 kJ/(m2)K
the cycle.
the initial construction cost. The heat exchangers are the major concern of
the initial construction cost. Let us take the specific net power output (net
4. A finite-time actual Rankine OTEC cycle as shown in Fig. 7.25a
Pump efficiency ¼ 85% and turbine efficiency ¼ 85%
p1 ¼ 101 kPa, T2 ¼ 20 C, and p2 ¼ 101 kPa
T4 ¼ 10 C, and p4 ¼ 101 kPa
The heat exchangers are co-current (parallel) flow type, UH ¼ 0.4 kJ/
(m2)K and UL ¼ 0.4 kJ/(m2)K
produced by the isentropic turbine, net power produced and efficiency of
the cycle.

the initial construction. The heat exchanger is the major concern of the
objective function, optimize the warm-side (heater or high-temperature
side heat exchanger) and cold-side (cooler or low-temperature side heat
exchanger) working fluid temperatures.
7.10 FINITE-TIME BRAYTON CYCLE
The schematic and T–s diagrams of the ideal finite-time Brayton cycle are
shown in Fig. 7.26 and 7.27. The cycle is an endoreversible cycle that
consists of two isentropic processes and two isobaric heat-transfer
processes. The cycle exchanges heat with its surroundings in the two
isobaric external irreversible heat-transfer processes. By taking into
account the rates of heat transfer associated with the cycle, the upper
bound of the power output of the cycle can be found as illustrated in
Example 7.17.
Example 7.17
A finite-time ideal Brayton cycle operates between a heat source and a
Heat source: fluid ¼ air, T5 ¼ 2773 K, p5 ¼ 100 kPa, T6 ¼ 2473 K, and
p6 ¼ 100 kPa
Figure 7.26 Schematic diagram of the ideal finite-time Brayton cycle.

Figure 7.27 T–s diagrams of the ideal finite-time Brayton cycle.
Heat sink: fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 373.1 K, x7 ¼ 0, T8 ¼ 373.1 K, and x8 ¼ 1

Brayton cycle: fluid ¼ helium, T1 ¼ 423 K, p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T3 ¼ 1500 K,
p3 ¼ 800 kPa, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec
removed to the heat sink, power required by the isentropic compressor,
power produced by the isentropic turbine, net power produced, and
turbine and compressor are isentropic. (b) Input heat source: fluid ¼ air,
T5 ¼ 2773 K, p5 ¼ 100 kPa, T6 ¼ 2473 K, and p6 ¼ 100 kPa; heat sink:
fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 373.1 K, x7 ¼ 0, T8 ¼ 373.1 K, and x8 ¼ 1; Brayton
cycle: fluid ¼ helium, T1 ¼ 423 K, p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T3 ¼ 1500 K, p3 ¼ 800 kPa,
and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.

power required by the compressor ¼ 2854 kW, power produced by the
turbine ¼ 4394 kW, net power produced ¼ 1540 kW, and efficiency of the
cycle ¼ 56.58%. (See Fig. 7.28a.)
p3 as shown in Fig. 7.28b. The maximum net power is about 1697 kW, and
Figure 7.28a Finite-time ideal Brayton cycle.
Figure 7.28b Finite-time ideal Brayton cycle sensitivity diagram.

Figure 7.28c Finite-time ideal Brayton cycle sensitivity diagram.

p1 as shown in Fig. 7.28c. The maximum net power is about 1699 kW, and
Example 7.18
A finite-time ideal Brayton cycle operates between a heat source and a
p5 ¼ 1bar
Heat sink: fluid ¼ air, T7 ¼ 15 C, p7 ¼ 1 bar, T8 ¼ 90 C, and p8 ¼ 1 bar
Brayton cycle: fluid ¼ air, T1 ¼ 100 C, p1 ¼ 1 bar, T3 ¼ 1200 C,
p3 ¼ 10 bars, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec
The heat exchangers are counter-flow type with UH ¼ 1 kW/(m2K)
and UL ¼ 1 kW/(m2K)

