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 CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii
PREFACE v
A NOTE FOR THE TEACHER x

C H A P T E R 1
PHYSICAL WORLD
1.1 What is physics ? 1
1.2 Scope and excitement of physics 2
1.3 Physics, technology and society 5
1.4 Fundamental forces in nature 6
1.5 Nature of physical laws 10

C H A P T E R 2
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 The international system of units 16
2.3 Measurement of length 18
2.4 Measurement of mass 21
2.5 Measurement of time 22
2.6 Accuracy, precision of instruments and errors in measurement 22
2.7 Significant figures 27
2.8 Dimensions of physical quantities 31
2.9 Dimensional formulae and dimensional equations 31
2.10 Dimensional analysis and its applications 32

C H A P T E R 3
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Position, path length and displacement 39
3.3 Average velocity and average speed 42
3.4 Instantaneous velocity and speed 43
3.5 Acceleration 45
3.6 Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated motion 47
3.7 Relative velocity 51

C H A P T E R 4
MOTION IN A PLANE
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Scalars and vectors 65
4.3 Multiplication of vectors by real numbers 67
4.4 Addition and subtraction of vectors – graphical method 67
4.5 Resolution of vectors 69

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4.6 Vector addition – analytical method 71

4.7 Motion in a plane 72
4.8 Motion in a plane with constant acceleration 75
4.9 Relative velocity in two dimensions 76
4.10 Projectile motion 77
4.11 Uniform circular motion 79

C H A P T E R 5
LAWS OF MOTION
5.1 Introduction 89
5.2 Aristotle’s fallacy 90
5.3 The law of inertia 90
5.4 Newton’s first law of motion 91
5.5 Newton’s second law of motion 93
5.6 Newton’s third law of motion 96
5.7 Conservation of momentum 98
5.8 Equilibrium of a particle 99
5.9 Common forces in mechanics 100
5.10 Circular motion 104
5.11 Solving problems in mechanics 105

C H A P T E R 6
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
6.1 Introduction 114
6.2 Notions of work and kinetic energy : The work-energy theorem 116
6.3 Work 116
6.4 Kinetic energy 117
6.5 Work done by a variable force 118
6.6 The work-energy theorem for a variable force 119
6.7 The concept of potential energy 120
6.8 The conservation of mechanical energy 121
6.9 The potential energy of a spring 123
6.10 Various forms of energy : the law of conservation of energy 126
6.11 Power 128
6.12 Collisions 129

C H A P T E R 7
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
7.1 Introduction 141
7.2 Centre of mass 144
7.3 Motion of centre of mass 148
7.4 Linear momentum of a system of particles 149
7.5 Vector product of two vectors 150
7.6 Angular velocity and its relation with linear velocity 152
7.7 Torque and angular momentum 154
7.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body 158
7.9 Moment of inertia 163
7.10 Theorems of perpendicular and parallel axes 164

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7.11 Kinematics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 167

7.12 Dynamics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 169
7.13 Angular momentum in case of rotations about a fixed axis 171
7.14 Rolling motion 173

C H A P T E R 8
GRAVITATION
8.1 Introduction 183
8.2 Kepler’s laws 184
8.3 Universal law of gravitation 185
8.4 The gravitational constant 189
8.5 Acceleration due to gravity of the earth 189
8.6 Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth 190
8.7 Gravitational potential energy 191
8.8 Escape speed 193
8.9 Earth satellite 194
8.10 Energy of an orbiting satellite 195
8.11 Geostationary and polar satellites 196
8.12 Weightlessness 197

APPENDICES 203

ANSWERS 219

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ANSWERS 219

ANSWERS

Chapter 2

2.1 (a) 10–6 ; (b) 1.5 × 104 ; (c) 5 ; (d) 11.3, 1.13 × 104.
2.2 (a) 107 ; (b) 10–16 ; (c) 3.9 × 104 ; (d) 6.67 × 10–8.
2.5 500
2.6 (c)
2.7 0.035 mm
2.9 94.1
2.10 (a) 1 ; (b) 3 ; (c) 4 ; (d) 4 ; (e) 4 ; (f) 4.
2.11 8.72 m2; 0.0855 m3
2.12 (a) 2.3 kg ; (b) 0.02 g
2.13 13%; 3.8
2.14 (b) and (c) are wrong on dimensional grounds. Hint: The argument of a trigonometric
function must always be dimensionless.
2.15 The correct formula is m = m0 (1 – v2/c2)–½
2.16 ≅ 3 × 10–7 m3
2.17 ≅ 104; intermolecular separation in a gas is much larger than the size of a molecule.
2.18 Near objects make greater angle than distant (far off) objects at the eye of the observer.
When you are moving, the angular change is less for distant objects than nearer objects.
So, these distant objects seem to move along with you, but the nearer objects in opposite
direction.
2.19 ≅ 3 × 1016 m; as a unit of length 1 parsec is defined to be equal to 3.084 × 1016 m.
2.20 1.32 parsec; 2.64″ (second of arc)
2.23 1.4 × 103 kg m-3; the mass density of the Sun is in the range of densities of liquids /
solids and not gases. This high density arises due to inward gravitational attraction
on outer layers due to inner layers of the Sun.
2.24 1.429 × 105 km
ANSWERS 220

2.25 Hint: tan θ must be dimensionless. The correct formula is tan θ = v/v ′ where v ′ is the
speed of rainfall.
2.26 Accuracy of 1 part in 1011 to 1012
2.27 ≅ 0.7 × 103 kg m–3. In the solid phase atoms are tightly packed, so the atomic mass
density is close to the mass density of the solid.
2.28 ≅ 0.3 × 1018 m–3 – Nuclear density is typically 1015 times atomic density of matter.
2.29 3.84 × 108 m
2.30 55.8 km
2.31 2.8 × 1022 km
2.32 3,581 km
2.33 Hint: the quantity e4/ (16 π 2 ∈20 mp me2 c3 G ) has the dimension of time.

Chapter 3
3.1 (a), (b)
3.2 (a) A....B, (b) A....B, (c) B....A, (d) Same, (e) B....A....once.
3.4 37 s
3.5 1000 km/h
3.6 3.06 m s–2 ; 11.4 s
3.7 1250 m (Hint: view the motion of B relative to A)
3.8 1 m s–2 (Hint: view the motion of B and C relative to A)
3.9 T = 9 min, speed = 40 km/h. Hint: v T / ( v – 20 ) =18; v T / ( v + 20 ) = 6
3.10 (a) Vertically downwards; (b) zero velocity, acceleration of 9.8 m s-2 downwards;
(c) x > 0 (upward and downward motion); v < 0 (upward), v > 0 (downward), a > 0
throughout; (d) 44.1 m, 6 s.
3.11 (a) True;, (b) False; (c) True (if the particle rebounds instantly with the same speed, it
implies infinite acceleration which is unphysical); (d) False (true only when the chosen
positive direction is along the direction of motion)

15 45
3.14 (a) 5 km h–1, 5 km h–1; (b) 0, 6 km h–1; (c) km h–1, km h–1
8 8
3.15 Because, for an arbitrarily small interval of time, the magnitude of displacement is equal
to the length of the path.
3.16 All the four graphs are impossible. (a) a particle cannot have two different positions at
the same time; (b) a particle cannot have velocity in opposite directions at the same
time; (c) speed is always non-negative; (d) total path length of a particle can never
decrease with time. (Note, the arrows on the graphs are meaningless).
3.17 No, wrong. x- t plot does not show the trajectory of a particle. Context: A body is dropped
from a tower (x = 0) at t = 0.
3.18 105 m s-1
ANSWERS 221

3.19 (a) A ball at rest on a smooth floor is kicked, it rebounds from a wall with reduced speed
and moves to the opposite wall which stops it; (b) A ball thrown up with some initial
velocity rebounding from the floor with reduced speed after each hit; (c) A uniformly
moving cricket ball turned back by hitting it with a bat for a very short time-interval.
3.20 x < 0, v < 0, a > 0; x > 0, v > 0, a < 0; x < 0, v > 0, a > 0.
3.21 Greatest in 3, least in 2; v > 0 in 1 and 2, v < 0 in 3.
3.22 Acceleration magnitude greatest in 2; speed greatest in 3; v > 0 in 1, 2 and 3; a > 0 in 1
and 3, a < 0 in 2; a = 0 at A, B, C, D.
3.23 A straight line inclined with the time-axis for uniformly accelerated motion; parallel to
the time- axis for uniform motion.
3.24 10 s, 10 s
3.25 (a) 13 km h–1 ; (b) 5 km h–1; (c) 20 s in either direction, viewed by any one of the parents,
the speed of the child is 9 km h–1 in either direction; answer to (c) is unaltered.
3.26 x2 – x1 = 15 t (linear part); x2 – x1 = 200 + 30 t – 5 t2 (curved part).
3.27 (a) 60 m, 6 m s-1 ; (b) 36 m, 9 m s-1
3.28 (c), (d), (f)
Chapter 4
4.1 Volume, mass, speed, density, number of moles, angular frequency are scalars; the rest
are vectors.
4.2 Work, current
4.3 Impulse
4.4 Only (c) and (d) are permissible
4.5 (a) T, (b) F, (c) F, (d) T, (e) T
4.6 Hint: The sum (difference) of any two sides of a triangle is never less (greater) than the
third side. Equality holds for collinear vectors.
4.7 All statements except (a) are correct
4.8 400 m for each; B
4.9 (a) O; (b) O; (c) 21.4 km h–1
4.10 Displacement of magnitude 1 km and direction 60o with the initial direction; total path
length = 1.5 km (third turn); null displacement vector; path length = 3 km (sixth turn);
866 m, 30o, 4 km (eighth turn)
4.11 (a) 49.3 km h–1 ; (b) 21.4 km h–1. No, the average speed equals average velocity magnitude
only for a straight path.
4.12 About 18o with the vertical, towards the south.
4.13 15 min, 750 m
4.14 East (approximately)
4.15 150.5 m
4.16 50 m
ANSWERS 222

4.17 9.9 m s-2, along the radius at every point towards the centre.
4.18 6.4 g
4.19 (a) False (true only for uniform circular motion)
(b) True, (c) True.

4.20 (a) v ( t ) = ( 3.0 $i − 4.0 t $j) a$ ( t ) = − 4.0 $j

(b) 8.54 m s–1, 70° with x-axis.
4.21 (a) 2 s, 24 m, 21.26 m s–1

4.22 2 , 45o with the x-axis; (

2 , – 45o with the x - axis, 5 / 2 , − 1 / )
2 .

4.23 (b) and (e)

4.24 Only (e) is true
4.25 182 m s–1
4.27 No. Rotations in general cannot be associated with vectors
4.28 A vector can be associated with a plane area
4.29 No
4.30 At an angle of sin-1 (1/3) = 19.5° with the vertical; 16 km.
4.31 0.86 m s–2, 54.5° with the direction of velocity

Chapter 5

5.1 (a) to (d) No net force according to the First Law

(e) No force, since it is far away from all material agencies producing electromagnetic
and gravitational forces.
5.2 The only force in each case is the force of gravity, (neglecting effects of air) equal to
0.5 N vertically downward. The answers do not change, even if the motion of the pebble
is not along the vertical. The pebble is not at rest at the highest point. It has a constant
horizontal component of velocity throughout its motion.
5.3 (a) 1 N vertically downwards (b) same as in (a)
(c) same as in (a); force at an instant depends on the situation at that instant, not on
history.
(d) 0.1 N in the direction of motion of the train.
5.4 (i) T
5.5 a = – 2.5 m s–2. Using v = u + at, 0 = 15 – 2.5 t i.e., t = 6.0 s
5.6 a = 1.5/25 = 0.06 m s–2
F = 3 × 0.06 = 0.18 N in the direction of motion.
5.7 Resultant force = 10 N at an angle of tan–1 (3/4) = 37° with the direction of 8 N force.
Acceleration = 2 m s–2 in the direction of the resultant force.
5.8 a = – 2.5 m s–2 , Retarding force = 465 × 2.5 = 1.2 × 103 N
5.9 F – 20,000 × 10 = 20000 × 5.0, i.e., F = 3.0 × 105 N
5.10 a = – 20 m s–2 0 ≤ t ≤ 30 s
ANSWERS 223

t = –5 s : x = u t = – 10 × 5 = –50 m
t = 25 s : x = u t + (½) a t2 = (10 × 25 – 10 × 625)m = – 6 km
t = 100 s : First consider motion up to 30 s
x1 = 10 × 30 – 10 × 900 = – 8700 m
At t = 30 s, v = 10 – 20 × 30 = –590 m s-1
For motion from 30 s to 100 s : x2 = – 590 × 70 = – 41300 m
x = x1 + x2 = – 50 km

5.11 (a) Velocity of car ( at t = 10 s ) = 0 + 2 × 10 = 20 m s–1

By the First Law, the horizontal component of velocity is 20 m s–1 throughout.
Vertical component of velocity (at t = 11s) = 0 + 10 × 1 = 10 m s–1

Velocity of stone (at t = 11s) = 20 2 + 10 2 = 500 = 22.4 m s – 1 at an angle of tan–1 ( ½) with

the horizontal.
(b)10 m s-2 vertically downwards.
5.12 (a) At the extreme position, the speed of the bob is zero. If the string is cut, it will fall
vertically downwards.
(b) At the mean position, the bob has a horizontal velocity. If the string is cut, it will fall
along a parabolic path.
5.13 The reading on the scale is a measure of the force on the floor by the man. By the Third
Law, this is equal and opposite to the normal force N on the man by the floor.
(a) N = 70 × 10 = 700 N ; Reading is 70 kg
(b) 70 × 10 – N = 70 × 5 ; Reading is 35 kg
(c) N – 70 × 10 = 70 × 5 ; Reading is 105 kg
(d) 70 × 10 – N = 70 × 10; Reading would be zero; the scale would read zero.
5.14 (a) In all the three intervals, acceleration and, therefore, force are zero.
(b) 3 kg m s–1 at t = 0 ; (c) –3 kg m s–1 at t = 4 s.
5.15 If the 20 kg mass is pulled,
600 – T = 20 a, T = 10 a
a = 20 m s–2, T = 200 N
If the 10 kg mass is pulled, a = 20 m s–2, T = 400 N
5.16 T – 8 × 10 = 8 a,12 × 10 – T = 12a
i.e. a = 2 m s–2, T = 96 N
5.17 By momentum conservation principle, total final momentum is zero. Two momentum
vectors cannot sum to a null momentum unless they are equal and opposite.
5.18 Impulse on each ball = 0.05 ×12 = 0.6 kg m s-1 in magnitude. The two impulses are
opposite in direction.
5.19 Use momentum conservation : 100 v = 0.02 × 80
v = 0.016 m s–1 = 1.6 cm s–1
5.20 Impulse is directed along the bisector of the initial and final directions. Its magnitude is
0.15 × 2 × 15 × cos 22.5° = 4.2 kg m s–1
40
5.21 v 2 1.5 2 m s –1
60
mv 2 0.25 4 2
T 6.6 N
R 1.5
ANSWERS 224

2
mvmax
200 , which gives v max 35 m s –1
R
5.22 Alternative (b) is correct, according to the First Law
5.23 (a) The horse-cart system has no external force in empty space. The mutual forces
between the horse and the cart cancel (Third Law). On the ground, the contact force
between the system and the ground (friction) causes their motion from rest.
(b) Due to inertia of the body not directly in contact with the seat.
(c) A lawn mower is pulled or pushed by applying force at an angle. When you push, the
normal force (N ) must be more than its weight, for equilibrium in the vertical direction.
This results in greater friction f ( f ∝ N ) and, therefore, a greater applied force to move.
Just the opposite happens while pulling.
(d) To reduce the rate of change of momentum and hence to reduce the force necessary
to stop the ball.
5.24 A body with a constant speed of 1 cm s -1 receives impulse of magnitude
0.04 kg × 0.02 m s–1 = 8 × 10–4 kg m s–1 after every 2 s from the walls at x = 0 and
x = 2 cm.
5.25 Net force = 65 kg × 1 m s–2 = 65 N
amax = μs g = 2 m s–2
5.26 Alternative (a) is correct. Note mg + T2 = mv22/R ; T1 – mg = mv12/R
The moral is : do not confuse the actual material forces on a body (tension, gravitational
force, etc) with the effects they produce : centripetal acceleration v22/R or v12/R in this
example.
5.27 (a) ‘Free body’ : crew and passengers
Force on the system by the floor = F upwards; weight of system = mg downwards;
∴ F – mg = ma
F – 300 × 10 = 300 × 15
F = 7.5 × 103 N upward
By the Third Law, force on the floor by the crew and passengers = 7.5 × 103 N downwards.
(b) ‘Free body’ : helicopter plus the crew and passengers
Force by air on the system = R upwards; weight of system = mg downwards
∴ R – mg = ma
R – 1300 × 10 = 1300 × 15
R = 3.25 × 104 N upwards
By the Third Law, force (action) on the air by the helicopter = 3.25 × 104 N downwards.
(c) 3.25 × 104 N upwards
5.28 Mass of water hitting the wall per second
= 103 kg m–3 × 10–2 m2 × 15 m s–1 = 150 kg s –1
Force by the wall = momentum loss of water per second = 150 kg s–1 × 15 m s-1 = 2.25
× 103 N
5.29 (a) 3 m g (down) (b) 3 m g (down) (c) 4 m g (up)
5.30 If N is the normal force on the wings,
ANSWERS 225

mv 2
N cos θ = mg, N sin θ =
R
v2 200 × 200
which give R = = = 15km
g tan θ 10 × tan15°

5.31 The centripetal force is provided by the lateral thrust by the rail on the flanges of the
wheels. By the Third Law, the train exerts an equal and opposite thrust on the rail
causing its wear and tear.

–1 ⎛ v ⎞ –1 ⎛ 15 × 15 ⎞
2
Angle of banking = tan ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟ 37°
⎝ R g ⎠ ⎝ 30 × 10 ⎠

5.32 Consider the forces on the man in equilibrium : his weight, force due to the rope and
normal force due to the floor.
(a) 750 N (b) 250 N; mode (b) should be adopted.
5.33 (a) T – 400 = 240, T = 640 N
(b) 400 – T = 160, T = 240 N
(c) T = 400 N
(d) T = 0
The rope will break in case (a).
5.34 We assume perfect contact between bodies A and B and the rigid partition. In that
case, the self-adjusting normal force on B by the partition (reaction) equals 200 N.
There is no impending motion and no friction. The action-reaction forces between A
and B are also 200 N. When the partition is removed, kinetic friction comes into play.
Acceleration of A + B = [ 200 – ( 150 × 0.15 ) ] / 15 =11.8 m s–2
Friction on A = 0.15 × 50 = 7.5 N
200 – 7.5 – FAB = 5 × 11.8
FAB = 1.3 × 102 N; opposite to motion .
FBA = 1.3 × 102 N; in the direction of motion.
5.35 (a) Maximum frictional force possible for opposing impending relative motion between
the block and the trolley = 150 × 0.18 = 27 N, which is more than the frictional force of
15 × 0.5 = 7.5 N needed to accelerate the box with the trolley. When the trolley moves
with uniform velocity, there is no force of friction acting on the block.
(b) For the accelerated (non-inertial) observer, frictional force is opposed by the pseudo-
force of the same magnitude, keeping the box at rest relative to the observer. When the
trolley moves with uniform velocity there is no pseudo-force for the moving (inertial)
observer and no friction.
5.36 Acceleration of the box due to friction = μg = 0.15 × 10 = 1.5 m s–2. But the acceleration
of the truck is greater. The acceleration of the box relative to the truck is 0.5 m s-2

towards the rear end. The time taken for the box to fall off the truck = 2 5
20 s .
0.5
During this time, the truck covers a distance = ½ × 2 × 20 = 20 m.
ANSWERS 226

5.37 For the coin to revolve with the disc, the force of friction should be enough to provide the
mv 2 2π
necessary centripetal force, i.e ≤ μ m g . Now v = rω, where ω = is the angular
r T
frequency of the disc. For a given μ and ω, the condition is r ≤ μg / ω2. The condition is
satisfied by the nearer coin ( 4 cm from the centre).

mv 2
5.38 At the uppermost point, N + mg = , where N is the normal force (downwards) on the
R
motorcyclist by the ceiling of the chamber. The minimum possible speed at the uppermost
point corresponds to N = 0.
i.e. v min Rg 25 10 16 m s –1
5.39 The horizontal force N by the wall on the man provides the needed centripetal force : N
= m R ω2. The frictional force f (vertically upwards) opposes the weight mg. The man
remains stuck to the wall after the floor is removed if mg = f < μ N i.e. mg < μ m R ω2. The
minimum angular speed of rotation of the cylinder is ω min = g / μR = 5 s–1

5.40 Consider the free-body diagram of the bead when the radius vector joining the centre of
the wire makes an angle θ with the vertical downward direction. We have
mg = N cos θ and m R sin θ ω2 = N sin θ. These equations give cos θ = g/Rω2. Since cos θ ≤ 1,
g
the bead remains at its lowermost point for ω ≤ .
R

2g 1
For ω = , cos θ = i.e. θ = 60 0 .
R 2

Chapter 6

6.1 (a) +ve (b) –ve (c) –ve (d) + ve (e) – ve

6.2 (a) 882 J ; (b) –247 J; (c) 635 J ; (d) 635 J;
Work done by the net force on a body equals change in its kinetic energy.
6.3 (a) x > a ; 0 (c) x < a, x > b ; - V1
(b) −∞ < x < ∞; V1 (d) - b/2 < x < - a / 2, a / 2 < x < b / 2; -V1
6.5 (a) rocket; (b) For a conservative force work done over a path is minus of change in
potential energy. Over a complete orbit, there is no change in potential energy; (c) K.E.
increases, but P.E. decreases, and the sum decreases due to dissipation against friction;
(d) in the second case.
6.6 (a) decrease; (b) kinetic energy; (c) external force; (d) total linear momentum, and also
total energy (if the system of two bodies is isolated).
6.7 (a) F ; (b) F ; (c) F ; (d) F (true usually but not always, why?)
6.8 (a) No
(b) Yes
(c) Linear momentum is conserved during an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is, of
course, not conserved even after the collision is over.
(d) elastic.

6.9 (b) t
ANSWERS 227

6.10 (c)
6.11 12 J
6.12 The electron is faster, ve / vp = 13.5
6.13 0.082 J in each half ; – 0.163 J
6.14 Yes, momentum of the molecule + wall system is conserved. The wall has a recoil
momentum such that the momentum of the wall + momentum of the outgoing molecule
equals momentum of the incoming molecule, assuming the wall to be stationary initially.
However, the recoil momentum produces negligible velocity because of the large mass of
the wall. Since kinetic energy is also conserved, the collision is elastic.
6.15 43.6 kW
6.16 (b)
6.17 It transfers its entire momentum to the ball on the table, and does not rise at all.
6.18 5.3 m s-1
6.19 27 km h–1 (no change in speed)
6.20 50 J

6.21 (a) m Avt (b) K Av 3t /2 (c) P = 4.5 kW

6.22 (a) 49,000 J (b) 6.45 10-3 kg

6.23 (a) 200 m2 (b) comparable to the roof of a large house of dimension 14m × 14m.
6.24 21.2 cm, 28.5 J
6.25 No, the stone on the steep plane reaches the
t 3 / 2bottom earlier; yes, they reach with the
same speed v, [since mgh =(1/2) m v2 ]
vB = vC = 14.1 m s–1 , tB = 2 2 s , tC = 2 2 s
6.26 0.125
6.27 8.82 J for both cases.
6.28 The child gives an impulse to the trolley at the start and then runs with a constant
relative velocity of 4 m s–1 with respect to the trolley’s new velocity. Apply momentum
conservation for an observer outside. 10.36 m s–1, 25.9 m.
6.29 All except (V) are impossible.

Chapter 7

7.1 The geometrical centre of each. No, the CM may lie outside the body, as in case of a
ring, a hollow sphere, a hollow cylinder, a hollow cube etc.
7.2 Located on the line joining H and C1 nuclei at a distance of 1.24 Å from the H end.
7.3 The speed of the CM of the (trolley + child) system remains unchanged (equal to v)
because no external force acts on the system. The forces involved in running on the
trolley are internal to this system.
7.6 lz = xpy – ypx, lx = ypz – zpy, ly = zpx – xpz
7.8 72 cm
7.9 3675 N on each front wheel, 5145 N on each back wheel.
7.10 (a) 7/5 MR2 (b) 3/2 MR2
ANSWERS 228

7.11 Sphere
7.12 Kinetic Energy = 3125 J; Angular Momentum = 62.5 J s
7.13 (a) 100 rev/min (use angular momentum conservation).
(b) The new kinetic energy is 2.5 times the initial kinetic energy of rotation. The child
uses his internal energy to increase his rotational kinetic energy.
7.14 25 s-2; 10 m s-2
7.15 36 kW
7.16 at R/6 from the center of original disc opposite to the center of cut portion.
7.17 66.0 g
7.18 (a) Yes; (b) Yes, (c) the plane with smaller inclination (äa α sin θ)
7.19 4J
7.20 6.75×1012 rad s–1
7.21 (a) 3.8 m (b) 3.0 s
7.22 Tension = 98 N, NB = 245 N, NC = 147 N.
7.23 (a) 59 rev/min, (b) No, the K.E. is increased and it comes from work done by man in
the process.
7.24 0.625 rad s–1
7.27 (a) By angular momentum conservation, the common angular speed
ω = (I1 ω1 + I2 ω2) / (I1 + I2)
(b) The loss is due to energy dissipation in frictional contact which brings the two
discs to a common angular speed ω. However, since frictional torques are internal
to the system, angular momentum is unaltered.
7.28 Velocity of A = ωo R in the same direction as the arrow; velocity of B = ωo R in the
opposite direction to the arrow; velocity of C = ωo R/2 in the same direction as the
arrow. The disc will not roll on a frictionless plane.
7.29 (a) Frictional force at B opposes velocity of B. Therefore, frictional force is in the same
direction as the arrow. The sense of frictional torque is such as to oppose angular
motion. ωo and τ are both normal to the paper, the first into the paper, and the second
coming out of the paper.
(b) Frictional force decreases the velocity of the point of contact B. Perfect rolling
ensues when this velocity is zero. Once this is so, the force of friction is zero.
7.30 Frictional force causes the CM to accelerate from its initial zero velocity. Frictional
torque causes retardation in the initial angular speed ωo. The equations of motion are
: μk m g = m a and μk m g R = – Iα, which yield v = μk g t, ω = ωo – μk m g R t / I. Rolling
begins when v = R ω. For a ring, I = m R2, and rolling begins at t = ωo R/2 μk g. For a
disc, I = ½ m R2 and rolling starts at break line t = R ωo/3 μk g. Thus, the disc begins to
roll earlier than the ring, for the same R and ωo. The actual times can be obtained for
R = 10 cm, ωo = 10 π rad s–1, μk = 0.2
ANSWERS 229

7.31 (a) 16.4 N

(b) Zero
(c) 37° approx.
Chapter 8

8.1 (a ) No.
(b) Yes, if the size of the space ship is large enough for him to detect the variation in g.
(c) Tidal effect depends inversely on the cube of the distance unlike force, which depends
inversely on the square of the distance.
8.2 (a) decreases; (b) decreases; (c) mass of the body; (d) more.
8.3 Smaller by a factor of 0.63.
8.5 3.54 × 108 years.
8.6 (a) Kinetic energy, (b) less,
8.7 (a) No, (b) No, (c) No, (d) Yes
[The escape velocity is independent of mass of the body and the direction of projection.
It depends upon the gravitational potential at the point from where the body is launched.
Since this potential depends (slightly) on the latitude and height of the point, the escape
velocity (speed) depends (slightly) on these factors.]
8.8 All quantities vary over an orbit except angular momentum and total energy.

8.9 (b), (c) and (d)

8.10 and 8.11 For these two problems, complete the hemisphere to sphere. At both P, and C,
potential is constant and hence intensity = 0. Therefore, for the hemisphere, (c) and (e)
are correct.

