Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research

Vol. 33, September 2008, pp. 274-287

3-Dimensional weaving
B K Beheraa & Rajesh Mishra
Department of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi 110 016, India
3-Dimensional woven fabrics are fabricated by modifying the conventional weaving mechanisms. The technology is
used for the production of only specialty industrial fabrics such as for making preforms for construction, automotive,
ballistic, and marine applications like carbon fibre preforms for high-performance powerboats, sports goods and various
industrial applications. Preforms made by 3D weaving provide several important advantages in composites fabrication. The
most important advantage of this material is observed in manufacturing thick composites, owed to a significantly reduced
labor time, when multiple layers of 2-dimensional fabric plies are replaced by one or few number of 3-dimensional plies to
achieve the required thickness in a composite structure. 3D preforms appear to be better than the most conformable 2D
fabrics. The flexural, tensile and compressive stiffness and strength are better in laminates made from 3D preforms than
those made from comparable 2D woven or even knitted fabrics mainly due to the absence of in-plane crimp of yarns in the
materials.
Keywords : 2D weaving, 3D weaving, Industrial fabric, Textile preforms

1 Introduction • 3D Hollow
The 3D fabrics are defined as “a single-fabric –flat surface
system, the constituent yarns of which are supposedly –uneven surface
disposed in a three mutually perpendicular plane • 3D Shell
relationship”. There are mainly three types of –by weave combination
manufacturing systems to produce woven 3D fabrics. –by differential take-up
They are 2D weaving, 3D weaving, and non- –by moulding
interlacing method called noobing. Conventional 2D • 3D Nodal
weaving device is employed to produce interlaced 3D
fabric comprising two sets of yarns. While producing
interlaced 3D fabric, three sets of yarns are 3 Distinguishing between 2D Weaving and 3D
interwoven.1,2 In the following discussion, these Weaving¹
The conventional 2D weaving process is designed
manufacturing methods, fabric characteristics and
to bring about the interlacement of two orthogonal
their applications are explained briefly.
sets of yarns, and not three orthogonal sets of yarns.
2 Classification of 3D Fabrics However, an available method of 3D weaving well
Woven 3D fabrics can be classified into following characterizes the weaving process in bringing about
two ways: interlacement of three orthogonal sets of yarns and
Based on Type of Weaving Process1 hence qualifies to be regarded as the ‘true’ 3D
• 2D weaving – 3D fabrics weaving process.5,6
• 3D weaving – 3D fabrics
3.1 2-Dimensional Woven Fabric
• Noobing
To produce 3D fabric by the conventional 2D
Based on Type of 3D Structures3,4 weaving process, a multi-layer warp(Z) has to be
• 3D Solid—Broadly there are three types of
3D solid structures as shown in Fig. 1
–multi-layer
–orthogonal
–angle interlocked
_________
a
To whom all the correspondence should be addressed. Fig. 1 — 3D structures [(a) multi-layer, (b) orthogonal, and (c)
E-mail: [email protected] angle-interlocked]
 BEHERA & MISHRA: 3-DIMENSIONAL WEAVING 275

compulsorily used. By using a multi-layer warp(Z)