(a) Optimize the cycle based on cycle efficiency with respect to p3,
(b) optimize the cycle based on net power with respect to p3, (c) optimize
the cycle based on net power per unit conductance of heat exchanger with
respect to p3, and (d) optimize the cycle based on net power per unit
surface of heat exchanger with respect to p3.
counter-flow type, and turbine and compressor are isentropic. (b) Input
heat source: fluid ¼ air, T4 ¼ 2500 C, p4 ¼ 1 bar, T5 ¼ 1500 C, and
p5 ¼ 1 bar; heat sink: fluid ¼ air, T7 ¼ 15 C, p7 ¼ 1 bar, T8 ¼ 90 C, and
p8 ¼ 1 bar; and Brayton cycle: fluid ¼ air, T1 ¼ 100 C, p1 ¼ 1 bar,
T3 ¼ 1200 C, p3 ¼ 10 bars, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec, as shown in Fig. 7.29a.
heat source ¼ 755.3 kW, rate of heat removed to the heat sink ¼
391.2 kW, net power produced ¼ 364.1 kW, LMTDH ¼ 1172 K,
LMTDL ¼ 203.3 K, and efficiency of the cycle ¼ 48.21% as shown in
Fig. 7.29b.
Change p3 ¼ 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 11, 12, 14, and 15 bars. The results are
as shown in Table 7.4 and we have: (a) optimize the cycle based on cycle
efficiency with respect to p3, max ¼ 52.95% at p3 ¼ 14 bars; (b) optimize the
cycle based on net power with respect to p3, net powermax ¼ 364.7 kW at
Figure 7.29a Finite-time Brayton cycle input.

Figure 7.29b Finite-time Brayton cycle output.
p3 ¼ 11 bars; and (c) optimize the cycle based on net power per unit
conductance of heat exchangers with respect to p3, and net power per unit
conductance of heat exchangersmax ¼ 151.8 kW/(kW/K) at p3 ¼ 14 bars.
Review Problems 7.10 Finite-Time Ideal Brayton Cycle

1. A finite-time ideal Brayton cycle operates between a heat source
and a heat sink. The following information is given:
p6 ¼ 100 kPa
Heat sink: fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 373.1 K, x7 ¼ 0, T8 ¼ 373.1 K, and
x8 ¼ 1
compressor ¼ 2854 kW, power produced by the turbine ¼ 5272 kW, net
power produced ¼ 2419 kW, and efficiency of the cycle ¼ 56.58%.

Table 4 Finite-Time Brayton Cycle Optimization
p3 CY EFF QDOTH QDOTL LMTDH LMTDL UHAH ULAL SUM(UA) PNET PNET/UA AH AL PNET/A
bar % kW kW K K kW/K kW/K kW/K kW kW/kW/K m2 m2 kW/m2
2 17.97 1022 838.2 1309 331 0.780749 2.532326 3.313075 183.6 55.4168 0.013793 5.064653 36.1528
3 26.94 965.7 705.5 1281 295.3 0.753864 2.389096 3.14296 260.2 82.7882 0.009182 4.778192 54.35131
4 32.7 921.8 620.3 1259 271.6 0.732168 2.283873 3.016042 301.5 99.96546 0.007575 4.567747 65.89701
5 36.86 885.2 558.9 1240 254 0.713871 2.200394 2.914265 326.3 111.9665 0.006743 4.400787 74.03238
6 40.07 853.4 511.5 1224 240.1 0.697222 2.130362 2.827585 341.9 120.9159 0.006231 4.260725 80.12739
7 42.65 825.3 473.3 1209 228.7 0.68263 2.069523 2.752154 352 127.8998 0.005879 4.139047 84.92311
8 44.8 799.9 441.6 1196 219 0.668813 2.016438 2.685251 358.3 133.4326 0.005628 4.032877 88.72096
9 46.62 776.7 414.6 1183 210.7 0.656551 1.967727 2.624278 362.1 137.9808 0.005434 3.935453 91.88286
10 48.21 755.3 391.2 1172 203.3 0.644454 1.92425 2.568704 364.1 141.7446 0.005285 3.8485 94.47855
11 49.6 735.5 370.6 1161 196.8 0.633506 1.88313 2.516636 364.7 144.9157 0.005164 3.76626 96.70088
12 50.83 716.6 352.3 1151 190.9 0.622589 1.845469 2.468058 364.3 147.6059 0.005066 3.690938 98.56593
14 52.95 682.3 321 1132 180.6 0.602739 1.777409 2.380147 361.3 151.7973 0.004919 3.554817 101.4963
15 51.95 699 335.9 1142 185.5 0.612084 1.810782 2.422866 363.1 149.8639 0.004987 3.621563 100.1227

