12.

MODAL AUXILIARIES

Modal auxiliaries, simply referred to as modal verbs or modals

do not stand alone (except in brief responses to questions) but
in connection with bare infinitives of lexical V, which they
modify. They are used to show the speaker´s attitude toward the
action or state indicated by the infinitive. They show that the
action indicated by the infinitive is considered as possible,
impossible, probable, improbable, obligatory, necessary,
advisable, doubtful or uncertain, etc.
All the modals, except SHALL, have two main functions, which we
may call primary and secondary.
In their PRIMARY function (deontic modality),they express some
degree of freedom, or lack of freedom, to act - from complete
liberty to inescapable prohibition; and this freedom, or lack
of it, can apply to the speaker, or to the person(s) being
addressed, or to some person(s) to whom the speaker is
referring.
In their SECONDARY function (epistemic modality), all except
SHALL act as one of the devices English has for allowing the
speaker to give a personal evaluation of the truth of the
statement the speaker is making. We shall see the difference
between these two functions as we examine each of the modals in
turn.
Modal V are called defective because they are not inflected,
they have no -s forms, -ing forms, -ed participles. They can´t
form imperative mood and they don´t have infinitive forms. If
we need an infinitive, we have to use periphrastic forms (to be
able to, to be allowed to, to have to). Modals used to have
past tenses and some of them in a sense still do. They also
have the following peculiarities:
a/ All of them, with the exception of ought and sometimes dare
and need, are followed by the infinitive without to (bare
infin.)
b/ All of them (except dare and need) form the negative and the
interrogative form without the auxiliary do.
c/ They have two negative forms - the full and the contracted
ones.
Modal Uncontracted Contracted
negative negative
CAN cannot can´t
COULD could not couldn´t
MAY may not mayn´t (rare)
MIGHT might not mightn´t
SHALL shall not shan´t (BrE)
SHOULD should not shouldn´t
WILL will not won´t
WOULD would not wouldn´t
MUST must not mustn´t
OUGHT TO ought not to oughtn´t to
The marginal modal auxiliaries are used to, dare and need.
CAN / COULD
I can - môžem, viem(dokážem), smiem
The modal auxiliary CAN has only 2 forms:
1. the present tense CAN
2. the past tense COULD
We use CAN to talk about ability and capability: our skills,
our knowledge, things we know how to do (well). On the other
hand, CANNOT / CAN´T is used to express inability and
incapability. In the past tense we use COULD only when we talk
about a skill, e.g. reading, writing, walking. COULD indicates
that one had the ability to do something in the past but it
doesn´t show whether it was done or not.
He could swim when he was ten months old.
To indicate the achievement of something in the past the
periphrastic form TO BE ABLE TO is used.
Jane could pass the exam. (I´m sure she could, but did
she?)
Jana mohla urobiť skúšku. Som si istá, že mohla,ale
urobila?)
Jane was able to pass the exam. (Jana dokázala /podarilo
sa jej urobiť skúšku.)
COULD mustn´t be used in the meaning of MANAGE.
In expressing the future, infinitive or other structures, the
periphrastic form TO BE ABLE TO is used.
He will be able to write it.
He hopes to be able to write it.
The verb CAN expresses:
1. ABILITY = be able to, be capable of, know how to
1.1. Physical ability
She can lift the box.
The little girl could not carry the heavy bag.
1.2. Mental ability
He can speak Spanish.
He couldn´t solve the problem.
1.3. Ability depending on circumstances
He is so tall that he can touch the ceiling.

2. PERMISSION = to be allowed to, be permitted to

(can is less formal than may)
2.1. Asking permission: Can I leave you for a moment?
2.2. Giving permission or denying permission:
Sure, you can leave now. Sorry, you can´t leave now.
With this meaning, COULD may also be used to talk about the
present or future, and it is considered more polite than CAN:
Could I leave earlier today?
The difference between CAN and MAY expressing permission is as
follows:
- with CAN, giving or denying permission is determined by the
circumstances,
- in the case of MAY, giving or denying permission depends on
the will of the person addressed.
In spoken English, however, CAN and MAY are often used
interchangeably.

