1(a) Band Gap Determination using Post Office Box

Aim
To find the band gap of the material of the given thermistor using post office box.
Apparatus Required
Thermistor, thermometer, post office box, power supply, galvanometer, insulating coil and glass
beakers.
Principle and formulae
P R
(1) Wheatstone’s Principle for balancing a network 
Q S

Of the four resistances, if three resistances are known and one is unknown, the unknown
resistance can be calculated.
(2) The band gap for semiconductors is given by,
 2.303loge RT 
Eg = 2k  
1
 T 
where k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38  10 – 23 J /K
RT = Resistance at T K
Procedure
1. The connections are given as in the Fig. 6.1(a).1. Ten ohm resistances are taken in P and Q.
2. Then the resistance in R is adjusted by pressing the tap key, until the deflection in the
galvanometer crosses zero reading of the galvanometer, say from left to right.
3. After finding an approximate resistance for this, two resistances in R, which differ by 1
ohm, are to be found out such that the deflections in the galvanometer for these resistances
will be on either side of zero reading of galvanometer.
Q 10
4. We know RT =  R  R1 or ( R1  1 ) .This means that the resistance of the
P 10
thermistor lies between R1 and (R1+1). Then keeping the resistance in Q the same, the
resistance in P is changed to 100 ohm.
5. Again two resistances, which differ by one ohm are found out such that the deflections in
the galvanometer are on the either side of zero. Therefore the actual resistance of
R R 1
thermistor will be between 2 and 2 .
10 10
 Table 6.1(a).1 To find the resistance of the thermistor at different temperatures

Resistance of
Temp. of the thermistor
1 Resistance Resistance Resistance
thermistor 2.303 log10 RT
T in P in Q in R RT =
P
R
T = t+273
Q
K K-1 ohm ohm Ohm ohm ohm

Thermistor

2V P Q dy
G

2.303 log RT
dx

R R

R R
K K 1/T (K )-1

Fig 6.1(a).1 Post Office Box - Circuit diagram Fig 6.1(a).2 Model Graph

Observation
From graph, slope = (dy / dx) = ……

Calculation
Band gap, Eg = 2k(dy / dx) =…..

6. Then the resistance in P is made 1000 ohms keeping same 10 ohms in Q. Again, two
resistances R and (R+1) are found out such that the deflection in galvanometer changes its
direction. Then the correct resistance.
 10
= RT  ( R ) (or)
1000

= R+1 = 0.01R (or) 0.01(R+1)

7. Thus, the resistance of the thermistor is found out accurately to two decimals, at room
temperature. The lower value may be assumed to be RT (0.01R).

8. Then the thermistor is heated, by keeping it immersed in insulating oil. For every 10 K
’
rise in temperature, the resistance of the thermistor is found out, (i.e) RT s are found out. The
reading is entered in the tabular column.

Graph

1
A graph is drawn between in X axis and 2.303 log RT in Y axis where T is the temperature in
T
K and RT is the resistance of the thermistor at TK. The graph will be as shown in the Fig.6.1(a).2.

dy
Band gap (Eg)=2k  slope of the graph = 2k  ( )
dx

where K = Boltzman’s constant.

Result

The band gap of the material of the thermistor = ………eV.

 1(b) Resistivity Determination for a Semiconductor Wafer
using Four Probe Method
Aim
To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor (Germanium) using four probe method.
Apparatus Required
Probes arrangement (it should have four probes, coated with zinc at the tips). The probes should
be equally spaced and must be in good electrical contact with the sample), Sample (Germanium or silicon
crystal chip with non-conducting base), Oven (for the variation of temperature of the crystal from room
temperature to about 200°C), A constant current generator (open circuit voltage about 20V, current range
0 to 10mA), Milli-voltmeter (range from 100mV to 3V), Power supply for oven Thermometer.
Formula
The energy band gap, Eg., of semi-conductor is given by
2.3026 log10 
E g  2k B in eV
1
T
where kB is Boltzmann constant equal to 8.6 × 10 – 5 eV / kelvin , and  is the resistivity of the semi-
conductor crystal given by
0 V V
 where 0   2 s ;   ( 0.213)
f (W / S ) I I
Here, s is distance between probes and W is the thickness of semi-conducting crystal. V and I are
the voltage and current across and through the crystal chip.
Procedure
1. Connect one pair of probes to direct current source through milliammeter and other pair to
millivoltmeter.
2. Switch on the constant current source and adjust current I, to a described value, say 2 mA.
3. Connect the oven power supply and start heating.
4. Measure the inner probe voltage V, for various temperatures.
Graph
 103 
Plot a graph in   and log10 as shown in Fig.6.1(b).2. Find the slope of the curve