p6 ¼ 100 kPa
ANSWERS: The maximum net power is about 2457 kW, and p1 at
the maximum net power condition is about 145.2 kPa.
p6 ¼ 100 kPa
power produced ¼ 2293 kW, and efficiency of the cycle ¼ 60.30%.
p6 ¼ 100 kPa
p3 ¼ 1 MPa, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec

p6 ¼ 100 kPa
Brayton cycle: fluid ¼ air, T1 ¼ 423 K, p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T3 ¼ 1500 K,
ANSWERS: rate of heat added from the heat source ¼ 736.3 kW,
rate of heat removed to the heat sink ¼ 406.4 kW, power required by the
compressor ¼ 344.0 kW, power produced by the turbine ¼ 674.2 kW, net
power produced ¼ 329.8 kW, and efficiency of the cycle ¼ 44.80%.
The maximum net power is about 330.7 kW, and p3 at the maximum
net power condition is about 836.8 kPa.
7.11 ACTUAL BRAYTON FINITE TIME CYCLE
The actual finite-time Brayton cycle as shown in Fig. 7.30 consists of two
adiabatic processes and two isobaric heat-transfer processes. The cycle
exchanges heat with its surroundings in the two isobaric external
irreversible heat-transfer processes. By taking into account the rates of
heat transfer associated with the cycle, the upper bound of the power
output of the cycle can be found as illustrated in Example 7.19.
Example 7.19
A finite time actual Brayton cycle operates between a heat source and a
p6 ¼ 100 kPa

Figure 7.30 Actual finite-time Brayton cycle.

Brayton cycle: fluid ¼ air, compressor ¼ 85%, turbine ¼ 85%,
T1 ¼ 423 K, p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T3 ¼ 1500 K, p3 ¼ 800 kPa, and
mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec
2. Analysis: (a) Assume that the heat exchangers are isobaric,
and turbine and compressor are isentropic. (b) Input heat source:
fluid ¼ air, T5 ¼ 2773 K, p5 ¼ 100 kPa, T6 ¼ 2473 K, and p6 ¼ 100 kPa; heat

sink: fluid ¼ water, T7 ¼ 373.1 K, x7 ¼ 0, T8 ¼ 373.1 K, and x8 ¼ 1; Brayton
cycle: fluid ¼ air, compressor ¼ 85%, turbine ¼ 85%, T1 ¼ 423 K,
p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T3 ¼ 1500 K, p3 ¼ 800 kPa, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec.
heat source ¼ 675.5 kW, rate of heat removed to the heat sink ¼
507.6 kW, power required by the compressor ¼ 405.2 kW, power
produced by the turbine ¼ 573.1 kW, net power produced ¼ 167.9 kW,
and efficiency of the cycle ¼ 24.86%. (See Fig. 7.31a.)
and p3 at the maximum net power condition is about 544.3 kPa.
p3 as shown in Fig. 7.31c. The maximum net power is about 179.8 kW,
and p1 at the maximum net power condition is about 147.4 kPa.
Figure 7.31a Finite-time actual Brayton cycle.