P C

8.12 2.6 × 108 m

8.13 2.0 × 1030 kg
8.14 1.43 × 1012 m
8.15 28 N
8.16 125 N
8.17 8.0 × 106 m from the earth’s centre
8.18 31.7 km/s
8.19 5.9 × 109 J
ANSWERS 230

8.20 2.6 × 106 m/s

8.21 0, 2.7 × 10-8 J/kg; an object placed at the mid point is in an unstable equilibrium
8.22 –9.4 × 106 J/kg
8.23 G M / R2 = 2.3 × 1012 m s-2 , ω2 R = 1.1 × 106 m s-2; here ω is the angular speed of rotation.
Thus in the rotating frame of the star, the inward force is much greater than the outward
centrifugal force at its equator. The object will remain stuck (and not fly off due to
centrifugal force). Note, if angular speed of rotation increases say by a factor of 2000,
the object will fly off.
8.24 3 × 1011 J
8.25 495 km
CHAPTER ONE

PHYSICAL WORLD

1.1 WHAT IS PHYSICS ?

Humans have always been curious about the world around
them. The night sky with its bright celestial objects has
fascinated humans since time immemorial. The regular
1.1 What is physics ?
repetitions of the day and night, the annual cycle of seasons,
1.2 Scope and excitement of the eclipses, the tides, the volcanoes, the rainbow have always
physics been a source of wonder. The world has an astonishing variety
1.3 Physics, technology and of materials and a bewildering diversity of life and behaviour.
society The inquiring and imaginative human mind has responded
1.4 Fundamental forces in to the wonder and awe of nature in different ways. One kind
nature of response from the earliest times has been to observe the
1.5 Nature of physical laws physical environment carefully, look for any meaningful
Summary patterns and relations in natural phenomena, and build and
Exercises use new tools to interact with nature. This human endeavour
led, in course of time, to modern science and technology.
The word Science originates from the Latin verb Scientia
meaning ‘to know’. The Sanskrit word Vijnan and the Arabic
word Ilm convey similar meaning, namely ‘knowledge’.
Science, in a broad sense, is as old as human species. The
early civilisations of Egypt, India, China, Greece, Mesopotamia
and many others made vital contributions to its progress.
From the sixteenth century onwards, great strides were made
in science in Europe. By the middle of the twentieth century,
science had become a truly international enterprise, with
many cultures and countries contributing to its rapid growth.
What is Science and what is the so-called Scientific
Method ? Science is a systematic attempt to understand
natural phenomena in as much detail and depth as possible,
and use the knowledge so gained to predict, modify and
control phenomena. Science is exploring, experimenting and
predicting from what we see around us. The curiosity to learn
about the world, unravelling the secrets of nature is the first
step towards the discovery of science. The scientific method
involves several interconnected steps : Systematic
observations, controlled experiments, qualitative and
2 PHYSICS

quantitative reasoning, mathematical Physics is a basic discipline in the category

modelling, prediction and verification or of Natural Sciences, which also includes other
falsification of theories. Speculation and disciplines like Chemistry and Biology. The word
conjecture also have a place in science; but Physics comes from a Greek word meaning
ultimately, a scientific theory, to be acceptable, nature. Its Sanskrit equivalent is Bhautiki that
must be verified by relevant observations or is used to refer to the study of the physical world.
experiments. There is much philosophical A precise definition of this discipline is neither
debate about the nature and method of science possible nor necessary. We can broadly describe
that we need not discuss here. physics as a study of the basic laws of nature
The interplay of theory and observation (or and their manifestation in different natural
experiment) is basic to the progress of science. phenomena. The scope of physics is described
Science is ever dynamic. There is no ‘final’ briefly in the next section. Here we remark on
theory in science and no unquestioned two principal thrusts in physics : unification
authority among scientists. As observations and reduction.
improve in detail and precision or experiments In Physics, we attempt to explain diverse
yield new results, theories must account for physical phenomena in terms of a few concepts
them, if necessary, by introducing modifications.
and laws. The effort is to see the physical world
Sometimes the modifications may not be drastic
as manifestation of some universal laws in
and may lie within the framework of existing
different domains and conditions. For example,
theory. For example, when Johannes Kepler
the same law of gravitation (given by Newton)
(1571-1630) examined the extensive data on
describes the fall of an apple to the ground, the
planetary motion collected by Tycho Brahe
motion of the moon around the earth and the
(1546-1601), the planetary circular orbits in
heliocentric theory (sun at the centre of the motion of planets around the sun. Similarly, the
solar system) imagined by Nicolas Copernicus basic laws of electromagnetism (Maxwell’s
(1473–1543) had to be replaced by elliptical equations) govern all electric and magnetic
orbits to fit the data better. Occasionally, phenomena. The attempts to unify fundamental
however, the existing theory is simply unable forces of nature (section 1.4) reflect this same
to explain new observations. This causes a quest for unification.
major upheaval in science. In the beginning of A related effort is to derive the properties of a
the twentieth century, it was realised that bigger, more complex, system from the properties
Newtonian mechanics, till then a very and interactions of its constituent simpler parts.
successful theory, could not explain some of the This approach is called reductionism and is
most basic features of atomic phenomena. at the heart of physics. For example, the subject
Similarly, the then accepted wave picture of light of thermodynamics, developed in the nineteenth
failed to explain the photoelectric effect properly. century, deals with bulk systems in terms of
This led to the development of a radically new macroscopic quantities such as temperature,
theory (Quantum Mechanics) to deal with atomic internal energy, entropy, etc. Subsequently, the
and molecular phenomena. subjects of kinetic theory and statistical
Just as a new experiment may suggest an mechanics interpreted these quantities in terms
alternative theoretical model, a theoretical of the properties of the molecular constituents
advance may suggest what to look for in some of the bulk system. In particular, the
experiments. The result of experiment of temperature was seen to be related to the average
scattering of alpha particles by gold foil, in 1911 kinetic energy of molecules of the system.
by Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) established
the nuclear model of the atom, which then 1.2 SCOPE AND EXCITEMENT OF PHYSICS
became the basis of the quantum theory of We can get some idea of the scope of physics by
hydrogen atom given in 1913 by Niels Bohr looking at its various sub-disciplines. Basically,
(1885–1962). On the other hand, the concept of there are two domains of interest : macroscopic
antiparticle was first introduced theoretically by and microscopic. The macroscopic domain
Paul Dirac (1902–1984) in 1930 and confirmed includes phenomena at the laboratory, terrestrial
two years later by the experimental discovery of and astronomical scales. The microscopic domain
positron (antielectron) by Carl Anderson. includes atomic, molecular and nuclear
PHYSICAL WORLD 3

phenomena*. Classical Physics deals mainly chemical process, etc., are problems of interest
with macroscopic phenomena and includes in thermodynamics.
subjects like Mechanics, Electrodynamics, The microscopic domain of physics deals with
Optics and Thermodynamics. Mechanics the constitution and structure of matter at the
founded on Newton’s laws of motion and the law minute scales of atoms and nuclei (and even
of gravitation is concerned with the motion (or
lower scales of length) and their interaction with
equilibrium) of particles, rigid and deformable
different probes such as electrons, photons and
bodies, and general systems of particles. The
propulsion of a rocket by a jet of ejecting gases, other elementary particles. Classical physics is
propagation of water waves or sound waves in inadequate to handle this domain and Quantum
air, the equilibrium of a bent rod under a load, Theory is currently accepted as the proper
etc., are problems of mechanics. Electrodynamics framework for explaining microscopic
deals with electric and magnetic phenomena phenomena. Overall, the edifice of physics is
associated with charged and magnetic bodies. beautiful and imposing and you will appreciate
Its basic laws were given by Coulomb, Oersted, it more as you pursue the subject.

Fig. 1.1 Theory and experiment go hand in hand in physics and help each other’s progress. The alpha scattering
experiments of Rutherford gave the nuclear model of the atom.

Ampere and Faraday, and encapsulated by You can now see that the scope of physics is
Maxwell in his famous set of equations. The truly vast. It covers a tremendous range of
motion of a current-carrying conductor in a magnitude of physical quantities like length,
magnetic field, the response of a circuit to an ac mass, time, energy, etc. At one end, it studies
voltage (signal), the working of an antenna, the phenomena at the very small scale of length
propagation of radio waves in the ionosphere, etc., -14
(10 m or even less) involving electrons, protons,
are problems of electrodynamics. Optics deals etc.; at the other end, it deals with astronomical
with the phenomena involving light. The working
phenomena at the scale of galaxies or even the
of telescopes and microscopes, colours exhibited
entire universe whose extent is of the order of
by thin films, etc., are topics in optics. 26
10 m. The two length scales differ by a factor of
Thermodynamics, in contrast to mechanics, does 40
not deal with the motion of bodies as a whole. 10 or even more. The range of time scales can
Rather, it deals with systems in macroscopic be obtained by dividing the length scales by the
–22
equilibrium and is concerned with changes in speed of light : 10 s to 1018 s. The range of
internal energy, temperature, entropy, etc., of the masses goes from, say, 10–30 kg (mass of an
55
system through external work and transfer of electron) to 10 kg (mass of known observable
heat. The efficiency of heat engines and universe). Terrestrial phenomena lie somewhere
refrigerators, the direction of a physical or in the middle of this range.

* Recently, the domain intermediate between the macroscopic and the microscopic (the so-called mesoscopic
physics), dealing with a few tens or hundreds of atoms, has emerged as an exciting field of research.
4 PHYSICS

Physics is exciting in many ways. To some people

the excitement comes from the elegance and Hypothesis, axioms and models
universality of its basic theories, from the fact that One should not think that everything can be proved
a few basic concepts and laws can explain with physics and mathematics. All physics, and also
phenomena covering a large range of magnitude mathematics, is based on assumptions, each of
of physical quantities. To some others, the challenge which is variously called a hypothesis or axiom or
in carrying out imaginative new experiments to postulate, etc.
unlock the secrets of nature, to verify or refute For example, the universal law of gravitation
theories, is thrilling. Applied physics is equally proposed by Newton is an assumption or hypothesis,
demanding. Application and exploitation of which he proposed out of his ingenuity. Before him,
there were several observations, experiments and
physical laws to make useful devices is the most
data, on the motion of planets around the sun,
interesting and exciting part and requires great
motion of the moon around the earth, pendulums,
ingenuity and persistence of effort. bodies falling towards the earth etc. Each of these
What lies behind the phenomenal progress required a separate explanation, which was more
of physics in the last few centuries? Great or less qualitative. What the universal law of
progress usually accompanies changes in our gravitation says is that, if we assume that any two
basic perceptions. First, it was realised that for bodies in the universe attract each other with a
scientific progress, only qualitative thinking, force proportional to the product of their masses
though no doubt important, is not enough. and inversely proportional to the square of the
Quantitative measurement is central to the distance between them, then we can explain all
growth of science, especially physics, because these observations in one stroke. It not only explains
the laws of nature happen to be expressible in these phenomena, it also allows us to predict the
precise mathematical equations. The second results of future experiments.
most important insight was that the basic laws A hypothesis is a supposition without assuming
of physics are universal — the same laws apply that it is true. It would not be fair to ask anybody
to prove the universal law of gravitation, because
in widely different contexts. Lastly, the strategy
it cannot be proved. It can be verified and
of approximation turned out to be very
substantiated by experiments and observations.
successful. Most observed phenomena in daily An axiom is a self-evident truth while a model
life are rather complicated manifestations of the is a theory proposed to explain observed
basic laws. Scientists recognised the importance phenomena. But you need not worry at this stage
of extracting the essential features of a about the nuances in using these words. For
phenomenon from its less significant aspects. example, next year you will learn about Bohr’s model
It is not practical to take into account all the of hydrogen atom, in which Bohr assumed that an
complexities of a phenomenon in one go. A good electron in the hydrogen atom follows certain rules
strategy is to focus first on the essential features, (postutates). Why did he do that? There was a large
discover the basic principles and then introduce amount of spectroscopic data before him which no
corrections to build a more refined theory of the other theory could explain. So Bohr said that if we
phenomenon. For example, a stone and a feather assume that an atom behaves in such a manner,
dropped from the same height do not reach the we can explain all these things at once.
ground at the same time. The reason is that the Einstein’s special theory of relativity is also
based on two postulates, the constancy of the speed
essential aspect of the phenomenon, namely free
of electromagnetic radiation and the validity of
fall under gravity, is complicated by the
physical laws in all inertial frame of reference. It
presence of air resistance. To get the law of free would not be wise to ask somebody to prove that
fall under gravity, it is better to create a the speed of light in vacuum is constant,
situation wherein the air resistance is independent of the source or observer.
negligible. We can, for example, let the stone and In mathematics too, we need axioms and
the feather fall through a long evacuated tube. hypotheses at every stage. Euclid’s statement that
In that case, the two objects will fall almost at parallel lines never meet, is a hypothesis. This means
the same rate, giving the basic law that that if we assume this statement, we can explain
acceleration due to gravity is independent of the several properties of straight lines and two or three
mass of the object. With the basic law thus dimensional figures made out of them. But if you
found, we can go back to the feather, introduce don’t assume it, you are free to use a different axiom
corrections due to air resistance, modify the and get a new geometry, as has indeed happened in
existing theory and try to build a more realistic the past few centuries and decades.
PHYSICAL WORLD 5

theory of objects falling to the earth under A most significant area to which physics has
gravity. and will contribute is the development of
alternative energy resources. The fossil fuels of
1.3 PHYSICS, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY the planet are dwindling fast and there is an
The connection between physics, technology urgent need to discover new and affordable
and society can be seen in many examples. The sources of energy. Considerable progress has
discipline of thermodynamics arose from the already been made in this direction (for
need to understand and improve the working of example, in conversion of solar energy,
heat engines. The steam engine, as we know, geothermal energy, etc., into electricity), but
is inseparable from the Industrial Revolution in much more is still to be accomplished.
England in the eighteenth century, which had Table1.1 lists some of the great physicists,
great impact on the course of human their major contribution and the country of
civilisation. Sometimes technology gives rise to origin. You will appreciate from this table the
new physics; at other times physics generates multi-cultural, international character of the
new technology. An example of the latter is the scientific endeavour. Table 1.2 lists some
wireless communication technology that followed important technologies and the principles of
the discovery of the basic laws of electricity and physics they are based on. Obviously, these
magnetism in the nineteenth century. The tables are not exhaustive. We urge you to try to
applications of physics are not always easy to add many names and items to these tables with
foresee. As late as 1933, the great physicist the help of your teachers, good books and
Ernest Rutherford had dismissed the possibility websites on science. You will find that this
of tapping energy from atoms. But only a few exercise is very educative and also great fun.
years later, in 1938, Hahn and Meitner And, assuredly, it will never end. The progress
discovered the phenomenon of neutron-induced of science is unstoppable!
fission of uranium, which would serve as the Physics is the study of nature and natural
basis of nuclear power reactors and nuclear phenomena. Physicists try to discover the rules
weapons. Yet another important example of that are operating in nature, on the basis of
physics giving rise to technology is the silicon observations, experimentation and analysis.
‘chip’ that triggered the computer revolution in Physics deals with certain basic rules/laws
the last three decades of the twentieth century. governing the natural world. What is the nature

Table 1.1 Some physicists from different countries of the world and their major contributions

Name Major contribution/discovery Country of

Origin
Archimedes Principle of buoyancy; Principle of the lever Greece
Galileo Galilei Law of inertia Italy
Christiaan Huygens Wave theory of light Holland
Isaac Newton Universal law of gravitation; Laws of motion; U.K.
Reflecting telescope
Michael Faraday Laws of electromagnetic induction U.K.
James Clerk Maxwell Electromagnetic theory; Light-an U.K.
electromagnetic wave
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Generation of electromagnetic waves Germany
J.C. Bose Ultra short radio waves India
W.K. Roentgen X-rays Germany
J.J. Thomson Electron U.K.
Marie Sklodowska Curie Discovery of radium and polonium; Studies on Poland
natural radioactivity
Albert Einstein Explanation of photoelectric effect; Germany
Theory of relativity
6 PHYSICS

Name Major contribution/discovery Country of

Origin
Victor Francis Hess Cosmic radiation Austria
R.A. Millikan Measurement of electronic charge U.S.A.
Ernest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom New Zealand
Niels Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom Denmark
C.V. Raman Inelastic scattering of light by molecules India
Louis Victor de Borglie Wave nature of matter France
M.N. Saha Thermal ionisation India
S.N. Bose Quantum statistics India
Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion principle Austria
Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission Italy
Werner Heisenberg Quantum mechanics; Uncertainty principle Germany
Paul Dirac Relativistic theory of electron; U.K.
Quantum statistics
Edwin Hubble Expanding universe U.S.A.
Ernest Orlando Lawrence Cyclotron U.S.A.
James Chadwick Neutron U.K.
Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces Japan
Homi Jehangir Bhabha Cascade process of cosmic radiation India
Lev Davidovich Landau Theory of condensed matter; Liquid helium Russia
S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution India
of stars
John Bardeen Transistors; Theory of super conductivity U.S.A.
C.H. Townes Maser; Laser U.S.A.
Abdus Salam Unification of weak and electromagnetic Pakistan
interactions

of physical laws? We shall now discuss the ideas about it. The correct notion of force was
nature of fundamental forces and the laws that arrived at by Isaac Newton in his famous laws of
govern the diverse phenomena of the physical motion. He also gave an explicit form for the force
world. for gravitational attraction between two bodies.
We shall learn these matters in subsequent
1.4 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE*
chapters.
We all have an intuitive notion of force. In our In the macroscopic world, besides the
experience, force is needed to push, carry or gravitational force, we encounter several kinds
throw objects, deform or break them. We also of forces: muscular force, contact forces between
experience the impact of forces on us, like when bodies, friction (which is also a contact force
a moving object hits us or we are in a merry-go- parallel to the surfaces in contact), the forces
round. Going from this intuitive notion to the exerted by compressed or elongated springs and
proper scientific concept of force is not a trivial taut strings and ropes (tension), the force of
matter. Early thinkers like Aristotle had wrong buoyancy and viscous force when solids are in

* Sections 1.4 and 1.5 contain several ideas that you may not grasp fully in your first reading. However, we
advise you to read them carefully to develop a feel for some basic aspects of physics. These are some of the
areas which continue to occupy the physicists today.
PHYSICAL WORLD 7

Table 1.2 Link between technology and physics

Technology Scientific principle(s)

Steam engine Laws of thermodynamics

Nuclear reactor Controlled nuclear fission
Radio and Television Generation, propagation and detection
of electromagnetic waves
Computers Digital logic
Lasers Light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation
Production of ultra high magnetic Superconductivity
fields
Rocket propulsion Newton’s laws of motion
Electric generator Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
Hydroelectric power Conversion of gravitational potential energy into
electrical energy
Aeroplane Bernoulli’s principle in fluid dynamics
Particle accelerators Motion of charged particles in electromagnetic
fields
Sonar Reflection of ultrasonic waves
Optical fibres Total internal reflection of light

Non-reflecting coatings Thin film optical interference

Electron microscope Wave nature of electrons

Photocell Photoelectric effect

Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) Magnetic confinement of plasma

Giant Metrewave Radio Detection of cosmic radio waves
Telescope (GMRT)
Bose-Einstein condensate Trapping and cooling of atoms by laser beams and
magnetic fields.

contact with fluids, the force due to pressure of to the net attraction/repulsion between the
a fluid, the force due to surface tension of a liquid, neighbouring atoms of the spring when the
and so on. There are also forces involving charged spring is elongated/compressed. This net
and magnetic bodies. In the microscopic domain attraction/repulsion can be traced to the
again, we have electric and magnetic forces, (unbalanced) sum of electric forces between the
nuclear forces involving protons and neutrons, charged constituents of the atoms.
interatomic and intermolecular forces, etc. We In principle, this means that the laws for
shall get familiar with some of these forces in later ‘derived’ forces (such as spring force, friction)
parts of this course. are not independent of the laws of fundamental
A great insight of the twentieth century forces in nature. The origin of these derived
physics is that these different forces occurring forces is, however, very complex.
in different contexts actually arise from only a At the present stage of our understanding,
small number of fundamental forces in nature. we know of four fundamental forces in nature,
For example, the elastic spring force arises due which are described in brief here :
8 PHYSICS

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Albert Einstein, born in Ulm, Germany in 1879, is universally regarded as

one of the greatest physicists of all time. His astonishing scientific career
began with the publication of three path-breaking papers in 1905. In the
first paper, he introduced the notion of light quanta (now called photons)
and used it to explain the features of photoelectric effect that the classical
wave theory of radiation could not account for. In the second paper, he
developed a theory of Brownian motion that was confirmed experimentally
a few years later and provided a convincing evidence of the atomic picture of
matter. The third paper gave birth to the special theory of relativity that
made Einstein a legend in his own life time. In the next decade, he explored the consequences of his
new theory which included, among other things, the mass-energy equivalence enshrined in his famous
equation E = mc2. He also created the general version of relativity (The General Theory of Relativity),
which is the modern theory of gravitation. Some of Einstein’s most significant later contributions are:
the notion of stimulated emission introduced in an alternative derivation of Planck’s blackbody radiation
law, static model of the universe which started modern cosmology, quantum statistics of a gas of
massive bosons, and a critical analysis of the foundations of quantum mechanics. The year 2005 was
declared as International Year of Physics, in recognition of Einstein’s monumental contribution to
physics, in year 1905, describing revolutionary scientific ideas that have since influenced all of modern
physics.

1.4.1 Gravitational Force electric force between two protons, for example,
36
The gravitational force is the force of mutual is 10 times the gravitational force between
attraction between any two objects by virtue of them, for any fixed distance.
their masses. It is a universal force. Every object Matter, as we know, consists of elementary
experiences this force due to every other object charged constituents like electrons and
in the universe. All objects on the earth, for protons. Since the electromagnetic force is so
example, experience the force of gravity due to much stronger than the gravitational force, it
the earth. In particular, gravity governs the dominates all phenomena at atomic and
motion of the moon and artificial satellites around molecular scales. (The other two forces, as we
the earth, motion of the earth and planets shall see, operate only at nuclear scales.) Thus
around the sun, and, of course, the motion of it is mainly the electromagnetic force that
bodies falling to the earth. It plays a key role in governs the structure of atoms and molecules,
the large-scale phenomena of the universe, such the dynamics of chemical reactions and the
as formation and evolution of stars, galaxies and mechanical, thermal and other properties of
galactic clusters. materials. It underlies the macroscopic forces
1.4.2 Electromagnetic Force like ‘tension’, ‘friction’, ‘normal force’, ‘spring
force’, etc.
Electromagnetic force is the force between
Gravity is always attractive, while
charged particles. In the simpler case when
electromagnetic force can be attractive or
charges are at rest, the force is given by
Coulomb’s law : attractive for unlike charges and repulsive. Another way of putting it is that mass
repulsive for like charges. Charges in motion comes only in one variety (there is no negative
produce magnetic effects and a magnetic field mass), but charge comes in two varieties :
gives rise to a force on a moving charge. Electric positive and negative charge. This is what
and magnetic effects are, in general, makes all the difference. Matter is mostly
inseparable – hence the name electromagnetic electrically neutral (net charge is zero). Thus,
force. Like the gravitational force, electric force is largely zero and gravitational
electromagnetic force acts over large distances force dominates terrestrial phenomena. Electric
and does not need any intervening medium. It force manifests itself in atmosphere where the
is enormously strong compared to gravity. The atoms are ionised and that leads to lightning.
PHYSICAL WORLD 9

Satyendranath Bose (1894-1974)

Satyendranath Bose, born in Calcutta in 1894, is among the great Indian

physicists who made a fundamental contribution to the advance of science
in the twentieth century. An outstanding student throughout, Bose started
his career in 1916 as a lecturer in physics in Calcutta University; five years
later he joined Dacca University. Here in 1924, in a brilliant flash of insight,
Bose gave a new derivation of Planck’s law, treating radiation as a gas of
photons and employing new statistical methods of counting of photon states.
He wrote a short paper on the subject and sent it to Einstein who
immediately recognised its great significance, translated it in German and
forwarded it for publication. Einstein then applied the same method to a
gas of molecules.
The key new conceptual ingredient in Bose’s work was that the particles were regarded as
indistinguishable, a radical departure from the assumption that underlies the classical Maxwell-
Boltzmann statistics. It was soon realised that the new Bose-Einstein statistics was applicable to
particles with integers spins, and a new quantum statistics (Fermi-Dirac statistics) was needed for
particles with half integers spins satisfying Pauli’s exclusion principle. Particles with integers spins
are now known as bosons in honour of Bose.
An important consequence of Bose-Einstein statistics is that a gas of molecules below a certain
temperature will undergo a phase transition to a state where a large fraction of atoms populate the
same lowest energy state. Some seventy years were to pass before the pioneering ideas of Bose, developed
further by Einstein, were dramatically confirmed in the observation of a new state of matter in a dilute
gas of ultra cold alkali atoms - the Bose-Eintein condensate.

If we reflect a little, the enormous strength strength. It is charge-independent and acts

of the electromagnetic force compared to equally between a proton and a proton, a
gravity is evident in our daily life. When we neutron and a neutron, and a proton and a
hold a book in our hand, we are balancing the neutron. Its range is, however, extremely small,
–15
gravitational force on the book due to the huge of about nuclear dimensions (10 m). It is
mass of the earth by the ‘normal force’ responsible for the stability of nuclei. The
provided by our hand. The latter is nothing electron, it must be noted, does not experience
but the net electromagnetic force between the this force.
charged constituents of our hand and Recent developments have, however,
the book, at the surface in contact. If indicated that protons and neutrons are built
electromagnetic force were not intrinsically so out of still more elementary constituents called
much stronger than gravity, the hand of the quarks.
strongest man would crumble under the
1.4.4 Weak Nuclear Force
weight of a feather ! Indeed, to be consistent,
in that circumstance, we ourselves would The weak nuclear force appears only in certain
crumble under our own weight ! nuclear processes such as the β-decay of a
nucleus. In β-decay, the nucleus emits an
1.4.3 Strong Nuclear Force electron and an uncharged particle called
The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrino. The weak nuclear force is not as weak
neutrons in a nucleus. It is evident that without as the gravitational force, but much weaker
some attractive force, a nucleus will be than the strong nuclear and electromagnetic
unstable due to the electric repulsion between forces. The range of weak nuclear force is
its protons. This attractive force cannot be exceedingly small, of the order of 10-16 m.
gravitational since force of gravity is negligible
compared to the electric force. A new basic force 1.4.5 Towards Unification of Forces
must, therefore, be invoked. The strong nuclear We remarked in section 1.1 that unification is a
force is the strongest of all fundamental forces, basic quest in physics. Great advances in
about 100 times the electromagnetic force in physics often amount to unification of different
10 PHYSICS

Table 1.3 Fundamental forces of nature

Name Relative Range Operates among

strength

Gravitational force 10 –39 Infinite All objects in the universe

Weak nuclear force 10 –13 Very short, Sub-nuclear Some elementary particles,
size (∼10 –16 m) particularly electron and
neutrino
Electromagnetic force 10–2 Infinite Charged particles
Strong nuclear force 1 Short, nuclear Nucleons, heavier
size (∼10 –15 m) elementary particles

theories and domains. Newton unified terrestrial 1.5 NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS
and celestial domains under a common law of Physicists explore the universe. Their
gravitation. The experimental discoveries of investigations, based on scientific processes,
Oersted and Faraday showed that electric and range from particles that are smaller than
magnetic phenomena are in general atoms in size to stars that are very far away. In
inseparable. Maxwell unified electromagnetism addition to finding the facts by observation and
and optics with the discovery that light is an experimentation, physicists attempt to discover
electromagnetic wave. Einstein attempted to the laws that summarise (often as mathematical
unify gravity and electromagnetism but could equations) these facts.
not succeed in this venture. But this did not In any physical phenomenon governed by
deter physicists from zealously pursuing the different forces, several quantities may change
goal of unification of forces. with time. A remarkable fact is that some special
Recent decades have seen much progress on physical quantities, however, remain constant
this front. The electromagnetic and the weak in time. They are the conserved quantities of
nuclear force have now been unified and are nature. Understanding these conservation
seen as aspects of a single ‘electro-weak’ force. principles is very important to describe the
What this unification actually means cannot observed phenomena quantitatively.
be explained here. Attempts have been (and are For motion under an external conservative
being) made to unify the electro-weak and the force, the total mechanical energy i.e. the sum
strong force and even to unify the gravitational of kinetic and potential energy of a body is a
force with the rest of the fundamental forces. constant. The familiar example is the free fall of
Many of these ideas are still speculative and an object under gravity. Both the kinetic energy
inconclusive. Table 1.4 summarises some of the of the object and its potential energy change
milestones in the progress towards unification continuously with time, but the sum remains
of forces in nature. fixed. If the object is released from rest, the initial
Table 1.4 Progress in unification of different forces/domains in nature
PHYSICAL WORLD 11

potential energy is completely converted into the the other end, all kinds of violent phenomena
kinetic energy of the object just before it hits occur in the universe all the time. Yet the total
the ground. This law restricted for a conservative energy of the universe (the most ideal isolated
force should not be confused with the general system possible !) is believed to remain
law of conservation of energy of an isolated unchanged.
system (which is the basis of the First Law of Until the advent of Einstein’s theory of
Thermodynamics). relativity, the law of conservation of mass was
The concept of energy is central to physics regarded as another basic conservation law of
and the expressions for energy can be written nature, since matter was thought to be
for every physical system. When all forms of indestructible. It was (and still is) an important
energy e.g., heat, mechanical energy, electrical principle used, for example, in the analysis of
energy etc., are counted, it turns out that energy chemical reactions. A chemical reaction is
is conserved. The general law of conservation of basically a rearrangement of atoms among
energy is true for all forces and for any kind of different molecules. If the total binding energy
transformation between different forms of of the reacting molecules is less than the total
energy. In the falling object example, if you binding energy of the product molecules, the
include the effect of air resistance during the difference appears as heat and the reaction is
fall and see the situation after the object hits exothermic. The opposite is true for energy
the ground and stays there, the total absorbing (endothermic) reactions. However,
mechanical energy is obviously not conserved. since the atoms are merely rearranged but not
The general law of energy conservation, however, destroyed, the total mass of the reactants is the
is still applicable. The initial potential energy same as the total mass of the products in a
of the stone gets transformed into other forms chemical reaction. The changes in the binding
of energy : heat and sound. (Ultimately, sound energy are too small to be measured as changes
after it is absorbed becomes heat.) The total in mass.
energy of the system (stone plus the According to Einstein’s theory, mass m is
surroundings) remains unchanged. equivalent to energy E given by the relation
2
The law of conservation of energy is thought E= mc , where c is speed of light in vacuum.
to be valid across all domains of nature, from In a nuclear process mass gets converted to
the microscopic to the macroscopic. It is energy (or vice-versa). This is the energy which
routinely applied in the analysis of atomic, is released in a nuclear power generation and
nuclear and elementary particle processes. At nuclear explosions.

Sir C.V. Raman (1888-1970)

Chandrashekhara Venkata Raman was born on 07 Nov 1888 in Thiruvanaikkaval.