3. With verbs of PERCEPTION, the use of CAN gives an

appropriate equivalent to the progressive continuous tense. In
this case, the verb CAN is not translated into Slovak.
Listen! I think I can hear the sea.
Can you see well?
I can smell something burning.
4. POSSIBILITY = to be possible
We can discuss it later.
The sea can be quite warm in September.
You can get the tickets tomorrow.
In questions and negatives, the verb CAN acquires the
meaning of doubt or uncertainty:
Can that be measles? No, that can´t be measles.
It can´t be true.
If COULD is used, it indicates greater doubt or less certainty
than the use of CAN.
Could that be measles?
Slovak learners have to remember that the indicative CAN´T
rejects the action categorically (= určite nie) and the
structures with COULD express uncertainty.

5. Reference to the PAST is indicated by a change of the

following infinitive into the perfect form:
CAN´T + perfect infinitive (HAVE + -ED PARTICIPLE)
COULD + perfect infinitive
COULD NOT + perfect infinitive
He can´t have said that. (Surely he didn´t say that.)
You could have told me about it.
He could not have done such a thing.
(Takú vec nemohol urobiť. Pochybujem, že to urobil.)
Could he have meant it?
(Mohol to myslieť vážne? Pochybujem, že to myslel vážne.)
TO BE ABLE TO is never used in this connection.

6. The structure CAN/CAN´T + passive infinitive is translated

into Slovak with the modal verbs možno or dať sa.
It can/can´t be said. Možno/nemožno to povedať.

MAY / MIGHT
In the primary function I may = môžem, smiem
In the secondary function I may = možno, asi, snáď
The modal is used to express:
1. PERMISSION = to be allowed to
She may come at any time she wishes.
You may borrow my car if you like.
In the indirect speech may becomes might:
 I told him he might use my dictionary.
In questions MAY is more formal than CAN:
May I ask you a question? (Môžem / Smiem ...)
In more polite requests:
Might I trouble you for the sugar?
Mohol by som vás poprosiť o cukor?
Instead of MAY NOT or rare MAYN´t, the stronger MUSTN´T is
often used in the negative to express prohibition.
You must not smoke here.
When it is necessary to talk about permission in any other
tense except the present, a periphrastic form TO BE ALLOWED TO
must be used. It can be understood as the passive form of the
verb allow = dovoliť.
My parents didn´t allow me to stay out late.
I wasn´t allowed to stay out late. (Nesmel som ...)

2. POSSIBILITY (usually factual) = to be possible

You may hear the song everywhere. It´s possible to hear ..

MAY followed by present infinitive is used to say what we

assume, expect or guess about present or future hapennings.
Then we translate it into Slovak by means of the words možno,
snáĎ, azda, hádam, asi.
We´d better fill the tank up. We may not get to another
petrol station for the next few hours.
O.K. You may be right.

MAY/MIGHT followed by perfect infinitive is used to say what we

assume, expect or guess about past happenings.
She may have missed the bus.
They may have lost their way.

3. MIGHT is used to express REPROACH:

You really might help me.
You might be a little more attentive.
When MIGHT is followed by perfect infinitive, it indicates that
the action considered advisable was not carried out in the
past.
You really might have done it long ago.
You might have written the letter without my reminding.

4. There is a rare use of MAY as a subjunctive auxiliary, e.g.

to express wish, normally in positive sentences:
May the best man win!
May he never set foot in this house again!