Figure 7.31b Finite-time actual Brayton cycle sensitivity diagram.
Figure 7.31c Finite-time actual Brayton cycle sensitivity diagram.

Review Problems 7.11 Finite-Time Actual Brayton Cycle
1. A finite-time actual Brayton cycle operates between a heat source
p6 ¼ 100 kPa
Brayton cycle: fluid ¼ air, compressor ¼ 80%, turbine ¼ 80%, T1 ¼ 423 K,
p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T3 ¼ 1500 K, p3 ¼ 800 kPa, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec
p6 ¼ 100 kPa
Brayton cycle: fluid ¼ air, compressor ¼ 80%, turbine ¼ 80%, T1 ¼ 423 K,
p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T3 ¼ 1500 K, p3 ¼ 800 kPa, and mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec
p6 ¼ 100 kPa
Brayton cycle: fluid ¼ air, compressor ¼ 90%, turbine ¼ 90%,
mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec

The maximum net power is about 227.0 kW, and p3 at the maximum net
power condition is about 608.6 kPa.
p6 ¼ 100 kPa
Brayton cycle: fluid ¼ helium, compressor ¼ 90%, turbine ¼ 90%,
T1 ¼ 423 K, p1 ¼ 100 kPa, T3 ¼ 1500 K, p3 ¼ 800 kPa, and mdot ¼
1 kg/sec
The maximum net power is about 1158 kW, and p3 at the maximum net
power condition is about 357.1 kPa.
p6 ¼ 100 kPa

Brayton cycle: fluid ¼ helium, compressor ¼ 90%, turbine ¼ 90%,
mdot ¼ 1 kg/sec
7.12 OTHER FINITE TIME CYCLES
Finite-time thermodynamics is one of the newest and most challenging

areas in thermodynamics. A book entitled Recent Advances in Finite Time
Thermodynamics (editors: Chih Wu, Lingen Chen, and Jincan Chen, Nova
Science Publishers, Inc., New York, USA, 1999, ISBN 1-56072-644-4)
provides results from research, which continues at an impressive rate. The
book contains many academic and industrial papers that are relevant to
current problems and practice. The numerous contributions from the
international thermodynamic community are indicative of the continuing
global interest in finite-time thermodynamics.
The readers should find the papers listed in the Bibliography
informative and useful for analysis and design of various finite-time
thermodynamic cycles. It is hoped that these papers will provide interest
and encouragement for further study in the area of finite-time thermo-
dynamics.
7.13 SUMMARY
Maximum efficiency and maximum coefficient of performance are not

necessarily the primary concern in the design of a real cycle. Net power
output and specific net power output in a heat engine, cooling load, and
specific cooling load in a refrigerator, and heating load and specific
heating load in a heat pump are probably more important in the industrial
design of thermodynamic cycles. A different criteria of real cycle
performance is provided by finite-time thermodynamics. The basic finite-
time thermodynamic cycles are the Carnot, Brayton, and Rankine cycles.
Literature concerning other finite-time thermodynamic cycles are also
provided in the Bibliography.