 T 
AB log10 
 . So the energy band gap of semiconductor (Germanium) is given by
BC 103
T
2.3026 log10 
E g  2k 
1T
AB AB AB
 2k  2.3026  1000  2  8.6  105  2.3026  1000eV  0.396  eV
CD CD CD
 Table 6.1(b).1 To determine the resistivity of the semi-conductor for various temperatures:

Current (I) = …………mA

Temperature Voltage (V) Resistivity  10 – 3 / T

S.No. (ohm. cm) Log10
in°C in K (Volts) (K)

Observations:
Distance between probes(s) = ……………………..mm
Thickness of the crystal chip (W) = ……………………mm
current (I) = ………………..mA
 V

Direct Current A
Source

Probes

Oven Power
Supply

Sample
Ge Crystal
OVEN

Fig 6.1(b).1 Four Probe Setup

log 10 

1
T

Fig 6.1(b).2 Model Graph

Result
Energy band gap for semiconductor (Germanium) is Eg =….eV
Source of error and precautions
1. The resistivity of the material should be uniform in the area of measurement.
2. The surface on which the probes rest should be flat with no surface leakage.
3. The diameter of the contact between the metallic probes and the semiconductor crystal chip
should be small compared to the distance between the probes.
 2 Determination of Hall Coefficient and carrier type
for a Semi-conducting Material
Aim
To determine the hall coefficient of the given n type or p-type semiconductor
Apparatus Required
Hall probe (n type or p type), Hall effect setup, Electromagnet, constant current power supply,
gauss meter etc.,
Formulae

VH . t
i) Hall coefficient (RH) = × 10 8 cm3 C – 1
IH
where VH = Hall voltage (volt)
t = Thickness of the sample (cm)
I = Current (ampere)
H = Magnetic filed (Gauss)
1
ii) Carrier density ( n ) = cm – 3
RH q

where RH = Hall coefficient (cm3 C – 1 )

q = Charge of the electron or hole (C)
iii) Carrier mobility ( ) = RH cm2V – 1 s – 1
where RH = Hall coefficient (cm3C – 1 )
 = Conductivity (C V – 1 s – 1 cm – 1 )
Principle
Hall effect: When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, a potential
difference is developed across the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the
magnetic field.
 Table 6.2.1 Measurement of Hall coefficient
Current in the Hall effect setup = ----------mA

Current in the Hall coefficient

Magnetic field (H) Hall Voltage (VH)
constant current (RH)
(Gauss) (volts)
power supply (A) cm3 C – 1

Observations and Calculations

(1) Thickness of the sample =t = cm

(2) Resistivity of the sample = = V C – 1 s cm

(3) Conductivity of the sample =  = CV – 1 s – 1 cm – 1

VH . t
(4) The hall coefficient of the sample = RH = × 10 8
IH
= -------------

1
(5) The carrier density of the sample = n=
RH q

= -------------

(6) The carrier mobility of the sample = RH

= ---------------
 Y

B
G I
D

O
C X
F E w
t VH

A B

Ba A Rh

Fig 6.2.1 Hall Effect Setup

Procedure
1. Connect the widthwise contacts of the hall probe to the terminals marked as ‘voltage’ (i.e.
potential difference should be measured along the width) and lengthwise contacts to the
terminals marked (i.e. current should be measured along the length) as shown in fig.
2. Switch on the Hall Effect setup and adjust the current say 0.2 mA.
3. Switch over the display in the Hall Effect setup to the voltage side.
4. Now place the probe in the magnetic field as shown in fig and switch on the electromagnetic
power supply and adjust the current to any desired value. Rotate the Hall probe until it
become perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage will be maximum in this adjustment.
5. Measure the hall voltage and tabulate the readings.
6. Measure the Hall voltage for different magnetic fields and tabulate the readings.
7. Measure the magnetic field using Gauss meter
8. From the data, calculate the Hall coefficient, carrier mobility and current density.
Result

1. The Hall coefficient of the given semi conducting material =

2. The carrier density =
3. The carrier mobility =
 3. To study V-I Characteristics of a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Aim
To measure the photoconductive nature and the dark resistance of the given light dependent
resistor (LDR) and to plot the characteristics of the LDR.