MUST
In its primary function: I must = musím, mám (povinnosť)
(= to have to, to be obliged to, to be compelled to)
In its secondary function: It must be = Určite (iste) to je
It must have been = Určite to bolo
1. MUST indicates INESCAPABLE OBLIGATION, DUTY or NECESSITY. It
is a defective V having only one form. If we wish to talk about
necessity or obligation in any other tense, we must use HAVE
TO. Thus the past equivalent of MUST is HAD TO, though MUST can
remain in past reported speech. The future form WILL HAVE TO.
There are two ways of negating MUST + infinitive. We can
express an absence of obligation, by means of NEED NOT or DON´T
HAVE TO:
You must read it carefully.
You needn´t read it today.= You don´t have to read it
today.
(you are not required to read it.)
We can negate what follows MUST, and say:
You must not read it.
(You are required not to read it.)
Using MUSTN´T is a strong way of forbidding to do something. It
expresses something that is generally forbidden or inadvisable.
You mustn´t park here. Can´t you see the sign?
2. MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO
As far as meaning is concerned, these three forms are
interchangeable. However, there are differences between them.
2.1. MUST in 1st person sg. and pl. expresses the obligation
which comes from the speaker:
I really must work harder.
In other pesons MUST is used for stronger obligation or if st.
is urgent:
You must apologize to him at once.
MUST is used in public notices or documents expressing
commands:
Drivers must stop. Passengers must fasten their seat
belts.
MUST is used in pressing invitations and emphatic advice:
You must go and see them more often.
MUST in questions in the meaning of a reproach:
Must you always bang the door?
2.2. HAVE TO is not included as a modal, since it can be used
as a full V, with the complete range of inflections and tenses.
HAVE TO or informally HAVE GOT TO suggests that the obligation
is prescribed by some outside authority, regulation, or by
unavoidable circumstances.
We have to present clean bill before the end of the month.
Though in informal English HAVE GOT TO can replace HAVE TO,
they are not interchangeable when we refer to habitual actions.
When there is the idea of repetition, we use ordinary verb
forms, with do in questions and negatives. Adverbs of frequency
help us to distinguish between habitual and non-habitual
obligation.
I often have to speak English in my job.
When we are talking about one thing that we are obliged to do,
it is more usual to use GOT-forms.
I haven´t got to work tomorrow.
In AmE, HAVE TO can be used for all meanings. This is also
becoming common in BrE because of American influence.
3. MUST = DEDUCTION - secondary function
MUST + present infinitive can be used to say that we are sure
about something. We refer to the present.
She must be tired.
MUST + perfect infinitive is used for deduction about the past.
She must have been tired.
MUST is only used in this way in affirmative sentences.
In negatives, we use CAN´T.
She can´t be tired. She can´t have been tired.

SHALL
1. SHALL = VOLITION is used mostly as the 1 st person future
auxiliary:
I shall ring you up as soon as I arrive.
I will or contracted form I´ll can be used instead of formal
SHALL in most cases.
We shall let you know our decision.
2. 1. SHALL in questions = OBLIGATION (Mám(e) niečo urobiť?)
SHALL moves from a volitional meaning towards an obligational
meaning.
Shall I buy the tickets?
Shall we deliver the goods to your home address?
2.2. SHALL in questions = SUGGESTIONS
What shall we do? Shall we go to the cinema?
Here SHALL can´t be replaced by WILL.
3. SHALL in 2nd and 3rd person is an infrequent auxiliary with
restricted use.
SHALL = INSISTENCE (I insist that you do st.), THREAT
You shall do as I say.
She shall suffer for this!
It shan´t happen again.
4. In legal documents SHALL is used in 2 nd and 3rd person - in
proclamations, contracts, treaties ...
In case of dispute the matter shall be submitted to
arbitration.

SHOULD / OUGHT TO
1. SHOULD can be used as a past form of SHALL in reported
speech after a past reporting V.
I shall stay there longer.
I said I should stay there longer.
2. SHOULD is used in OFFERS, SUGGESTIONS and REQUESTS
Should I help you with the translation?
She should apply for the job.
3. SHOULD = ESCAPABLE OBLIGATION, DUTY
Students should study harder.
You should give us more information.
4. SHOULD = PROBABILITY
 They should come in time. The journey shouldn´t be very
long
5. SHOULD is used after if and in case to suggest a less strong
POSSIBILITY.
If you should see Eve, tell her to come.
SHOULD and OUGHT TO have very similar meaning. They are used to
express obligation and duty, to give advice. There is, however,
a very slight difference.
When we say what an outside authority recommends, we use
SHOULD.
This medicine should be kept in a cool place.
(from a medicine bottle label)
When we use SHOULD, we give our own subjective opinion, usually
connected with If I were you.
I should stay at home today, if I were you.
OUGHT TO has a rather more objective force, and is used when we
are talking about laws, duties and regulations or when we want
to make our opinion sound as strong as a duty or law.
6. When reference is made to the past, SHOULD and OUGHT TO are
followed by a perfect infinitive.
If the sentence is affirmative, it expresses that the action
wasn´t carried out.
He should have kept his promise, but he didn´t.
They ought to have signed the contract.
If the sentence is negative, it expresses that the action was
carried out.
You shouldn´t have forgotten it, but you did.
They oughtn´t to have launched the production.
PROBABILITY in the past:
They ought to have received our letter by now.
(I expect they have.)