and weft (X) (i.e., two sets of yarns), interlaced 3D
fabrics such as weft interlock and warp interlock
(solid type and core or sandwich type) can be
produced (Fig. 2). The different layers of the multi-
layer warp(Z) can also be interconnected. In the Fig. 2 — (a) & (b) solid type, and (c) core or sandwich type
production of such 3D fabrics constituting two sets of structures
yarns, the multi-layer warp is displaced in the fabric
thickness direction by the operation of shedding to
form a shed across the fabric-width direction in order
to enable interlacement with the weft. This manner of
producing a 3D fabric constituting two sets of yarns
and also the functioning of the weaving device is in
complete accordance with the principle of 2D
weaving. For convenience this approach of producing
a ‘simple’ interlaced 3D fabric by employing the 2D
weaving principle may be referred to as the multi-
layer weaving. Fig. 3 — 3D woven 3D fabric [(a) isometric view, and
(b) orthogonal view]
3.2 3-Dimensional Woven Fabric
The process developed by Fukuta2 interlaces three binder ‘warp’ (Y) in the fabric-thickness direction
orthogonal sets of yarns to produce a ‘fully’ interlaced should not be considered as a basis to describe the
3D fabric as shown in Fig. 3. This process complies process taking place as that of 3D weaving, especially
with the principle of weaving and hence qualifies to when a method is available to interlace three
be described as the ‘true’ 3D weaving process. This is orthogonal sets of yarns. The differences between the
because it can bring about interlacement of the sets of two weaving processes are indicated in Fig. 4.
yarns X and Y with the rows and the columns
respectively of the axial yarns Z (multi-layer warp). 4 3-Dimensional Weaving Process³
The sets of yarns X and Y are referred to as the sets of The essential aspects of the 3D weaving process are
horizontal and vertical wefts respectively. In this as follows:
method of weaving, shedding of the multi-warp (Z) is
done not only across the fabric-thickness direction (i) A grid like multi-layer warp (Y) is compulsorily
(row-wise), but also across the fabric-width direction required.
(column-wise) for enabling interlacement of the (ii) Through the dual-directional shedding operation,
multi-layer warp (Z) with the set of horizontal weft the multiple sheds are formed in both row-wise
(X), and the set of vertical weft (Y). Such type of and column-wise directions.
shedding (dual directional) takes place successively in (iii) The row-wise and the column-wise sheds are not
a given cycle and not simultaneously. The integrity of formed simultaneously but alternately.
such a fabric, as can be understood from Fig. 3, is due (iv) Multiple wefts of the respective directions are
to the intense interlacing of the three orthogonal sets accordingly picked in their corresponding
of yarns.7 sheds.8
3.3 Difference 4.1 Principle of Dual-directional Shedding
The process of ‘true’ 3D weaving may therefore be To enable the yarns of the grid-like warp Z to be
described as the action of interlacing three orthogonal displaced for forming multiple column-wise and row-
sets of yarns (multi-layer warp, and the sets of wise sheds, they are required to be separated from
horizontal and vertical wefts). Because the each other, and not closely, in the shedding zone. A
conventional 2D weaving process cannot carry out the simple schematic of the dual-directional shedding
‘dual directional’ shedding, it should not be regarded operation is shown in Fig. 5. An important point to be
as the process of ‘true’ 3D weaving. Also, the ability observed in the figure is that the multiple concurrent
of the 2D weaving device to organize the yarns of the sheds of the vertical and horizontal directions are
276 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

Fig. 4 — Classification on the basis of weaving process

Fig. 5 — Dual-directional shedding

Fig. 6 — Principle of dual-directional shedding [(a)warp level, (b)
horizontal shedding, (c) vertical picking , (d) interlacing, (e) warp
formed alternately, and not together, this is because level, (f) vertical shedding, (g) horizontal picking, (h) interlacing,
the vertical (Y) and horizontal (X) wefts would be and (i) interlaced 3D structure]
required to be respectively picked in the sheds of their resulting interlacing of the grid like warp yarns Z and
respective directions. the horizontal wefts X is indicated in Fig. 6(h). When
Accordingly, as shown in Fig. 6(a), the yarns of a the vertical and horizontal shedding operations are
grid-like warp Z are initially in their level position, sequentially carried out and the corresponding wefts
multiple concurrent column-wise sheds are formed picked forward and backward in their respective
[Fig. 6(b)] into which vertical wefts Y are inserted directions, the structure of the plain-weave 3D fabric
[Fig. 6(c)] and all the sheds are closed, the resulting at the end of the first weaving cycle is shown in
interlacing of the grid-like warp yarns Z and vertical Fig. 6(i).
wefts Y is indicated in Fig 6(d). The leveled warp
yarns Z [Fig. 6(e)] are next subjected to the shedding 4.2 Dual-directional Shedding Method 4
operation and multiple concurrent row-wise sheds are Arranging two conventional mono-directional
formed [Fig. 6(f)] into which horizontal wefts X are shedding units perpendicular to each other cannot
picked in [Fig. 6(g)] and all the sheds are closed. The help carry out the dual-direction shedding operation.
 BEHERA & MISHRA: 3-DIMENSIONAL WEAVING 277