Apparatus Required
LDR, Resistor (1 k), ammeter (0 – 10 mA), voltmeter (0 – 10 V), light source, regulated power
supply.

Formula
V
By ohm’s law, V  IR (or) R  ohm
I
where R is the resistance of the LDR (i.e) the resistance when the LDR is closed. V and I
represents the corresponding voltage and current respectively.

Principle
The photoconductive device is based on the decrease in the resistance of certain semiconductor
materials when they are exposed to both infrared and visible radiation.
The photoconductivity is the result of carrier excitation due to light absorption and the figure of
merit depends on the light absorption efficiency. The increase in conductivity is due to an increase in the
number of mobile charge carriers in the material.
Procedure
1. The connections are given in as shown in Fig. 6.3.1.
2. The light source is switched on and made to fall on the LDR.
3. The corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted.
4. The procedure is repeated by keeping the light source at different distances from the LDR.
5. A graph is plotted between resistance and distance of LDR from the light source.
6. The LDR is closed and the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted. The
value of the dark resistance can be calculated by Ohm’s law.

1 k ( 0 - 10 mA) Y
+ _
A
RR
Light (k)
10 V + +
V LDR
_
_

X
Distance (cm)
Fig. 6.3.1 Circuit diagram Fig.6.3.2 Model graph
Observation
Voltmeter reading when the LDR is closed = …… V
Ammeter reading when the LDR is closed = ……. A

V
Dark resistance = R  = ……. ohm
I
Table 6.3.1 To determine the resistances of LDR at different distances
S.No Distance Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading RR
(cm) (V) volt (I) mA k

Result
1. The characteristics of LDR were studied and plotted.
2. The dark resistance of the given LDR = …….. ohm
 4 Determination of Energy Loss in a Magnetic Material – B-H Curve

Aim
(i) To trace the B-H loop (hysteresis) of a ferrite specimen (transformer core) and
(ii) To determine the energy loss of the given specimen.
Apparatus Required
Magnetizing coil, CRO, given sample of ferrite etc.,
Principle
The primary winding on the specimen, when fed to low a.c. voltage (50 Hz), produces a magnetic
field H of the specimen. The a.c. magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary coil. The voltage
across the resistance R1, connected in series with the primary is proportional to the magnetic field and is
given to the horizontal input of CRO. The induced voltage in the secondary coil, which is proportional to
dB/dt (flux density), is applied to the passive integrating circuit. The output of the integrator is now fed
to the vertical input of the CRO. Because of application of a voltage proportional to H to the horizontal
axis and a voltage proportional to B to the vertical axis, the loop is formed as shown in figure.
Formula

N1 R C
Energy loss =  2  2  SV S H  Area of loop Unit: Joules / cycle / unit vol.
N2 R1 AL

where N1 = number of turns in the Primary

N2 = number of turns in the Secondary
R1 = Resistance between D to A or D to B or D to C
R2 = Resistance between upper S and V (to be measured by the student on B-H unit)
C2 = Capacitance

A = Area of cross section = w  t (m)

L = Length of the specimen =2 (length + breadth) (m)
Table 6.4.1 To find width of the transformer core (w)
LC = …cm

S.No. MSR VSC TR = MSR + VSC  LC

Unit (cm) (div) (cm)

Mean (w) = ………………10 – 2 m

 Table 6.4.2 To find thickness of the transformer core (t)
LC =… cm

S.No. MSR VSC TR = MSR + VSC  LC

Unit (cm) (div) (cm)