WILL
1. WILL = PREDICTION
1.1. Predictions about the future:
You will see beautiful mountains.
1.2. A kind of prediction about the present. This is similar to
the use of MUST for logical DEDUCTION:
The phone is ringing. That will be my brother.
1.3. The habitual predictive meaning often occurs in
conditional sentences:
If the prices of cars come down,more people will buy them.
It occurs in descriptions of personal habits or characteristic
behaviour:
He will talk for hours. She will sing all day.
1.4. Predictions can be used as a way of giving orders.
You will start work at 6 o´clock.
2. WILL = WILLINGNESS and INTENTION
2.1. to do st.
Will you help me do the washing up? I will.
We will arrange everything necessary.
2.2. I will can also be used to talk about firm intentions: to
make promises or threats:
I will stop smoking. I´ll break your neck!
2.3. to make requests or to give orders:
Will you open the window, please?
2.4. WON´T is used to refer to things which refuse to do what
we want.
The door won´t open. The car won´t start.
3. WILL + perfect infinitive is used to express logical
deduction about past (certain) like MUST + perfect Infinitive:
That will have been Jane. She said she´d be back at 8.
That won´t have been Jane.
WOULD
1.1. WOULD can be used as a past form of WILL, especially in
reported speech.
I´ll buy it tomorrow.
He said he would buy it the next day.
1.2. WOULD = to talk about past habits and characteristic
behaviour:
She would talk for hours.
That´s exactly like him. He would lose the key.
When we were children we would / used to go skating.
2.1. WOULD doesn´always have a past meaning. CONDITIONAL use of
WOULD:
She would help you if you asked her.
2.2. More polite REQUESTS than with WILL:
Would you open the window?
2.3. WOULD replaces WILL (to express willingness) after I wish
and If only ...
I wish you would talk more quietly.

NEED = semi-modal V
is used as an ordinary V and as a modal V.
1. Modal V is used in negatives and in Yes/No questions,
negative answer is often expected.
You needn´t go out.
Need you open the window? (surely not/I hope not)
Yes, I must. I needn´t.
Affirmative modal form is possible after:
a/ negative adverbs: hardly, seldom, scarcely, rarely to make
negative statements:
She need hardly take care of everything.
We need never repeat it.
b/ a negative main clause or clause expressing doubt:
I don´t think you need go there.
I wonder if she need buy it.
This is used in formal style, in informal usage we would
probably use the ordinary verb form:
I don´t think you need to go there.
I wonder if she needs to buy it.
2. NEEDN´T + PERFECT INFINITIVE
If you say that somebody needn´t have done something, it means
that he did it but it was unnecessary, he wasted his time.
You needn´t have brought that report. I´ve already got
one.
She needn´t have gone to school.
Compare!
You didn´t need to bring that report.
It was Sunday, she didn´t need to go to school.

DARE = semi-modal V
1. occurs in questions and negatives:
Dare you do it? I daren´t phone him.
Questions and negatives are more commonly formed with
do/does/did, thus DARE is like a full V but like an auxiliary
in taking a bare infinitive.
Do you dare ask him? I don´t dare ask him.
In full V TO follows DARE
Do you dare to ask him? I don´t dare to ask him.
2. In practice, DARE is not a very common V in modern E. In an
informal style, we use other expressions instead, like NOT TO
BE AFRAID or NOT TO HAVE THE COURAGE TO.
3. In a few cases, DARE is still common in an informal style:
a/ In BrE the negative DAREN´T is frequent:
She daren´t tell him to help her.
b/ The expressions You dare! and Don´t you dare! are used to
discourage people from doing things they shouldn´t.
Can I drive your car? You dare!
c/ I DARE SAY means PROBABLY
d/ Full V - I dare you to + inf. is used by children to
challenge each other to do frightening things.
I dare say you are hungry.
I dare you to ride your bike through the gate with no
hands.

USED TO = PAST HABIT

The modal V USED TO occurs only in the simple past form - in
the affirmative, in the negative as USED NOT or USEDN´T and in
questions: Used Harry to smoke cigarettes?
These forms are relatively rare.
However the operator DID is probably more common both in
negative and in questions:
Did Harry use to smoke cigarettes?
But there is no such verb as USE /ju:s/ referring to present
time. If we want to refer to present habit, we must use simple
present tense.
WOULD can be used in the place of USED TO. But WOULD is never
used at the beginning of a story and can never be used with
state V. He used to play cards. He would play cards.

Study: Carter, R – McCarthy, M. Cambridge Grammar of English.

2006, Modality pp.638-675, Speech acts pp.680-703