It is impracticable to produce column-wise and row- wise sheds upon their displacement in the required
wise sheds this way. At present only two methods are direction from the level position. This way multiple
available for carrying out the dual-directional sheds among the active and the passive warp yarns of
shedding operation, namely (i) the linear-linear either all the columns or the rows get formed
method and (ii) the linear-angular method. simultaneously as can be inferred from Fig. 8.
In a given column of warp yarns, some active warp
4.2.1 Dual-directional Shedding Method 1—Linear-linear yarns pass through the normal eyes and the remaining
Method active warp yarns of the same column pass through
The means for forming the column-wise and the
row-wise sheds is shown in Fig. 7. Two mutually
perpendicular heald frames, each comprising a
number of healds with specially designed eyes, are
arranged as shown. One heald frame is capable of
reciprocating rectilinearly in the vertical direction and
the other in the horizontal direction. Through each of
the openings formed by the superimposition of the
two heald frames including the heald-eyes, an end of
the multi-layer warp is drawn. All these warp ends
thus get disposed in columns A through I and rows 1
through 9. The warp ends of the odd numbered rows
which come under alternate columns (designed by A,
C, E, G, I) are drawn through the open spaces
occurring between the two arranged heald frames
other than the heald-eyes. As shown in Fig. 7, these
warp ends are named passive warp ends. The warp
ends of the odd numbered rows which come under the
alternate columns (designated B, D, F, H) are drawn
through the ‘normal’ eyes of the vertically
reciprocative heald frame. The warp ends of the even
numbered rows which come under the alternate
columns (designated A, C, E, G, I) are drawn through
the ‘normal’ eyes of the horizontally reciprocative
heald frame and those which come under the alternate Fig. 7 — Essential features of dual-directional shedding
mechanism
columns (designated B, D, F, H) are drawn through
the openings provided by the superimposed eyes of
the two sets of heald. The special form of the eyes and
their mutual arrangement of location are indicated in
the inset of Fig. 8. All the warp ends passing through
the heald eyes constitute the active warp ends.9,10
The above described arrangement defines the level
position of the multi-layer warp and the shedding
system. From this level position, the active warp ends
passing through the eyes of the horizontal and the
vertical healds can be respectively displaced in the
fabric-width and fabric–thickness directions by
moving the corresponding heald frames in the
necessary direction as indicated in Fig. 7. In relation
to the passive warp ends which do not pass through
the eyes of the healds but through the crated open
spaces and hence stationary, the displaceable active
warp ends can readily form column-wise and row- Fig. 8 — Disposition of heald eyes
278 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

the superimposed eyes. When the horizontal heald From the description of the first dual-directional
frame is moved to a given side from its level position, shedding method, the following points are
the heald eyes, which occur in the vertical position, noteworthy:
move the contained warp end in the same horizontal
direction; the eyes of the vertical healds, which occur (i) A network-like fabric integration is achieved.
in the horizontal position, provide free space for the (ii) All the column-wise or the row-wise sheds can
warp yarn as shown in Fig. 8. As a result, the active be formed simultaneously for increased production
warp yarns of a given column passing through the efficiency and not successively warp layer after the
eyes of the vertical healds, which are not displaced, other.
form a shed with the displaced active warp yarns (iii) Multiple wefts of a set may be picked
passing through the superimposed eyes. In a similar employing means like shuttles, rapiers, etc. and the
manner, the displacement of the active warp ends in wefts may be inserted as either a single yarn or a
the vertical direction can be achieved by moving the hairpin-like folded yarn.
vertical heald frame either upwards or downwards (iv) The size of the axial hollow pockets produced
from the level position to form the row-wise sheds in the structure can be controlled through the disposal
among the active warp ends of a given row. scheme of the multi-layer warp. For example, in the
convergent disposal, the warp yarns will occur closely
By picking a weft in each of the formed column- in the fabric and hence the size of the hollow pockets
wise and row-wise sheds, interlacement with the will be correspondingly reduced.
active and the active-passive warp ends of each of the (v) If required, non-interlacing ‘stuffer' yarns in the
columns and the rows is individually realized. As hollow pockets in the fabric-length direction can be
indicated in Fig. 8, the two sets of weft interlaces with incorporated. It is also possible to incorporate non-
each of the columns and the rows of the warp yarns interlacing yarns in the fabric-width and thickness
even if there are no passive warp yarns in a given directions besides in the two diagonal directions
column or row.11 across the fabric cross-section.
Subsequent to the insertion of a given set of weft (vi) The displacement of a given heald frame to
(column-wise) in the form of either single yarns or form the shed is governed by the length of the special
hairpin-like folded yarns by employing means like eye occurring on the healds of the other associated
shuttles and rapiers, the appropriate positioning of the heald frame and also on the distance between given
laid-in wefts at the fabric-fell can be effected. The two adjacent healds in a heald frame.
sheds of the corresponding direction are closed to (vii) Tubular fabrics of either square or rectangle
revert the warp system to its level position and the cross-section, and solid profiled fabrics, like L, T, C,
produced fabric is taken up. Similarly, the subsequent etc. can be directly produced by disposing the multi-
new sheds of the same direction (i.e. column-wise) layer warp in accordance with the cross-sectional
can be formed to insert the wefts in the return profile to be produced, and suitably effecting the
direction. The row-wise shedding and picking may be shedding and picking operations.
subsequently carried out as just described. As can be (viii) It is possible to carry out shedding involving
inferred, the sequence of operations for the two only the active warp ends through reciprocating
directions constitutes a cycle of the weaving process. suitably threaded healds independently and selectively.
A plain weave 3D fabric corresponding to the said (ix) By reciprocating the suitably threaded healds
sequence of operations is obtained and indicated in independently and selectively, different weave patterns
Fig. 3. As can be observed, the woven 3D fabric like various twills and sateen can be engineered to
comprises the interlaced multi-layer warp and the two obtain floating wefts and hence control the incidence of
orthogonal sets of weft. For clarity in representation, crimp in the involved yarns.
only the frontmost weft is indicated in Fig 3. Fig. 9(a) (x) It is possible to carry out shedding involving
shows the successive picking of the wefts in the ‘to only the warp yarns occurring at the exteriors of the
and fro' directions, and Fig. 9(b) shows the alternate disposed multi-layer warp by suitably controlling the
picking of the wefts in the ‘to and fro' directions. As healds which have been correspondingly threaded. The
can be inferred, both these woven constructions have wefts inserted into these exterior sheds will produce an
a network like structure and these can be produced by interlaced exterior surface which will thus function as
simply altering the order of shedding.12,13 a woven covering for the internally occurring non-
 BEHERA & MISHRA: 3-DIMENSIONAL WEAVING 279