Mean (t) = ………………10 – 2 m

Observations
N1 = Number of turns in the Primary = 200 turns

N2 = Number of turns in the Secondary = 400 turns

R2 = Resistance between upper S and V = 4.7 kilo-ohm

C2 = Capacitance = 4.7µF

A = Area of cross section (w  t) =… m2

L = Length of the specimen = 2(length + breadth) = … m

w = Width of the transformer core =… m

t = Thickness of the specimen =… m

R1 = Resistance between D to A or D to B or D to C =

Sv = Vertical sensitivity of CRO =

SH = Horizontal sensitivity of CRO =

Fig 6.4.1 Experimental Arrangement

 Fig 6.4.2 Hysteresis Loop Fig 6.4.3 Top view of BH curve Unit

Table 6.4.3 To find breadth of the transformer core (w)

LC = …cm

S.No. MSR VSC TR = MSR + VSC X LC

Unit (cm) (div) (cm)

Mean (b) = ………………10 – 2 m

Table 6.4.4 To find length of the transformer core (l)

LC =… cm

S.No. MSR VSC TR = MSR + VSC  LC

Unit (cm) (div) (cm)

Mean (l) = ………………10 – 2 m

Procedure

1. Choose appropriate resistance values by connecting terminal D to either A,B or C.

2. Connect the primary terminals of the specimen to P,P and secondary to S, S terminals.
3. Calibrate the CRO.
4. Adjust the CRO to work on external mode. The time is switched off. Adjust horizontal and
vertical position controls such that the spot is at the centre of the CRO screen.
5. Connect terminal marked GND to the ground of the CRO.
6. Connect terminal H to the horizontal input of the CRO.
7. Connect terminal V to the vertical input of the CRO.
8. Switch ON the power supply of the unit. The hysteresis loop is formed.
9. Adjust the horizontal and vertical gains such that the loop occupies maximum area on the screen of
the CRO. Once this adjustment is made, do not disturb the gain controls.
10. Trace the loop on a translucent graph paper. Estimate the area of loop.
11. Remove the connections from CRO without disturbing the horizontal and vertical gain controls.
12. Determine the vertical sensitivity of the CRO by applying a known AC voltage, say 6V (peak to
peak). If the spot deflects x cm, for 6V the sensitivity = (6/x 10 – 2 volts / metre. Let it be Sv.
13. Determine the horizontal sensitivity of the CRO by applying a known AC voltage, say 6V (peak to
peak). Let the horizontal sensitivity be SH volts / metre.
14. The energy loss is computed from the given formula.

Result
Energy loss of the transformer core is given as _____________ Joules/cycle/unit vol.
 5. Determination of Paramagnetic Susceptibility – Quincke’s Method

Aim
To measure the susceptibility of paramagnetic solution by Quincke’s tube method.
Apparatus Required
Quincke’s tube, Travelling microscope, sample (FeCl3 solution), electromagnet, Power supply,
Gauss meter.
Principle
Based on molecular currents to explain Para and diamagnetic properties magnetic moment to the
molecule and such substances are attracted in a magnetic filed are called paramagnetics. The repulsion of
diamagnetics is assigned to the induced molecular current and its respective reverse magnetic moment.
The force acting on a substance, of either repulsion or attraction, can be measured with the help
of an accurate balance in case of solids or with the measurement of rise in level in narrow capillary in
case of liquids.

The force depends on the susceptibility , of the material, i.e., on ratio of intensity of
magnetization to magnetizing field I/H. If the force on the substance and field are measured the value of
susceptibility can be calculated.
Formula
The susceptibility of the given sample is found by the formula

2(    )gh
= kg m– 1 s– 2 gauss– 2
H2

Where  is the density of the liquid or solution (kg/m3)

 is the density of air (kg/ m3)

g is the acceleration due to gravity (ms-2)
h is the height through which the column rises (m)
H is the magnetic field at the centre of pole pieces (Gauss)
 Electromagnet Electromagnet

N S

Quincke's Tube

Battery Rh
A

Fig. 6.5.1 Quincke’s Setup

Table 6.5.1 To find the rise in the capillary tube of the solution:
Microscopic reading without field (h1) = ….. cm

LC = … cm TR = MSR + (VSC  LC)

Travelling microscope reading Difference

Current (i) Field (H)
(h2) h = h1 ~h2
S.No. h / H2
MSR VSC
Ampere Gauss TR (cm)  10 – 2 m (m – 1 )
(cm) (div)

Mean h/H2 = …………….