He finished his schooling by the age of eleven. He graduated from Presidency
College, Madras. After finishing his education he joined financial services of the
Indian Government.
While in Kolkata, he started working on his area of interest at Indian Asso-
ciation for Cultivation of Science founded by Dr. Mahendra Lal Sirkar, during his
evening hours. His area of interest included vibrations, variety of musical instru-
ments, ultrasonics, diffraction and so on.
In 1917 he was offered Professorship at Calcutta University. In 1924 he was
elected ‘Fellow’ of the Royal Society of London and received Nobel prize in Physics
in 1930 for his discovery, now known as Raman Effect.
The Raman Effect deals with scattering of light by molecules of a medium
when they are excited to vibrational energy levels. This work opened totally new
avenues for research for years to come.
He spent his later years at Bangalore, first at Indian Institute of Science and then at Raman Re-
search Institute. His work has inspired generation of young students.
12 PHYSICS

Energy is a scalar quantity. But all conserved

Conservation laws in physics
quantities are not necessarily scalars. The total
linear momentum and the total angular Conservation of energy, momentum, angular
momentum, charge, etc are considered to be
momentum (both vectors) of an isolated system
fundamental laws in physics. At this moment,
are also conserved quantities. These laws can there are many such conservation laws. Apart from
be derived from Newton’s laws of motion in the above four, there are others which mostly deal
mechanics. But their validity goes beyond with quantities which have been introduced in
mechanics. They are the basic conservation nuclear and particle physics. Some of the
laws of nature in all domains, even in those conserved quantities are called spin, baryon
number, strangeness, hypercharge, etc, but you
where Newton’s laws may not be valid.
need not worry about them.
Besides their great simplicity and generality, A conservation law is a hypothesis, based on
the conservation laws of nature are very useful observations and experiments. It is important to
in practice too. It often happens that we cannot remember that a conservation law cannot be
solve the full dynamics of a complex problem proved. It can be verified, or disproved, by
involving different particles and forces. The experiments. An experiment whose result is in
conformity with the law verifies or substantiates
conservation laws can still provide useful
the law; it does not prove the law. On the other
results. For example, we may not know the hand, a single experiment whose result goes
complicated forces that act during a collision against the law is enough to disprove it.
of two automobiles; yet momentum It would be wrong to ask somebody to prove
conservation law enables us to bypass the the law of conservation of energy. This law is an
complications and predict or rule out possible outcome of our experience over several centuries,
and it has been found to be valid in all
outcomes of the collision. In nuclear and
experiments, in mechanics, thermodynamics,
elementary particle phenomena also, the electromagnetism, optics, atomic and nuclear
conservation laws are important tools of physics, or any other area.
analysis. Indeed, using the conservation laws Some students feel that they can prove the
of energy and momentum for β-decay, Wolfgang conservation of mechanical energy from a body
Pauli (1900-1958) correctly predicted in 1931 falling under gravity, by adding the kinetic and
potential energies at a point and showing that it
the existence of a new particle (now called turns out to be constant. As pointed out above,
neutrino) emitted in β-decay along with the this is only a verification of the law, not its proof.
electron.
Conservation laws have a deep connection
with symmetries of nature that you will explore because of differing conditions at different
in more advanced courses in physics. For locations. For example, the acceleration due to
example, an important observation is that the gravity at the moon is one-sixth that at the earth,
laws of nature do not change with time! If you but the law of gravitation is the same both on
perform an experiment in your laboratory today the moon and the earth.) This symmetry of the
and repeat the same experiment (on the same laws of nature with respect to translation in
objects under identical conditions) after a year, space gives rise to conservation of linear
the results are bound to be the same. It turns momentum. In the same way isotropy of space
out that this symmetry of nature with respect to (no intrinsically preferred direction in space)
translation (i.e. displacement) in time is underlies the law of conservation of angular
equivalent to the law of conservation of energy. momentum*. The conservation laws of charge and
Likewise, space is homogeneous and there is no other attributes of elementary particles can also
(intrinsically) preferred location in the universe. be related to certain abstract symmetries.
To put it more clearly, the laws of nature are the Symmetries of space and time and other abstract
same everywhere in the universe. (Caution : the symmetries play a central role in modern theories
phenomena may differ from place to place of fundamental forces in nature.

* See Chapter 7
PHYSICAL WORLD 13

SUMMARY

1. Physics deals with the study of the basic laws of nature and their manifestation in
different phenomena. The basic laws of physics are universal and apply in widely different
contexts and conditions.
2. The scope of physics is wide, covering a tremendous range of magnitude of physical
quantities.
3. Physics and technology are related to each other. Sometimes technology gives rise to
new physics; at other times physics generates new technology. Both have direct impact
on society.
4. There are four fundamental forces in nature that govern the diverse phenomena of the
macroscopic and the microscopic world. These are the ‘gravitational force’, the
‘electromagnetic force’, the ‘strong nuclear force’, and the ‘weak nuclear force’. Unification
of different forces/domains in nature is a basic quest in physics.
5. The physical quantities that remain unchanged in a process are called conserved
quantities. Some of the general conservation laws in nature include the laws of
conservation of mass, energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, charge, parity,
etc. Some conservation laws are true for one fundamental force but not for the other.
6. Conservation laws have a deep connection with symmetries of nature. Symmetries of
space and time, and other types of symmetries play a central role in modern theories of
fundamental forces in nature.

EXERCISES

Note for the student

The exercises given here are meant to enhance your awareness about the issues surrounding
science, technology and society and to encourage you to think and formulate your views
about them. The questions may not have clear-cut ‘objective’ answers.
Note for the teacher
The exercises given here are not for the purpose of a formal examination.
1.1 Some of the most profound statements on the nature of science have come from
Albert Einstein, one of the greatest scientists of all time. What do you think did
Einstein mean when he said : “The most incomprehensible thing about the world is
that it is comprehensible”?
1.2 “Every great physical theory starts as a heresy and ends as a dogma”. Give some
examples from the history of science of the validity of this incisive remark.
1.3 “Politics is the art of the possible”. Similarly, “Science is the art of the soluble”.
Explain this beautiful aphorism on the nature and practice of science.
1.4 Though India now has a large base in science and technology, which is fast expanding,
it is still a long way from realising its potential of becoming a world leader in science.
Name some important factors, which in your view have hindered the advancement of
science in India.
1.5 No physicist has ever “seen” an electron. Yet, all physicists believe in the existence of
electrons. An intelligent but superstitious man advances this analogy to argue that
‘ghosts’ exist even though no one has ‘seen’ one. How will you refute his argument ?
1.6 The shells of crabs found around a particular coastal location in Japan seem mostly
to resemble the legendary face of a Samurai. Given below are two explanations of this
observed fact. Which of these strikes you as a scientific explanation ?
(a) A tragic sea accident several centuries ago drowned a young Samurai. As a tribute
to his bravery, nature through its inscrutable ways immortalised his face by
imprinting it on the crab shells in that area.
14 PHYSICS

(b) After the sea tragedy, fishermen in that area, in a gesture of honour to their
dead hero, let free any crab shell caught by them which accidentally had a shape
resembling the face of a Samurai. Consequently, the particular shape of the
crab shell survived longer and therefore in course of time the shape was genetically
propagated. This is an example of evolution by artificial selection.
[Note : This interesting illustration taken from Carl Sagan’s ‘The Cosmos’ highlights
the fact that often strange and inexplicable facts which on the first sight appear
‘supernatural’ actually turn out to have simple scientific explanations. Try to think
out other examples of this kind].
1.7 The industrial revolution in England and Western Europe more than two centuries
ago was triggered by some key scientific and technological advances. What were these
advances ?
1.8 It is often said that the world is witnessing now a second industrial revolution, which
will transform the society as radically as did the first. List some key contemporary areas
of science and technology, which are responsible for this revolution.
1.9 Write in about 1000 words a fiction piece based on your speculation on the science
and technology of the twenty-second century.
1.10 Attempt to formulate your ‘moral’ views on the practice of science. Imagine yourself
stumbling upon a discovery, which has great academic interest but is certain to have
nothing but dangerous consequences for the human society. How, if at all, will you
resolve your dilemma ?
1.11 Science, like any knowledge, can be put to good or bad use, depending on the user.
Given below are some of the applications of science. Formulate your views on whether
the particular application is good, bad or something that cannot be so clearly
categorised :
(a) Mass vaccination against small pox to curb and finally eradicate this disease
from the population. (This has already been successfully done in India).
(b) Television for eradication of illiteracy and for mass communication of news and
ideas.
(c) Prenatal sex determination
(d) Computers for increase in work efficiency
(e) Putting artificial satellites into orbits around the Earth
(f ) Development of nuclear weapons
(g) Development of new and powerful techniques of chemical and biological warfare).
(h) Purification of water for drinking
(i) Plastic surgery
(j ) Cloning
1.12 India has had a long and unbroken tradition of great scholarship — in mathematics,
astronomy, linguistics, logic and ethics. Yet, in parallel with this, several superstitious
and obscurantistic attitudes and practices flourished in our society and unfortunately
continue even today — among many educated people too. How will you use your
knowledge of science to develop strategies to counter these attitudes ?
1.13 Though the law gives women equal status in India, many people hold unscientific
views on a woman’s innate nature, capacity and intelligence, and in practice give
them a secondary status and role. Demolish this view using scientific arguments, and
by quoting examples of great women in science and other spheres; and persuade yourself
and others that, given equal opportunity, women are on par with men.
1.14 “It is more important to have beauty in the equations of physics than to have them
agree with experiments”. The great British physicist P. A. M. Dirac held this view.
Criticize this statement. Look out for some equations and results in this book which
strike you as beautiful.
1.15 Though the statement quoted above may be disputed, most physicists do have a feeling
that the great laws of physics are at once simple and beautiful. Some of the notable
physicists, besides Dirac, who have articulated this feeling, are : Einstein, Bohr,
Heisenberg, Chandrasekhar and Feynman. You are urged to make special efforts to get
PHYSICAL WORLD 15

access to the general books and writings by these and other great masters of physics.
(See the Bibliography at the end of this book.) Their writings are truly inspiring !
1.16 Textbooks on science may give you a wrong impression that studying science is dry
and all too serious and that scientists are absent-minded introverts who never laugh
or grin. This image of science and scientists is patently false. Scientists, like any
other group of humans, have their share of humorists, and many have led their lives
with a great sense of fun and adventure, even as they seriously pursued their scientific
work. Two great physicists of this genre are Gamow and Feynman. You will enjoy
reading their books listed in the Bibliography.
CHAPTER TWO

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison
with a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally
2.1 Introduction accepted reference standard called unit. The result of a
measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a
2.2 The international system of
number (or numerical measure) accompanied by a unit.
units
Although the number of physical quantities appears to be
2.3 Measurement of length very large, we need only a limited number of units for
2.4 Measurement of mass expressing all the physical quantities, since they are inter-
2.5 Measurement of time related with one another. The units for the fundamental or
2.6 Accuracy, precision of base quantities are called fundamental or base units. The
instruments and errors in units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as
measurement combinations of the base units. Such units obtained for the
2.7 Significant figures derived quantities are called derived units. A complete set
2.8 Dimensions of physical of these units, both the base units and derived units, is
quantities known as the system of units.
2.9 Dimensional formulae and 2.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
dimensional equations In earlier time scientists of different countries were using
2.10 Dimensional analysis and its different systems of units for measurement. Three such
applications systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS
Summary system were in use extensively till recently.
Exercises The base units for length, mass and time in these systems
Additional exercises were as follows :
• In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second
respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second
respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second
respectively.
The system of units which is at present internationally
accepted for measurement is the Système Internationale
d’ Unites (French for International System of Units),
abbreviated as SI. The SI, with standard scheme of symbols,
units and abbreviations, was developed and recommended
by General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971 for
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 17

international usage in scientific, technical,

industrial and commercial work. Because SI
units used decimal system, conversions within
the system are quite simple and convenient. We
shall follow the SI units in this book.
In SI, there are seven base units as given in
(a)
Table 2.1. Besides the seven base units, there
are two more units that are defined for (a) plane
angle dθ as the ratio of length of arc ds to the
radius r and (b) solid angle dΩ as the ratio of
the intercepted area dA of the spherical surface,
described about the apex O as the centre, to
the square of its radius r, as shown in Fig. 2.1(a)
and (b) respectively. The unit for plane angle is
radian with the symbol rad and the unit for the (b)
solid angle is steradian with the symbol sr. Both Fig. 2.1 Description of (a) plane angle dθ and
these are dimensionless quantities. (b) solid angle d Ω .

Table 2.1 SI Base Quantities and Units*

Base SI Units
quantity Name Symbol Definition
Length metre m The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum
during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second. (1983)
Mass kilogram kg The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype
of the kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder) kept at
international Bureau of Weights and Measures, at Sevres, near
Paris, France. (1889)
Time second s The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the
radiation corresponding to the transition between the two
hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.
(1967)
Electric ampere A The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in
current two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible
circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum,
would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2×10–7
newton per metre of length. (1948)
Thermo kelvin K The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
dynamic temperature of the triple point of water. (1967)
Temperature
Amount of mole mol The mole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains
substance as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012
kilogram of carbon - 12. (1971)
Luminous candela cd The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given
intensity direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of
frequency 540×1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in
that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. (1979)

* The values mentioned here need not be remembered or asked in a test. They are given here only to indicate the
extent of accuracy to which they are measured. With progress in technology, the measuring techniques get
improved leading to measurements with greater precision. The definitions of base units are revised to keep up
with this progress.
18 PHYSICS

Table 2.2 Some units retained for general use (Though outside SI)

Note that when mole is used, the elementary 2.3.1 Measurement of Large Distances
entities must be specified. These entities Large distances such as the distance of a planet
may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons,
or a star from the earth cannot be measured
other particles or specified groups of such
directly with a metre scale. An important method
particles.
in such cases is the parallax method.
We employ units for some physical quantities
that can be derived from the seven base units When you hold a pencil in front of you against
(Appendix A 6). Some derived units in terms of some specific point on the background (a wall)
the SI base units are given in (Appendix A 6.1). and look at the pencil first through your left eye
Some SI derived units are given special names A (closing the right eye) and then look at the
(Appendix A 6.2 ) and some derived SI units make pencil through your right eye B (closing the left
use of these units with special names and the eye), you would notice that the position of the
seven base units (Appendix A 6.3). These are pencil seems to change with respect to the point
given in Appendix A 6.2 and A 6.3 for your ready on the wall. This is called parallax. The
reference. Other units retained for general use distance between the two points of observation
are given in Table 2.2. is called the basis. In this example, the basis is
Common SI prefixes and symbols for multiples the distance between the eyes.
and sub-multiples are given in Appendix A2. To measure the distance D of a far away
General guidelines for using symbols for physical planet S by the parallax method, we observe it
quantities, chemical elements and nuclides are from two different positions (observatories) A and
given in Appendix A7 and those for SI units and B on the Earth, separated by distance AB = b
some other units are given in Appendix A8 for at the same time as shown in Fig. 2.2. We
your guidance and ready reference. measure the angle between the two directions
2.3 MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH along which the planet is viewed at these two
You are already familiar with some direct methods points. The ∠ASB in Fig. 2.2 represented by
for the measurement of length. For example, a symbol θ is called the parallax angle or
metre scale is used for lengths from 10–3 m to 102 parallactic angle.
m. A vernier callipers is used for lengths to an b
accuracy of 10 –4 m. A screw gauge and a As the planet is very far away, << 1, and
D
spherometer can be used to measure lengths as
less as to 10 –5 m. To measure lengths beyond these therefore, θ is very small. Then we
ranges, we make use of some special indirect approximately take AB as an arc of length b of a
methods. circle with centre at S and the distance D as
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 19

the radius AS = BS so that AB = b = D θ where AO; but he finds the line of sight of C shifted
θ is in radians. from the original line of sight by an angle θ
= 400 (θ is known as ‘parallax’) estimate
b
D= (2.1) the distance of the tower C from his original
θ position A.

Fig. 2.2 Parallax method.

Fig. 2.3
Having determined D, we can employ a similar Answer We have, parallax angle θ = 400
method to determine the size or angular diameter From Fig. 2.3, AB = AC tan θ
of the planet. If d is the diameter of the planet AC = AB/tanθ = 100 m/tan 400
and α the angular size of the planet (the angle = 100 m/0.8391 = 119 m
subtended by d at the earth), we have
α = d/D (2.2) Example 2.3 The moon is observed from
The angle α can be measured from the same two diametrically opposite points A and B
location on the earth. It is the angle between on Earth. The angle θ subtended at the
the two directions when two diametrically moon by the two directions of observation
opposite points of the planet are viewed through is 1o 54′ . Given the diameter of the Earth to
the telescope. Since D is known, the diameter d be about 1.276 × 107 m, compute the
of the planet can be determined using Eq. (2.2). distance of the moon from the Earth.
Example 2.1 Calculate the angle of Answer We have θ = 1° 54′ = 114′
(a) 10 (degree) (b) 1′ (minute of arc or arcmin)
and (c) 1″ (second of arc or arc second) in (
= (114 × 60 )′′ × 4.85 × 10-6 ) rad
radians. Use 3600=2π rad, 1 0=60′ and −2
= 3.32 × 10 rad,
1′ = 60 ″
−6
Answer (a) We have 3600 = 2π rad since 1" = 4.85 × 10 rad .
10 = (π /180) rad = 1.745×10–2 rad Also b = AB = 1.276 ×107 m
(b) 1 = 60′ = 1.745×10–2 rad
0
Hence from Eq. (2.1), we have the earth-moon
1′ = 2.908×10–4 rad ; 2.91×10–4 rad distance,
(c) 1′ = 60″ = 2.908×10–4 rad D = b /θ
1″ = 4.847×10–4 rad ; 4.85×10–6 rad
1.276 × 107
Example 2.2 A man wishes to estimate =
3.32 × 10-2
the distance of a nearby tower from him.
He stands at a point A in front of the tower = 3.84 × 108 m
C and spots a very distant object O in line
with AC. He then walks perpendicular to Example 2.4 The Sun’s angular diameter
AC up to B, a distance of 100 m, and looks is measured to be 1920′ ′. The distance D of
at O and C again. Since O is very distant, the Sun from the Earth is 1.496 × 1011 m.
the direction BO is practically the same as What is the diameter of the Sun ?
20 PHYSICS

Answer Sun’s angular diameter α of this solution and dilute it to 20 cm3, using
= 1920" alcohol. So, the concentration of the solution is
−6 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= 1920 × 4.85 × 10 rad equal to ⎜⎝
3 3
⎟ cm of oleic acid/cm of
20 × 20 ⎠
= 9.31 × 10−3 rad
Sun’s diameter solution. Next we lightly sprinkle some
d =α D lycopodium powder on the surface of water in a
large trough and we put one drop of this solution
= ⎛⎜ 9.31 × 10−3 ⎞⎟ × ⎛⎜1.496 × 1011 ⎞⎟ m
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ in the water. The oleic acid drop spreads into a
thin, large and roughly circular film of molecular
= 1.39 × 109 m
thickness on water surface. Then, we quickly
measure the diameter of the thin film to get its
2.3.2 Estimation of Very Small Distances: area A. Suppose we have dropped n drops in
Size of a Molecule the water. Initially, we deter mine the
To measure a very small size like that of a approximate volume of each drop (V cm3).
molecule (10–8 m to 10–10 m), we have to adopt Volume of n drops of solution
special methods. We cannot use a screw gauge
= nV cm3
or similar instruments. Even a microscope has
certain limitations. An optical microscope uses Amount of oleic acid in this solution
visible light to ‘look’ at the system under
⎛ 1 ⎞ 3
investigation. As light has wave like features,
= nV ⎜⎝ ⎟ cm
the resolution to which an optical microscope 20 × 20 ⎠
can be used is the wavelength of light (A detailed
This solution of oleic acid spreads very fast
explanation can be found in the Class XII
on the surface of water and forms a very thin
Physics textbook). For visible light the range of
layer of thickness t. If this spreads to form a
wavelengths is from about 4000 Å to 7000 Å
film of area A cm2, then the thickness of the
(1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10-10 m). Hence an optical
film
microscope cannot resolve particles with sizes
smaller than this. Instead of visible light, we can Volume of the film
t=
use an electron beam. Electron beams can be Area of the film
focussed by properly designed electric and
nV
magnetic fields. The resolution of such an or, t= cm (2.3)
electron microscope is limited finally by the fact 20 × 20 A
that electrons can also behave as waves ! (You
will learn more about this in class XII). The If we assume that the film has mono-molecular
wavelength of an electron can be as small as a thickness, then this becomes the size or diameter
fraction of an angstrom. Such electron of a molecule of oleic acid. The value of this
microscopes with a resolution of 0.6 Å have been thickness comes out to be of the order of 10–9 m.
built. They can almost resolve atoms and
molecules in a material. In recent times, Example 2.5 If the size of a nucleus (in
tunnelling microscopy has been developed in the range of 10–15 to 10–14 m) is scaled up
which again the limit of resolution is better than to the tip of a sharp pin, what roughly is
an angstrom. It is possible to estimate the sizes the size of an atom ? Assume tip of the pin
of molecules. to be in the range 10–5m to 10–4m.
A simple method for estimating the molecular
Answer The size of a nucleus is in the range of
size of oleic acid is given below. Oleic acid is a
10–15 m and 10–14 m. The tip of a sharp pin is
soapy liquid with large molecular size of the
taken to be in the range of 10–5 m and 10–4 m.
order of 10–9 m.
Thus we are scaling up by a factor of 1010. An
The idea is to first form mono-molecular layer atom roughly of size 10–10 m will be scaled up to a
of oleic acid on water surface. size of 1 m. Thus a nucleus in an atom is as small
We dissolve 1 cm3 of oleic acid in alcohol to in size as the tip of a sharp pin placed at the centre
make a solution of 20 cm3. Then we take 1 cm3 of a sphere of radius about a metre long.
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 21

2.3.3 Range of Lengths While dealing with atoms and molecules, the
The sizes of the objects we come across in the kilogram is an inconvenient unit. In this case,
universe vary over a very wide range. These may there is an important standard unit of mass,
vary from the size of the order of 10–14 m of the called the unified atomic mass unit (u), which
tiny nucleus of an atom to the size of the order has been established for expressing the mass
of 1026 m of the extent of the observable universe. of atoms as
Table 2.6 gives the range and order of lengths 1 unified atomic mass unit = 1u
and sizes of some of these objects. = (1/12) of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
We also use certain special length units for
short and large lengths. These are
( )
isotope 126 C including the mass of electrons
= 1.66 × 10–27 kg
1 fermi = 1 f = 10–15 m
1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10–10 m Mass of commonly available objects can be
1 astronomical unit = 1 AU (average distance determined by a common balance like the one
of the Sun from the Earth) used in a grocery shop. Large masses in the
= 1.496 × 1011 m universe like planets, stars, etc., based on
1 light year = 1 ly= 9.46 × 1015 m (distance Newton’s law of gravitation can be measured by
that light travels with velocity of using gravitational method (See Chapter 8). For
3 × 108 m s–1 in 1 year) measurement of small masses of atomic/sub-
1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016 m (Parsec is the atomic particles etc., we make use of mass
distance at which average radius of earth’s orbit spectrograph in which radius of the trajectory
subtends an angle of 1 arc second) is proportional to the mass of a charged particle
moving in uniform electric and magnetic field.
2.4 MEASUREMENT OF MASS
Mass is a basic property of matter. It does not 2.4.1 Range of Masses
depend on the temperature, pressure or location
The masses of the objects, we come across in
of the object in space. The SI unit of mass is
the universe, vary over a very wide range. These
kilogram (kg). The prototypes of the International
standard kilogram supplied by the International may vary from tiny mass of the order of 10-30 kg
Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) are of an electron to the huge mass of about 1055 kg
available in many other laboratories of different of the known universe. Table 2.4 gives the range
countries. In India, this is available at the and order of the typical masses of various
National Physical Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi. objects.

Table 2.3 Range and order of lengths

22 PHYSICS

Table 2.4 Range and order of masses ± 1 × 10–13, i.e. 1 part in 1013. This implies that
the uncertainty gained over time by such a
device is less than 1 part in 1013; they lose or
gain no more than 3 µs in one year. In view of
the tremendous accuracy in time measurement,
the SI unit of length has been expressed in terms
the path length light travels in certain interval
of time (1/299, 792, 458 of a second) (Table 2.1).
The time interval of events that we come
across in the universe vary over a very wide
range. Table 2.5 gives the range and order of
some typical time intervals.
You may notice that there is an interesting
coincidence between the numbers appearing
in Tables 2.3 and 2.5. Note that the ratio of the
longest and shortest lengths of objects in our
universe is about 1041. Interestingly enough,
the ratio of the longest and shortest time
intervals associated with the events and objects
2.5 MEASUREMENT OF TIME in our universe is also about 1041. This number,
To measure any time interval we need a clock. 1041 comes up again in Table 2.4, which lists
We now use an atomic standard of time, which typical masses of objects. The ratio of the
is based on the periodic vibrations produced in largest and smallest masses of the objects in
a cesium atom. This is the basis of the cesium our universe is about (1041)2. Is this a curious
clock, sometimes called atomic clock, used in coincidence between these large numbers
the national standards. Such standards are purely accidental ?
available in many laboratories. In the cesium
atomic clock, the second is taken as the time 2.6 ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS
needed for 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the AND ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground Measurement is the foundation of all
state of cesium-133 atom. The vibrations of the experimental science and technology. The result
cesium atom regulate the rate of this cesium of every measurement by any measuring
atomic clock just as the vibrations of a balance instrument contains some uncertainty. This
wheel regulate an ordinary wristwatch or the uncertainty is called error. Every calculated
vibrations of a small quartz crystal regulate a quantity which is based on measured values,
quartz wristwatch. also has an error. We shall distinguish between
The cesium atomic clocks are very accurate. two terms: accuracy and precision. The
accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how
In principle they provide portable standard. The
close the measured value is to the true value of
national standard of time interval ‘second’ as
the quantity. Precision tells us to what resolution
well as the frequency is maintained through four
or limit the quantity is measured.
cesium atomic clocks. A cesium atomic clock is
used at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), The accuracy in measurement may depend on
New Delhi to maintain the Indian standard of several factors, including the limit or the resolution
time. of the measuring instrument. For example, suppose
In our country, the NPL has the responsibility the true value of a certain length is near 3.678 cm.
of maintenance and improvement of physical In one experiment, using a measuring instrument
standards, including that of time, frequency, etc. of resolution 0.1 cm, the measured value is found to
Note that the Indian Standard Time (IST) is be 3.5 cm, while in another experiment using a
linked to this set of atomic clocks. The efficient measuring device of greater resolution, say 0.01 cm,
cesium atomic clocks are so accurate that they the length is determined to be 3.38 cm. The first
impart the uncertainty in time realisation as measurement has more accuracy (because it is
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 23

Table 2.5 Range and order of time intervals

closer to the true value) but less precision (its of a human body, a thermometer placed
resolution is only 0.1 cm), while the under the armpit will always give a
second measurement is less accurate but temperature lower than the actual value of
more precise. Thus every measurement is the body temperature. Other external
approximate due to errors in measurement. In conditions (such as changes in temperature,
general, the errors in measurement can be humidity, wind velocity, etc.) during the
broadly classified as (a) systematic errors and experiment may systematically affect the
(b) random errors. measurement.
(c) Personal errors that arise due to an
Systematic errors
individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of
The systematic errors are those errors that the apparatus or individual’s carelessness
tend to be in one direction, either positive or in taking observations without observing
negative. Some of the sources of systematic proper precautions, etc. For example, if you,
errors are : by habit, always hold your head a bit too far
(a) Instrumental errors that arise from the to the right while reading the position of a
errors due to imperfect design or calibration needle on the scale, you will introduce an
of the measuring instrument, zero error in error due to parallax.
the instrument, etc. For example, the Systematic errors can be minimised by
temperature graduations of a thermometer improving experimental techniques, selecting
may be inadequately calibrated (it may read better instruments and removing personal bias
104 °C at the boiling point of water at STP as far as possible. For a given set-up, these
whereas it should read 100 °C); in a vernier errors may be estimated to a certain extent and
callipers the zero mark of vernier scale may the necessary corrections may be applied to the
not coincide with the zero mark of the main readings.
scale, or simply an ordinary metre scale may
be worn off at one end. Random errors
(b) Imperfection in experimental technique The random errors are those errors, which occur
or procedure To determine the temperature irregularly and hence are random with respect
24 PHYSICS

to sign and size. These can arise due to random as to underestimate the true value of the
and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental quantity.
conditions (e.g. unpredictable fluctuations in The magnitude of the difference
temperature, voltage supply, mechanical between the true value of the quantity
vibrations of experimental set-ups, etc), personal and the individual measurement value is
(unbiased) errors by the observer taking called the absolute error of the
readings, etc. For example, when the same measurement. This is denoted by | Δa | . In
person repeats the same observation, it is very absence of any other method of knowing true
likely that he may get different readings value, we considered arithmatic mean as the
everytime. true value. Then the errors in the individual
Least count error measurement values are
The smallest value that can be measured by the Δa1 = amean – a1,
measuring instrument is called its least count. Δa2 = amean – a2,
All the readings or measured values are good only .... .... ....
up to this value. .... .... ....
The least count error is the error Δa n = amean – an
associated with the resolution of the instrument.
For example, a vernier callipers has the least The Δa calculated above may be positive in
count as 0.01 cm; a spherometer may have a certain cases and negative in some other
least count of 0.001 cm. Least count error cases. But absolute error |Δa| will always
belongs to the category of random errors but be positive.
within a limited size; it occurs with both
(b) The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors
systematic and random errors. If we use a metre
is taken as the final or mean absolute error
scale for measurement of length, it may have
of the value of the physical quantity a. It is
graduations at 1 mm division scale spacing or
represented by Δamean.
interval.
Using instruments of higher precision, Thus,
improving experimental techniques, etc., we can
reduce the least count error. Repeating the Δamean = (|Δa1|+|Δa2 |+|Δa3|+...+ |Δan|)/n
observations several times and taking the (2.6)
arithmetic mean of all the observations, the
n