interlacing multi-layer yarns of the fabric material as of the yarns in the fabric. The peculiarity of this
shown in Fig 9(c). arrangement is that it comprises active and passive
(xi) It is possible to produce a core or a sandwich warp yarns, as in the case of the first method, but with
type of fabric and also certain box structures by the difference that each passive warp end, even the
interlacing the suitably disposed yarns of the multi- outermost ones, is surrounded by active warp ends for
layer warp as shown in Fig 9 (d). achieving uniform fabric integration. Such a multi-
(xii) It is possible to produce simultaneously layer warp disposal arrangement may be described as
multiple woven 2D fabric sheets. comprising alternate rows or columns of active and
4.2.2 Dual-directional Shedding Method 2 — Linear-angular
passive warp ends. Thus, the active warp yarn rows
Method will be designated by 1, 3, 5, etc. and the passive warp
Figure 10 shows the essential features of an yarn rows by 2, 4, 6, etc. The alternate columns of the
unconventional shedding arrangement for effecting active and passive warp yarns will be designated by
shed formation in the fabric-width and fabric-thickness A, C, E and B, D, F, etc. respectively. Each of the
directions. Each of the shafts carry a set of fixed flat active warp ends of a given row or column is drawn
healds as indicated. Each heald has two openings; the through the corresponding heald's guide and eye. The
front one is the heald-eye and the rear one is the heald-- passive warp yarns of a given row or column are
guide. Such an assembly comprising the shaft and the drawn through the open spaces between two adjacent
healds is suitably supported at the ends. As indicated in shafts as indicated in Fig. 11(b).
Fig. 10, this assembly can be reciprocated in two Figure 11(b) defines the level position of the
directions, such as linearly (along the shaft axis) and system. From this level position, each of the active
angularly (about the shaft axis). The disposal warp ends passing through a corresponding heald eye
arrangement of the employed multi-layered warp is can be displaced in the fabric-width and fabric-
special [Fig.11 (a)]. Such a disposal is required to thickness directions by moving the shaft along its axis
achieve uniform integration at the fabric's surfaces and turning it about its axis respectively. In relation to
(excluding end surfaces) and for balanced distribution the passive warp ends, which do not pass through the
heald eyes and hence are stationary, the displaceable
active warp ends readily form multiple column-wise

Fig. 9 — Multiple woven 2D fabrics [(a) successive picking, (b)

alternate picking, (c) interlaced exterior, and (d) sandwich
structure] Fig. 10 — Dual directional shedding — Linear angular method
280 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

