4.

Bipolar Junction Transistors

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 1

 4.1 Basic Operation of the npn Bipolar Junction Transistor

npn BJT consists of thin p-type layer between

two n-type layers;
Layers: emitter, base, collector;
Two interacting pn junctions: emitter-base and
base-collector;
Emitter region is doped very heavily, compared
with the base region

Figure 4.1 The npn BJT.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 2

 Basic Operation in the Active region

Figure 4.2 An npn transistor with variable biasing sources

(common-emitter configuration).

Shokley equation for the emitter current

  vBE  
iE = I ES exp  − 1 (4.1) Figure 4.3 Current flow for an npn BJT in the active region.
  VT   Most of the current is due to electrons moving from the emitter
through the base to the collector. Base current consists of holes
IES = 10-12 .. 10-17A – saturation current crossing from the base into the emitter and of holes that
VT = 26mV – thermal voltage recombine with electrons in the base.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 3

 First - Order Common - Emitter Characteristics

Figure 4.4 Common-emitter characteristics of a typical npn BJT.

Amplification by the BJT Factors Affecting the Current Gain

In Figure 4.4: If iB = 30µA, iC = 3mA – 100 times • Doping of the emitter area compared with the
more base area
i
β= C (4.2) • Base region should be thin;
iB
• Geometry of the device
β - common-emitter current gain.
Typically β = 10 .. 1000
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 4
 Device Equations
iE = iC + iB (4.3) iB = (1 − α )iE (4.8)

i
α= C (4.4)
iE  v  
iB = (1 − α )I ES exp BE  − 1 (4.9)
α - common-base current gain.   VT  
Typically α = 0.9 .. 0.999
 v   iC = β iB (4.11)
iC = αI ES exp BE  − 1 (4.5)
  VT  
i α
I s = αI ES (4.6) β= C= (4.10)
iB 1 − α
Is – scale current
β
 vBE  α=
iC ≅ I s exp  (4.7) 1+ β
 VT 

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 5

 Solution:
Example 4.1 Using Device Curves to Determine For example:
α and β at vCE=4 V and iB=30 µA; iC=3 mA;

Determine the values of α and β for the transistor i 3 mA

β= C= = 100
with the characteristics shown in Figure 4.4. iB 30 µA
β
α= = 0.99
β +1

Figure 4.4 Common-emitter characteristics of a typical npn BJT.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 6

 Secondary Effects

Base - Width Modulation

Base-width modulation: the dependence of the

base width from vCE.
Base-width modulation affects iB and iC.
VA – Early voltage

Collector Breakdown
Avalanche breakdown in the depletion region
of the collector-base junction
Punch-through

Leakage Current
ICO – reverse leakage current. Flows from
collector to the base.
Figure 4.5 Common-emitter characteristics displaying
exaggerated secondary effects.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 7

 4.2 Load - Line Analysis of a Common - Emitter Amplifier
Analysis of the Input Current
VBB + vin ( t ) = RBiB ( t ) + vBE ( t ) (4.13)

Analysis of the Output Circuit

VCC = RC iC + vCE (4.14)
Figure 4.10 Common-emitter amplifier.

Figure 4.11 Load-line analysis of the amplifier of Figure 4.10.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 8

 Example 4.2 Graphical Determination of Q-point and Peak Signal Swings
Suppose that the current of Figure 4.10 has VCC=10 V, VBB=1.6 V, RB=40 kΩ and RC=2 kΩ. The
input signal is a 0.4 V peak, 1 kHz sinusoid given by vin(t)=0.4sin(2000πt). The common-emitter
characteristics for the transistor are shown in Figure 4.12a and b. Find the maximum, minimum and Q-
point values for vCE.
Solution

Figure 4.12 Load-line analysis for Example 4.2.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 9

 Figure 4.13 Voltage waveforms for the amplifier of Figure 4.10. See Example 4.2.

Gain in Example 4.2:

Amplitude at the input: 0.4V
Amplitude at the output
7 – 5 = 2V
2
Av = =5
0.4

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 10

 Distortion

Figure 4.14 Output of the amplifier of Example 4.2 for

vin (t) = 1.2 sin(2000πt) showing gross distortion.