∑
mean value would be very close to the true value
of the measured quantity. = |Δai|/n (2.7)
i =1
2.6.1 Absolute Error, Relative Error and
Percentage Error If we do a single measurement, the value we
get may be in the range amean ± Δamean
(a) Suppose the values obtained in several
measurements are a1, a2, a3...., an. The i.e. a = amean ± Δamean
arithmetic mean of these values is taken as
or,
the best possible value of the quantity under
the given conditions of measurement as : amean – Δamean ≤a ≤amean + Δamean
(2.8)
amean = (a1+a2+a3+...+an ) / n (2.4)
This implies that any measurement of the
or, physical quantity a is likely to lie between
n (amean+ Δamean ) and (amean− Δamean ).
a mean = ∑a i /n (2.5)
(c) Instead of the absolute error, we often use
i =1 the relative error or the percentage error
This is because, as explained earlier, it is (δa). The relative error is the ratio of the
reasonable to suppose that individual mean absolute error Δamean to the mean
measurements are as likely to overestimate value amean of the quantity measured.
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 25

Relative error = Δamean /amean (2.9) = 2.624 s

= 2.62 s
When the relative error is expressed in per As the periods are measured to a resolution
cent, it is called the percentage error (δa). of 0.01 s, all times are to the second decimal; it
is proper to put this mean period also to the
Thus, Percentage error second decimal.
δa = (Δamean /amean ) × 100% (2.10) The errors in the measurements are
Let us now consider an example. 2.63 s – 2.62 s = 0.01 s
2.56 s – 2.62 s = – 0.06 s
Example 2.6 Two clocks are being tested 2.42 s – 2.62 s = – 0.20 s
against a standard clock located in a 2.71 s – 2.62 s = 0.09 s
national laboratory. At 12:00:00 noon by 2.80 s – 2.62 s = 0.18 s
the standard clock, the readings of the two Note that the errors have the same units as the
clocks are : quantity to be measured.
Clock 1 Clock 2 The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors
(for arithmetic mean, we take only the
Monday 12:00:05 10:15:06
magnitudes) is
Tuesday 12:01:15 10:14:59
Wednesday 11:59:08 10:15:18 ΔΤ mean = [(0.01+ 0.06+0.20+0.09+0.18)s]/5
Thursday 12:01:50 10:15:07 = 0.54 s/5
Friday 11:59:15 10:14:53 = 0.11 s
Saturday 12:01:30 10:15:24
Sunday 12:01:19 10:15:11 That means, the period of oscillation of the
simple pendulum is (2.62 ± 0.11) s i.e. it lies
If you are doing an experiment that requires
between (2.62 + 0.11) s and (2.62 – 0.11) s or
precision time interval measurements, which
between 2.73 s and 2.51 s. As the arithmetic
of the two clocks will you prefer ?
mean of all the absolute errors is 0.11 s, there
is already an error in the tenth of a second.
Answer The range of variation over the seven
Hence there is no point in giving the period to a
days of observations is 162 s for clock 1, and
hundredth. A more correct way will be to write
31 s for clock 2. The average reading of clock 1
is much closer to the standard time than the T = 2.6 ± 0.1 s
average reading of clock 2. The important point Note that the last numeral 6 is unreliable, since
is that a clock’s zero error is not as significant it may be anything between 5 and 7. We indicate
for precision work as its variation, because a this by saying that the measurement has two
‘zero-error’ can always be easily corrected. significant figures. In this case, the two
Hence clock 2 is to be preferred to clock 1.
significant figures are 2, which is reliable and
6, which has an error associated with it. You
Example 2.7 We measure the period of
will learn more about the significant figures in
oscillation of a simple pendulum. In
section 2.7.
successive measurements, the readings
For this example, the relative error or the
turn out to be 2.63 s, 2.56 s, 2.42 s, 2.71s
percentage error is
and 2.80 s. Calculate the absolute errors,
relative error or percentage error.
0.1
δa = × 100 = 4 %
Answer The mean period of oscillation of the 2.6
pendulum
( 2.63 + 2.56 + 2.42 + 2.71 + 2.80) s
T = 2.6.2 Combination of Errors
5 If we do an experiment involving several
13.12 measurements, we must know how the errors
= s
5 in all the measurements combine. For example,
26 PHYSICS

(a) Error of a sum or a difference

How will you measure the length of a line?
Suppose two physical quantities A and B have
What a naïve question, at this stage, you might measured values A ± ΔA, B ± ΔB respectively
say! But what if it is not a straight line? Draw where ΔA and ΔB are their absolute errors. We
a zigzag line in your copy, or on the blackboard. wish to find the error ΔZ in the sum
Well, not too difficult again. You might take a Z = A + B.
thread, place it along the line, open up the We have by addition, Z ± ΔZ
thread, and measure its length. = (A ± ΔA) + (B ± ΔB).
Now imagine that you want to measure the
The maximum possible error in Z
length of a national highway, a river, the railway
track between two stations, or the boundary
ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB
between two states or two nations. If you take For the difference Z = A – B, we have
a string of length 1 metre or 100 metre, keep it Z ± Δ Z = (A ± ΔA) – (B ± ΔB)
along the line, shift its position every time, the = (A – B) ± ΔA ± ΔB
arithmetic of man-hours of labour and expenses
on the project is not commensurate with the or, ± ΔZ = ± ΔA ± ΔB
outcome. Moreover, errors are bound to occur The maximum value of the error ΔZ is again
in this enormous task. There is an interesting ΔA + ΔB.
fact about this. France and Belgium share a
common international boundary, whose length Hence the rule : When two quantities are
mentioned in the official documents of the two added or subtracted, the absolute error in the
countries differs substantially! final result is the sum of the absolute errors
Go one step beyond and imagine the in the individual quantities.
coastline where land meets sea. Roads and rivers
have fairly mild bends as compared to a
Example 2.8 The temperatures of two
coastline. Even so, all documents, including our
school books, contain information on the length bodies measured by a thermometer are
of the coastline of Gujarat or Andhra Pradesh, t1 = 20 0C ± 0.5 0C and t2 = 50 0C ± 0.5 0C.
or the common boundary between two states, Calculate the temperature difference and
etc. Railway tickets come with the distance the error theirin.
between stations printed on them. We have
‘milestones’ all along the roads indicating the Answer t′ = t2–t1 = (50 0C±0.5 0C)– (200C±0.5 0C)
distances to various towns. So, how is it done?
One has to decide how much error one can t′ = 30 0 C ± 1 0 C
tolerate and optimise cost-effectiveness. If you (b) Error of a product or a quotient
want smaller errors, it will involve high
technology and high costs. Suffice it to say that Suppose Z = AB and the measured values of A
it requires fairly advanced level of physics, and B are A ± ΔA and B ± ΔB. Then
mathematics, engineering and technology. It Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) (B ± ΔB)
belongs to the areas of fractals, which has lately
become popular in theoretical physics. Even = AB ± B ΔA ± A ΔB ± ΔA ΔB.
then one doesn’t know how much to rely on Dividing LHS by Z and RHS by AB we have,
the figure that props up, as is clear from the
1±(ΔZ/Z) = 1 ± (ΔA/A) ± (ΔB/B) ± (ΔA/A)(ΔB/B).
story of France and Belgium. Incidentally, this
story of the France-Belgium discrepancy Since ΔA and ΔB are small, we shall ignore their
appears on the first page of an advanced Physics product.
book on the subject of fractals and chaos!
Hence the maximum relative error
density is the ratio of the mass to the volume of ΔZ/ Z = (ΔA/A) + (ΔB/B).
the substance. If we have errors in the
You can easily verify that this is true for division
measurement of mass and of the sizes or
also.
dimensions, we must know what the error will
be in the density of the substance. To make such Hence the rule : When two quantities are
estimates, we should learn how errors combine multiplied or divided, the relative error in the
in various mathematical operations. For this, result is the sum of the relative errors in the
we use the following procedure. multipliers.
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 27

Then,
Example 2.9 The resistance R = V/I where
ΔZ/Z = (ΔA/A) + (ΔA/A) = 2 (ΔA/A).
V = (100 ± 5)V and I = (10 ± 0.2)A. Find the
Hence, the relative error in A2 is two times the
percentage error in R.
error in A.
Answer The percentage error in V is 5% and in In general, if Z = Ap Bq/Cr
I it is 2%. The total error in R would therefore Then,
be 5% + 2% = 7%. ΔZ/Z = p (ΔA/A) + q (ΔB/B) + r (ΔC/C).

Example 2.10 Two resistors of resistances Hence the rule : The relative error in a
R1 = 100 ± 3 ohm and R2 = 200 ± 4 ohm are physical quantity raised to the power k is the
connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel. Find k times the relative error in the individual
the equivalent resistance of the (a) series quantity.
combination, (b) parallel combination. Use
for (a) the relation R = R1 + R2, and for (b) Example 2.11 Find the relative error in
Z, if Z = A4B1/3/CD3/2.
1 1 1 ΔR ′ ΔR1 ΔR 2
= + and = +
R ′ R1 R 2 R ′2 R12 R 22 .
Answer The relative error in Z is ΔZ/Z =
4(ΔA/A) +(1/3) (ΔB/B) + (ΔC/C) + (3/2) (ΔD/D).
Answer (a) The equivalent resistance of series
combination
R = R1 + R2 = (100 ± 3) ohm + (200 ± 4) ohm Example 2.12 The period of oscillation of

= 300 ± 7 ohm. a simple pendulum is T = 2π L/g.

(b) The equivalent resistance of parallel Measured value of L is 20.0 cm known to 1
combination mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillations
of the pendulum is found to be 90 s using
R1R2 200 a wrist watch of 1 s resolution. What is the
R′ = =
R1 + R2 3 = 66.7 ohm accuracy in the determination of g ?

1 1 1 Answer g = 4π2L/T2
Then, from R ′ = R + R
t Δt ΔT Δt
and ΔT = =
1 2
Here, T = . Therefore, .
we get, n n T t
The errors in both L and t are the least count
ΔR ′ ΔR1 ΔR2
= 2 + 2 errors. Therefore,
R ′2 R1 R2 (Δg/g) = (ΔL/L) + 2(ΔT/T )

( ) ΔRR + (R ′ ) ΔRR
ΔR ′ = R ′2 2
1 2 2
2 =
0.1
20.0
+2⎜
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎟ = 0.032
⎝ 90 ⎠
1 2

2 2
Thus, the percentage error in g is
⎛ 66.7 ⎞ ⎛ 66.7 ⎞ 100 (Δg/g) = 100(ΔL/L) + 2 × 100 (ΔT/T )
=⎜ ⎟ 3+⎜ ⎟ 4
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 200 ⎠ = 3%
= 1.8 2.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Then, R ′ = 66.7 ± 1.8 ohm As discussed above, every measurement
(Here, ΔR is expresed as 1.8 instead of 2 to involves errors. Thus, the result of
keep in confirmity with the rules of significant measurement should be reported in a way that
figures.) indicates the precision of measurement.
Normally, the reported result of measurement
(c) Error in case of a measured quantity is a number that includes all digits in the
raised to a power number that are known reliably plus the first
Suppose Z = A2, digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus
28 PHYSICS

the first uncertain digit are known as • The trailing zero(s) in a number with a
significant digits or significant figures. If we decimal point are significant.
say the period of oscillation of a simple [The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four
pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 are significant figures each.]
reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is
uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three (2) There can be some confusion regarding the
significant figures. The length of an object trailing zero(s). Suppose a length is reported to
reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm has be 4.700 m. It is evident that the zeroes here
are meant to convey the precision of
four significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 are
measurement and are, therefore, significant. [If
certain while the digit 5 is uncertain. Clearly,
these were not, it would be superfluous to write
reporting the result of measurement that
them explicitly, the reported measurement
includes more digits than the significant digits
would have been simply 4.7 m]. Now suppose
is superfluous and also misleading since it would we change units, then
give a wrong idea about the precision of
measurement. 4.700 m = 470.0 cm = 4700 mm = 0.004700 km
The rules for determining the number of Since the last number has trailing zero(s) in a
significant figures can be understood from the number with no decimal, we would conclude
following examples. Significant figures indicate, erroneously from observation (1) above that the
as already mentioned, the precision of number has two significant figures, while in
measurement which depends on the least count fact, it has four significant figures and a mere
of the measuring instrument. A choice of change of units cannot change the number of
change of different units does not change the significant figures.
number of significant digits or figures in a (3) To remove such ambiguities in
measurement. This important remark makes determining the number of significant
most of the following observations clear: figures, the best way is to report every
(1) For example, the length 2.308 cm has four measurement in scientific notation (in the
significant figures. But in different units, the power of 10). In this notation, every number is
same value can be written as 0.02308 m or 23.08 expressed as a × 10b, where a is a number
mm or 23080 μm. between 1 and 10, and b is any positive or
All these numbers have the same number of negative exponent (or power) of 10. In order to
significant figures (digits 2, 3, 0, 8), namely four. get an approximate idea of the number, we may
This shows that the location of decimal point is round off the number a to 1 (for a ≤ 5) and to 10
of no consequence in determining the number (for 5<a ≤ 10). Then the number can be
of significant figures. expressed approximately as 10b in which the
The example gives the following rules : exponent (or power) b of 10 is called order of
• All the non-zero digits are significant. magnitude of the physical quantity. When only
• All the zeros between two non-zero digits an estimate is required, the quantity is of the
are significant, no matter where the order of 10b. For example, the diameter of the
decimal point is, if at all. earth (1.28×107m) is of the order of 107m with
• If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) the order of magnitude 7. The diameter of
on the right of decimal point but to the hydrogen atom (1.06 ×10–10m) is of the order of
left of the first non-zero digit are not 10 –10 m, with the order of magnitude
significant. [In 0.00 2308, the underlined –10. Thus, the diameter of the earth is 17 orders
zeroes are not significant]. of magnitude larger than the hydrogen atom.
• The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a It is often customary to write the decimal after
number without a decimal point are not the first digit. Now the confusion mentioned in
significant. (a) above disappears :
4.700 m = 4.700 × 102 cm
[Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has
= 4.700 × 103 mm = 4.700 × 10–3 km
three significant figures, the trailing zero(s)
being not significant.] However, you can also The power of 10 is irrelevant to the
see the next observation. determination of significant figures. However, all
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 29

zeroes appearing in the base number in the following rules for arithmetic operations with
scientific notation are significant. Each number significant figures ensure that the final result of
in this case has four significant figures. a calculation is shown with the precision that is
Thus, in the scientific notation, no confusion consistent with the precision of the input
arises about the trailing zero(s) in the base measured values :
number a. They are always significant. (1) In multiplication or division, the final
result should retain as many significant
(4) The scientific notation is ideal for reporting
figures as are there in the original number
measurement. But if this is not adopted, we use with the least significant figures.
the rules adopted in the preceding example : Thus, in the example above, density should
• For a number greater than 1, without any be reported to three significant figures.
decimal, the trailing zero(s) are not
4.237g -3
significant. Density = 3
= 1.69 g cm
• For a number with a decimal, the trailing 2.51 cm
zero(s) are significant. Similarly, if the speed of light is given as
3.00 × 108 m s-1 (three significant figures) and
(5) The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a
one year (1y = 365.25 d) has 3.1557 × 107 s (five
decimal for a number less than 1 (like 0.1250)
significant figures), the light year is 9.47 × 1015
is never significant. However, the zeroes at the
m (three significant figures).
end of such number are significant in a
measurement. (2) In addition or subtraction, the final result
should retain as many decimal places as are
(6) The multiplying or dividing factors which are
there in the number with the least decimal
neither rounded numbers nor numbers
places.
representing measured values are exact and
For example, the sum of the numbers
have infinite number of significant digits. For 436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmetic
d addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise
example in r = or s = 2πr, the factor 2 is an measurement (227.2 g) is correct to only one
2
exact number and it can be written as 2.0, 2.00 decimal place. The final result should, therefore,
be rounded off to 663.8 g.
t
or 2.0000 as required. Similarly, in T = , n is Similarly, the difference in length can be
n expressed as :
an exact number.
0.307 m – 0.304 m = 0.003 m = 3 × 10–3 m.
2.7.1 Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Note that we should not use the rule (1)
Significant Figures applicable for multiplication and division and
The result of a calculation involving approximate write 664 g as the result in the example of
measured values of quantities (i.e. values with addition and 3.00 × 10–3 m in the example of
limited number of significant figures) must reflect subtraction. They do not convey the precision
the uncertainties in the original measured values. of measurement properly. For addition and
It cannot be more accurate than the original subtraction, the rule is in terms of decimal
measured values themselves on which the result places.
is based. In general, the final result should not
2.7.2 Rounding off the Uncertain Digits
have more significant figures than the original
data from which it was obtained. Thus, if mass of The result of computation with approximate
an object is measured to be, say, 4.237 g (four numbers, which contain more than one
significant figures) and its volume is measured to uncertain digit, should be rounded off. The rules
be 2.51 cm3, then its density, by mere arithmetic for rounding off numbers to the appropriate
division, is 1.68804780876 g/cm3 upto 11 decimal significant figures are obvious in most cases. A
places. It would be clearly absurd and irrelevant number 2.746 rounded off to three significant
to record the calculated value of density to such a figures is 2.75, while the number 2.743 would
precision when the measurements on which the be 2.74. The rule by convention is that the
value is based, have much less precision. The preceding digit is raised by 1 if the
30 PHYSICS

insignificant digit to be dropped (the

Example 2.14 5.74 g of a substance
underlined digit in this case) is more than
occupies 1.2 cm3. Express its density by
5, and is left unchanged if the latter is less keeping the significant figures in view.
than 5. But what if the number is 2.745 in
which the insignificant digit is 5. Here, the Answer There are 3 significant figures in the
convention is that if the preceding digit is measured mass whereas there are only 2
even, the insignificant digit is simply significant figures in the measured volume.
dropped and, if it is odd, the preceding digit Hence the density should be expressed to only
is raised by 1. Then, the number 2.745 rounded 2 significant figures.
off to three significant figures becomes 2.74. On 5.74
the other hand, the number 2.735 rounded off
Density = g cm−3
1.2
to three significant figures becomes 2.74 since = 4.8 g cm--3 .
the preceding digit is odd.
In any involved or complex multi-step 2.7.3 Rules for Determining the Uncertainty
calculation, you should retain, in intermediate in the Results of Arithmatic
steps, one digit more than the significant digits Calculations
and round off to proper significant figures at the
The rules for determining the uncertainty or
end of the calculation. Similarly, a number
error in the number/measured quantity in
known to be within many significant figures,
arithmetic operations can be understood from
such as in 2.99792458 × 108 m/s for the speed
the following examples.
of light in vacuum, is rounded off to an (1) If the length and breadth of a thin
approximate value 3 × 108 m/s , which is often rectangular sheet are measured, using a metre
employed in computations. Finally, remember scale as 16.2 cm and, 10.1 cm respectively, there
that exact numbers that appear in formulae like are three significant figures in each
L measurement. It means that the length l may
2 π in T = 2π , have a large (infinite) number be written as
g
l = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm
of significant figures. The value of π = = 16.2 cm ± 0.6 %.
3.1415926.... is known to a large number of
significant figures. You may take the value as Similarly, the breadth b may be written as
3.142 or 3.14 for π, with limited number of b = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm
significant figures as required in specific = 10.1 cm ± 1 %
cases.
Then, the error of the product of two (or more)
Example 2.13 Each side of a cube is experimental values, using the combination of
measured to be 7.203 m. What are the errors rule, will be
total surface area and the volume of the
cube to appropriate significant figures? l b = 163.62 cm2 + 1.6%

= 163.62 + 2.6 cm2

Answer The number of significant figures in
the measured length is 4. The calculated area This leads us to quote the final result as
and the volume should therefore be rounded off l b = 164 + 3 cm2
to 4 significant figures.
Here 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or error in the
Surface area of the cube = 6(7.203)2 m2 estimation of area of rectangular sheet.
= 311.299254 m2 (2) If a set of experimental data is specified
= 311.3 m2 to n significant figures, a result obtained by
combining the data will also be valid to n
Volume of the cube = (7.203)3 m3
significant figures.
= 373.714754 m3
However, if data are subtracted, the number of
= 373.7 m3 significant figures can be reduced.
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 31

For example, 12.9 g – 7.06 g, both specified to three square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the
significant figures, cannot properly be evaluated dimension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current
as 5.84 g but only as 5.8 g, as uncertainties in [A], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous
subtraction or addition combine in a different intensity [cd], and amount of substance [mol].
fashion (smallest number of decimal places rather The dimensions of a physical quantity are the
than the number of significant figures in any of powers (or exponents) to which the base
the number added or subtracted). quantities are raised to represent that
(3) The relative error of a value of number quantity. Note that using the square brackets
specified to significant figures depends not [ ] round a quantity means that we are dealing
only on n but also on the number itself. with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity.
In mechanics, all the physical quantities can
For example, the accuracy in measurement of
be written in terms of the dimensions [L], [M]
mass 1.02 g is ± 0.01 g whereas another
measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to ± 0.01 g. and [T]. For example, the volume occupied by
The relative error in 1.02 g is an object is expressed as the product of length,
= (± 0.01/1.02) × 100 % breadth and height, or three lengths. Hence the
= ± 1% dimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L] = [L]3 = [L3].
Similarly, the relative error in 9.89 g is As the volume is independent of mass and time,
= (± 0.01/9.89) × 100 % it is said to possess zero dimension in mass [M°],
= ± 0.1 % zero dimension in time [T°] and three
Finally, remember that intermediate results in dimensions in length.
a multi-step computation should be Similarly, force, as the product of mass and
calculated to one more significant figure in acceleration, can be expressed as
every measurement than the number of Force = mass × acceleration
= mass × (length)/(time)2
digits in the least precise measurement.
These should be justified by the data and then The dimensions of force are [M] [L]/[T]2 =
the arithmetic operations may be carried out; [M L T–2]. Thus, the force has one dimension in
otherwise rounding errors can build up. For mass, one dimension in length, and –2
example, the reciprocal of 9.58, calculated (after dimensions in time. The dimensions in all other
rounding off) to the same number of significant base quantities are zero.
figures (three) is 0.104, but the reciprocal of Note that in this type of representation, the
0.104 calculated to three significant figures is magnitudes are not considered. It is the quality
of the type of the physical quantity that enters.
9.62. However, if we had written 1/9.58 = 0.1044
Thus, a change in velocity, initial velocity,
and then taken the reciprocal to three significant average velocity, final velocity, and speed are
figures, we would have retrieved the original all equivalent in this context. Since all these
value of 9.58. quantities can be expressed as length/time,
This example justifies the idea to retain one their dimensions are [L]/[T] or [L T–1].
more extra digit (than the number of digits in
the least precise measurement) in intermediate 2.9 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND
steps of the complex multi-step calculations in DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
order to avoid additional errors in the process The expression which shows how and which of
of rounding off the numbers. the base quantities represent the dimensions
of a physical quantity is called the dimensional
2.8 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES formula of the given physical quantity. For
example, the dimensional formula of the volume
The nature of a physical quantity is described is [M° L3 T°], and that of speed or velocity is
by its dimensions. All the physical quantities [M° L T-1]. Similarly, [M° L T–2] is the dimensional
represented by derived units can be expressed formula of acceleration and [M L–3 T°] that of
in terms of some combination of seven mass density.
fundamental or base quantities. We shall call An equation obtained by equating a physical
these base quantities as the seven dimensions quantity with its dimensional formula is called
of the physical world, which are denoted with the dimensional equation of the physical
32 PHYSICS

quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are from the thermodynamic temperature. This
the equations, which represent the dimensions simple principle called the principle of
of a physical quantity in terms of the base homogeneity of dimensions in an equation is
quantities. For example, the dimensional extremely useful in checking the correctness of
equations of volume [V ], speed [v], force [F ] and an equation. If the dimensions of all the terms
mass density [ρ ] may be expressed as are not same, the equation is wrong. Hence, if
we derive an expression for the length (or
[V] = [M0 L3 T0]
distance) of an object, regardless of the symbols
[v] = [M0 L T–1]
[F] = [M L T–2] appearing in the original mathematical relation,
[ρ ] = [M L–3 T0] when all the individual dimensions are
simplified, the remaining dimension must be
The dimensional equation can be obtained that of length. Similarly, if we derive an equation
from the equation representing the relations of speed, the dimensions on both the sides of
between the physical quantities. The equation, when simplified, must be of length/
dimensional formulae of a large number and time, or [L T–1].
wide variety of physical quantities, derived from Dimensions are customarily used as a
the equations representing the relationships
preliminary test of the consistency of an
among other physical quantities and expressed
equation, when there is some doubt about the
in terms of base quantities are given in
Appendix 9 for your guidance and ready correctness of the equation. However, the
reference. dimensional consistency does not guarantee
correct equations. It is uncertain to the extent
2.10 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS of dimensionless quantities or functions. The
APPLICATIONS arguments of special functions, such as the
The recognition of concepts of dimensions, which trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential
guide the description of physical behaviour is functions must be dimensionless. A pure
of basic importance as only those physical number, ratio of similar physical quantities,
quantities can be added or subtracted which such as angle as the ratio (length/length),
have the same dimensions. A thorough refractive index as the ratio (speed of light in
understanding of dimensional analysis helps us vacuum/speed of light in medium) etc., has no
in deducing certain relations among different dimensions.
physical quantities and checking the derivation, Now we can test the dimensional consistency
accuracy and dimensional consistency or or homogeneity of the equation
homogeneity of various mathematical
expressions. When magnitudes of two or more x = x 0 + v0 t + (1/2) a t 2
physical quantities are multiplied, their units for the distance x travelled by a particle or body
should be treated in the same manner as in time t which starts from the position x0 with
ordinary algebraic symbols. We can cancel an initial velocity v0 at time t = 0 and has uniform
identical units in the numerator and acceleration a along the direction of motion.
denominator. The same is true for dimensions The dimensions of each term may be written as
of a physical quantity. Similarly, physical [x] = [L]
quantities represented by symbols on both sides [x0 ] = [L]
of a mathematical equation must have the same [v0 t] = [L T–1] [T]
dimensions. = [L]
[(1/2) a t2] = [L T–2] [T2]
2.10.1 Checking the Dimensional
= [L]
Consistency of Equations
As each term on the right hand side of this
The magnitudes of physical quantities may be equation has the same dimension, namely that
added together or subtracted from one another of length, which is same as the dimension of
only if they have the same dimensions. In other left hand side of the equation, hence this
words, we can add or subtract similar physical equation is a dimensionally correct equation.
quantities. Thus, velocity cannot be added to It may be noted that a test of consistency of
force, or an electric current cannot be subtracted dimensions tells us no more and no less than a
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 33

test of consistency of units, but has the (b) and (d); [M L T–2] for (c). The quantity on the
advantage that we need not commit ourselves right side of (e) has no proper dimensions since
to a particular choice of units, and we need not two quantities of different dimensions have been
worry about conversions among multiples and added. Since the kinetic energy K has the
sub-multiples of the units. It may be borne in dimensions of [M L2 T–2], formulas (a), (c) and (e)
mind that if an equation fails this consistency are ruled out. Note that dimensional arguments
test, it is proved wrong, but if it passes, it is cannot tell which of the two, (b) or (d), is the
not proved right. Thus, a dimensionally correct correct formula. For this, one must turn to the
equation need not be actually an exact actual definition of kinetic energy (see Chapter
(correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong 6). The correct formula for kinetic energy is given
(incorrect) or inconsistent equation must be by (b).
wrong.
2.10.2 Deducing Relation among the
Physical Quantities
Example 2.15 Let us consider an equation
The method of dimensions can sometimes be
1
m v2 = m g h used to deduce relation among the physical
2 quantities. For this we should know the
where m is the mass of the body, v its dependence of the physical quantity on other
velocity, g is the acceleration due to quantities (upto three physical quantities or
gravity and h is the height. Check linearly independent variables) and consider it
whether this equation is dimensionally as a product type of the dependence. Let us take
correct. an example.

Answer The dimensions of LHS are Example 2.17 Consider a simple

[M] [L T–1 ]2 = [M] [ L2 T–2] pendulum, having a bob attached to a
= [M L2 T–2] string, that oscillates under the action of
The dimensions of RHS are the force of gravity. Suppose that the period
[M][L T–2] [L] = [M][L2 T–2] of oscillation of the simple pendulum
= [M L2 T–2] depends on its length (l), mass of the bob
The dimensions of LHS and RHS are the same and (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g).
hence the equation is dimensionally correct. Derive the expression for its time period
using method of dimensions.

Example 2.16 The SI unit of energy is

J = kg m2 s–2; that of speed v is m s–1 and Answer The dependence of time period T on
of acceleration a is m s–2. Which of the the quantities l, g and m as a product may be
written as :
formulae for kinetic energy (K) given below
can you rule out on the basis of T = k lx gy mz
dimensional arguments (m stands for the where k is dimensionless constant and x, y
mass of the body) : and z are the exponents.
(a) K = m2 v3 By considering dimensions on both sides, we
(b) K = (1/2)mv2 have
(c) K = ma [Lo Mo T 1 ]=[L1 ][L1 T –2 ]y [M1 ]z
(d) K = (3/16)mv2
= Lx+y T–2y Mz
(e) K = (1/2)mv2 + ma
On equating the dimensions on both sides,
Answer Every correct formula or equation must we have
have the same dimensions on both sides of the x + y = 0; –2y = 1; and z = 0
equation. Also, only quantities with the same
1 1
physical dimensions can be added or So that x = ,y = – , z = 0
subtracted. The dimensions of the quantity on 2 2
the right side are [M2 L3 T–3] for (a); [M L2 T–2] for Then, T = k l½ g–½
34 PHYSICS

Dimensional analysis is very useful in deducing

l relations among the interdependent physical
or, T = k quantities. However, dimensionless constants
g
cannot be obtained by this method. The method
Note that value of constant k can not be obtained of dimensions can only test the dimensional
by the method of dimensions. Here it does not validity, but not the exact relationship between
matter if some number multiplies the right side physical quantities in any equation. It does not
of this formula, because that does not affect its distinguish between the physical quantities
dimensions. having same dimensions.
A number of exercises at the end of this
l
Actually, k = 2π so that T = 2π
chapter will help you develop skill in
g dimensional analysis.