and row-wise sheds upon their displacement in the corresponding directional sheds. By picking a weft in
required direction from the level position. The angular each of these formed sheds, interlacement within the
and the linear displacements of the healds from its columns or the rows of the multi-layer warp with the
level position to form the row-wise and the column- corresponding wefts is achieved. Such an alternate
wise sheds will correspond to at least the distance row-wise and column-wise shedding and
between two adjacent active or passive warp yarns in corresponding picking thus lead to the production of
the given direction of movement and may be referred the plain weave 3D woven 3D fabric of this method.
to as the shedding displacement pitch. In the The typical yarn paths at the edges and surfaces and
formation of these multiple sheds of a given direction, in the interior of the fabric are indicated in Figs 12(a)
the displacement of the active warp ends of a given and (b) respectively. The simplest working of this
row or column may thus be referred to as a unit dual directional shedding arrangement is outlined
shedding displacement pitch. However, in practice below in reference to Figs 13 and 14 (ref. 14).
this displacement can be made greater to form a In Fig. 13, the formation of the column-wise sheds
correspondingly greater shed for practical advantage is illustrated. Figure 13(a) indicates the top view of
as is further discussed. the level position of the system. In Figs 13(b) and (c)
In its simplest mode, all the shafts are moved by a the directions of the linear movement of a heald shaft
unit displacement pitch simultaneously, either linearly along its axis are shown. The former and the latter
or angularly, and in the same direction to form figures respectively show the displacement of the
active warp ends from their level positions in the
fabric-width direction to form the right side and the
left side column-wise sheds with the stationary
passive warp yarns. Figure 14 shows the formation of
the row-wise sheds. Figure 14(a) indicates the side
view of the level position of the system. In Figs 14(b)
and (c), the directions of the angular movement of the
heald shafts about its axis are illustrated. The former
and the latter figures respectively show the

Fig. 11 — Disposition of multi-layered warp [(a) cross-sectional,

and (b) longitudinal] Fig. 12 — Yarn path [(a) multiple, and (b) single]
 BEHERA & MISHRA: 3-DIMENSIONAL WEAVING 281

displacement of the active warp ends from their level

positions in the fabric-thickness direction to form the
upper and the lower row-wise sheds with the
stationary passive warp yarns.
As can be inferred from the Figs 13(b) and (c), the
maximum displacement of the shedding shafts in
practice can be up to 1.5 times the shedding
displacement pitch to obtain relatively larger sheds for
convenience in weft insertion. The shafts may be
displaced up to the extent that an active warp end
does not cross two passive warp ends. Any greater
displacement will cause undue interference with the
weft insertion and unbalanced fabric construction.15
It is to be noted that in reference to the stationary
passive warp yarns, the right and the left side column-
wise sheds, and the upper and the lower row-wise
sheds are not formed simultaneously but in a specific
order. The shafts revert to their level position every
time subsequent to a particular shed formation and
picking operation. For example, in the construction of
the plain weave 3D woven 3D fabric (Fig. 15), the
order of shedding and picking as indicated below is
followed, starting from the level position of the Fig. 13 — Movement of the heald shafts [(a) shedding
system. The movements of the shedding shafts displacement, (b) pick in right side column-wise shed, and (c)
described below are viewed from the rear of shedding, pick in left side column-wise shed]
means in the direction of the fabric fell.
The above-indicated shedding order together with
the necessary complementing operations of the
weaving process, like the beating-up and taking-up, at
appropriate moments will constitute one complete
working cycle of the process. Figure 15 shows the
front view of the plain weave 3D woven 3D fabric
construction obtainable through the above-stated
shedding and picking order. It is to be noted that the
two sets of weft may be inserted in the form of either
single yarns or hairpin-like folded yarns by employing
means like shuttles, rapiers, etc. These wefts while
being uniquely interlaced with the active warp yarns
get connected to the passive warp yarns. Because of
their interlacement with the active warp yarns, the two
sets of weft will occur in an undulating manner and
not straight as indicated. These two sets of weft are
shown straight for easy representation. However, the
incidence of its crimp can be reduced by feeding the
active warp yarns under suitable tension and at a
suitable rate higher than the take-up rate of the fabric.
An important feature of the fabric construction
(Fig. 15) is the occurrence of the active warp yarns in
a helical configuration. Though not following a Fig. 14 — Shed formation [(a) shedding displacement, (b) pick in
circular path, the active warp yarns occur in a upper row-wise shed, and (c) pick in lower row-wise shed]
282 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