Cutoff: vBE < 0.6V and iB ≈ 0

Saturation region: iB is large and iC is not Figure 4.15 Amplification occurs in the active region. Clipping
proportional to it. occurs when the instantaneous operating point enters
saturation or cutoff. In saturation, vCE < 0.2 V.
When transistor enters in cutoff or in saturation,
clipping of the output signal occurs.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 11

 4.3 The pnp Bipolar Junction Transistor

pnp transistor: thin n type semiconductor layer All relationships between the currents and
between two p type semiconductor layers voltages in a pnp BJT are the same as in npn
Basic charge carriers: holes BJT. There are two basic differences:
• The currents flow in opposite directions;
• The voltages have opposite polarities.
iC = α iE (4.15)
iB = (1 − α )iE (4.16)
iC = β iB (4.17)
iE = iC + iB (4.18)
 −v  
iE = I ES exp BE  − 1 (4.19)
  VT  

Figure 4.16 The pnp BJT.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 12

 Figure 4.17 Common-emitter characteristics for a pnp BJT. Pay attention that the voltages are negative.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 13

 4.4 Large - Signal DC Circuit Models

Figure 4.20 Regions of operation on the characteristics of an npn BJT.

Active region: IB > 0; VCE > 0.2V

Saturation region: IB > 0; βIB > IC > 0
Cutoff region: VBE < 0.5V; VBC < 0.5V;
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 14
 Active - Region Model

Figure 4.19a BJT large-signal models. (Note: Values shown are appropriate for
typical small-signal silicon devices at a temperature of 300K.)

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 15

 Saturation - Region Model

Figure 4.19b BJT large-signal models. (Note: Values shown are appropriate for typical small-signal
silicon devices at a temperature of 300K.)

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 16

 Cutoff - Region Model

Figure 4.19c BJT large-signal models. (Note: Values shown are appropriate for typical
small-signal silicon devices at a temperature of 300K.)

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 17

 Example 4.3 Determination of BJT Operation Region
A given transistor has β =100. Determine the region of operation if
(a) IB = 50µA and IC = 3mA; (b) IB = 50µA and VCE = 5V;
(c) VBE = -2V and VCE = -1V.

Solution:
(a) IB = 50µA > 0 – active or saturation region;
βIB = 100×50×10-6 = 5mA > IC – saturation region.
(b) IB = 50µA > 0 – active or saturation region;
VCE = 5V > 0.2V – active region.
(c) VBE = -2V < 0.5V – most probably cutoff;
VCE = -1V < 0.5V – this confirms cutoff region.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 18

 4.5 Large - Signal DC Analysis of BJT Circuits

Step 1: Assume an operation region for the BJT and replace it by the
corresponding large signal equivalent circuit.
Step 2: Solve the circuit to find IC, IB, and VCE.
Step 3: Check to see if the values found in Step 2 are consistent with
the assumed operating state. If so the solution is complete;
otherwise return to Step 1.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 19

 Solution:
Example 4.4 The Fixed - Base Bias Circuit
First assumption: Cutoff. The equivalent circuit is
The DC bias circuit shown in Figure 4.21a has in Figure 4.21(b).
RB=200 kΩ, RC=1 kΩ and VCC=15 V. The IB = 0 – thus the voltage drop across RB is zero.
transistor has β = 100. Solve for IC and VCE. Thus VBE = VCC = 15V > 0.5V.
The assumption is not valid.

Figure 4.21 Bias circuit of Examples 4.4 and 4.5.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 20

 Second assumption: Saturation. The equivalent Third assumption: Active region. The equivalent
circuit is in Figure 4.21c. circuit is in Figure 4.21d.
V − 0.2 15 − 0.2 VCC − 0.7 15 − 0.7
I C = CC = = 14.8mA IB = = = 71.5 µA
RC 1×10 3 RB 200 × 103
I C = β I B = 7.15mA
VCC − 0.7 15 − 0.7
IB = = = 71.5 µA
RB 200 × 10 3 VCE = VCC − RC I C = 15 − 7.15 × 10 −3 × 1× 10 3 = 7.85V

βIB = 100×71.5×10-6 = 7.15mA < IC IB > 0; VCE > 0.2V. The conditions are met.
The assumption is not valid.