SUMMARY

1. Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain

physical quantities have been chosen as fundamental or base quantities (such as length,
mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance, and
luminous intensity).
2. Each base quantity is defined in terms of a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly
standardised reference standard called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere,
kelvin, mole and candela). The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called
fundamental or base units.
3. Other physical quantities, derived from the base quantities, can be expressed as a
combination of the base units and are called derived units. A complete set of units,
both fundamental and derived, is called a system of units.
4. The International System of Units (SI) based on seven base units is at present
internationally accepted unit system and is widely used throughout the world.
5. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the base quantities and
the derived quantities obtained from them. Certain derived units are expressed by
means of SI units with special names (such as joule, newton, watt, etc).
6. The SI units have well defined and internationally accepted unit symbols (such as m for
metre, kg for kilogram, s for second, A for ampere, N for newton etc.).
7. Physical measurements are usually expressed for small and large quantities in scientific
notation, with powers of 10. Scientific notation and the prefixes are used to simplify
measurement notation and numerical computation, giving indication to the precision
of the numbers.
8. Certain general rules and guidelines must be followed for using notations for physical
quantities and standard symbols for SI units, some other units and SI prefixes for
expressing properly the physical quantities and measurements.
9. In computing any physical quantity, the units for derived quantities involved in the
relationship(s) are treated as though they were algebraic quantities till the desired
units are obtained.
10. Direct and indirect methods can be used for the measurement of physical quantities.
In measured quantities, while expressing the result, the accuracy and precision of
measuring instruments along with errors in measurements should be taken into account.
11. In measured and computed quantities proper significant figures only should be retained.
Rules for determining the number of significant figures, carrying out arithmetic
operations with them, and ‘rounding off ‘ the uncertain digits must be followed.
12. The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions describe the
nature of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the dimensional
consistency of equations, deducing relations among the physical quantities, etc. A
dimensionally consistent equation need not be actually an exact (correct) equation,
but a dimensionally wrong or inconsistent equation must be wrong.
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 35

EXERCISES

Note : In stating numerical answers, take care of significant figures.

2.1 Fill in the blanks
(a) The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is equal to .....m3
(b) The surface area of a solid cylinder of radius 2.0 cm and height 10.0 cm is equal to
...(mm)2
(c) A vehicle moving with a speed of 18 km h–1 covers....m in 1 s
(d) The relative density of lead is 11.3. Its density is ....g cm–3 or ....kg m–3.
2.2 Fill in the blanks by suitable conversion of units
(a) 1 kg m2 s–2 = ....g cm2 s–2
(b) 1 m = ..... ly
(c) 3.0 m s–2 = .... km h–2
(d) G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 (kg)–2 = .... (cm)3 s–2 g–1.
2.3 A calorie is a unit of heat or energy and it equals about 4.2 J where 1J = 1 kg m2 s–2.
Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals α kg, the unit
of length equals β m, the unit of time is γ s. Show that a calorie has a magnitude 4.2
α –1 β –2 γ 2 in terms of the new units.
2.4 Explain this statement clearly :
“To call a dimensional quantity ‘large’ or ‘small’ is meaningless without specifying a
standard for comparison”. In view of this, reframe the following statements wherever
necessary :
(a) atoms are very small objects
(b) a jet plane moves with great speed
(c) the mass of Jupiter is very large
(d) the air inside this room contains a large number of molecules
(e) a proton is much more massive than an electron
(f) the speed of sound is much smaller than the speed of light.
2.5 A new unit of length is chosen such that the speed of light in vacuum is unity. What
is the distance between the Sun and the Earth in terms of the new unit if light takes
8 min and 20 s to cover this distance ?
2.6 Which of the following is the most precise device for measuring length :
(a) a vernier callipers with 20 divisions on the sliding scale
(b) a screw gauge of pitch 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale
(c) an optical instrument that can measure length to within a wavelength of light ?
2.7 A student measures the thickness of a human hair by looking at it through a
microscope of magnification 100. He makes 20 observations and finds that the average
width of the hair in the field of view of the microscope is 3.5 mm. What is the
estimate on the thickness of hair ?
2.8 Answer the following :
(a)You are given a thread and a metre scale. How will you estimate the diameter of
the thread ?
(b)A screw gauge has a pitch of 1.0 mm and 200 divisions on the circular scale. Do
you think it is possible to increase the accuracy of the screw gauge arbitrarily by
increasing the number of divisions on the circular scale ?
(c) The mean diameter of a thin brass rod is to be measured by vernier callipers. Why
is a set of 100 measurements of the diameter expected to yield a more reliable
estimate than a set of 5 measurements only ?
2.9 The photograph of a house occupies an area of 1.75 cm2 on a 35 mm slide. The slide
is projected on to a screen, and the area of the house on the screen is 1.55 m2. What
is the linear magnification of the projector-screen arrangement.
2.10 State the number of significant figures in the following :
(a) 0.007 m2
(b) 2.64 × 1024 kg
(c) 0.2370 g cm–3
36 PHYSICS

(d) 6.320 J
(e) 6.032 N m–2
(f) 0.0006032 m2
2.11 The length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m, 1.005 m,
and 2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct significant
figures.
2.12 The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s balance is 2.300 kg. Two gold pieces of
masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the
box, (b) the difference in the masses of the pieces to correct significant figures ?
2.13 A physical quantity P is related to four observables a, b, c and d as follows :

P = a 3 b 2/ ( c d )
The percentage errors of measurement in a, b, c and d are 1%, 3%, 4% and 2%,
respectively. What is the percentage error in the quantity P ? If the value of P calculated
using the above relation turns out to be 3.763, to what value should you round off
the result ?
2.14 A book with many printing errors contains four different formulas for the displacement
y of a particle undergoing a certain periodic motion :
(a) y = a sin 2π t/T
(b) y = a sin vt
(c) y = (a/T) sin t/a
(d) y = (a 2 ) (sin 2 πt / T + cos 2 πt / T )
(a = maximum displacement of the particle, v = speed of the particle. T = time-period
of motion). Rule out the wrong formulas on dimensional grounds.
2.15 A famous relation in physics relates ‘moving mass’ m to the ‘rest mass’ mo of a
particle in terms of its speed v and the speed of light, c. (This relation first arose as
a consequence of special relativity due to Albert Einstein). A boy recalls the relation
almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c. He writes :
m0
m=
(1 − v )
2 1/2 .

Guess where to put the missing c.

2.16 The unit of length convenient on the atomic scale is known as an angstrom and is
denoted by Å: 1 Å = 10–10 m. The size of a hydrogen atom is about 0.5 Å. What is the
total atomic volume in m3 of a mole of hydrogen atoms ?
2.17 One mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.4 L
(molar volume). What is the ratio of molar volume to the atomic volume of a mole of
hydrogen ? (Take the size of hydrogen molecule to be about 1 Å). Why is this ratio
so large ?
2.18 Explain this common observation clearly : If you look out of the window of a fast
moving train, the nearby trees, houses etc. seem to move rapidly in a direction opposite
to the train’s motion, but the distant objects (hill tops, the Moon, the stars etc.)
seem to be stationary. (In fact, since you are aware that you are moving, these
distant objects seem to move with you).
2.19 The principle of ‘parallax’ in section 2.3.1 is used in the determination of distances
of very distant stars. The baseline AB is the line joining the Earth’s two locations six
months apart in its orbit around the Sun. That is, the baseline is about the diameter
of the Earth’s orbit ≈ 3 × 1011m. However, even the nearest stars are so distant that
with such a long baseline, they show parallax only of the order of 1” (second) of arc
or so. A parsec is a convenient unit of length on the astronomical scale. It is the
distance of an object that will show a parallax of 1” (second) of arc from opposite
ends of a baseline equal to the distance from the Earth to the Sun. How much is a
parsec in terms of metres ?
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 37

2.20 The nearest star to our solar system is 4.29 light years away. How much is this
distance in terms of parsecs? How much parallax would this star (named Alpha
Centauri) show when viewed from two locations of the Earth six months apart in its
orbit around the Sun ?
2.21 Precise measurements of physical quantities are a need of science. For example, to
ascertain the speed of an aircraft, one must have an accurate method to find its
positions at closely separated instants of time. This was the actual motivation behind
the discovery of radar in World War II. Think of different examples in modern science
where precise measurements of length, time, mass etc. are needed. Also, wherever
you can, give a quantitative idea of the precision needed.
2.22 Just as precise measurements are necessary in science, it is equally important to be
able to make rough estimates of quantities using rudimentary ideas and common
observations. Think of ways by which you can estimate the following (where an
estimate is difficult to obtain, try to get an upper bound on the quantity) :
(a) the total mass of rain-bearing clouds over India during the Monsoon
(b) the mass of an elephant
(c) the wind speed during a storm
(d) the number of strands of hair on your head
(e) the number of air molecules in your classroom.
2.23 The Sun is a hot plasma (ionized matter) with its inner core at a temperature exceeding
107 K, and its outer surface at a temperature of about 6000 K. At these high
temperatures, no substance remains in a solid or liquid phase. In what range do you
expect the mass density of the Sun to be, in the range of densities of solids and
liquids or gases ? Check if your guess is correct from the following data : mass of the
Sun = 2.0 × 1030 kg, radius of the Sun = 7.0 × 108 m.
2.24 When the planet Jupiter is at a distance of 824.7 million kilometers from the Earth,
its angular diameter is measured to be 35.72” of arc. Calculate the diameter of
Jupiter.
Additional Exercises
2.25 A man walking briskly in rain with speed v must slant his umbrella forward making
an angle θ with the vertical. A student derives the following relation between θ and
v : tan θ = v and checks that the relation has a correct limit: as v → 0, θ →0, as
expected. (We are assuming there is no strong wind and that the rain falls vertically
for a stationary man). Do you think this relation can be correct ? If not, guess the
correct relation.
2.26 It is claimed that two cesium clocks, if allowed to run for 100 years, free from any
disturbance, may differ by only about 0.02 s. What does this imply for the accuracy
of the standard cesium clock in measuring a time-interval of 1 s ?
2.27 Estimate the average mass density of a sodium atom assuming its size to be about
2.5 Å. (Use the known values of Avogadro’s number and the atomic mass of sodium).
Compare it with the density of sodium in its crystalline phase : 970 kg m–3. Are the
two densities of the same order of magnitude ? If so, why ?
2.28 The unit of length convenient on the nuclear scale is a fermi : 1 f = 10–15 m. Nuclear
sizes obey roughly the following empirical relation :

r = r0 A1/3

where r is the radius of the nucleus, A its mass number, and ro is a constant equal to
about, 1.2 f. Show that the rule implies that nuclear mass density is nearly constant
for different nuclei. Estimate the mass density of sodium nucleus. Compare it with
the average mass density of a sodium atom obtained in Exercise. 2.27.
2.29 A LASER is a source of very intense, monochromatic, and unidirectional beam of
light. These properties of a laser light can be exploited to measure long distances.
The distance of the Moon from the Earth has been already determined very precisely
using a laser as a source of light. A laser light beamed at the Moon takes 2.56 s to
38 PHYSICS

return after reflection at the Moon’s surface. How much is the radius of the lunar
orbit around the Earth ?
2.30 A SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) uses ultrasonic waves to detect and locate
objects under water. In a submarine equipped with a SONAR the time delay between
generation of a probe wave and the reception of its echo after reflection from an
enemy submarine is found to be 77.0 s. What is the distance of the enemy submarine?
(Speed of sound in water = 1450 m s–1).
2.31 The farthest objects in our Universe discovered by modern astronomers are so distant
that light emitted by them takes billions of years to reach the Earth. These objects
(known as quasars) have many puzzling features, which have not yet been satisfactorily
explained. What is the distance in km of a quasar from which light takes 3.0 billion
years to reach us ?
2.32 It is a well known fact that during a total solar eclipse the disk of the moon almost
completely covers the disk of the Sun. From this fact and from the information you
can gather from examples 2.3 and 2.4, determine the approximate diameter of the
moon.
2.33 A great physicist of this century (P.A.M. Dirac) loved playing with numerical values of
Fundamental constants of nature. This led him to an interesting observation. Dirac
found that from the basic constants of atomic physics (c, e, mass of electron, mass of
proton) and the gravitational constant G, he could arrive at a number with the
dimension of time. Further, it was a very large number, its magnitude being close to
the present estimate on the age of the universe (~15 billion years). From the table of
fundamental constants in this book, try to see if you too can construct this number
(or any other interesting number you can think of ). If its coincidence with the age of
the universe were significant, what would this imply for the constancy of fundamental
constants ?
CHAPTER THREE

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Motion is common to everything in the universe. We walk,
run and ride a bicycle. Even when we are sleeping, air moves
3.1 Introduction into and out of our lungs and blood flows in arteries and
3.2 Position, path length and veins. We see leaves falling from trees and water flowing
displacement down a dam. Automobiles and planes carry people from one
3.3 Average velocity and average place to the other. The earth rotates once every twenty-four
speed hours and revolves round the sun once in a year. The sun
3.4 Instantaneous velocity and itself is in motion in the Milky Way, which is again moving
speed within its local group of galaxies.
3.5 Acceleration Motion is change in position of an object with time. How
3.6 Kinematic equations for does the position change with time ? In this chapter, we shall
uniformly accelerated motion learn how to describe motion. For this, we develop the
3.7 Relative velocity concepts of velocity and acceleration. We shall confine
Summary ourselves to the study of motion of objects along a straight
Points to ponder line, also known as rectilinear motion. For the case of
Exercises rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration, a set of simple
Additional exercises equations can be obtained. Finally, to understand the relative
Appendix 3.1 nature of motion, we introduce the concept of relative velocity.
In our discussions, we shall treat the objects in motion as
point objects. This approximation is valid so far as the size
of the object is much smaller than the distance it moves in a
reasonable duration of time. In a good number of situations
in real-life, the size of objects can be neglected and they can
be considered as point-like objects without much error.
In Kinematics, we study ways to describe motion without
going into the causes of motion. What causes motion
described in this chapter and the next chapter forms the
subject matter of Chapter 5.

3.2 POSITION, PATH LENGTH AND DISPLACEMENT

Earlier you learnt that motion is change in position of an
object with time. In order to specify position, we need to use
a reference point and a set of axes. It is convenient to choose
40 PHYSICS

a rectangular coordinate system consisting of with the path of the car’s motion and origin of
three mutually perpenducular axes, labelled X-, the axis as the point from where the car started
Y-, and Z- axes. The point of intersection of these moving, i.e. the car was at x = 0 at t = 0 (Fig. 3.1).
three axes is called origin (O) and serves as the Let P, Q and R represent the positions of the car
reference point. The coordinates (x, y. z) of an at different instants of time. Consider two cases
object describe the position of the object with of motion. In the first case, the car moves from
O to P. Then the distance moved by the car is
respect to this coordinate system. To measure
OP = +360 m. This distance is called the path
time, we position a clock in this system. This
length traversed by the car. In the second
coordinate system along with a clock constitutes
case, the car moves from O to P and then moves
a frame of reference.
back from P to Q. During this course of motion,
If one or more coordinates of an object change the path length traversed is OP + PQ = + 360 m
with time, we say that the object is in motion. + (+120 m) = + 480 m. Path length is a scalar
Otherwise, the object is said to be at rest with quantity — a quantity that has a magnitude
respect to this frame of reference. only and no direction (see Chapter 4).
The choice of a set of axes in a frame of
reference depends upon the situation. For Displacement
example, for describing motion in one dimension, It is useful to define another quantity
we need only one axis. To describe motion in displacement as the change in position. Let
two/three dimensions, we need a set of two/ x1 and x2 be the positions of an object at time t1
three axes. and t2. Then its displacement, denoted by Δx, in
Description of an event depends on the frame time Δt = (t2 - t1), is given by the difference
of reference chosen for the description. For between the final and initial positions :
example, when you say that a car is moving on Δx = x2 – x1
a road, you are describing the car with respect (We use the Greek letter delta (Δ) to denote a
to a frame of reference attached to you or to the change in a quantity.)
ground. But with respect to a frame of reference If x2 > x1, Δx is positive; and if x2 < x1, Δx is
attached with a person sitting in the car, the negative.
car is at rest. Displacement has both magnitude and
direction. Such quantities are represented by
To describe motion along a straight line, we
vectors. You will read about vectors in the next
can choose an axis, say X-axis, so that it chapter. Presently, we are dealing with motion
coincides with the path of the object. We then along a straight line (also called rectilinear
measure the position of the object with reference motion) only. In one-dimensional motion, there
to a conveniently chosen origin, say O, as shown are only two directions (backward and forward,
in Fig. 3.1. Positions to the right of O are taken upward and downward) in which an object can
as positive and to the left of O, as negative. move, and these two directions can easily be
Following this convention, the position specified by + and – signs. For example,
coordinates of point P and Q in Fig. 3.1 are +360 displacement of the car in moving from O to P is :
m and +240 m. Similarly, the position coordinate Δx = x2 – x1 = (+360 m) – 0 m = +360 m
of point R is –120 m.
The displacement has a magnitude of 360 m and
Path length is directed in the positive x direction as indicated
Consider the motion of a car along a straight by the + sign. Similarly, the displacement of the
line. We choose the x-axis such that it coincides car from P to Q is 240 m – 360 m = – 120 m. The

Fig. 3.1 x-axis, origin and positions of a car at different times.

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 41

negative sign indicates the direction of then returns to O, the final position coincides
displacement. Thus, it is not necessary to use with the initial position and the displacement
vector notation for discussing motion of objects is zero. However, the path length of this journey
in one-dimension. is OP + PO = 360 m + 360 m = 720 m.
The magnitude of displacement may or may Motion of an object can be represented by a
not be equal to the path length traversed by position-time graph as you have already learnt
an object. For example, for motion of the car about it. Such a graph is a powerful tool to
from O to P, the path length is +360 m and the
represent and analyse different aspects of
displacement is +360 m. In this case, the
motion of an object. For motion along a straight
magnitude of displacement (360 m) is equal to
line, say X-axis, only x-coordinate varies with
the path length (360 m). But consider the motion
of the car from O to P and back to Q. In this time and we have an x-t graph. Let us first
case, the path length = (+360 m) + (+120 m) = + consider the simple case in which an object is
480 m. However, the displacement = (+240 m) – stationary, e.g. a car standing still at x = 40 m.
(0 m) = + 240 m. Thus, the magnitude of The position-time graph is a straight line parallel
displacement (240 m) is not equal to the path to the time axis, as shown in Fig. 3.2(a).
length (480 m). If an object moving along the straight line
The magnitude of the displacement for a covers equal distances in equal intervals of
course of motion may be zero but the time, it is said to be in uniform motion along a
corresponding path length is not zero. For straight line. Fig. 3.2(b) shows the position-time
example, if the car starts from O, goes to P and graph of such a motion.

Fig. 3.2 Position-time graph of (a) stationary object, and (b) an object in uniform motion.

x
(m)

t (s)
Fig. 3.3 Position-time graph of a car.
42 PHYSICS

Now, let us consider the motion of a car that Consider the motion of the car in Fig. 3.3. The
starts from rest at time t = 0 s from the origin O portion of the x-t graph between t = 0 s and t = 8
and picks up speed till t = 10 s and thereafter s is blown up and shown in Fig. 3.4. As seen
moves with uniform speed till t = 18 s. Then the from the plot, the average velocity of the car
brakes are applied and the car stops at between time t = 5 s and t = 7 s is :
t = 20 s and x = 296 m. The position-time graph x 2 − x1 (27.4 − 10.0 ) m
for this case is shown in Fig. 3.3. We shall refer v= = = 8.7 m s –1
t 2 − t1 (7 − 5 ) s
to this graph in our discussion in the following
sections. Geometrically, this is the slope of the straight
line P1P2 connecting the initial position P1 to
3.3 AVERAGE VELOCITY AND AVERAGE the final position P2 as shown in Fig. 3.4.
SPEED The average velocity can be positive or negative
When an object is in motion, its position depending upon the sign of the displacement. It
changes with time. But how fast is the position is zero if the displacement is zero. Fig. 3.5 shows
changing with time and in what direction? To the x-t graphs for an object, moving with positive
describe this, we define the quantity average velocity (Fig. 3.5a), moving with negative velocity
velocity. Average velocity is defined as the (Fig. 3.5b) and at rest (Fig. 3.5c).
change in position or displacement (Δx) divided
by the time intervals (Δt), in which the
displacement occurs :

x 2 − x1 Δx
v= = (3.1)
t 2 − t1 Δt

where x2 and x1 are the positions of the object

at time t2and t1, respectively. Here the bar over Fig. 3.5 Position-time graph for an object (a) moving
the symbol for velocity is a standard notation with positive velocity, (b) moving with
negative velocity, and (c) at rest.
used to indicate an average quantity. The SI
unit for velocity is m/s or m s–1, although km h–1 Average velocity as defined above involves
is used in many everyday applications. only the displacement of the object. We have seen
Like displacement, average velocity is also a earlier that the magnitude of displacement may
vector quantity. But as explained earlier, for be different from the actual path length. To
motion in a straight line, the directional aspect describe the rate of motion over the actual path,
of the vector can be taken care of by + and – we introduce another quantity called average
signs and we do not have to use the vector speed.
notation for velocity in this chapter. Average speed is defined as the total path
length travelled divided by the total time
interval during which the motion has taken
place :

Total path length

Average speed = (3.2)
Total time interval
Average speed has obviously the same unit
(m s–1) as that of velocity. But it does not tell us
in what direction an object is moving. Thus, it
is always positive (in contrast to the average
velocity which can be positive or negative). If the
motion of an object is along a straight line and
in the same direction, the magnitude of
displacement is equal to the total path length.
Fig. 3.4 The average velocity is the slope of line P1P2. In that case, the magnitude of average velocity
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 43

is equal to the average speed. This is not always 3.4 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED
the case, as you will see in the following example.
The average velocity tells us how fast an object
has been moving over a given time interval but
Example 3.1 A car is moving along a
does not tell us how fast it moves at different
straight line, say OP in Fig. 3.1. It moves
instants of time during that interval. For this,
from O to P in 18 s and returns from P to Q
we define instantaneous velocity or simply
in 6.0 s. What are the average velocity
velocity v at an instant t.
and average speed of the car in going (a)
The velocity at an instant is defined as the
from O to P ? and (b) from O to P and back
limit of the average velocity as the time interval
to Q ?
Δt becomes infinitesimally small. In other words,

Answer (a) Δx
v = lim (3.3a)
Displacement Δt → 0 Δt
Average velocity =
Time interval
dx (3.3b)
=
dt
+ 360 m
v= = + 20 m s −1 lim
where the symbol Δt →0 stands for the operation
18 s
of taking limit as Δt 0 of the quantity on its
Path length right. In the language of calculus, the quantity
Average speed =
Time interval on the right hand side of Eq. (3.3a) is the
differential coefficient of x with respect to t and
360 m dx
= = 20 m s −1 is denoted by (see Appendix 3.1). It is the
18 s dt
rate of change of position with respect to time,
Thus, in this case the average speed is equal to
the magnitude of the average velocity. at that instant.
(b) In this case, We can use Eq. (3.3a) for obtaining the value
of velocity at an instant either graphically or
Displacement +240 m
Average velocity = = numerically. Suppose that we want to obtain
Time interval (18 + 6.0 ) s graphically the value of velocity at time t = 4 s
(point P) for the motion of the car represented
=+10 m s-1 in Fig. 3.3. The figure has been redrawn in
Fig. 3.6 choosing different scales to facilitate the
Path length OP + PQ
Average speed = =
Time interval Δt

=
(360 +120) m
= 20 m s-1
24 s

Thus, in this case the average speed is not equal

to the magnitude of the average velocity. This
happens because the motion here involves
change in direction so that the path length is
greater than the magnitude of displacement.
This shows that speed is, in general, greater
than the magnitude of the velocity.
If the car in Example 3.1 moves from O to P
and comes back to O in the same time interval, Fig. 3.6 Determining velocity from position-time
average speed is 20 m/s but the average velocity graph. Velocity at t = 4 s is the slope of the
is zero ! tangent to the graph at that instant.
44 PHYSICS

calculation. Let us take Δt = 2 s centred at instant for motion of the car shown in Fig. 3.3.
t = 4 s. Then, by the definition of the average For this case, the variation of velocity with time
velocity, the slope of line P1P2 ( Fig. 3.6) gives is found to be as shown in Fig. 3.7.
the value of average velocity over the interval
3 s to 5 s. Now, we decrease the value of Δt from
2 s to 1 s. Then line P1P2 becomes Q1Q2 and its
slope gives the value of the average velocity over
the interval 3.5 s to 4.5 s. In the limit Δt →0,
the line P1P2 becomes tangent to the position-
time curve at the point P and the velocity at t =
4 s is given by the slope of the tangent at that
point. It is difficult to show this process
graphically. But if we use numerical method
to obtain the value of the velocity, the
meaning of the limiting process becomes
clear. For the graph shown in
Fig. 3.6, x = 0.08 t3. Table 3.1 gives the value of
Δx/Δt calculated for Δt equal to 2.0 s, 1.0 s, 0.5
s, 0.1 s and 0.01 s centred at t = 4.0 s. The
second and third columns give the value of t1= Fig. 3.7 Velocity–time graph corresponding to motion
shown in Fig. 3.3.
⎛ Δt ⎞ ⎛ Δt ⎞ The graphical method for the determination
⎜t − ⎟ and t 2 = ⎜ t + ⎟ and the fourth and
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ of the instantaneous velocity is always not a
the fifth columns give the corresponding values convenient method. For this, we must carefully
plot the position–time graph and calculate the
3
of x, i.e. x (t1) = 0.08 t1 and x (t2) = 0.08 t23 . The value of average velocity as Δt becomes smaller
sixth column lists the difference Δx = x (t2) – x and smaller. It is easier to calculate the value
(t1) and the last column gives the ratio of Δx and of velocity at different instants if we have data
Δt, i.e. the average velocity corresponding to the of positions at different instants or exact
value of Δt listed in the first column. expression for the position as a function of time.
We see from Table 3.1 that as we decrease Then, we calculate Δx/Δt from the data for
the value of Δt from 2.0 s to 0.010 s, the value of decreasing the value of Δt and find the limiting
the average velocity approaches the limiting value as we have done in Table 3.1 or use
value 3.84 m s–1 which is the value of velocity at differential calculus for the given expression and
dx dx
t = 4.0 s, i.e. the value of at t = 4.0 s. In this calculate at different instants as done in
dt dt
manner, we can calculate velocity at each the following example.

Δx
Table 3.1 Limiting value of at t = 4 s
Δt
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 45

This led to the concept of acceleration as the rate

Example 3.2 The position of an object
of change of velocity with time.
moving along x-axis is given by x = a + bt2
where a = 8.5 m, b = 2.5 m s–2 and t is The average acceleration a over a time
measured in seconds. What is its velocity at interval is defined as the change of velocity
t = 0 s and t = 2.0 s. What is the average divided by the time interval :
velocity between t = 2.0 s and t = 4.0 s ?
a = v 2 – v1 = Δv (3.4)
t 2 – t1 Δt
Answer In notation of differential calculus, the
velocity is where v2 and v1 are the instantaneous velocities
or simply velocities at time t2 and t1 . It is the
v=
dx
dt
=
d
dt
( a + bt ) = 2b t = 5.0 t m s
2 -1
average change of velocity per unit time. The SI
At t = 0 s, v = 0 m s–1 and at t = 2.0 s, unit of acceleration is m s–2 .
v = 10 m s-1 . On a plot of velocity versus time, the average
acceleration is the slope of the straight line
x (4.0 ) − x (2.0 ) connecting the points corresponding to (v2, t2)
Average velocity =
4.0 − 2.0 and (v 1 , t 1 ). The average acceleration
a + 16b – a – 4b for velocity-time graph shown in Fig. 3.7 for
= = 6.0 × b
2.0 different time intervals 0 s - 10 s, 10 s – 18 s,
= 6.0 × 2.5 = 15 m s-1 and 18 s – 20 s are :

24 – 0) m s –1
a=(
From Fig. 3.7, we note that during the period
t =10 s to 18 s the velocity is constant. Between 0 s - 10 s = 2.4 m s –2
period t =18 s to t = 20 s, it is uniformly (10 – 0) s
decreasing and during the period t = 0 s to t
24 – 24 ) m s –1
= 10 s, it is increasing. Note that for uniform 10 s - 18 s a=( = 0 m s –2
motion, velocity is the same as the average (18 – 10) s
velocity at all instants.
0 – 24 ) m s –1
Instantaneous speed or simply speed is the
18 s - 20 s a=( = – 12 m s –2
magnitude of velocity. For example, a velocity of (20 – 18) s
+ 24.0 m s–1 and a velocity of – 24.0 m s–1 — both
have an associated speed of 24.0 m s-1. It should
be noted that though average speed over a finite
interval of time is greater or equal to the
magnitude of the average velocity,
a (m s–2)

instantaneous speed at an instant is equal to

the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity at
that instant. Why so ?
3.5 ACCELERATION
The velocity of an object, in general, changes
during its course of motion. How to describe this
change? Should it be described as the rate of Fig. 3.8 Acceleration as a function of time for motion
change in velocity with distance or with time ? represented in Fig. 3.3.
This was a problem even in Galileo’s time. It was
Instantaneous acceleration is defined in the same
first thought that this change could be described
way as the instantaneous velocity :
by the rate of change of velocity with distance.
But, through his studies of motion of freely falling Δv d v
a = lim
= (3.5)
objects and motion of objects on an inclined Δt dt
Δt →0

plane, Galileo concluded that the rate of change The acceleration at an instant is the slope of
of velocity with time is a constant of motion for the tangent to the v–t curve at that instant. For
all objects in free fall. On the other hand, the the v–t curve shown in Fig. 3.7, we can obtain
change in velocity with distance is not constant acceleration at every instant of time. The
– it decreases with the increasing distance of fall. resulting a – t curve is shown in Fig. 3.8. We see
46 PHYSICS

that the acceleration is nonuniform over the (b) An object is moving in positive direction
period 0 s to 10 s. It is zero between 10 s and with a negative acceleration, for example,
18 s and is constant with value –12 m s–2 motion of the car in Fig 3.3 between
between 18 s and 20 s. When the acceleration t = 18 s and 20 s.
is uniform, obviously, it equals the average (c) An object is moving in negative direction
acceleration over that period. with a negative acceleration, for example
Since velocity is a quantity having both the motion of a car moving from O in Fig.
magnitude and direction, a change in velocity 3.1 in negative x-direction with
may involve either or both of these factors. increasing speed.
Acceleration, therefore, may result from a (d) An object is moving in positive direction
change in speed (magnitude), a change in till time t1, and then turns back with the
direction or changes in both. Like velocity, same negative acceleration, for example
acceleration can also be positive, negative or the motion of a car from point O to point
zero. Position-time graphs for motion with Q in Fig. 3.1 till time t1 with decreasing
positive, negative and zero acceleration are speed and turning back and moving with
shown in Figs. 3.9 (a), (b) and (c), respectively. the same negative acceleration.
Note that the graph curves upward for positive An interesting feature of a velocity-time graph
acceleration; downward for negative for any moving object is that the area under the
acceleration and it is a straight line for zero curve represents the displacement over a
acceleration. As an exercise, identify in Fig. 3.3, given time interval. A general proof of this
the regions of the curve that correspond to these
three cases.
Although acceleration can vary with time,
our study in this chapter will be restricted to
motion with constant acceleration. In this case,
the average acceleration equals the constant
value of acceleration during the interval. If the
velocity of an object is vo at t = 0 and v at time t,
we have
v − v0
a= or, v = v0 + a t (3.6)
t −0

Fig. 3.9 Position-time graph for motion with

(a) positive acceleration; (b) negative Fig. 3.10 Velocity–time graph for motions with
acceleration, and (c) zero acceleration. constant acceleration. (a) Motion in positive
Let us see how velocity-time graph looks like direction with positive acceleration,
for some simple cases. Fig. 3.10 shows velocity- (b) Motion in positive direction with
negative acceleration, (c) Motion in negative
time graph for motion with constant acceleration
direction with negative acceleration,
for the following cases :
(d) Motion of an object with negative
(a) An object is moving in a positive direction acceleration that changes direction at time
with a positive acceleration, for example t1. Between times 0 to t1, its moves in
the motion of the car in Fig. 3.3 between positive x - direction and between t1 and
t = 0 s and t = 10 s. t2 it moves in the opposite direction.
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 47

statement requires use of calculus. We can, 1

however, see that it is true for the simple case of =
2
(v –v0 ) t + v0t
an object moving with constant velocity u. Its
velocity-time graph is as shown in Fig. 3.11.