7.14 BIBLIOGRAPHY
7.14.1 Carnot Cycle

Wu, C., Power optimization of a finite-time Carnot heat engine. Energy: The
International Journal, 13(9), 681–687, 1988.
Wu, C. and Kiang, R.L., Finite time thermodynamic analysis of a Carnot engine
with internal irreversibility. Energy: The International Journal, 17(12),
1173–1178, 1992.
Wu, C., Specific heating load of an endo-reversible Carnot heat pump.
International Journal of Ambient Energy, 14(1), 25–28, 1993.
Wu, C., Maximum obtainable specific cooling load of a Carnot refrigerator.
Energy Conversion and Management, 36(1), 7–10, 1995.
Chen, L. and Wu, C., Performance of an endo-reversible Carnot refrigerator.
Chen, L. and Wu, C., The influence of heat transfer law on the endo-reversible
Carnot refrigerator. Journal of the Institute of Energy, 69(480), 96–100, 1996.
Wu, C., General performance characteristics of a finite-speed Carnot refrigerator.
Applied Thermal Engineering, 16(4), 299–304, 1996.
Chen, L. and Wu, C., Optimal performance of an endo-reversible Carnot heat
pump. Energy Conversion and Management, 38(14), 1439–1444, 1997.
Chen, L. and Wu, C., Effect of heat transfer law on the performance of a
generalized Carnot heat pump. Journal of the Institute of Energy, 72(2),
64–68, 1999.
Chen, L. and Wu, C., Effect of heat transfer law on the performance of generalized
irreversible Carnot refrigerator. Journal of Engineering Thermophysics, 20(2),
10–13, 1999.
7.14.2 Brayton Cycle

Wu, C., Work and power optimization of a finite-time Brayton cycle. International
Journal of Ambient Energy, 11(3), 129–136, 1990.
Wu, C., Power optimization of an endo-reversible Brayton gas heat engine. Energy
Conversion and Management, 31(6), 561–565, 1991.
Wu, C. and Kiang, R.L., Power performance of a non-isentropic Brayton cycle.
ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 113, 501–504,
1991.
Wu, C., Performance of a regenerative Brayton heat engine. Energy: The
Chen, L., Sun, F., and Wu, C., Performance analysis for a real closed regenerated
Brayton cycle via methods of finite-time thermodynamics. International
Journal of Ambient Energy, 20(2), 95–104, 1999.
Chen, L., Sun, F., and Wu, C., Performance analysis of a closed regenerated
Brayton heat pump with internal irreversibility. International Journal of
Energy Research, 23, 1039–1050, 1999.

7.14.3 Rankine Cycle
Wu, C., Power optimization of a finite-time Rankine heat engine. International
Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 10(2), 134–138, 1989.
Wu, C., Intelligent computer aided design on optimization of specific power of
finite-time Rankine cycle using CyclePad. Journal of Computer Application in
Engineering Education, 6(1), 9–13, 1998.
Other finite-time thermodynamic cycle literature including Atkinson,
combined and cascaded, Diesel, dual, Ericsson, Otto, Rallis, and Stirling
cycles are provided in the following:
7.14.4 Atkinson Cycle

Chen, L., Sun, F., and Wu, C., Efficiency of an Atkinson engine at maximum
power density. Energy Conversion and Management, 39(3/4), 337–342, 1998.
7.14.5 Combined and Cascaded Cycle

Wu, C., Power performance of a cascade Endo-reversible cycle. Energy Conversion
and Management, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 261–266, 1990.
Wu, C., Karpouzian, G., and Kiang, R.L., The optimal power performance of
an endo-reversible Combined cycle. Journal of the Institute of Energy, vol.
65(462), pp. 41–45, 1992.
Chen, J. and Wu, C., Maximum specific power output of a two-stage endo-
reversible Combined cycle. Energy: The International Journal, 20(4), 305–309,
1995.
Wu, C., Maximum obtainable power of a Carnot combined power plant. Heat
Recovery Systems and CHP, 15(4), 351–355, 1995.
Wu, C., Performance of a cascade endo-reversible heat pump system. The Institute
of Energy Journal, 68(476), 137–141, 1995.
Wu, C., Finite-time thermodynamic analysis of a two-stage combined heat pump
system. International Journal of Ambient Energy, 16(4), 205–208, 1995.
Chen, J. and Wu, C., General performance characteristics of a N-stage endo-
reversible combined power cycle system at maximum specific power output.
Chen, L., Sun, F., and Wu, C., The equivalent cycles of an n-stage irreversible
combined refrigeration system. International Journal of Ambient Energy,
18(4), 197–204, 1997.
Wu, C., Intelligent computer aided analysis of a Rankine/Rankine combined cycle.
International Journal of Energy, Environment and Economics, 7(2), 239–244,
1998.
Chen, L., Sun, F., and Wu, C., A generalized model of a combined refrigeration
cycle and its performance. International Journal of Thermal Sciences (Revue
Generale de Thermique), 38(8), 712–718, 1999.