Figure 4.21 Bias circuit of Examples 4.4 and 4.5.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 21

 Example 4.5 The Fixed - Base Bias Circuit with
Higher Beta One of the requirements for the active region
VCE>0.2 V is not met.
Repeat example 4.4 with β=300.
Next we assume that the transistor is in
Solution: First, we assume that the circuit saturation.
V − 0.2
operating in the active region. I C = CC = 14.8 mA
RC
V − 0.7 V − 0.7
I B = CC = 71.5 µA I B = CC = 71.5 µA
RB RB
I C = β I B = 21.45 mA
βI B = 300 × 71.5 ×10 −6 = 21.45mA > 14.8mA
VCE = VCC − RC I C = −6.45V < 0.2V

Figure 4.21 Bias circuit of Examples 4.4 and 4.5.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 22

 Analysis for the Four - Resistor Bias Circuit

1
RB = = R1 || R2 (4.21)
1 / R1 + 1 / R2

R2
VB = VCC (4.22)
R1 + R2

VB = RB I B + VBE + RE I E (4.23)

I E = (β + 1)I B

VB − VBE
IB = (4.24)
RB + (β + 1)RE

VCE = VCC − RC I C − RE I E (4.25)

Figure 4.28 Four-resistor bias circuit.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 23

 Discrete Bias - Circuit Design 5. Since IE = (β+1)IB ≈ IC
The principal goal of bias circuit design is to RE = VE I E ≈ VE I C
achieve nearly identical operating point for the
BJTs, even though the BJT parameters may vary 6. VB = VE + VBE = VE + 0.7
significantly from unit to unit.
7. R2 = VB I 2
In the design usually are given the supply voltage
VCC, the collector current IC in the quiescent point
R1 = (VCC − VB ) (I B + I 2 )
and often VCE in the quiescent point. RC = (VCC − VC ) I C
The design steps are:
1. Choice of VCE, if it is not specified. A good
choice is
V I2+IB R1 RC IC
VCE = CC
3
VC + +
2. Determining of the voltage drop VE across RE IB
VB VCE VCC
and the voltage VCC – VC, which is across RC. A +
-
good choice is VBE - - V
E
V − VCE
VE = VCC − VC = CC I2 R2 RE
2 IE

3. I B = IC β
Four-resistor bias circuit.
4. Choice of the current I2 to be I2 = (10..20)IB.
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 24
 How the circuit stabilize the quiescent point?
Assume that the emitter current IC is increased, due to
some reason. Then
• Emitter current IE is increased also, since IE ≈ IC.
• VE increases since VE = IERE R1 RC
I2+IB IC
• I2 is at least 10 times more than IB. It is the basic part
of the current through R1. Thus the both currents are VC + +
IB
stable and depend very weak on the variation of the VB VCE VCC
currents in the BJT. +
- - V -
• The stable currents through R1 and R2 define a stable VBE E
voltage VB. I2 R2 RE IE
• VBE = VB - VE and the increasing of VE decreases VBE.
• Smaller VBE means smaller base current IB (see the
input characteristic in Figure 4.4). Four-resistor bias circuit.
• IC = βIB and the smaller base current returns the
collector current to its initial value.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 25

 Problem D4.39. Four-resistor bias circuit
design. ( )
RE = VE I E = 7.5 5 × 10 −3 = 1500Ω
Suppose that VCC = 20V, RC = 1kΩ, and a R2 = VB I 2 = 8.2 (1× 10 ) = 8.2kΩ
−3

quiescent point of ICQ = 5mA is desired. The R1 = (VCC − VB ) (I 2 + I B )

transistor has β ranging from 50 to 150. Design a
four resistor bias circuit. Use standard 5%- (
= (20 − 8.2 ) 1× 10 −3 + 100 × 10 −6 = 10.7 kΩ)
tolerance resistors. The 5%-tolerance standard values for the resistors
Solution: are RE = 1.5kΩ, R1 = 8.2kΩ, R2 = 11kΩ.
Since RC is specified we can determine the voltage
drop across it and the voltage VC
VCC − VC = I CQ RC = 5 × 10 −3 × 1×103 = 5V R1 RC
I2+IB IC
VC = 20 − 5 = 15V
VC + +
VE = VCE = VC 2 = 15 2 = 7.5V IB
VB VCE VCC
VB = VE + VBE = 7.5 + 0.7 = 8.2V +
- - V -
To determine IB, we take the smallest value of β. VBE E
In this way we will determine the largest value of I2
IB and the largest value of I2. If β is higher, the R2 RE IE
condition for I2 will be also satisfied.
I B = I C β = 5 × 10 −3 50 = 100µA Four-resistor bias circuit.
−6
I 2 = 10 I B = 10 ×100 × 10 = 1mA
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 26
 4.6 Small - Signal Equivalent Circuits
Small - Signal Current - Voltage Relationship