Fig. 15 — Yarn path in fabric

triangular helix at the fabric edges and surfaces, and

in a square helix in the interiors. Further, both these
helices are not formed about any of the passive warp Fig. 16 — Yarn movement in fabric width and fabric thickness
yarns. Also, the obtained fabric construction acquires directions [(a) edge, (b) surface, and (c) interior]
a network-like structure. There may be introduced
minor alterations in the above framework of and fabric-thickness directions in addition to the
operations. For example, the above indicated order of diagonal directions as represented in Fig. 16. This is
shedding and picking operations may be altered to because the wefts of a given side (row-wise or
produce a modified network-like fabric construction. column-wise direction) will be picked successively in
In reference to the shedding and picking order its `forward and backward' directions. Nevertheless,
indicated above, if the orders given below are carried the active warp yarns in all these constructions may
out, then different network-like fabric constructions be considered to occur in a helical configuration.
can be obtained and will correspond with those In the second dual-directional shedding method, the
indicated in Fig. 16, in which only the axial view of following points are noteworthy:
the fabric is shown to indicate the general path of the
active warp yarn in the interior of the fabric. (i) All the column-wise or the row-wise sheds can
The various network-like fabric constructions will be formed simultaneously for increased production
differ from the one indicated in Figs 12 and 15, in efficiency and not successively one column-wise or
which the typical paths of the active warp yarns in row-wise warp layer after the other.
accordance with the initially mentioned shedding (ii) Multiple wefts of a set may be picked
order are shown. The differences in the fabric employing means like shuttles, rapiers, etc. and each
construction due to the change in shedding and of the wefts may be inserted as either a single yarn or
picking order will be that the wefts of a given set will a hairpin-like folded yarn.
occur successively as shown in the figures, and also (iii) The helical progression of all the active warp
the active warp yarns will occur in the fabric-width yarns provides unique network-like fabric integration
 BEHERA & MISHRA: 3-DIMENSIONAL WEAVING 283

throughout the fabric by interlacing with the two sets 5 Noobing

of weft and interconnecting these two sets of weft to Dr N Khokar defined this technique as “the method
the passive warp yarns. of producing 3D fabric by non-interlacing, orienting
(iv) The helical progression of the active warp orthogonally the three sets of yarns, and integrating
yarns provides unique discrete placement of the active the structure through binding”. Noobing is an
warp yarns in either the diagonal directions or acronym for non-interlacing, orientating orthogonally
additionally in the fabric-width and fabric-thickness and binding. The noobing process is of two types,
directions. namely uniaxial and multiaxial as explained in
(v) The maximum displacement of the healds in the Fig. 17.
fabric-thickness and the fabric-width directions is 1.5 5.1 Principle of Uniaxial Noobing Process
times the shedding displacement pitch. A greater The working method of the process is exemplified
displacement will cause either interference with the through the device developed with reference to Fig
insertion of the weft or unnecessary concentration of 18. The two sets of binder yarn carriers (X1-X6 and
the active warp yarns at the fabric surfaces as they Y1-Y6) are traversed alternately straight along the
will cross more than one warp layer leading to uneven rows and the columns respectively, of the predisposed
fabric surface and unbalanced fabric construction. axial corresponding rows and columns of the axial
(vi) Different weave patterns can be created by yarns Z. In this way, the fabric integration is achieved
displacing the required suitably threaded healds directly. Subsequent to the laying of the binding yarns
independently and selectively in both the fabric-width of each set, they are positioned at the fabric fell, and
and fabric-thickness directions. the fabric produced is taken up. This sequence of
(vii) It is possible to carry out shedding involving operations constitutes one working cycle of the
only the active warp ends by controlling device. The noobed fabric produced is characterized
independently each of the shafts with the healds by the constituent three sets of yarns being in a near-
which are suitably threaded. orthogonal configuration and free of crimp as shown
(viii) Tubular fabrics of either square or rectangle in Fig. 18.
cross-section and solid profiled fabrics like L, T, C,
etc. can be directly produced by disposing the multi-
layer warp in accordance with the cross-sectional
profile to be produced and suitably effecting the
shedding and picking operations.
(ix) If required, non-interlacing ‘stuffer' yarns in
the fabric-width, fabric-thickness and the two
diagonal directions across the fabric cross-section can
also be included.
(x) It is possible to carry out shedding involving the
outermost active and passive warp yarns of the
disposed multi-layer warp by independent and
selective control of the shafts with the healds which
have been accordingly threaded. The wefts inserted
into these exterior sheds will produce an interlaced
exterior surface which will thus function as a woven
covering for the internally occurring non-interlaced
yarns as shown in Fig. 9 (c).
(xi) It is possible to produce a core or a sandwich
type of fabric and also certain box structures by
interlacing the suitably disposed yarns of the multi-
layer warp. The fabric produced will be identical to the
one shown in Fig. 9(d).
(xii) It is possible to produce simultaneously
multiple woven 2D fabric sheets. Fig. 17 — Classification of noobing
284 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