Observation:

 = density of the liquid or solution = …..kg/m3

 = density of air = … kg/ m3

Calculation:

2(    )gh
The magnetic susceptibility of the given solution  =
H2
Procedure
1. The apparatus consists of U-shaped tube known as Quincke’s tube. One of the limbs of the
tube is wide and the other one is narrow.
2. The experimental liquid or the solution (FeCl3) is filled in the tube in such a way that the
meniscus of the liquid in the narrow limb is at the centre of the magnetic field as shown in the
figure.
3. The level of the liquid in the narrow tube is read by a traveling microscope when the
magnetic field is off (h1).
4. The magnetic field is switched on by switching on the electromagnet. Adjust the regulator
knob available with the power supply to the electromagnet and fix the current to be 0.3A.
The raised level of the column is read with the traveling microscope and noted in the table as
(h2).
5. The experiment is repeated by varying the field by changing the current insteps of 0.3 A upto
the maximum and each reading is noted.
6. To determine the magnetic field (H), the hall probe flux meter (Gauss meter) is used.
7. The flat portion of the hall probe is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field i.e. between
the pole pieces at the center parallel to the poles.
8. Switch off the electromagnet power supply. By adjusting, the gauss meter knob and fix the
field to be zero.
9. Switch on the electromagnet and adjust the current to be 0.3A. Note the field value from the
gauss meter. Repeat the same as before till attaining the maximum current and note the
reading in the table.
10. Calculate the magnetic susceptibility using the above formula.
Result
The magnetic susceptibility of the given sample = …………… kg m– 1 s– 2 gauss– 2
 6. Dielectric Constant Measurement
Aim
To determine the dielectric constant of the given sample at different temperatures.
Apparatus required
The given sample, capacitance meter, dielectric sample cell, digital temperature indicator etc.
Formula
1. The dielectric constant of the sample is given by,
r = C / C0 (No unit)
where C = capacitance of the sample (farad)
C0 = Capacitance of the air capacitor having the same area and
thickness as the sample (farad)

2. The capacitance of air capacitor is given by,

0A
C0  (farad )
d
where 0 = permittivity of free space
= 8.854  1012 farad / metre
A = area of the plates of the capacitor
(A = r2 : r = radius of the sample)
d = thickness of the sample (or) distance between the plates (m)
Principle
The capacitance of a capacitor increases when it is filled with an insulating medium. The increase
in the capacitance depends on the property of the medium, called dielectric constant (). It can be
measured using either static or alternating electric fields. The static dielectric constant is measured with
static fields or with low frequency ac fields. At higher frequencies, values of dielectric constant become
frequency dependent. The dielectric constant varies with temperature also.

Procedure

1. The given dielectric sample inside the dielectric cell in its position without forming air gap
between the plates of the sample holder.

2. Connect the thermocouple leads to a digital temperature indicator to measure the temperature
of the dielectric cell

3. Also, connect the capacitance meter to the dielectric cell

4. Connect the heater terminals of the dielectric cell to ac mains through a dimmerstat.

5. At room temperature, measure the capacitance of the sample using capacitances meter.

6. Now switch on the heater and measure the capacitance of the sample at different
temperature (in steps of 10°C starting from room temperature).
 6000

5000
Dielectric Constant

4000

3000

2000

1000
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
Temperature (Degree Celcius)
Fig. 6.6.1 Dielectric Constant versus Temperature for barium titanate

Table 6.6.1 Determination of dielectric constant of the sample:

Sl.No. Temperature (°C) Capacitance Dielectric constant

(Farad)  C 
  r  
 C 0 

Observation
The radius of the sample (r) = ………………….m
The thickness of the sample (d) =…………………..m
Calculation

The area of the plates of the capacitor =  r2 =…….. m2

The capacitance of the air capacitor,

0 A
C  ........... farad
d
The dielectric constant of the sample

C
n 
C0

7. Measure the thickness of the sample (d) using the micrometer screw attached in the sample
cell
8. Measure the diameter of the sample using a vernier caliper and determine the radius of the
sample
9. Calculate the capacitance of the air capacitor using, the relation

 0 (  r 2)
C0 
d
10. Calculate the dielectric constant of the sample at different temperatures using the
relation.