 v    v (t ) 
iB = (1 − α )I ES exp BE  − 1 (4.28) I BQ + ib (t ) ≅ I BQ 1 + be  (4.34)
 VT 
  VT  
v (t )
 VBEQ + vbe ( t )  ib (t ) = be (4.35)
I BQ + ib ( t ) = (1 − α )I ES exp  (4.29) rπ
 VT 
VT
rπ = (4.36)
 VBEQ   vbe ( t )  I BQ
I BQ + ib ( t ) = (1 − α )I ES exp  exp  (4.30)
 VT   VT  βVT
rπ = (4.37)
I CQ
 VBEQ 
( )
I BQ = 1 − α I ES exp  (4.31)
 VT  iC (t ) = β iB (t ) (4.38)
 v (t ) 
I BQ + ib ( t ) = I BQ exp be  (4.32) I CQ + ic (t ) = β I BQ + β ib (t ) (4.39)
 VT 
exp( x ) ≅ 1 + x (4.33) ic (t ) = β ib (t ) (4.40)

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 27

 Small - Signal Equivalent Circuit for the
BJT
β
ic (t ) = vbe (t )
rπ
β
gm = (4.41)
rπ
I CQ
gm = (4.42)
VT
vbe (t ) = rπ ib (t ) and ic (t ) = g m vbe (t )

Exercise 4.19 At room temperature, a certain

Figure 4.33 Small-signal equivalent circuits for the BJT.
transistor has β=100. Compute the values of gm and
rπ for ICQ=10 mA. Repeat for ICQ=1 mA
Solution:
βV 100 × 0.026 β 100
At I C = 10mA : rπ = T = = 260 Ω ; g m = = ≈ 385mS
I CQ 10 ×10 −3 rπ 260
βVT 100 × 0.026 β 100
At I C = 1mA : rπ = = = 2600 Ω; g m = = ≈ 38.5mS
I CQ 1× 10 −3 rπ 2600
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 28
 4.7 The Common - Emitter Amplifier

R1, R2, RC and RE1+RE2 form the four

resistor biasing circuit;
C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors;
CE is bypass capacitor.
For ac signal the supply voltage is short
circuit.
If RE1 = 0 the input signal is between the
base and the emitter (ground); the output
signal is between collector and the emitter
Figure 4.34 Common-emitter amplifier. (+VCC, which is ground for ac signal) –
common-emitter amplifier.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 29

 The Small - Signal Equivalent Circuit
Rs Rs
+ +
C2
+ C1 +

+ RE1 RC RL + RE1 RC RL
vo vo
vs vin R1 R2 vs vin R1 R2
- -
RE2 CE
- - - -

The first step in creating the small-signal equivalent circuit: the The second step in creating the small-signal equivalent circuit
dc voltage sources are replaced by short circuits for mid-band region: the coupling capacitors and the bypass
capacitors are replaced by short circuits

Figure 4.34 Common-emitter amplifier. (b) Final small-signal mid-band equivalent circuit.
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 30
 Voltage Gain
vin = vbe + ie RE1
(4.45)
= rπ ib + RE1 (β + 1)ib

vo = − R'L β ib (4.46)

vo βR'L
Av = =− (4.47)
vin rπ + (β + 1)RE1

βRL'
If RE1 = 0: Av = −
rπ
Figure 4.34 Common-emitter amplifier.
If (β+1)RE1 >> rπ: Av ≅ − βRL'
R '
≈− L
Simplifications: (β + 1)RE1 RE1
and the voltage gain doesn’t depend on
1 BJT parameters.
RB = R1 || R2 = (4.43)
1 / R1 + 1 / R2
1 Open circuit voltage gain (when RL = ∞)
R'L = RL || RC = (4.44)
1 / RL + 1 / RC v βRC
Avo = o = − (4.48)
vin rπ + (β + 1)RE1

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 31

 Input Impedance
Current Gain and Power Gain
i Z
Ai = o = Av in (4.51)
iin RL

G = Ai Av (4.52)

Figure 4.34 Common-emitter amplifier.

v
Zit = in = rπ + (β + 1)RE1 (4.49)
ib

v 1
Zin = in = (4.50)
iin 1 / RB + 1 / Zit

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 32

 Output Impedance

Figure 4.34 Common-emitter amplifier.

ib = 0 and βib = 0. Thus there is an open circuit between C and E.