Fig. 19 — Constructional features of plate P

binder yarn carriers are shown in Figs 20 & 21. The

arrangement of three sets of yarns is made as shown
below:
(i) The column-wise and row-wise disposal
arrangement of the axial yarns Z through
Fig. 18 — (a) Working principle of the noobing device developed
and (b) corresponding noobed fabric construction tubes L,
(ii) The organization of the three sets of yarns
5.2 Main Features of Construction of Experimental Uniaxial orthogonally by providing two mutually
Noobing Device8 perpendicular sets of tracks [horizontal (H),
Following are the main features of construction of and vertical (V)], and
experimental uniaxial noobing device as shown in (iii) The direct integration of the organized three
Fig. 19: sets of yarns into a fabric through recessed
areas R in conjunction with other elements.
(i) Means for arranging the disposal of the set of The specific extension of the tubes L from the front
axial yarns Z, organizing the three sets of yarns side of the plate P provides a clear and a uniform
orthogonally, and aiding the direct integration passage for the unhindered traversal of the binder-
of the fabric. yarn carriers. By this arrangement, bands G can be
(ii) Means for traversing the binder-yarn carriers of held permanently in the disposed axial yarns Z
the sets X and Y. without being a hindrance in the tracks H.
(iii) Means for directly integrating the three sets of
yarns into a fabric. 6 Mechanical Properties of Solid Structures
(iv) The working relationship between the binder-
yarn-carrier traversal and fabric integration. 6.1 Multi-layer and Angle-interlocked Structures
(v) Means for positioning the laid-in-binding yarns Chen et al.10 tested multi-layer and angle-interlock
X and Y at the fabric fell. fabrics for their mechanical properties and analyzed in
(vi) Means for taking up the fabric produced. relation to their structure. It has been clearly stated
that the mechanical properties of the 3D woven
5.3 Mechanism of Noobing structures are heavily dependent on the structural
The mechanism involved for noobing along with construction. The following conclusions are drawn
the arrangement for traversing the vertical set of from the investigation:
 BEHERA & MISHRA: 3-DIMENSIONAL WEAVING 285

(ii) The structural stability of the multi-layer

structures increases when more layers are involved;
by contrast, the thickness of the angle-interlock
structures has little effect on the structural stability.
(iii) The weave combination has little impact on the
strength of multi-layer structures but has an obvious
influence on the structural stability.
(iv) The increase in stitch density in multi-layer
structures will reduce the strength of the structures,
but its effect on the structural stability is not clear.
The latter may be related to the distribution of the
stitches and also to the weaving conditions.
(v) The number of layers of weft threads in angle-
interlock structures mainly increases the tensile
Fig. 20 — Mechanism involved for noobing strength in the weft direction because of the
construction.
(vi) Angle-interlock structures permit more
elongation in the warp direction than in the weft.
(vii) The increase in the number of layers in angle-
interlock structures makes the structures more
difficult to bend; this is more significant in the weft
direction than in the warp direction. However, the
increase in the number of layers showed little
influence on the shear rigidity.

6.2 Orthogonal Structures

Chen and Zanini9 developed orthogonal structures
with various binding weaves and different number of
layers on conventional looms and investigated the
relationship between the structure and the mechanical
properties to draw following conclusions:
(i) Because of the existence of the straight yarns,
the orthogonal structures provide high tensile stiffness
and high strength, which have little to do with the
type of binding weave but are directly proportional to
the number of layers of the orthogonal structure.
(ii) The breaking elongation of the orthogonal
structures is independent of both the binding weaves
and the number of layers; it primarily depends on the
elongation potential of the yarns used.
(iii) The shear rigidity and shearing hysteresis
Fig. 21 — Arrangement for traversing the vertical set of binder-
increase when the number of layers increases.
yarn carriers (iv) Tighter binding weaves and more layers of the
orthogonal structure will produce higher bending
stiffness and bending hysteresis.
(i) For multi-layer structures, the more the layers
that are involved, the stronger is the structure.
Because the structures use a warp self-stitching 7 CAD for 3D Woven Fabrics
method, the increase in strength in the weft direction The conventional weaving technology has the
is more significant than that in the warp direction. capability to produce wide range of 3D textile
286 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