C
r 
C0

and tabulate the readings in the table

11. Plot a graph by taking temperature along X axis and dielectric constant along Y axis.
Result
The dielectric constants of the given sample at different temperature are measured and a graph is
plotted between the temperature and dielectric constant.
 7 (a) Calculation of Lattice Cell Parameters – X-ray Diffraction
Aim
The calculate the lattice cell parameters from the powder X-ray diffraction data.
Apparatus required
Powder X-ray diffraction diagram
Formula
For a cubic crystal
1 (h 2  k 2  l 2 )

d2 a2
For a tetragonal crystal

1   (h  k ) l 
2 2

2
  2
 2
d 
 a c 

For a orthorhombic crystal

1  h 2   k 2   l 2 
  
d 2  a 2   b 2   c 2 

The lattice parameter and interplanar distance are given for a cubic crystal as,


a  h2  k 2  l 2 Å
2 sin 
a
d Å
h2  k 2  l 2

Where, a = Lattice parameter

d = Interplanner distance
λ = Wavelength of the CuKα radiation (1.5405)
h, k, l = Miller integers

Principle
Braggs law is the theoretical basis for X-ray diffraction.

(sin 2  ) hkl  (2 / 4a 2 ) (h 2  k 2  l 2 )

Each of the Miller indices can take values 0, 1, 2, 3, …. Thus, the factor (h2 + k2 + l2)
takes the values given in Table 6.7.1.
 Table 6.7.1 Value of h2 + k 2 + l2 for different planes

h, k, l h2 + k2 + l2 h, k, l h2 + k2 + l2
100 1 300 9
110 2 310 10
111 3 311 11
200 4 322 12
210 5 320 13
211 6 321 14
220 8 400 16
221 9 410 17
Intensity

2

Fig.6.7.1 XRD pattern

The problem of indexing lies in fixing the correct value of a by inspection of the sin2 values.
Procedure:

From the 2 values on a powder photograph, the  values are obtained. The sin2 values are
tabulated. From that the values of 1  sin  , 2  sin  , 3  sin 
2 2 2
are determined and are tabulated.
2 2
sin  min 2
sin  min sin  min

The values of 3  sin 

2
are rounded to the nearest integer. This gives the value of h2+k2+l .From these
2
sin  min
the values of h,k,l are determined from the Table.6.7.1.

From the h,k,l values, the lattice parameters are calculated using the relation


a  h2  k 2  l 2 Å
2 sin 
a
d Å
h2  k 2  l 2
 Table 6.7.2 Value of h2 + k 2 + l2 for different planes

sin 2  sin 2  sin 2  a d

S. No 2 sin2 1 2 3 h2+k2+l2 hkl
sin  min
2
sin 2  min sin 2  min Å Å

Table 6.7.3 Lattice determination

Lattice type Rule for reflection to be observed

Primitive P None
Body centered I hkl : h + k + l = 2 n
Face centered F hkl : h, k, l either all odd or all even

Depending on the nature of the h,k,l values the lattice type can be determined.

Result:
The lattice parameters are calculated theoretically from the powder x-ray diffraction pattern.
 7(b) Determination of Glucose Concentration using Sensor
Aim

To determine the glucose concentration in the solutions of different concentration using IR sensor.

Apparatus required

Infra red LED, Photodiode, Amplification circuit board, Microcontroller board of 16F877A , LCD,
Power supply, Test Tube, Glucose – various concentrations like 10mg, 20mg, 30mg etc.

Principle

In this non invasive method, the infra red source and the detector work on the principle of
transmission mode. Test tube with various glucose concentrations are placed in between an infrared light
emitting diode and the photodiode. The infrared light source is transmitted through the test tube where
there will be a change in optical properties of the light. Now the transmitted light is detected by the
photodiode, which converts the light into electrical signal. This signal is sent to the microcontroller and
output is displayed in the LCD.The experiment is repeated with different concentrations of glucose
solutions and a graph is plotted between glucose concentration and voltage as indicated in Fig.6.8.2.

Sensing circuit

Power IR Sample Photo- Micro Display

supply source holder diode controller device

Fig.6.8.1 Schematic representation for determining glucose concentration

Voltage

Glucose concentration

Fig.6.8.2 Variation of voltage with glucose concentration

 Table 6.8.1 Variation of voltage with glucose concentration

Glucose concentrations Voltage obtained

S.No
(mg) (V)

Result

The glucose concentrations have been determined and the variations of voltage with glucose
concentration have been plotted.