Z o = RC (4.53)

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 33

 Example 4.9 Calculation of Common - Emitter
Amplifier Performance
a) Find Av , Avo , Zin , Ai , G, and Zo for the
amplifier shown in Figure 4.35.
b) Repeat part (a) if the emitter resistor RE is
split in into RE1=100 Ω and RE2=900 Ω, with Solution:
bypass capacitor in the parallel with RE2.
β of the BJT is 100 and from dc analysis is βVT 100 × 0.026
rπ = = = 631Ω
found that the quiescent point is ICQ = 4.12mA I CQ 4.12 ×10 −3
and VCE = 6.72V.
1 1
RB = = = 3.33 kΩ
( ) (
1 / R1 + 1 / R2 1 10 ×103 + 1 5 × 103 )
1 1
R 'L = = = 667 Ω
( ) (
1 / RL + 1 / RC 1 2 ×103 + 1 1× 103 )

Figure 4.35 Common-emitter amplifier of Example 4.9.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 34

 b) vo βRL'
Av = =−
a) vin rπ + (β + 1)RE1
100 × 667
=− = −6.21
vo βR 100 × 667
'
631 + (100 + 1)×100
Av = =− =− L
= −106
vin rπ 631 vo βRC
Avo = =−
vo βRC 100 ×1×103 vin rπ + (β + 1)RE1
Avo = =− =− = −158 100 ×1×103
vin rπ 631 =− = −9.31
631 + (100 + 1)×100
Z it = rπ = 631Ω
vin
Z it = = rπ + (β + 1)RE1 = 631 + (100 + 1)×100 = 10.7 kΩ
vin 1 ib
Z in = =
iin 1 / RB + 1 / Z it
1 1
Z in = = = 2.54 kΩ
=
1
= 531 Ω ( ) (
1 / RB + 1 / Z it 1 3.33 ×10 + 1 10.7 × 10
3 3
)
( )
1 3.33 × 103 + 1 631
io Z in 2.54 × 103
io Z 531 Ai = = Av = −6.21 = −7.89
Ai = = Av in = −106 = −28.1 iin RL 2 ×103
iin RL 2 × 10 3

G = Ai Av = (− 7.89 )× (− 6.21) = 49.0

G = Ai Av = (− 28.1)× (− 106 ) = 2980
Z o = RC = 1kΩ
Z o = RC = 1kΩ
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 35
 4.8 The Emitter Follower

R1, R2, and RE are from the four resistor biasing

circuit.
C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors.
The input signal is between the base and the
ground (the collector, since the supply voltage is
short circuit for the ac signal); the output signal is
between the emitter and the ground (the collector)
– common-collector amplifier.
vin = vbe + vo

Thus vin > vo and Av < 1. Usually Av ≈ 1 – emitter

follower.
Figure 4.36 Emitter follower.
Typical application as a buffer amplifier, since it
has high input impedance and small output
impedance.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 36

 Small - Signal Equivalent Circuit
Rs Rs
+ +
C2
+ C1 +

RE RL + RE RL
+ vo vo
vs vin R1 R2 vs vin R1 R2
- -

- - - -

The first step in creating the small-signal equivalent circuit: the The second step in creating the small-signal equivalent circuit
dc voltage sources are replaced by short circuits for mid-band region: the the coupling capacitors and the bypass
capacitors are replaced by short circuits

Figure 4.36 Emitter follower. (b) Final small-signal mid-band

equivalent circuit.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 37

Voltage Gain

Figure 4.36 Emitter follower.

vo = (1 + β )R'LiB (4.56)
Simplifications:
vin = rπ ib + (1 + β ) iB R'L (4.57)
1
RB = R1 || R2 = (4.54)
1 / R1 + 1 / R2
Av =
(1 + β )RL'
<1 (4.58)
rπ + (1 + β )RL'
1
R'L = RL || RE = (4.55)
1 / RL + 1 / RE Since usually (1+β)RL′ >> rπ Av ≈ 1.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 38

 Input Impedance

Figure 4.36 Emitter follower.