Chen, J. and Wu, C., Thermoeconomic analysis on the performance characteristics
of a multi-stage irreversible combined heat pump system. ASME Journal of
Energy Resources Technology, 122(4), 212–216, 2000.
7.14.6 Diesel Cycle

Wu, C. and Blank, D.A., The effect of combustion on a power optimized endo-
reversible Diesel cycle. Energy Conversion and Management, 34(6), 493–498,
1993.
Chen, L. and Wu, C., Heat transfer effect on the net work and/or power versus
efficiency characteristics for the air standard Diesel cycles. Energy: The
7.14.7 Dual Cycle

Wu, C. and Blank, D.A., The effect of combustion on a power optimized endo-
reversible Dual cycle. International Journal of Power and Energy Systems,
14(3), 98–103, 1994.
Chen, L., Sun, F., and Wu, C., Finite thermodynamics performance of a Dual
cycle. International Journal of Energy Research, 23(9), 765–772, 1999.
7.14.8 Ericsson Cycle

Blank, D.A. and Wu, C., Performance potential of a terrestrial solar-radiant
Ericsson power cycle from finite-time thermodynamics. International Power
and Energy Systems, 15(2), 78–84, 1995.
Blank, D.A. and Wu, C., Power limit of an endo-reversible Ericsson cycle with
regeneration. Energy Conversion and Management, 37(1), 59–66, 1996.
Chen, L., Sun, F., and Wu, C., Cooling and heating rate limits of a reversed
reciprocating Ericsson cycle at steady state. Proceedings of the Institute of
Mechanical Engineers, Part A, Journal of Power and Energy, 214, 75–85, 2000.
7.14.9 Otto Cycle

Wu, C. and Blank, D.A., The effect of combustion on a work optimized endo-
reversible Otto cycle. Journal of the Institute of Energy, 65(463), 86–89, 1992.
Chen, L., Sun, F., and Wu, C., Heat transfer effects on the net work output and
efficiency characteristic for an air-standard Otto cycles. Energy Conversion
and Management, 39(7), 643–648, 1998.
7.14.10 Rallis Cycle

Wu, C., Analysis of an endo-reversible Rallis cooler. Energy Conversion and
Management, 35(1), 79–85, 1994.

7.14.11 Stirling Cycle
Wu, C., Analysis of an endo-reversible Stirling cooler. Energy Conversion and
Management, 34(12), 1249–1253, 1993.
Blank, D.A. and Wu, C., Power optimization of an endo-reversible Stirling cycle
with regeneration. Energy: The International Journal, 19(1), 125–133, 1994.
Blank, D.A. and Wu, C., Power optimization of an extra-terrestrial, solar radiant
Stirling heat engine. Energy: The International Journal, 20(6), 523–530, 1995.
Chen, L., Wu, C., and Sun, F., Optimum performance of irreversible Stirling
engine with imperfect regeneration. Energy Conversion and Management,
39(8), 727–732, 1998.
Chen, L., Wu, C., and Sun, F., Optimal performance of an irreversible Stirling
cryocooler. International Journal of Ambient Energy, 20(1), 39–44, 1999.
Chen, L., Wu, C., and Sun, F., Performance characteristic of an endo-reversible
Stirling refrigerator. International Journal of Power and Energy Systems,
19(1), 79–82, 1999.