Fig. 3.11 Area under v–t curve equals displacement

of the object over a given time interval.
The v-t curve is a straight line parallel to the
time axis and the area under it between t = 0
and t = T is the area of the rectangle of height u Fig. 3.12 Area under v-t curve for an object with
and base T. Therefore, area = u × T = uT which uniform acceleration.
is the displacement in this time interval. How As explained in the previous section, the area
come in this case an area is equal to a distance? under v-t curve represents the displacement.
Think! Note the dimensions of quantities on Therefore, the displacement x of the object is :
the two coordinate axes, and you will arrive at
1
the answer. x = (v –v0 ) t + v0t (3.7)
2
Note that the x-t, v-t, and a-t graphs shown
But v − v0 = a t
in several figures in this chapter have sharp
kinks at some points implying that the 1
functions are not differentiable at these Therefore, x = a t 2 + v 0t
2
points. In any realistic situation, the
1 2
functions will be differentiable at all points or, x = v0t +
at (3.8)
and the graphs will be smooth. 2
Equation (3.7) can also be written as
What this means physically is that
v + v0
acceleration and velocity cannot change x = t =vt (3.9a)
values abruptly at an instant. Changes are 2
always continuous. where,
3.6 KINEMATIC EQUATIONS FOR
v + v0
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION v= (constant acceleration only)
2
For uniformly accelerated motion, we can derive (3.9b)
some simple equations that relate displacement
(x), time taken (t), initial velocity (v0), final Equations (3.9a) and (3.9b) mean that the object
velocity (v) and acceleration (a). Equation (3.6) has undergone displacement x with an average
already obtained gives a relation between final velocity equal to the arithmetic average of the
and initial velocities v and v0 of an object moving initial and final velocities.
with uniform acceleration a : From Eq. (3.6), t = (v – v0)/a. Substituting this in
Eq. (3.9a), we get
v = v0 + at (3.6)
⎛ v + v0 ⎞ ⎛ v − v0 ⎞ v − v0
2 2
This relation is graphically represented in Fig. 3.12. x =vt =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =
The area under this curve is : ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ a ⎠ 2a
Area between instants 0 and t = Area of triangle
ABC + Area of rectangle OACD v 2 = v02 + 2ax (3.10)
48 PHYSICS

This equation can also be obtained by

∫ (v + at ) dt
t
substituting the value of t from Eq. (3.6) into = 0
0
Eq. (3.8). Thus, we have obtained three
important equations : 1
x – x 0 = v0 t + a t2
v = v0 + at 2
1
1 x = x 0 + v0 t + a t2
x = v 0t + at 2 2
2 We can write
v 2 = v02 + 2ax (3.11a)
a=
dv dv d x
= =v
dv
dt dx dt dx
connecting five quantities v0, v, a, t and x. These
are kinematic equations of rectilinear motion or, v dv = a dx
for constant acceleration. Integrating both sides,
The set of Eq. (3.11a) were obtained by v x

assuming that at t = 0, the position of the ∫ v0

v dv = ∫ x0
a dx
particle, x is 0. We can obtain a more general
v 2 – v 02
equation if we take the position coordinate at t = a (x – x 0 )
= 0 as non-zero, say x0. Then Eqs. (3.11a) are 2
modified (replacing x by x – x0 ) to :
v 2 = v02 + 2a ( x – x 0 )
v = v0 + at
The advantage of this method is that it can be
1 2 used for motion with non-uniform acceleration
x = x 0 + v 0t + at (3.11b) also.
2
Now, we shall use these equations to some
v 2 = v02 + 2a ( x − x 0 ) (3.11c) important cases.

Example 3.4 A ball is thrown vertically

Example 3.3 Obtain equations of motion upwards with a velocity of 20 m s–1 from
for constant acceleration using method of the top of a multistorey building. The
calculus. height of the point from where the ball is
thrown is 25.0 m from the ground. (a) How
Answer By definition high will the ball rise ? and (b) how long
will it be before the ball hits the ground?
dv Take g = 10 m s–2.
a =
dt
dv = a dt
Answer (a) Let us take the y-axis in the
Integrating both sides
v t
vertically upward direction with zero at the
∫ v0
dv = ∫ 0
a dt ground, as shown in Fig. 3.13.
Now vo = + 20 m s–1,
t
= a ∫ dt (a is constant) a = – g = –10 m s–2,
0
v = 0 m s–1
v – v 0 = at If the ball rises to height y from the point of
v = v 0 + at launch, then using the equation
(
v 2 = v02 + 2 a y – y 0 )
dx we get
Further, v=
dt 0 = (20)2 + 2(–10)(y – y0)
dx = v dt
Solving, we get, (y – y0) = 20 m.
Integrating both sides
x t (b) We can solve this part of the problem in two
∫ x0
dx = ∫ 0
v dt
ways. Note carefully the methods used.
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 49

0 = 25 +20 t + (½) (-10) t2

Or, 5t2 – 20t – 25 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for t, we get
t = 5s
Note that the second method is better since we
do not have to worry about the path of the motion
as the motion is under constant acceleration.

Example 3.5 Free-fall : Discuss the

motion of an object under free fall. Neglect
air resistance.

Answer An object released near the surface of

the Earth is accelerated downward under the
influence of the force of gravity. The magnitude
of acceleration due to gravity is represented by
g. If air resistance is neglected, the object is
Fig. 3.13 said to be in free fall. If the height through
which the object falls is small compared to the
FIRST METHOD : In the first method, we split
earth’s radius, g can be taken to be constant,
the path in two parts : the upward motion (A to
equal to 9.8 m s–2. Free fall is thus a case of
B) and the downward motion (B to C) and
motion with uniform acceleration.
calculate the corresponding time taken t1 and
We assume that the motion is in y-direction,
t2. Since the velocity at B is zero, we have :
more correctly in –y-direction because we
v = vo + at
choose upward direction as positive. Since the
0 = 20 – 10t1
acceleration due to gravity is always downward,
Or, t1 = 2 s
it is in the negative direction and we have
This is the time in going from A to B. From B, or a = – g = – 9.8 m s–2
the point of the maximum height, the ball falls The object is released from rest at y = 0. Therefore,
freely under the acceleration due to gravity. The v0 = 0 and the equations of motion become:
ball is moving in negative y direction. We use
equation v= 0–gt = –9.8 t m s–1
y = 0 – ½ g t2 = –4.9 t 2 m
1 2
y = y0 + v0t + at v2 = 0 – 2 g y = –19.6 y m2 s–2
2 These equations give the velocity and the
We have, y0 = 45 m, y = 0, v0 = 0, a = – g = –10 m s–2
distance travelled as a function of time and also
0 = 45 + (½) (–10) t22
the variation of velocity with distance. The
Solving, we get t2 = 3 s variation of acceleration, velocity, and distance,
Therefore, the total time taken by the ball before with time have been plotted in Fig. 3.14(a), (b)
it hits the ground = t1 + t2 = 2 s + 3 s = 5 s. and (c).
SECOND METHOD : The total time taken can
also be calculated by noting the coordinates of
initial and final positions of the ball with respect
to the origin chosen and using equation
1 2
y = y0 + v0t +at
2
Now y0 = 25 m y=0m
vo = 20 m s-1, a = –10m s–2, t = ? (a)
50 PHYSICS

traversed during successive intervals of

time. Since initial velocity is zero, we have
1 2
y=− gt
2
Using this equation, we can calculate the
position of the object after different time
intervals, 0, τ , 2 τ , 3 τ … which are given in
second column of Table 3.2. If we take
(–1/ 2) g τ 2 as y0 — the position coordinate after
first time interval τ , then third column gives
(b) the positions in the unit of y o. The fourth
column gives the distances traversed in
successive τ s. We find that the distances are
in the simple ratio 1: 3: 5: 7: 9: 11… as shown
in the last column. This law was established
by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) who was the first
to make quantitative studies of free fall.

Example 3.7 Stopping distance of

vehicles : When brakes are applied to a
moving vehicle, the distance it travels before
stopping is called stopping distance. It is
an important factor for road safety and
(c) depends on the initial velocity (v0) and the
braking capacity, or deceleration, –a that
Fig. 3.14 Motion of an object under free fall.
(a) Variation of acceleration with time. is caused by the braking. Derive an
(b) Variation of velocity with time. expression for stopping distance of a vehicle
(c) Variation of distance with time in terms of vo and a.
Example 3.6 Galileo’s law of odd
Answer Let the distance travelled by the vehicle
numbers : “The distances traversed, during
before it stops be ds. Then, using equation of
equal intervals of time, by a body falling
motion v2 = vo2 + 2 ax, and noting that v = 0, we
from rest, stand to one another in the same
have the stopping distance
ratio as the odd numbers beginning with
unity [namely, 1: 3: 5: 7…...].” Prove it.
Answer Let us divide the time interval of
motion of an object under free fall into many Thus, the stopping distance is proportional to
equal intervals τ and find out the distances the square of the initial velocity. Doubling the
Table 3.2
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 51

initial velocity increases the stopping distance

by a factor of 4 (for the same deceleration). 1 2
d=− gt r
For the car of a particular make, the braking 2
distance was found to be 10 m, 20 m, 34 m and
2d
50 m corresponding to velocities of 11, 15, 20 Or, tr = s
and 25 m/s which are nearly consistent with g
the above formula. Given d = 21.0 cm and g = 9.8 m s–2the reaction
time is
Stopping distance is an important factor 2×0.21
considered in setting speed limits, for example, tr = s ≅ 0.2 s.
in school zones. 9.8

3.7 RELATIVE VELOCITY

Example 3.8 Reaction time : When a
situation demands our immediate You must be familiar with the experience of
action, it takes some time before we travelling in a train and being overtaken by
really respond. Reaction time is the another train moving in the same direction as
time a person takes to observe, think you are. While that train must be travelling faster
and act. For example, if a person is than you to be able to pass you, it does seem
driving and suddenly a boy appears on slower to you than it would be to someone
the road, then the time elapsed before standing on the ground and watching both the
he slams the brakes of the car is the trains. In case both the trains have the same
reaction time. Reaction time depends velocity with respect to the ground, then to you
on complexity of the situation and on the other train would seem to be not moving at
an individual. all. To understand such observations, we now
You can measure your reaction time introduce the concept of relative velocity.
by a simple experiment. Take a ruler Consider two objects A and B moving
and ask your friend to drop it vertically uniformly with average velocities vA and vB in
through the gap between your thumb one dimension, say along x-axis. (Unless
and forefinger (Fig. 3.15). After you otherwise specified, the velocities mentioned in
catch it, find the distance d travelled this chapter are measured with reference to the
by the ruler. In a particular case, d was ground). If xA (0) and xB (0) are positions of objects
found to be 21.0 cm. Estimate reaction A and B, respectively at time t = 0, their positions
time. xA (t) and xB (t) at time t are given by:
xA (t ) = xA (0) + vA t (3.12a)
xB (t) = xB (0) + vB t (3.12b)
Then, the displacement from object A to object
B is given by
xBA(t) = xB (t) – xA (t)
= [ xB (0) – xA (0) ] + (vB – vA) t. (3.13)
Equation (3.13) is easily interpreted. It tells us
that as seen from object A, object B has a
velocity vB – vA because the displacement from
A to B changes steadily by the amount vB – vA in
each unit of time. We say that the velocity of
Fig. 3.15 Measuring the reaction time. object B relative to object A is vB – vA :
vBA = vB – vA (3.14a)
Answer The ruler drops under free fall.
Therefore, v o = 0, and g = –9.8 m s –2. The Similarly, velocity of object A relative to object B
distance travelled d and the reaction time tr are is:
related by vAB = vA – vB (3.14b)
52 PHYSICS

Fig. 3.16 Position-time graphs of two objects with

equal velocities.

This shows: vBA = – vAB (3.14c) Fig. 3.17 Position-time graphs of two objects with
unequal velocities, showing the time of
meeting.
Now we consider some special cases :
(a) If vB = vA, vB – vA = 0. Then, from Eq. (3.13), xB
(t) – xA (t) = xB (0) – xA (0). Therefore, the two
objects stay at a constant distance (xB (0) – xA
(0)) apart, and their position–time graphs are
straight lines parallel to each other as shown
in Fig. 3.16. The relative velocity vAB or vBA is
zero in this case.
(b) If vA > vB, vB – vA is negative. One graph is
steeper than the other and they meet at a
common point. For example, suppose vA = 20 m s-1 t(s)
and xA (0) = 10 m; and vB = 10 m s-1, xB (0) = 40
m; then the time at which they meet is t = 3 s
(Fig. 3.17). At this instant they are both at a Fig. 3.18 Position-time graphs of two objects with
position xA (t) = xB (t) = 70 m. Thus, object A velocities in opposite directions, showing
the time of meeting.
overtakes object B at this time. In this case,vBA
= 10 m s–1 – 20 m s–1 = – 10 m s–1 = – vAB.
Example 3.9 Two parallel rail tracks run
(c) Suppose vA and vB are of opposite signs. For
north-south. Train A moves north with a
example, if in the above example object A is speed of 54 km h–1, and train B moves south
moving with 20 m s–1 starting at xA(0) = 10 m with a speed of 90 km h–1. What is the
and object B is moving with – 10 m s–1 starting (a) velocity of B with respect to A ?,
at xB (0) = 40 m, the two objects meet at t = 1 s (b) velocity of ground with respect to B ?,
(Fig. 3.18). The velocity of B relative to A, and
vBA = [–10 – (20)] m s–1 = –30 m s–1 = – vAB. In this (c) velocity of a monkey running on the
case, the magnitude of vBA or vAB ( = 30 m s–1) is roof of the train A against its motion
greater than the magnitude of velocity of A or (with a velocity of 18 km h–1 with
that of B. If the objects under consideration are respect to the train A) as observed by
a man standing on the ground ?
two trains, then for a person sitting on either of
the two, the other train seems to go very fast.
Note that Eq. (3.14) are valid even if vA and vB Answer Choose the positive direction of x-axis
represent instantaneous velocities. to be from south to north. Then,
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 53

vA = + 54 km h–1 = 15 m s–1 B = 0 – vB = 25 m s–1.

vB = – 90 km h–1 = – 25 m s–1
In (c), let the velocity of the monkey with respect
Relative velocity of B with respect to A = vB – vA= to ground be vM. Relative velocity of the monkey
– 40 m s–1 , i.e. the train B appears to A to move with respect to A,
with a speed of 40 m s–1 from north to south. vMA = vM – vA = –18 km h–1 = –5 m s–1. Therefore,
Relative velocity of ground with respect to vM = (15 – 5) m s–1 = 10 m s–1.

SUMMARY

1. An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. The position of the
object can be specified with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For motion in
a straight line, position to the right of the origin is taken as positive and to the left as
negative.
2. Path length is defined as the total length of the path traversed by an object.
3. Displacement is the change in position : Δx = x2 – x1. Path length is greater or equal to
the magnitude of the displacement between the same points.
4. An object is said to be in uniform motion in a straight line if its displacement is equal
in equal intervals of time. Otherwise, the motion is said to be non-uniform.
5. Average velocity is the displacement divided by the time interval in which the
displacement occurs :
Δx
v=
Δt
On an x-t graph, the average velocity over a time interval is the slope of the line
connecting the initial and final positions corresponding to that interval.
6. Average Speed is the ratio of total path length traversed and the corresponding time
interval.
The average speed of an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given time interval.
7. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity as
the time interval Δt becomes infinitesimally small :

Δx d x
v = lim v = lim =
Δt →0 Δt →0 Δt dt

The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on
position-time graph at that instant.
8. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which
the change occurs :

Δv
a=
Δt
9. Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time
interval Δt goes to zero :

Δv d v
a = lim a = lim =
Δt →0 Δt →0 Δt dt
The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time
graph at that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t
graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line
54 PHYSICS

parallel to the time axis. For motion with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola
while the v-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis.
10. The area under the velocity-time curve between times t1 and t2 is equal to the displacement
of the object during that interval of time.
11. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement
x, time taken t, initial velocity v0, final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a set
of simple equations called kinematic equations of motion :
v = v0 + at

1 2
x = v0 t + at
2
2 2
v = v0 + 2ax
if the position of the object at time t = 0 is 0. If the particle starts at x = x0 , x in above
equations is replaced by (x – x0).
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 55

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The path length traversed by an object between two points is, in general, not the same
as the magnitude of displacement. The displacement depends only on the end points;
the path length (as the name implies) depends on the actual path. In one dimension,
the two quantities are equal only if the object does not change its direction during the
course of motion. In all other cases, the path length is greater than the magnitude of
displacement.
2. In view of point 1 above, the average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the
magnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. The two are equal only if
the path length is equal to the magnitude of displacement.
3. The origin and the positive direction of an axis are a matter of choice. You should first
specify this choice before you assign signs to quantities like displacement, velocity
and acceleration.
4. If a particle is speeding up, acceleration is in the direction of velocity; if its speed is
decreasing, acceleration is in the direction opposite to that of the velocity. This
statement is independent of the choice of the origin and the axis.
5. The sign of acceleration does not tell us whether the particle’s speed is increasing or
decreasing. The sign of acceleration (as mentioned in point 3) depends on the choice
of the positive direction of the axis. For example, if the vertically upward direction is
chosen to be the positive direction of the axis, the acceleration due to gravity is
negative. If a particle is falling under gravity, this acceleration, though negative,
results in increase in speed. For a particle thrown upward, the same negative
acceleration (of gravity) results in decrease in speed.
6. The zero velocity of a particle at any instant does not necessarily imply zero acceleration
at that instant. A particle may be momentarily at rest and yet have non-zero
acceleration. For example, a particle thrown up has zero velocity at its uppermost
point but the acceleration at that instant continues to be the acceleration due to
gravity.
7. In the kinematic equations of motion [Eq. (3.11)], the various quantities are algebraic,
i.e. they may be positive or negative. The equations are applicable in all situations
(for one dimensional motion with constant acceleration) provided the values of different
quantities are substituted in the equations with proper signs.
8. The definitions of instantaneous velocity and acceleration (Eqs. (3.3) and (3.5)) are
exact and are always correct while the kinematic equations (Eq. (3.11)) are true only
for motion in which the magnitude and the direction of acceleration are constant
during the course of motion.

EXERCISES

3.1 In which of the following examples of motion, can the body be considered
approximately a point object:
(a) a railway carriage moving without jerks between two stations.
(b) a monkey sitting on top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track.
(c) a spinning cricket ball that turns sharply on hitting the ground.
(d) a tumbling beaker that has slipped off the edge of a table.
3.2 The position-time (x-t) graphs for two children A and B returning from their school
O to their homes P and Q respectively are shown in Fig. 3.19. Choose the correct
entries in the brackets below ;
(a) (A/B) lives closer to the school than (B/A)
(b) (A/B) starts from the school earlier than (B/A)
(c) (A/B) walks faster than (B/A)
(d) A and B reach home at the (same/different) time
(e) (A/B) overtakes (B/A) on the road (once/twice).
56 PHYSICS

Fig. 3.19
3.3 A woman starts from her home at 9.00 am, walks with a speed of 5 km h–1 on a
straight road up to her office 2.5 km away, stays at the office up to 5.00 pm, and
returns home by an auto with a speed of 25 km h–1. Choose suitable scales and
plot the x-t graph of her motion.
3.4 A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward,
followed again by 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, and so on. Each step is 1
m long and requires 1 s. Plot the x-t graph of his motion. Determine graphically
and otherwise how long the drunkard takes to fall in a pit 13 m away from the
start.
3.5 A jet airplane travelling at the speed of 500 km h–1 ejects its products of combustion
at the speed of 1500 km h–1 relative to the jet plane. What is the speed of the
latter with respect to an observer on the ground ?
3.6 A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 km h–1 is brought to a
stop within a distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of the car (assumed
uniform), and how long does it take for the car to stop ?
3.7 Two trains A and B of length 400 m each are moving on two parallel tracks with a
uniform speed of 72 km h–1 in the same direction, with A ahead of B. The driver of
B decides to overtake A and accelerates by 1 m s–2. If after 50 s, the guard of B just
brushes past the driver of A, what was the original distance between them ?
3.8 On a two-lane road, car A is travelling with a speed of 36 km h–1. Two cars B and
C approach car A in opposite directions with a speed of 54 km h–1 each. At a
certain instant, when the distance AB is equal to AC, both being 1 km, B decides
to overtake A before C does. What minimum acceleration of car B is required to
avoid an accident ?
3.9 Two towns A and B are connected by a regular bus service with a bus leaving in
either direction every T minutes. A man cycling with a speed of 20 km h–1 in the
direction A to B notices that a bus goes past him every 18 min in the direction of
his motion, and every 6 min in the opposite direction. What is the period T of the
bus service and with what speed (assumed constant) do the buses ply on the
road?
3.10 A player throws a ball upwards with an initial speed of 29.4 m s–1.
(a) What is the direction of acceleration during the upward motion of the ball ?
(b) What are the velocity and acceleration of the ball at the highest point of its
motion ?
(c) Choose the x = 0 m and t = 0 s to be the location and time of the ball at its
highest point, vertically downward direction to be the positive direction of
x-axis, and give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration of the ball
during its upward, and downward motion.
(d) To what height does the ball rise and after how long does the ball return to the
player’s hands ? (Take g = 9.8 m s–2 and neglect air resistance).
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 57

3.11 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false ;
A particle in one-dimensional motion
(a) with zero speed at an instant may have non-zero acceleration at that instant
(b) with zero speed may have non-zero velocity,
(c) with constant speed must have zero acceleration,
(d) with positive value of acceleration must be speeding up.
3.12 A ball is dropped from a height of 90 m on a floor. At each collision with the floor,
the ball loses one tenth of its speed. Plot the speed-time graph of its motion
between t = 0 to 12 s.
3.13 Explain clearly, with examples, the distinction between :
(a) magnitude of displacement (sometimes called distance) over an interval of time,
and the total length of path covered by a particle over the same interval;
(b) magnitude of average velocity over an interval of time, and the average speed
over the same interval. [Average speed of a particle over an interval of time is
defined as the total path length divided by the time interval]. Show in both (a)
and (b) that the second quantity is either greater than or equal to the first.
When is the equality sign true ? [For simplicity, consider one-dimensional
motion only].
3.14 A man walks on a straight road from his home to a market 2.5 km away with a
speed of 5 km h–1. Finding the market closed, he instantly turns and walks back
home with a speed of 7.5 km h–1. What is the
(a) magnitude of average velocity, and
(b) average speed of the man over the interval of time (i) 0 to 30 min, (ii) 0 to
50 min, (iii) 0 to 40 min ? [Note: You will appreciate from this exercise why it
is better to define average speed as total path length divided by time, and not
as magnitude of average velocity. You would not like to tell the tired man on
his return home that his average speed was zero !]
3.15 In Exercises 3.13 and 3.14, we have carefully distinguished between average speed
and magnitude of average velocity. No such distinction is necessary when we
consider instantaneous speed and magnitude of velocity. The instantaneous speed
is always equal to the magnitude of instantaneous velocity. Why ?
3.16 Look at the graphs (a) to (d) (Fig. 3.20) carefully and state, with reasons, which of
these cannot possibly represent one-dimensional motion of a particle.

Fig. 3.20
58 PHYSICS

3.17 Figure 3.21 shows the x-t plot of one-dimensional

motion of a particle. Is it correct to say from the
graph that the particle moves in a straight line for
t < 0 and on a parabolic path for t >0 ? If not, suggest
a suitable physical context for this graph.

3.18 A police van moving on a highway with a speed of

30 km h–1 fires a bullet at a thief’s car speeding away
in the same direction with a speed of 192 km h–1. If
the muzzle speed of the bullet is 150 m s–1, with
what speed does the bullet hit the thief’s car ? (Note:
Fig. 3.21
Obtain that speed which is relevant for damaging
the thief’s car).
3.19 Suggest a suitable physical situation for each of the
following graphs (Fig 3.22):

Fig. 3.22

3.20 Figure 3.23 gives the x-t plot of a particle executing one-dimensional simple
harmonic motion. (You will learn about this motion in more detail in Chapter14).
Give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration variables of the particle at
t = 0.3 s, 1.2 s, – 1.2 s.

Fig. 3.23

3.21 Figure 3.24 gives the x-t plot of a

particle in one-dimensional motion.
Three different equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average speed greatest, and in which
is it the least ? Give the sign of average
velocity for each interval.

Fig. 3.24
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 59

3.22 Figure 3.25 gives a speed-time graph of

a particle in motion along a constant
direction. Three equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average acceleration greatest in
magnitude ? In which interval is the
average speed greatest ? Choosing the
positive direction as the constant
direction of motion, give the signs of v
and a in the three intervals. What are
the accelerations at the points A, B, C Fig. 3.25
and D ?

Additional Exercises

3.23 A three-wheeler starts from rest, accelerates uniformly with 1 m s–2 on a straight
road for 10 s, and then moves with uniform velocity. Plot the distance covered by
the vehicle during the nth second (n = 1,2,3….) versus n. What do you expect this
plot to be during accelerated motion : a straight line or a parabola ?
3.24 A boy standing on a stationary lift (open from above) throws a ball upwards with
the maximum initial speed he can, equal to 49 m s–1. How much time does the ball
take to return to his hands? If the lift starts moving up with a uniform speed of
5 m s-1 and the boy again throws the ball up with the maximum speed he can, how
long does the ball take to return to his hands ?
3.25 On a long horizontally moving belt (Fig. 3.26), a child runs to and fro with a speed
–1
9 km h (with respect to the belt) between his father and mother located 50 m apart
on the moving belt. The belt moves with a speed of 4 km h–1. For an observer on a
stationary platform outside, what is the
(a) speed of the child running in the direction of motion of the belt ?.
(b) speed of the child running opposite to the direction of motion of the belt ?
(c) time taken by the child in (a) and (b) ?
Which of the answers alter if motion is viewed by one of the parents ?

Fig. 3.26
3.26 Two stones are thrown up simultaneously from the edge of a cliff 200 m high with
initial speeds of 15 m s–1 and 30 m s–1. Verify that the graph shown in Fig. 3.27
correctly represents the time variation of the relative position of the second stone
with respect to the first. Neglect air resistance and assume that the stones do not
rebound after hitting the ground. Take g = 10 m s–2. Give the equations for the
linear and curved parts of the plot.
60 PHYSICS

Fig. 3.27
3.27 The speed-time graph of a particle moving along a fixed direction is shown in
Fig. 3.28. Obtain the distance traversed by the particle between (a) t = 0 s to 10 s,
(b) t = 2 s to 6 s.