1
Zi = (4.59)
1 / RB + 1 / Zit For small power BJT RL′ is in the range of kOhms
and β ~ 100. Thus the range of Zit is hundreds of
kOhms.
v
Zit = in = rπ + (1 + β )R'L (4.60)
ib

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 39

 Output Impedance

Figure 4.36 Emitter follower.

v vx 1
Zo = x (4.61) Zo = = (4.65)
ix (1 + β ) / (R's + rπ ) + (1 / RE )
ix
v Rs' + rπ
ib + β ib + ix = x (4.62) Z ot =
(1 + β ) (4.66)
RE
rπ 1
1 If Rs′ ≈ 0 Z ot ≈ ≈
Rs' = (4.63) (1 + β ) g m
1 / Rs + 1 / R1 + 1 / R2
For small power BJT gm ~ 102..103mS. Thus the
v x + rπ ib + R i = 0
'
s b (4.64)
range of Zot is Ohms or tens of Ohms.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 40

 Example 4.10 Calculation of Emitter Follower 1 1
R 'L = = = 667 Ω
Performance. Compute the voltage gain, input (
1 / RL + 1 / RE 1 1×10 + 1 2 ×10
3 3
) ( )
impedance, current gain, power gain, and output
impedance of the emitter-follower amplifier
Av =
(1 + β )RL'
=
(1 + 200)× 667 = 0.991
displayed in Figure 4.37a.
rπ + (1 + β )RL' 1260 + (1 + 200)× 667
The dc analysis gives the following quiescent
point: ICQ = 4.12mA and VCE = 11.7V.
Z it = rπ + (1 + β )RL' = 1260 + (1 + 200 )× 667 = 135 kΩ
1 1
Zi = = = 36.5 kΩ
( ) (
1 / RB + 1 / Z it 1 50 ×103 + 1 135 × 103 )
1
Rs' =
1 / Rs + 1 / R1 + 1 / R2
1
= = 8.33 kΩ
( ) ( ) (
1 10 ×103 + 1 100 × 103 + 1 100 ×103 )
1
Zo =
Figure 4.37 Emitter follower of Example 4.10. (1 + β ) / (R's + rπ ) + (1 / RE )
Solution 1
= = 46.6 Ω
rπ =
βVT
200 × 0.026
= = 1260Ω (
(1 + 200) 8.33 ×103 + 1260 + 1 2 ×103 ) ( )
I CQ 4.12 ×103
1 1 Zi 36.5 ×103
RB = = = 50kΩ
1 / R1 + 1 / R2 1 (100 × 103 ) + 1 (100 ×103 )
Ai = Av = 0.991 = 36.2; G = Av Ai = 38.8
RL 1× 103
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 41
 4.9 The BJT as a Digital Logic Switch
The circuit in Fig. 4.41 is a modification of
common-emitter amplifier intended for operation
in saturation and in cut-off region only.
Cut-off state: Vin < 0.5 (logical zero). BJT is in
cut-off and IC = 0. There is no voltage drop across
RC and Vo = +VCC (logical one).
Saturation state: Vin is high (logical one), usually
Figure 4.41 RTL inverter. Vin ≈ +VCC.
V − 0.7
iB = in
RB
In saturation VCE < 0.2V. This Vo = VCE < 0.2V
(logical zero).
V − 0.7
iC = CC
RC
To have saturation region, RB and RC must be
designed in such a way that βiB > iC.
The output has logically opposite voltage to the
input (zero-one; one-zero). The circuit is called
Figure 4.42b Load-line analysis of RTL inverter under no- logical inverter.
load conditions.
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 42
 RTL NOR Gate

When at the three inputs are applied low voltages

(logical zeros) all BJT are in cutoff, no current
flows through RC and Vo = +VCC (logical one).
When a high voltage is presenting at one or more
of the inputs (logical ones at these inputs) the
corresponding BJTs are in saturation and Vo <
0.2V (logical zero).

Figure 4.45 Three-input RTL NOR gate.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 43