architectures. Efforts are being made by researchers to Woven composites have been proved ideal for
develop mathematical models to design woven security applications, where a high level of protection
structures and establish CAD/CAM tools for 3D is expected from the lightest possible components.
woven architectures. The CAD suite established in the New areas of application are under development. In
University of Manchester includes different modules, transport applications and vehicle construction, in
e.g., Weave Engineer, Hollow CAD, GeoModeller, particular, composites have major advantages. The
UniverWeave, and Structra16. Weave Engineer is lower weight results in a higher payload with lower
basically designed to support the design and fuel consumption. To meet the high standards
manufacture of 3D solid fabrics. Its modules include required, fabrics woven from yarns containing
the multi-layer, orthogonal, angle-interlock, backed, appropriate special fibres and with sufficiently strong
as well as the single layer fabrics. All designs are constructions are needed. Special criteria for the
developed based on the mathematical models for composite can be fulfilled with specific materials,
various 2D and 3D weaves . Therefore, the design of such as appropriate synthetic fibres. Materials of this
3D fabrics is speedy and accurate. For each category kind are usually designed on an interdisciplinary basis
of 3D fabrics, there are a number of varieties which by specialists in various fields. State-of-the-art
can be accommodated by the conventional weaving computer analysis with the finite-element method
technology. Hollow CAD is dedicated for the design allows the properties of the fabric to be reliably
of 3D hollow woven architectures with uneven or flat predicted. Depending on the application, the
surfaces when opened up. Fig. 22 illustrates some 3D component is built with different materials. In most
weave designs developed by CAD . cases, the fabric inlays perform important
functions. The combination of different raw
8 Applications of 3D Fabrics materials and fabrics with the matrices gives the
The 3D weaving technology is used for the desired properties.
production of only speciality industrial fabrics, such The fibres used in the production of fabrics for
as for making preforms for construction, automotive, composite materials are mainly inorganic and
ballistic and various industrial uses; for marine modified synthetic fibres, such as glass and carbon
applications like carbon fibre preforms for high- fibres, para-aramids, high-strength PE fibres, etc. For
performance powerboats; in medical technology like optimal take-up of forces by the fibres, the yarns are
artificial veins, arteries, orthopedic tubes; lightweight mainly of the untwisted multifilament type. However,
construction like reinforced section in automotive spun yarns with a matrix in the yarn are now also
engineering and aeronautics; pipeline construction; in being used. The design of the fabric is also dictated by
sports like shinguard for soccer, protective headgear the application. They are not standard fabrics
for skydiving, high speed water sports, etc.17 Preforms
made by 3D weaving provide several important
advantages in composites fabrication. The most
important advantage of this material is seen in
manufacturing thick composites, owed to a
significantly reduced labor time, when multiple layers
of two dimensional fabric plies are replaced by one or
few number of three dimensional plies to achieve the
required thickness in a composite structure. It is
obvious to expect that the processing advantages of
thick 3D woven perform come at the expense of
reduced conformability. In fact 3D preforms appear to
be better than the most conformable 2D fabrics. The
flexural, tensile and compressive stiffness and
strength are better in laminates made from 3D
preforms than those made from comparable 2D
woven or even knitted fabrics. This is mainly due to
the absence of in-plane crimp of yarns in the Fig. 22 — 3D weave designs developed by CAD [(a) honeycomb,
materials. (b) plain, (c) matt, (d) 3d rib, and (e) 3d matt]
 BEHERA & MISHRA: 3-DIMENSIONAL WEAVING 287

produced in long production runs with unchanged 5 Chou S & Chen H E, The weaving methods of three-
settings. Exact reproducibility must therefore be dimensional fabrics of advanced composite materials,
Compos Struct, 33 (1995) 159.
assured. 6 Mohamed M H & Wetzel K K, 3D woven carbon/glass
hybrid spar cap for wind turbine rotor blade, J Solar Energy
9 Conclusions Eng, 128 (2006) 562.
It is found that the 2D weaving, 3D weaving and the 7 Lee L, Rudov-clark S, Mouritz A P, Bannister M K &
Herszberg I, Effect of weaving damage on the tensile
noobing principles of 3D fabric manufacture are
properties of three-dimensional woven composites,
characteristically different in operation. It is relevant to Composite Structure (Elsevier Publications), 57 (2002) 405.
consider the practically unknown 3D weaving process 8 Khokar N, An experimental uniaxial noobing device:
explained by Khokar3. The new developments of the construction, method of operation, and related aspects, J Text
dual-directional shedding acquire relevance as these Inst, 90 (1999) 225.
methods can produce a network-like fabric 9 Chen X & Zanini I, An experimental investigation into the
structure and mechanical properties of 3D woven orthogonal
construction. Through such a network-like fabric structures, J Text Inst, 88 (1997) 449.
structure, preforms of any desired shape may be 10 Chen X, Spola M, Gisbert Paya J & Mollst Sellabona P, An
obtained by cutting it from a block of the fabric experimental investigation into the structure and mechanical
produced. The need to produce near-net shaped solid properties of multi-layer and angle-interlock woven
3D fabrics for reasons of economy has been another structures, J Text Inst, 90 (1999) 91.
reason for developing new methods. 11 Wen-shyong Kuo, Tse-Hao Ko & Ceng-Po Chen, Effect of
weaving processes on compressive behavior of 3D woven
composites, Composites, 38 (2007) 555.
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4 Khokar Nandan, 3D-weaving and noobing: Characterization looms, paper presented at the First World Conference on 3D
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