Fig. 3.28

What is the average speed of the particle over the intervals in (a) and (b) ?
3.28 The velocity-time graph of a particle in one-dimensional motion is shown in
Fig. 3.29 :

Fig. 3.29
Which of the following formulae are correct for describing the motion of the particle
over the time-interval t1 to t2:
(a) x(t2 ) = x(t1) + v (t1) (t2 – t1) +(½) a (t2 – t1)2
(b) v(t2 ) = v(t1) + a (t2 – t1)
(c) vaverage = (x(t2) – x(t1))/(t2 – t1)
(d) aaverage = (v(t2) – v(t1))/(t2 – t1)
(e) x(t2 ) = x(t1) + vaverage (t2 – t1) + (½) aaverage (t2 – t1)2
(f) x(t2 ) – x(t1) = area under the v-t curve bounded by the t-axis and the dotted line
shown.
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 61

APPENDIX 3.1 : ELEMENTS OF CALCULUS

Differential Calculus

Using the concept of ‘differential coefficient’ or ‘derivative’, we can easily define velocity and
acceleration. Though you will learn in detail in mathematics about derivatives, we shall introduce
this concept in brief in this Appendix so as to facilitate its use in describing physical quantities
involved in motion.
Suppose we have a quantity y whose value depends upon a single variable x, and is expressed
by an equation defining y as some specific function of x. This is represented as:
y = f (x) (1)
This relationship can be visualised by drawing a graph of function y = f (x) regarding y and x as
Cartesian coordinates, as shown in Fig. 3.30 (a).

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.30
Consider the point P on the curve y = f (x) whose coordinates are (x, y) and another point Q
where coordinates are (x + Δx, y + Δy). The slope of the line joining P and Q is given by:
Δy (y + Δy ) − y
tanθ = = (2)
Δx Δx
Suppose now that the point Q moves along the curve towards P. In this process, Δy and Δx
Δy
decrease and approach zero; though their ratio will not necessarily vanish. What happens
Δx
to the line PQ as Δy→0, Δx→0. You can see that this line becomes a tangent to the curve at
point P as shown in Fig. 3.30(b). This means that tan θ approaches the slope of the tangent at
P, denoted by m:
Δy (y + Δy ) − y
m = lim = lim (3)
Δx Δx →0
Δx → 0 Δx
The limit of the ratio Δy/Δx as Δx approaches zero is called the derivative of y with respect to x
and is written as dy/dx. It represents the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the
point (x, y).
Since y = f (x) and y + Δy = f (x + Δx), we can write the definition of the derivative as:
dy df ( x) Δy ⎡ f (x + Δx ) – f ( x ) ⎤
= = lim = lim ⎢ ⎥
dx dx Δx →0 Δx Δx →0 ⎣ Δx ⎦
Given below are some elementary formulae for derivatives of functions. In these u (x) and v (x)
represent arbitrary functions of x, and a and b denote constant quantities that are independent
of x. Derivatives of some common functions are also listed .
62 PHYSICS

d (a u) du du du dx
=a ; = .
dx dx dt dx dt

d(uv) dv du d (u / v ) 1 du dv
=u +v ; = 2 –u
dx dx dx dx v dx dx

du du dx
=
dv dv dx
d d
(sin x) = cos x ;
dx
(cos x ) = – sin x
dx
d d
(tan x ) = sec 2 x ; (cot x ) = – cos ec 2 x
dx dx

d
(sec x) = tan x sec x ;
d
(cosec 2 x ) = – cot x co sec x
dx dx

d du d 1
(u )n = n u n –1 ; ( ln u) =
dx dx du u
d u
(e ) = eu
du

In terms of derivatives, instantaneous velocity and acceleration are defined as

Δx dx
v = lim =
Δt →0 Δt dt
Dv dv d2 x
a = lim = = 2
Dt ® 0 Dt dt dt
Integral Calculus
You are familiar with the notion of area. The formulae for areas of simple geometrical figures are
also known to you. For example, the area of a rectangle is length times breadth and that of a
triangle is half of the product of base and height. But how to deal with the problem of determination
of area of an irregular figure? The mathematical notion of integral is necessary in connection with
such problems.
Let us take a concrete example. Suppose a variable force f (x) acts on a particle in its motion
along x - axis from x = a to x = b. The problem is to determine the work done (W) by the force on the
particle during the motion. This problem is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
Figure 3.31 shows the variation of F(x) with x. If the force were constant, work would be simply
the area F (b-a) as shown in Fig. 3.31(i). But in the general case, force is varying .

Fig. 3.31
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 63

To calculate the area under this curve [Fig. 3.31 (ii)], let us employ the following trick. Divide the
interval on x-axis from a to b into a large number (N) of small intervals: x0(=a) to x1, x1 to x2 ; x2 to x3,
................................ xN-1 to xN (=b). The area under the curve is thus divided into N strips. Each strip
is approximately a rectangle, since the variation of F(x) over a strip is negligible. The area of the ith
strip shown [Fig. 3.31(ii)] is then approximately

ΔAi = F (x i )(x i – x i –1) = F (x i )Δx

where Δx is the width of the strip which we have taken to be the same for all the strips. You may
wonder whether we should put F(xi-1) or the mean of F(xi) and F(xi-1) in the above expression. If we
take N to be very very large (N→∞), it does not really matter, since then the strip will be so thin that
the difference between F(xi) and F(xi-1) is vanishingly small. The total area under the curve then is:

N N
A= ∑ ΔA = ∑ F (x )Δx
i =1
i
i =1
i

The limit of this sum as N→∞ is known as the integral of F(x) over x from a to b. It is given a special
symbol as shown below:
b
A=
∫ F (x )dx
a

The integral sign ∫ looks like an elongated S, reminding us that it basically is the limit of the sum
of an infinite number of terms.
A most significant mathematical fact is that integration is, in a sense, an inverse of differentiation.
dg( x )
Suppose we have a function g (x) whose derivative is f (x), i.e. f ( x ) =
dx
The function g (x) is known as the indefinite integral of f (x) and is denoted as:

g( x ) =
∫ f (x )dx
An integral with lower and upper limits is known as a definite integral. It is a number. Indefinite
integral has no limits; it is a function.

A fundamental theorem of mathematics states that

∫ f (x ) dx = g(x )
b
a
≡ g(b ) – g(a )
a

As an example, suppose f (x) = x2 and we wish to determine the value of the definite integral from
x =1 to x = 2. The function g (x) whose derivative is x2 is x3/3. Therefore,

2 2
x3 8 1 7
∫
2
x dx = = – =
3 3 3 3
1 1

Clearly, to evaluate definite integrals, we need to know the corresponding indefinite integrals. Some
common indefinite integrals are
64 PHYSICS

x n +1
∫x dx = (n ≠ –1)
n
n +1

1
∫ ( x )dx = ln x ( x > 0)

∫ sin x dx = – cos x ∫ cos x dx = sin x

∫ e dx = e
x x

This introduction to differential and integral calculus is not rigorous and is intended to convey to
you the basic notions of calculus.
CHAPTER FOUR

MOTION IN A PLANE

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we developed the concepts of position,
displacement, velocity and acceleration that are needed to
4.1 Introduction describe the motion of an object along a straight line. We
4.2 Scalars and vectors found that the directional aspect of these quantities can be
4.3 Multiplication of vectors by taken care of by + and – signs, as in one dimension only two
real numbers directions are possible. But in order to describe motion of an
4.4 Addition and subtraction of object in two dimensions (a plane) or three dimensions
vectors — graphical method (space), we need to use vectors to describe the above-
4.5 Resolution of vectors mentioned physical quantities. Therefore, it is first necessary
4.6 Vector addition — analytical to learn the language of vectors. What is a vector ? How to
method add, subtract and multiply vectors ? What is the result of
4.7 Motion in a plane multiplying a vector by a real number ? We shall learn this
4.8 Motion in a plane with to enable us to use vectors for defining velocity and
constant acceleration acceleration in a plane. We then discuss motion of an object
4.9 Relative velocity in two in a plane. As a simple case of motion in a plane, we shall
dimensions discuss motion with constant acceleration and treat in detail
4.10 Projectile motion the projectile motion. Circular motion is a familiar class of
4.11 Uniform circular motion motion that has a special significance in daily-life situations.
We shall discuss uniform circular motion in some detail.
Summary
The equations developed in this chapter for motion in a
Points to ponder
plane can be easily extended to the case of three dimensions.
Exercises
Additional exercises 4.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS
In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or
vectors. Basically, the difference is that a direction is
associated with a vector but not with a scalar. A scalar
quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. It is specified
completely by a single number, along with the proper
unit. Examples are : the distance between two points,
mass of an object, the temperature of a body and the
time at which a certain event happened. The rules for
combining scalars are the rules of ordinary algebra.
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided
66 PHYSICS

just as the ordinary numbers*. For example, represented by another position vector, OP′
if the length and breadth of a rectangle are denoted by r′ . The length of the vector r
1.0 m and 0.5 m respectively, then its represents the magnitude of the vector and its
perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the direction is the direction in which P lies as seen
four sides, 1.0 m + 0.5 m +1.0 m + 0.5 m = from O. If the object moves from P to P′ , the
3.0 m. The length of each side is a scalar vector PP′ (with tail at P and tip at P′ ) is called
and the perimeter is also a scalar. Take the displacement vector corresponding to
another example: the maximum and motion from point P (at time t) to point P′ (at time t′ ).
minimum temperatures on a particular day
are 35.6 °C and 24.2 °C respectively. Then,
the difference between the two temperatures
is 11.4 °C. Similarly, if a uniform solid cube
of aluminium of side 10 cm has a mass of
2.7 kg, then its volume is 10–3 m3 (a scalar)
and its density is 2.7× 103 kg m–3 (a scalar).
A vector quantity is a quantity that has both
a magnitude and a direction and obeys the
triangle law of addition or equivalently the Fig. 4.1 (a) Position and displacement vectors.
parallelogram law of addition. So, a vector is (b) Displacement vector PQ and different
specified by giving its magnitude by a number courses of motion.
and its direction. Some physical quantities that It is important to note that displacement
are represented by vectors are displacement, vector is the straight line joining the initial and
velocity, acceleration and force. final positions and does not depend on the actual
To represent a vector, we use a bold face type path undertaken by the object between the two
in this book. Thus, a velocity vector can be
positions. For example, in Fig. 4.1b, given the
represented by a symbol v. Since bold face is
initial and final positions as P and Q, the
difficult to produce, when written by hand, a
displacement vector is the same PQ for different
vector is often represented
G by an arrow placed G paths of journey, say PABCQ, PDQ, and PBEFQ.
over a letter, say v . Thus, both v and v
Therefore, the magnitude of displacement is
represent the velocity vector. The magnitude of
either less or equal to the path length of an
a vector is often called its absolute value,
object between two points. This fact was
indicated by |v| = v. Thus, a vector is
emphasised in the previous chapter also while
represented by a bold face, e.g. by A, a, p, q, r, ...
x, y, with respective magnitudes denoted by light discussing motion along a straight line.
face A, a, p, q, r, ... x, y. 4.2.2 Equality of Vectors
4.2.1 Position and Displacement Vectors Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and
To describe the position of an object moving in only if, they have the same magnitude and the
a plane, we need to choose a convenient point, same direction.**
say O as origin. Let P and P′ be the positions of Figure 4.2(a) shows two equal vectors A and
the object at time t and t′ , respectively [Fig. 4.1(a)]. B. We can easily check their equality. Shift B
We join O and P by a straight line. Then, OP is parallel to itself until its tail Q coincides with that
the position vector of the object at time t. An of A, i.e. Q coincides with O. Then, since their
arrow is marked at the head of this line. It is tips S and P also coincide, the two vectors are
represented by a symbol r, i.e. OP = r. Point P′ is said to be equal. In general, equality is indicated

* Addition and subtraction of scalars make sense only for quantities with same units. However, you can multiply
and divide scalars of different units.
** In our study, vectors do not have fixed locations. So displacing a vector parallel to itself leaves the vector
unchanged. Such vectors are called free vectors. However, in some physical applications, location or line of
application of a vector is important. Such vectors are called localised vectors.
MOTION IN A PLANE 67

The factor λ by which a vector A is multiplied

could be a scalar having its own physical
dimension. Then, the dimension of λ A is the
product of the dimensions of λ and A. For
example, if we multiply a constant velocity vector
by duration (of time), we get a displacement
vector.
4.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF
VECTORS — GRAPHICAL METHOD
Fig. 4.2 (a) Two equal vectors A and B. (b) Two As mentioned in section 4.2, vectors, by
vectors A′ and B′ are unequal though they definition, obey the triangle law or equivalently,
are of the same length. the parallelogram law of addition. We shall now
describe this law of addition using the graphical
as A = B. Note that in Fig. 4.2(b), vectors A′ and method. Let us consider two vectors A and B that
B′ have the same magnitude but they are not lie in a plane as shown in Fig. 4.4(a). The lengths
equal because they have different directions. of the line segments representing these vectors
Even if we shift B′ parallel to itself so that its tail are proportional to the magnitude of the vectors.
Q′ coincides with the tail O′ of A′ , the tip S′ of B′ To find the sum A + B, we place vector B so that
does not coincide with the tip P′ of A′ . its tail is at the head of the vector A, as in
4.3 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL Fig. 4.4(b). Then, we join the tail of A to the head
NUMBERS of B. This line OQ represents a vector R, that is,
Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ the sum of the vectors A and B. Since, in this
gives a vector whose magnitude is changed by procedure of vector addition, vectors are
the factor λ but the direction is the same as that
of A :
⏐ λ A⏐ = λ ⏐ A⏐ if λ > 0.
For example, if A is multiplied by 2, the resultant
vector 2A is in the same direction as A and has
a magnitude twice of |A| as shown in Fig. 4.3(a).
Multiplying a vector A by a negative number
λ gives a vector λA whose direction is opposite
to the direction of A and whose magnitude is
–λ times |A|.
Multiplying a given vector A by negative
numbers, say –1 and –1.5, gives vectors as
shown in Fig 4.3(b).

(c) (d)
Fig. 4.3 (a) Vector A and the resultant vector after
multiplying A by a positive number 2. Fig. 4.4 (a) Vectors A and B. (b) Vectors A and B
(b) Vector A and resultant vectors after added graphically. (c) Vectors B and A
multiplying it by a negative number –1 added graphically. (d) Illustrating the
and –1.5. associative law of vector addition.
68 PHYSICS

arranged head to tail, this graphical method is What is the physical meaning of a zero vector?
called the head-to-tail method. The two vectors Consider the position and displacement vectors
and their resultant form three sides of a triangle, in a plane as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). Now suppose
so this method is also known as triangle method that an object which is at P at time t, moves to
of vector addition. If we find the resultant of P′ and then comes back to P. Then, what is its
B + A as in Fig. 4.4(c), the same vector R is displacement? Since the initial and final
obtained. Thus, vector addition is commutative: positions coincide, the displacement is a “null
A+B=B+A (4.1) vector”.
The addition of vectors also obeys the associative Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms
law as illustrated in Fig. 4.4(d). The result of of addition of vectors. We define the difference
adding vectors A and B first and then adding of two vectors A and B as the sum of two vectors
vector C is the same as the result of adding B A and –B :
and C first and then adding vector A : A – B = A + (–B) (4.5)
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (4.2) It is shown in Fig 4.5. The vector –B is added to
What is the result of adding two equal and vector A to get R2 = (A – B). The vector R1 = A + B
opposite vectors ? Consider two vectors A and is also shown in the same figure for comparison.
–A shown in Fig. 4.3(b). Their sum is A + (–A). We can also use the parallelogram method to
Since the magnitudes of the two vectors are the find the sum of two vectors. Suppose we have
same, but the directions are opposite, the two vectors A and B. To add these vectors, we
resultant vector has zero magnitude and is bring their tails to a common origin O as
represented by 0 called a null vector or a zero shown in Fig. 4.6(a). Then we draw a line from
vector : the head of A parallel to B and another line from
the head of B parallel to A to complete a
A–A=0 |0|= 0 (4.3)
parallelogram OQSP. Now we join the point of
Since the magnitude of a null vector is zero, its the intersection of these two lines to the origin
direction cannot be specified. O. The resultant vector R is directed from the
The null vector also results when we multiply common origin O along the diagonal (OS) of the
a vector A by the number zero. The main parallelogram [Fig. 4.6(b)]. In Fig.4.6(c), the
properties of 0 are : triangle law is used to obtain the resultant of A
A+0=A and B and we see that the two methods yield the
λ0=0 same result. Thus, the two methods are
0A=0 (4.4) equivalent.

Fig. 4.5 (a) Two vectors A and B, – B is also shown. (b) Subtracting vector B from vector A – the result is R2. For
comparison, addition of vectors A and B, i.e. R1 is also shown.
MOTION IN A PLANE 69

Fig. 4.6 (a) Two vectors A and B with their tails brought to a common origin. (b) The sum A + B obtained using
the parallelogram method. (c) The parallelogram method of vector addition is equivalent to the triangle
method.

Example 4.1 Rain is falling vertically with 4.5 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

a speed of 35 m s–1. Winds starts blowing Let a and b be any two non-zero vectors in a
after sometime with a speed of 12 m s–1 in plane with different directions and let A be
east to west direction. In which direction another vector in the same plane(Fig. 4.8). A can
should a boy waiting at a bus stop hold be expressed as a sum of two vectors – one
his umbrella ? obtained by multiplying a by a real number and
the other obtained by multiplying b by another
real number. To see this, let O and P be the tail
and head of the vector A. Then, through O, draw
a straight line parallel to a, and through P, a
straight line parallel to b. Let them intersect at
Q. Then, we have
A = OP = OQ + QP (4.6)
But since OQ is parallel to a, and QP is parallel
to b, we can write :
Fig. 4.7 OQ = λ a, and QP = µ b (4.7)
where λ and µ are real numbers.
Answer The velocity of the rain and the wind
are represented by the vectors vr and vw in Fig. Therefore, A = λ a + µ b (4.8)
4.7 and are in the direction specified by the
problem. Using the rule of vector addition, we
see that the resultant of vr and vw is R as shown
in the figure. The magnitude of R is
2 2 2 2 −1 −1
R = vr + vw = 35 + 12 ms = 37 m s

The direction θ that R makes with the vertical

is given by
vw 12
tan θ = = = 0.343 Fig. 4.8 (a) Two non-colinear vectors a and b.
vr 35 (b) Resolving a vector A in terms of vectors
-1 a and b.
Or, θ = tan ( 0.343) = 19°
Therefore, the boy should hold his umbrella We say that A has been resolved into two
in the vertical plane at an angle of about 19o component vectors λ a and μ b along a and b
with the vertical towards the east. respectively. Using this method one can resolve
70 PHYSICS

a given vector into two component vectors along

and A2 is parallel to  j , we have :
a set of two vectors – all the three lie in the same
plane. It is convenient to resolve a general vector 
A 1 = Ax i , A 2 = A y 
j (4.11)
along the axes of a rectangular coordinate
where Ax and Ay are real numbers.
system using vectors of unit magnitude. These
are called unit vectors that we discuss now. Thus, A = Ax i+ Ay 
j (4.12)
Unit vectors: A unit vector is a vector of unit
magnitude and points in a particular direction. This is represented in Fig. 4.9(c). The quantities
It has no dimension and unit. It is used to specify Ax and Ay are called x-, and y- components of the
a direction only. Unit vectors along the x-, y- vector A. Note that Ax is itself not a vector, but
and z-axes of a rectangular coordinate system
A iis a vector, and so is A 
x
j . Using simple
y
are denoted by î , ĵ and k̂ , respectively, as trigonometry, we can express Ax and Ay in terms
shown in Fig. 4.9(a). of the magnitude of A and the angle θ it makes
Since these are unit vectors, we have with the x-axis :
Ax = A cos θ
⏐ î ⏐ =⏐ ĵ⏐ =⏐ k̂⏐ =1 (4.9) Ay = A sin θ (4.13)
These unit vectors are perpendicular to each As is clear from Eq. (4.13), a component of a
other. In this text, they are printed in bold face vector can be positive, negative or zero
with a cap (^) to distinguish them from other depending on the value of θ .
vectors. Since we are dealing with motion in two Now, we have two ways to specify a vector A
dimensions in this chapter, we require use of in a plane. It can be specified by :
only two unit vectors. If we multiply a unit vector, (i) its magnitude A and the direction θ it makes
say n by a scalar, the result is a vector with the x-axis; or
(ii) its components Ax and Ay
λ = λ n . In general, a vector A can be written as
If A and θ are given, Ax and Ay can be obtained
A = |A| n (4.10) using Eq. (4.13). If Ax and Ay are given, A and θ
where n is a unit vector along A. can be obtained as follows :
2 2 2 2 2 2
We can now resolve a vector A in terms A x + Ay = A cos θ + A sin θ
of component vectors that lie along unit vectors
= A2
î and 
j . Consider a vector A that lies in x-y
plane as shown in Fig. 4.9(b). We draw lines from Or, A= A x2 + Ay2 (4.14)
the head of A perpendicular to the coordinate
axes as in Fig. 4.9(b), and get vectors A1 and A2 Ay −1
Ay
And tan θ = , θ = tan (4.15)
such that A + A = A. Since A is parallel to i
1 2 1
Ax Ax

Fig. 4.9 (a) Unit vectors i, 

j and klie along the x-, y-, and z-axes. (b) A vector A is resolved into its compo-
nents A1 and A2 along x-, and y- axes. (c) A1 and A2 expressed in terms of iand  j.
MOTION IN A PLANE 71

So far we have considered a vector lying in B = B x i+ By 

j
an x-y plane. The same procedure can be used
to resolve a general vector A into three Let R be their sum. We have
components along x-, y-, and z-axes in three R=A+B
dimensions. If α, β, and γ are the angles*
between A and the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively (
= A x i+ Ay  ) ( )
j + B x i+ By 
j (4.19a)
Fig. 4.9(d), we have Since vectors obey the commutative and
associative laws, we can arrange and regroup
the vectors in Eq. (4.19a) as convenient to us :

( )
R = ( A x + B x ) i+ Ay + By 
j (4.19b)

Since R = R x i+ Ry 
j (4.20)

we have, R x = A x + B x , R y = Ay + By (4.21)
Thus, each component of the resultant
vector R is the sum of the corresponding
components of A and B.
In three dimensions, we have
A = A x i+ Ay 
j + A z k

B = B x i+ By 
j + B z k
(d)
R = A + B = R x i+ Ry 
j + R z k
Fig. 4.9 (d) A vector A resolved into components along
x-, y-, and z-axes
with Rx = Ax + Bx
A x = A cos α , A y = A cos β , A z = A cos γ (4.16a) Ry = A y + B y
In general, we have Rz = Az + Bz (4.22)
A = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Az k
ˆ (4.16b) This method can be extended to addition and
The magnitude of vector A is subtraction of any number of vectors. For
A = A x2 + Ay2 + Az2 (4.16c) example, if vectors a, b and c are given as
A position vector r can be expressed as a = a i+ a 
x j + a k
y z
j + z k
r = x i+ y  (4.17)
b = b x i+ by 
j + b z k
where x, y, and z are the components of r along
x-, y-, z-axes, respectively. c = c x i+ c y 
j + c z k (4.23a)
4.6 VECTOR ADDITION – ANALYTICAL then, a vector T = a + b – c has components :
METHOD Tx = a x + b x − c x
Although the graphical method of adding vectors Ty = a y + by − c y (4.23b)
helps us in visualising the vectors and the
Tz = a z + b z − c z .
resultant vector, it is sometimes tedious and has
limited accuracy. It is much easier to add vectors
by combining their respective components. Example 4.2 Find the magnitude and
Consider two vectors A and B in x-y plane with direction of the resultant of two vectors A
and B in terms of their magnitudes and
components Ax, Ay and Bx, By :
angle θ between them.
A = A x i+ Ay 
j (4.18)

* Note that angles α, β, and γ are angles in space. They are between pairs of lines, which are not coplanar.
72 PHYSICS

Example 4.3 A motorboat is racing

towards north at 25 km/h and the water
current in that region is 10 km/h in the
direction of 60° east of south. Find the
resultant velocity of the boat.

Answer The vector vb representing the velocity

of the motorboat and the vector vc representing
Fig. 4.10 the water current are shown in Fig. 4.11 in
Answer Let OP and OQ represent the two vectors directions specified by the problem. Using the
A and B making an angle θ (Fig. 4.10). Then, parallelogram method of addition, the resultant
using the parallelogram method of vector R is obtained in the direction shown in the
addition, OS represents the resultant vector R : figure.
R=A+B
SN is normal to OP and PM is normal to OS.
From the geometry of the figure,
OS2 = ON2 + SN2
but ON = OP + PN = A + B cos θ
SN = B sin θ
OS2 = (A + B cos θ )2 + (B sin θ )2
or, R2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ

R= A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ (4.24a)

In Δ OSN, SN = OS sinα = R sinα, and
in Δ PSN, SN = PS sin θ = B sin θ
Therefore, R sin α = B sin θ
R B
or, = (4.24b)
sin θ sin α
Fig. 4.11
Similarly,
PM = A sin α = B sin β
We can obtain the magnitude of R using the Law
A B
or, = (4.24c) of cosine :
sin β sin α
Combining Eqs. (4.24b) and (4.24c), we get R = v b2 + v c2 + 2v bv c cos120D
R A B
= = (4.24d) = 252 + 102 + 2 × 25 × 10 ( -1/2 ) ≅ 22 km/h
sin θ sin β sin α
To obtain the direction, we apply the Law of sines
Using Eq. (4.24d), we get:
R vc vc
B = or, sin φ = sin θ
sin α = sin θ (4.24e) sin θ sin φ R
R
where R is given by Eq. (4.24a). 10 × sin120
R
10 3
= = ≅ 0.397
SN B sin θ 21.8 2 × 21.8
or, tan α = = (4.24f)
OP + PN A + B cos θ R
φ ≅ 23.4
Equation (4.24a) gives the magnitude of the
resultant and Eqs. (4.24e) and (4.24f) its direction. 4.7 MOTION IN A PLANE
Equation (4.24a) is known as the Law of cosines In this section we shall see how to describe
and Eq. (4.24d) as the Law of sines. motion in two dimensions using vectors.
MOTION IN A PLANE 73

4.7.1 Position Vector and Displacement Suppose a particle moves along the curve shown
The position vector r of a particle P located in a by the thick line and is at P at time t and P′ at
plane with reference to the origin of an x-y time t′ [Fig. 4.12(b)]. Then, the displacement is :
reference frame (Fig. 4.12) is given by Δr = r′ – r (4.25)
and is directed from P to P′ .
r = x i+ y 
j
We can write Eq. (4.25) in a component form:
where x and y are components of r along x-, and
y- axes or simply they are the coordinates of
the object.
Δr (
= x' i+ y'  ) (
j − x i+ y 
j )
= i
Δx + 
jΔ y
where Δx = x ′ – x, Δy = y′ – y (4.26)
Velocity
The average velocity ( v ) of an object is the ratio
of the displacement and the corresponding time
interval :
Δr Δx i+ Δy 
j Δx Δy
v= = =i +j (4.27)
Δt Δt Δt Δt

Or, v = v x ˆi + v y µ
j
(a)
Δr
Since v = , the direction of the average velocity
Δt
is the same as that of Δr (Fig. 4.12). The velocity
(instantaneous velocity) is given by the limiting
value of the average velocity as the time interval
approaches zero :
Δr dr
v = lim = (4.28)
Δt
Δt → 0dt
The meaning of the limiting process can be easily
understood with the help of Fig 4.13(a) to (d). In
these figures, the thick line represents the path
of an object, which is at P at time t. P1, P2 and
(b) P3 represent the positions of the object after
Fig. 4.12 (a) Position vector r. (b) Displacement Δr and times Δt1,Δt2, and Δt3. Δr1, Δr2, and Δr3 are the
average velocity v of a particle. displacements of the object in times Δt1, Δt2, and

Fig. 4.13 As the time interval Δt approaches zero, the average velocity approaches the velocity v. The direction
of v is parallel to the line tangent to the path.
74 PHYSICS

Δt3, respectively. The direction of the average

velocity v is shown in figures (a), (b) and (c) for
three decreasing values of Δt, i.e. Δt1,Δt2, and Δt3,
( Δ t 1 > Δ t 2 > Δ t 3 ). As Δ t → 0, Δ r → 0
and is along the tangent to the path [Fig. 4.13(d)].
Therefore, the direction of velocity at any point
on the path of an object is tangential to the
path at that point and is in the direction of
motion.
We can express v in a component form : Fig. 4.14 The components vx and vy of velocity v and
the angle θ it makes with x-axis. Note that
dr
v= vx = v cos θ , vy = v sin θ .
dt

⎛ Δx Δy ⎞ Or, a = a x i+ a y 
j. (4.31b)
= lim ⎜ i+ 
j⎟ (4.29)
Δt → 0⎝ Δt Δt ⎠ The acceleration (instantaneous acceleration)
is the limiting value of the average acceleration
Δx  Δy
= ilim + j lim as the time interval approaches zero :
Δt → 0 Δt Δt → 0 Δt
Δv
dx dy a = lim (4.32a)
Or, v = i +  j = v x i+ vy 
j. Δt → 0 Δt
dt dt
dx dy Since Δv = Δv x i+ Δv y 
j, we have
where vx = ,v = (4.30a)
dt y dt Δv x Δv y
a = ilim + 
j lim
So, if the expressions for the coordinates x and Δt → 0 Δt Δt → 0 Δt
y are known as functions of time, we can use
these equations to find vx and vy. Or, a = a x i+ a y 
j (4.32b)
The magnitude of v is then
dv x dv y
2 2 where, ax = , ay = (4.32c)*
v= vx + vy (4.30b) dt dt
and the direction of v is given by the angle θ : As in the case of velocity, we can understand
graphically the limiting process used in defining
vy ⎛v ⎞ acceleration on a graph showing the path of the
−1 y
tanθ = , θ = tan ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (4.30c) object’s motion. This is shown in Figs. 4.15(a) to
vx ⎝ vx ⎠ (d). P represents the position of the object at
time t and P1, P2, P3 positions after time Δt1, Δt2,
vx, vy and angle θ are shown in Fig. 4.14 for a
Δt3, respectively (Δt 1> Δt 2>Δt 3). The velocity
velocity vector v.
vectors at points P, P1, P2, P3 are also shown in
Acceleration Figs. 4.15 (a), (b) and (c). In each case of Δt, Δv is
The average acceleration a of an object for a obtained using the triangle law of vector addition.
time interval Δt moving in x-y plane is the change By definition, the direction of average
in velocity divided by the time interval : acceleration is the same as that of Δv. We see
that as Δt decreases, the direction of Δv changes

a=
Δv
=
(
Δ v x i+ v y 
j ) = Δv x
i+
Δv y
 (4.31a)
and consequently, the direction of the
j acceleration changes. Finally, in the limit Δt 0
Δt Δt Δt Δt

* In terms of x and y, ax and ay can be expressed as

2 2
d ⎛ dx ⎞ d x d ⎛ dy ⎞ d y
ax = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ =
2
, ay = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ =
2
dt dt dt dt dt dt
MOTION IN A PLANE 75

x (m)

Fig. 4.15 The average acceleration for three time intervals (a) Δt1, (b) Δt2, and (c) Δt3, (Δt1> Δt2> Δt3). (d) In the
limit Δt 0, the average acceleration becomes the acceleration.