Appendix
NOMENCLATURE
c Specific heat, kJ/[kg(K)]

cp Specific heat at constant pressure process, kJ/[kg(K)]
cv Specific heat at constant volume process, kJ/[kg(K)]
COP Coefficient of performance
COPR Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator
COPHP Coefficient of performance of a heat pump
e Specific energy, kJ/kg
E Energy, kJ
ek Specific kinetic energy, kJ/kg
Ek Kinetic energy, kJ
ep Specific potential energy, kJ/kg
Ep Potential energy, kJ
EUF Energy utility factor
g Gravitational acceleration, m/s2
h Specific enthalpy, kJ/kg
H Enthalpy, kJ
hf Specific enthalpy of saturated liquid, kJ/kg
hg Specific enthalpy of saturated vapor, kJ/kg
hfg Difference of specific enthalpy of saturated vapor and
specific enthalpy of saturated liquid, kJ/kg
k Specific heat ratio
L Length, m
m Mass, kg
mdot Mass flow rate, kg/s
MEP Mean effective pressure, kPa
n Polytropic process exponent
p Pressure, kPa

q Specific heat transfer, kJ/kg
Q Heat transfer, kJ
QH Heat transfer with high-temperature thermal reservoir, kJ
QL Heat transfer with low-temperature thermal reservoir, kJ
Qdot Heat transfer rate, kW
r Compression ratio
rc Cut-off ratio
rp Pressure ratio
R Gas constant, kJ/[kg(K)]
Ru Universal gas constant, kJ/[kmol(K)]
s Specific entropy, kJ/[kg(K)]
S Entropy, kJ/K
sgen Specific entropy generation, kJ/[kg(K)]
Sgen Entropy generation, kJ/K
t Time, s
T Temperature, K
TH Temperature of high-temperature thermal reservoir, K
TL Temperature of low-temperature thermal reservoir, K
To Temperature of surroundings, K
u Specific internal energy, kJ/kg
U Internal energy, kJ
v Specific volume, m3/kg
V Volume, m3
V Velocity, m/s
Vdot Rate of volumetric flow, m3/s
w Specific work, kJ/kg
W Work, kJ
Wdot Power, kW
Win Work input, kJ
Wirr Irreversible work, kJ
Wout Work output, kJ
Wrev Reversible work, kJ
x Quality
z Elevation, m
Greek letters
Coefficient of performance
R Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator
HP Coefficient of performance of a heat pump
Finite change in a quantity
d Differential change of a path function
Heat engine efficiency

Appendix
Car Carnot heat engine efficiency

l co-generation ratio
Density, kg/m3
Subscripts
abs Absolute
act Actual
atm Atmospheric
e Exit section
f Saturated liquid
fg Difference between saturated vapor and saturated liquid
g Saturated vapor
gen Generation
H High temperature
i Inlet section
int Internally
irrev Irreversible
L Low temperature
rev Reversible
s Isentropic
surr Surroundings
sys System
1 Initial state or inlet state
2 Final state or exit state

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Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks

1. Fluid Catalytic Cracking with Zeolite Catalysts. Paul B. Venuto and E.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

and to my children, Anna, Joy, Sheree, and Patricia

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Development in classical thermodynamics is, logically and traditionally,

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Chapter 1 Thermodynamic Concepts

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Chapter 4 Gas Open-System Cycles

Chapter 5 Combined Cycle and Cogeneration

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Chapter 7 Finite-Time Thermodynamics

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Research in cognitive science potentially offers tremendous benefits in

1.2 INTELLIGENT COMPUTER-AIDED SOFTWARE

An intelligent computer software called CyclePad is used throughout

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

1.2.1 Build Mode

1.2.2 Analysis Mode

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1.2.4 Installation Into Your Own PC

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Thermodynamics is a science in which the storage, transformation, and

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

1.4 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLIC SYSTEMS

An energy conversion cyclic system that converts heat to work, and

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

1.4.1 Heat Engine

Figure 1.1 Heat engine.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 1.2 Refrigerator.

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

1.4.3 Heat Pumps

Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 1.3 Heat pump.