Fig. 4.15(d), the average acceleration becomes

⎛ vy ⎞ −1 ⎛ 4 ⎞ °
the instantaneous acceleration and has the θ = tan-1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟ ≅ 53 with x-axis.
direction as shown. v
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
Note that in one dimension, the velocity and
the acceleration of an object are always along
the same straight line (either in the same di- 4.8 MOTION IN A PLANE WITH CONSTANT
rection or in the opposite direction). However, ACCELERATION
for motion in two or three dimensions, veloc-
ity and acceleration vectors may have any Suppose that an object is moving in x-y plane
angle between 0° and 180° between them. and its acceleration a is constant. Over an
interval of time, the average acceleration will
Example 4.4 The position of a particle is equal this constant value. Now, let the velocity
given by of the object be v0 at time t = 0 and v at time t.
r = 3.0t ˆi + 2.0t 2ˆj + 5.0 kˆ Then, by definition
where t is in seconds and the coefficients v − v0 v − v0
have the proper units for r to be in metres. a= =
t−0 t
(a) Find v(t) and a(t) of the particle. (b) Find
the magnitude and direction of v(t) at Or, v = v 0 + at (4.33a)
t = 1.0 s. In terms of components :
v x = v ox + a x t
Answer
v y = v oy + a y t (4.33b)
v( t ) =
dr
dt
=
d
dt
( 3.0 t i+ 2.0t
2 
)
j + 5.0 k
Let us now find how the position r changes with
time. We follow the method used in the one-
= 3.0i+ 4.0t 
j dimensional case. Let ro and r be the position
dv vectors of the particle at time 0 and t and let the
a (t ) = = +4.0 
j velocities at these instants be vo and v. Then,
dt
over this time interval t, the average velocity is
a = 4.0 m s–2 along y- direction
(vo + v)/2. The displacement is the average
At t = 1.0 s, v = 3.0ˆi + 4.0ˆj velocity multiplied by the time interval :
-1 ⎛ v + v0 ⎞ ⎛ ( v 0 + at ) + v 0 ⎞
It’s magnitude is v = 3 + 4 = 5.0 m s
2 2
r − r0 = ⎜ ⎟ t=⎜ ⎟t
and direction is ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
76 PHYSICS

Givenx (t) = 84 m, t = ?
1 2
= v0t + at
2 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 = 84 ⇒t = 6 s
At t = 6 s, y = 1.0 (6)2 = 36.0 m
1 2
Or, r = r0 + v 0t + at (4.34a) dr
2 Now, the velocity v = = (5.0 + 3.0 t ) ˆi + 2.0 t ˆj
dt
It can be easily verified that the derivative of
dr At t = 6 s, v = 23.0i+ 12.0 
j
Eq. (4.34a), i.e. gives Eq.(4.33a) and it also
dt
speed = v = 232 + 122 ≅ 26 m s−1 .
satisfies the condition that at t=0, r = r o .
Equation (4.34a) can be written in component 4.9 RELATIVE VELOCITY IN TWO
form as DIMENSIONS
1 The concept of relative velocity, introduced in
x = x 0 + vox t + axt 2
2 section 3.7 for motion along a straight line, can
be easily extended to include motion in a plane
1 or in three dimensions. Suppose that two objects
y = y0 + voy t + ayt 2 (4.34b)
2 A and B are moving with velocities vA and vB
One immediate interpretation of Eq.(4.34b) is that (each with respect to some common frame of
the motions in x- and y-directions can be treated reference, say ground.). Then, velocity of object
independently of each other. That is, motion in A relative to that of B is :
a plane (two-dimensions) can be treated as two vAB = vA – vB (4.35a)
separate simultaneous one-dimensional and similarly, the velocity of object B relative to
motions with constant acceleration along two that of A is :
perpendicular directions. This is an important vBA = vB – vA
result and is useful in analysing motion of objects Therefore, vAB = – vBA (4.35b)
in two dimensions. A similar result holds for three
dimensions. The choice of perpendicular and, v AB = v BA (4.35c)
directions is convenient in many physical Example 4.6 Rain is falling vertically with
situations, as we shall see in section 4.10 for a speed of 35 m s–1. A woman rides a bicycle
projectile motion. with a speed of 12 m s–1 in east to west
direction. What is the direction in which
Example 4.5 A particle starts from origin she should hold her umbrella ?
at t = 0 with a velocity 5.0 î m/s and moves
Answer In Fig. 4.16 vr represents the velocity
in x-y plane under action of a force which
of rain and vb , the velocity of the bicycle, the
produces a constant acceleration of
( )
woman is riding. Both these velocities are with
3.0i + 2.0 j m/s 2 . (a) What is the respect to the ground. Since the woman is riding
y-coordinate of the particle at the instant a bicycle, the velocity of rain as experienced by
its x-coordinate is 84 m ? (b) What is the
speed of the particle at this time ?

Answer The position of the particle is given by

1 2
r (t ) = v 0 t + at
2

(
= 5.0ˆi t + (1/2) 3.0ˆi + 2.0ˆj t 2 )
( )
= 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 ˆi + 1.0 t 2 ˆj

Therefore, x (t ) = 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 Fig. 4.16

her is the velocity of rain relative to the velocity
y (t ) = +1.0 t 2 of the bicycle she is riding. That is vrb = vr – vb
MOTION IN A PLANE 77

This relative velocity vector as shown in

Fig. 4.16 makes an angle θ with the vertical. It is
given by
vb 12
tan θ = = = 0.343
vr 35
Or, R
θ ≅ 19
Therefore, the woman should hold her
umbrella at an angle of about 19° with the
vertical towards the west.
Note carefully the difference between this
Example and the Example 4.1. In Example 4.1,
the boy experiences the resultant (vector Fig 4.17 Motion of an object projected with velocity
sum) of two velocities while in this example, vo at angle θ 0.
the woman experiences the velocity of rain
relative to the bicycle (the vector difference If we take the initial position to be the origin of
the reference frame as shown in Fig. 4.17, we
of the two velocities).
have :
4.10 PROJECTILE MOTION xo = 0, yo = 0
As an application of the ideas developed in the Then, Eq.(4.47b) becomes :
previous sections, we consider the motion of a
x = vox t = (vo cos θo ) t
projectile. An object that is in flight after being
thrown or projected is called a projectile. Such and y = (vo sin θ o ) t – ( ½ )g t2 (4.38)
a projectile might be a football, a cricket ball, a The components of velocity at time t can be
baseball or any other object. The motion of a obtained using Eq.(4.33b) :
projectile may be thought of as the result of two
vx = vox = vo cos θo
separate, simultaneously occurring components
of motions. One component is along a horizontal vy = vo sin θ o – g t (4.39)
direction without any acceleration and the other Equation (4.38) gives the x-, and y-coordinates
along the vertical direction with constant of the position of a projectile at time t in terms of
acceleration due to the force of gravity. It was two parameters — initial speed vo and projection
Galileo who first stated this independency of the angle θ o. Notice that the choice of mutually
horizontal and the vertical components of perpendicular x-, and y-directions for the
projectile motion in his Dialogue on the great analysis of the projectile motion has resulted in
world systems (1632). a simplification. One of the components of
In our discussion, we shall assume that the velocity, i.e. x-component remains constant
air resistance has negligible effect on the motion throughout the motion and only the
of the projectile. Suppose that the projectile is y- component changes, like an object in free fall
launched with velocity vo that makes an angle in vertical direction. This is shown graphically
θ o with the x-axis as shown in Fig. 4.17. at few instants in Fig. 4.18. Note that at the point
of maximum height, v y= 0 and therefore,
After the object has been projected, the
vy
acceleration acting on it is that due to gravity θ = tan −1 =0
which is directed vertically downward: vx
a = −g 
j Equation of path of a projectile
Or, ax = 0, ay = – g (4.36) What is the shape of the path followed by the
The components of initial velocity vo are : projectile? This can be seen by eliminating the
vox = vo cos θ o time between the expressions for x and y as
voy= vo sin θ o (4.37) given in Eq. (4.38). We obtain:
78 PHYSICS

y = ( tan θo ) x −
g
x2 ( v 0 sin θ 0 ) 2
hm =
2 (v o cosθo ) (4.40) Or, (4.42)
2
2g
Now, since g, θ o and vo are constants, Eq. (4.40) Horizontal range of a projectile
is of the form y = a x + b x2, in which a and b are
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile
constants. This is the equation of a parabola,
from its initial position (x = y = 0) to the position
i.e. the path of the projectile is a parabola
where it passes y = 0 during its fall is called the
(Fig. 4.18).
horizontal range, R. It is the distance travelled
during the time of flight Tf . Therefore, the range
R is
R = (vo cos θ o) (Tf )
=(vo cos θo) (2 vo sin θo)/g
2
v0 sin 2θ 0
Or, R= (4.43a)
g

Equation (4.43a) shows that for a given

projection velocity vo , R is maximum when sin
2θ 0 is maximum, i.e., when θ0 = 450.
The maximum horizontal range is, therefore,
2
v0
Rm = (4.43b)
g

Example 4.7 Galileo, in his book Two new

sciences, stated that “for elevations which
Fig. 4.18 The path of a projectile is a parabola.
exceed or fall short of 45° by equal
Time of maximum height amounts, the ranges are equal”. Prove this
statement.
How much time does the projectile take to reach
the maximum height ? Let this time be denoted
by tm. Since at this point, vy= 0, we have from Answer For a projectile launched with velocity
Eq. (4.39): vo at an angle θ o , the range is given by
vy = vo sinθ o – g tm = 0
Or, tm = vo sinθ o /g (4.41a) v02 sin 2θ0
R=
The total time Tf during which the projectile is g
in flight can be obtained by putting y = 0 in Now, for angles, (45° + α ) and ( 45° – α), 2θo is
Eq. (4.38). We get : (90° + 2α ) and ( 90° – 2α ) , respectively. The
Tf = 2 (vo sin θ o )/g (4.41b) values of sin (90° + 2α ) and sin (90° – 2α ) are
the same, equal to that of cos 2α. Therefore,
Tf is known as the time of flight of the projectile. ranges are equal for elevations which exceed or
We note that T f = 2 tm , which is expected fall short of 45° by equal amounts α.
because of the symmetry of the parabolic path.
Maximum height of a projectile Example 4.8 A hiker stands on the edge
The maximum height h m reached by the of a cliff 490 m above the ground and
projectile can be calculated by substituting throws a stone horizontally with an initial
t = tm in Eq. (4.38) : speed of 15 m s-1. Neglecting air resistance,
find the time taken by the stone to reach
⎛ v sinθ ⎞ g ⎛ v sinθ ⎞2 the ground, and the speed with which it
(
y = h m = v0 sinθ 0 ) ⎜ 0
⎜
0⎟
⎟− ⎜
⎜ 0 0⎟
⎟ hits the ground. (Take g = 9.8 m s-2 ).
⎝ g ⎠ 2⎝ g ⎠
MOTION IN A PLANE 79

Answer We choose the origin of the x-,and y- Neglecting air resistance - what does
axis at the edge of the cliff and t = 0 s at the the assumption really mean?
instant the stone is thrown. Choose the positive
direction of x-axis to be along the initial velocity While treating the topic of projectile motion,
and the positive direction of y-axis to be the we have stated that we assume that the
vertically upward direction. The x-, and y- air resistance has no effect on the motion
components of the motion can be treated of the projectile. You must understand what
the statement really means. Friction, force
independently. The equations of motion are :
due to viscosity, air resistance are all
x (t) = xo + vox t
dissipative forces. In the presence of any of
y (t) = yo + voy t +(1/2) ay t2
such forces opposing motion, any object will
Here, xo = yo = 0, voy = 0, ay = –g = –9.8 m s-2,
lose some part of its initial energy and
vox = 15 m s-1. consequently, momentum too. Thus, a
The stone hits the ground when y(t) = – 490 m. projectile that traverses a parabolic path
– 490 m = –(1/2)(9.8) t2. would certainly show deviation from its
This gives t =10 s. idealised trajectory in the presence of air
The velocity components are vx = vox and resistance. It will not hit the ground with
vy = voy – g t the same speed with which it was projected
so that when the stone hits the ground : from it. In the absence of air resistance, the
vox = 15 m s–1 x-component of the velocity remains
voy = 0 – 9.8 × 10 = – 98 m s–1 constant and it is only the y-component that
Therefore, the speed of the stone is undergoes a continuous change. However,
in the presence of air resistance, both of
v x2 + vy2 = 152 + 982 = 99 m s −1 these would get affected. That would mean
that the range would be less than the one
Example 4.9 A cricket ball is thrown at a given by Eq. (4.43). Maximum height
speed of 28 m s–1 in a direction 30° above attained would also be less than that
the horizontal. Calculate (a) the maximum predicted by Eq. (4.42). Can you then,
height, (b) the time taken by the ball to anticipate the change in the time of flight?
return to the same level, and (c) the In order to avoid air resistance, we will
distance from the thrower to the point have to perform the experiment in vacuum
where the ball returns to the same level. or under low pressure, which is not easy.
When we use a phrase like ‘neglect air
resistance’, we imply that the change in
parameters such as range, height etc. is
Answer (a) The maximum height is given by
much smaller than their values without air
hm =
(v0 sinθo )2 =
(28 sin 30°)2
m
resistance. The calculation without air
2g 2 (9.8) resistance is much simpler than that with
air resistance.
14 × 14
= = 10.0 m
2 × 9.8 4.11 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
(b) The time taken to return to the same level is When an object follows a circular path at a
Tf = (2 vo sin θ o )/g = (2× 28 × sin 30° )/9.8 constant speed, the motion of the object is called
= 28/9.8 s = 2.9 s uniform circular motion. The word “uniform”
(c) The distance from the thrower to the point refers to the speed, which is uniform (constant)
where the ball returns to the same level is throughout the motion. Suppose an object is

R=
(v sin 2θ )
2
o o
=
28 × 28 × sin 60o
= 69 m
moving with uniform speed v in a circle of radius
R as shown in Fig. 4.19. Since the velocity of the
g 9.8 object is changing continuously in direction, the
object undergoes acceleration. Let us find the
magnitude and the direction of this acceleration.
80 PHYSICS

Fig. 4.19 Velocity and acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion. The time interval Δt decreases from
(a) to (c) where it is zero. The acceleration is directed, at each point of the path, towards the centre of
the circle.
Let r and r′ be the position vectors and v and r′ be Δθ. Since the velocity vectors v and v′ are
v′ the velocities of the object when it is at point P always perpendicular to the position vectors, the
and P ′ as shown in Fig. 4.19(a). By definition, angle between them is also Δθ . Therefore, the
velocity at a point is along the tangent at that triangle CPP′ formed by the position vectors and
point in the direction of motion. The velocity the triangle GHI formed by the velocity vectors
vectors v and v′ are as shown in Fig. 4.19(a1). v, v′ and Δv are similar (Fig. 4.19a). Therefore,
Δv is obtained in Fig. 4.19 (a2) using the triangle the ratio of the base-length to side-length for
law of vector addition. Since the path is circular, one of the triangles is equal to that of the other
v is perpendicular to r and so is v′ to r′ . triangle. That is :
Therefore, Δv is perpendicular to Δr. Since
⎛ Δv ⎞ Δv Δr
average acceleration is along Δv ⎜ a = ⎟ , the =
⎝ Δt ⎠ v R
average acceleration a is perpendicular to Δr. If
we place Δv on the line that bisects the angle Δr
Or, Δv = v
between r and r′ , we see that it is directed towards R
the centre of the circle. Figure 4.19(b) shows the Therefore,
same quantities for smaller time interval. Δv and
Δv v Δr v Δr
hence a is again directed towards the centre. a = lim = lim = lim
In Fig. 4.19(c), Δt 0 and the average Δt → 0 Δt Δt → 0 RΔt R Δt → 0 Δt
acceleration becomes the instantaneous If Δt is small, Δθ will also be small and then arc
acceleration. It is directed towards the centre*. PP′ can be approximately taken to be|Δr|:
Thus, we find that the acceleration of an object Δr ≅ vΔt
in uniform circular motion is always directed
towards the centre of the circle. Let us now find Δr
≅v
the magnitude of the acceleration. Δt
The magnitude of a is, by definition, given by
lim Δr = v
Δv Or,
a = Δt → 0 Δt
lim
Δt → 0 Δt
Let the angle between position vectors r and Therefore, the centripetal acceleration ac is :

* In the limit Δt 0, Δr becomes perpendicular to r. In this limit Δv→0 and is consequently also perpendicular
to V. Therefore, the acceleration is directed towards the centre, at each point of the circular path.
MOTION IN A PLANE 81

⎛v ⎞ v
2 2
ω R
2
ac = ⎜ ⎟ v = v2/R (4.44) ac = =
2
=ω R
⎝R ⎠
R R
Thus, the acceleration of an object moving with 2
ac = ω R (4.47)
speed v in a circle of radius R has a magnitude
2
v /R and is always directed towards the centre.
The time taken by an object to make one revolution
This is why this acceleration is called centripetal
acceleration (a term proposed by Newton). A is known as its time period T and the number of
thorough analysis of centripetal acceleration was revolution made in one second is called its
first published in 1673 by the Dutch scientist frequency ν (=1/T ). However, during this time the
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) but it was distance moved by the object is s = 2πR.
probably known to Newton also some years earlier. Therefore, v = 2πR/T =2πRν (4.48)
“Centripetal” comes from a Greek term which means In terms of frequency ν, we have
‘centre-seeking’. Since v and R are constant, the ω = 2πν
magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is also v = 2πRν
constant. However, the direction changes —
ac = 4π2 ν 2R (4.49)
pointing always towards the centre. Therefore, a
centripetal acceleration is not a constant vector.
Example 4.10 An insect trapped in a
We have another way of describing the
circular groove of radius 12 cm moves along
velocity and the acceleration of an object in
the groove steadily and completes 7
uniform circular motion. As the object moves
revolutions in 100 s. (a) What is the
from P to P′ in time Δt (= t′ – t), the line CP
angular speed, and the linear speed of the
(Fig. 4.19) turns through an angle Δθ as shown
motion? (b) Is the acceleration vector a
in the figure. Δθ is called angular distance. We
constant vector ? What is its magnitude ?
define the angular speed ω (Greek letter omega)
as the time rate of change of angular
Answer This is an example of uniform circular
displacement :
motion. Here R = 12 cm. The angular speed ω is
Δθ given by
ω=
Δt
(4.45) ω = 2π/T = 2π × 7/100 = 0.44 rad/s
Now, if the distance travelled by the object The linear speed v is :
during the time Δt is Δs, i.e. PP′ is Δs, then : v =ω R = 0.44 s-1 × 12 cm = 5.3 cm s-1
Δs The direction of velocity v is along the tangent
v= to the circle at every point. The acceleration is
Δt
directed towards the centre of the circle. Since
but Δs = R Δθ . Therefore :
this direction changes continuously,
Δθ acceleration here is not a constant vector.
v=R =Rω
Δt However, the magnitude of acceleration is
v= Rω (4.46) constant:
We can express centripetal acceleration ac in a = ω2 R = (0.44 s–1)2 (12 cm)
terms of angular speed : = 2.3 cm s-2
82 PHYSICS

SUMMARY

1. Scalar quantities are quantities with magnitudes only. Examples are distance, speed,
mass and temperature.
2. Vector quantities are quantities with magnitude and direction both. Examples are
displacement, velocity and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector algebra.
3. A vector A multiplied by a real number λ is also a vector, whose magnitude is λ times
the magnitude of the vector A and whose direction is the same or opposite depending
upon whether λ is positive or negative.
4. Two vectors A and B may be added graphically using head-to-tail method or parallelogram
method.
5. Vector addition is commutative :
A+B=B+A
It also obeys the associative law :
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
6. A null or zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude. Since the magnitude is zero, we
don’t have to specify its direction. It has the properties :
A+0=A
λ0 = 0
0A=0
7. The subtraction of vector B from A is defined as the sum of A and –B :
A – B = A+ (–B)
8. A vector A can be resolved into component along two given vectors a and b lying in the
same plane :
A =λ a +μb
where λ and μ are real numbers.
9. A unit vector associated with a vector A has magnitude one and is along the vector A:
A
n̂ =
A
The unit vectors i, j, kare vectors of unit magnitude and point in the direction of
the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively in a right-handed coordinate system.
10. A vector A can be expressed as
A = A i+ A j
x y
where Ax, Ay are its components along x-, and y -axes. If vector A makes an angle θ
Ay
with the x-axis, then Ax = A cos θ , Ay=A sin θ and A = A = A x2 + Ay2 , tanθ = .
Ax
11. Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method. If sum of two vectors A
and B, that lie in x-y plane, is R, then :
R = R x i+ Ry 
j , where, Rx = Ax + Bx, and Ry = A y + B y

12. The position vector of an object in x-y plane is given by r = x i+ y 

j and the
displacement from position r to position r’ is given by
Δr = r′ − r
= ( x ′ − x ) i+ (y ′ − y ) 
j
= Δx i+ Δy 
j
13. If an object undergoes a displacement Δr in time Δt, its average velocity is given by
Δr
v= . The velocity of an object at time t is the limiting value of the average velocity
Δt
MOTION IN A PLANE 83

as Δt tends to zero :
Δr dr
v = lim = . It can be written in unit vector notation as :
Δt → 0 Δt dt
dx dy dz
v = v x i+ vy 
j + v z k where v x = ,v = ,v =
dt y dt z dt
When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate system, v is always tangent to
the curve representing the path of the object.
14. If the velocity of an object changes from v to v′ in time Δt, then its average acceleration
v − v' Δv
is given by: a = =
Δt Δt
The acceleration a at any time t is the limiting value of a as Δt 0 :
lim Δv dv
a= =
Δt → 0 Δt
dt
In component form, we have : a = a x i+ a y 
j + a z k
dv x dvy dvz
where, a x = , ay = , az =
dt dt dt
15. If an object is moving in a plane with constant acceleration a = a = a x2 + a y2 and
its position vector at time t = 0 is ro, then at any other time t, it will be at a point given
by:
1 2
r = ro + v o t + at
2
and its velocity is given by :
v = vo + a t
where vo is the velocity at time t = 0
In component form :
1
x = x o + v ox t + ax t 2
2
1
y = yo + voy t + ayt 2
2
v x = v ox + a x t

v y = v oy + a y t

Motion in a plane can be treated as superposition of two separate simultaneous one-

dimensional motions along two perpendicular directions
16. An object that is in flight after being projected is called a projectile. If an object is
projected with initial velocity vo making an angle θ o with x-axis and if we assume its
initial position to coincide with the origin of the coordinate system, then the position
and velocity of the projectile at time t are given by :
x = (vo cos θ o) t
y = (vo sin θ o) t − (1/2) g t2
vx = vox = vo cos θ o
vy = vo sin θ o − g t
The path of a projectile is parabolic and is given by :

gx 2
y = ( tanθ0 ) x –
2 (vo cos θo )
2

The maximum height that a projectile attains is :

84 PHYSICS

2
(vo sinqo )
hm =
2g
The time taken to reach this height is :
vo sinθ o
tm =
g
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the position
it passes y = 0 during its fall is called the range, R of the projectile. It is :
vo2
R= sin 2θo
g
17. When an object follows a circular path at constant speed, the motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion. The magnitude of its acceleration is ac = v2 /R. The
direction of ac is always towards the centre of the circle.
The angular speed ω, is the rate of change of angular distance. It is related to velocity
v by v = ω R. The acceleration is ac = ω 2R.
If T is the time period of revolution of the object in circular motion and ν is its
frequency, we have ω = 2π ν , v = 2πνR, ac = 4π2ν 2R
MOTION IN A PLANE 85

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The path length traversed by an object between two points is, in general, not the same as
the magnitude of displacement. The displacement depends only on the end points; the
path length (as the name implies) depends on the actual path. The two quantities are
equal only if the object does not change its direction during the course of motion. In all
other cases, the path length is greater than the magnitude of displacement.
2. In view of point 1 above, the average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the
magnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. The two are equal only if the
path length is equal to the magnitude of displacement.
3. The vector equations (4.33a) and (4.34a) do not involve any choice of axes. Of course,
you can always resolve them along any two independent axes.
4. The kinematic equations for uniform acceleration do not apply to the case of uniform
circular motion since in this case the magnitude of acceleration is constant but its
direction is changing.
5. An object subjected to two velocities v1 and v2 has a resultant velocity v = v1 + v2. Take
care to distinguish it from velocity of object 1 relative to velocity of object 2 : v12= v1− v2.
Here v1 and v2 are velocities with reference to some common reference frame.
6. The resultant acceleration of an object in circular motion is towards the centre only if
the speed is constant.
7. The shape of the trajectory of the motion of an object is not determined by the acceleration
alone but also depends on the initial conditions of motion ( initial position and initial
velocity). For example, the trajectory of an object moving under the same acceleration
due to gravity can be a straight line or a parabola depending on the initial conditions.

EXERCISES
4.1 State, for each of the following physical quantities, if it is a scalar or a vector :
volume, mass, speed, acceleration, density, number of moles, velocity, angular
frequency, displacement, angular velocity.
4.2 Pick out the two scalar quantities in the following list :
force, angular momentum, work, current, linear momentum, electric field, average
velocity, magnetic moment, relative velocity.
4.3 Pick out the only vector quantity in the following list :
Temperature, pressure, impulse, time, power, total path length, energy, gravitational
potential, coefficient of friction, charge.
4.4 State with reasons, whether the following algebraic operations with scalar and vector
physical quantities are meaningful :
(a) adding any two scalars, (b) adding a scalar to a vector of the same dimensions ,
(c) multiplying any vector by any scalar, (d) multiplying any two scalars, (e) adding any
two vectors, (f) adding a component of a vector to the same vector.
4.5 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The magnitude of a vector is always a scalar, (b) each component of a vector is
always a scalar, (c) the total path length is always equal to the magnitude of the
displacement vector of a particle. (d) the average speed of a particle (defined as total
path length divided by the time taken to cover the path) is either greater or equal to
the magnitude of average velocity of the particle over the same interval of time, (e)
Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up to give a null vector.
4.6 Establish the following vector inequalities geometrically or otherwise :
(a) |a+b| < |a| + |b|
(b) |a+b| > ||a| −|b||
86 PHYSICS

(c) −b| < |a| + |b|

|a−
(d) −b| >
|a− ||a| − |b||
When does the equality sign above apply?
4.7 Given a + b + c + d = 0, which of the following statements
are correct :
(a) a, b, c, and d must each be a null vector,
(b) The magnitude of (a + c) equals the magnitude of
( b + d),
(c) The magnitude of a can never be greater than the
sum of the magnitudes of b, c, and d,
(d) b + c must lie in the plane of a and d if a and d are
not collinear, and in the line of a and d, if they are
collinear ?
4.8 Three girls skating on a circular ice ground of radius
200 m start from a point P on the edge of the ground
and reach a point Q diametrically opposite to P following
different paths as shown in Fig. 4.20. What is the
magnitude of the displacement vector for each ? For Fig. 4.20
which girl is this equal to the actual length of
path skate ?

4.9 A cyclist starts from the centre O of a circular park of radius 1 km, reaches the edge P
of the park, then cycles along the circumference, and returns to the centre along QO
as shown in Fig. 4.21. If the round trip takes 10 min, what is the (a) net displacement,
(b) average velocity, and (c) average speed of the cyclist ?

Fig. 4.21
4.10 On an open ground, a motorist follows a track that turns to his left by an angle of 600
after every 500 m. Starting from a given turn, specify the displacement of the motorist
at the third, sixth and eighth turn. Compare the magnitude of the displacement with
the total path length covered by the motorist in each case.
4.11 A passenger arriving in a new town wishes to go from the station to a hotel located
10 km away on a straight road from the station. A dishonest cabman takes him along
a circuitous path 23 km long and reaches the hotel in 28 min. What is (a) the average
speed of the taxi, (b) the magnitude of average velocity ? Are the two equal ?
4.12 Rain is falling vertically with a speed of 30 m s-1. A woman rides a bicycle with a speed
of 10 m s-1 in the north to south direction. What is the direction in which she should
hold her umbrella ?
4.13 A man can swim with a speed of 4.0 km/h in still water. How long does he take to
cross a river 1.0 km wide if the river flows steadily at 3.0 km/h and he makes his
MOTION IN A PLANE 87

strokes normal to the river current? How far down the river does he go when he
reaches the other bank ?
4.14 In a harbour, wind is blowing at the speed of 72 km/h and the flag on the mast of a boat
anchored in the harbour flutters along the N-E direction. If the boat starts moving at a
speed of 51 km/h to the north, what is the direction of the flag on the mast of the boat ?
4.15 The ceiling of a long hall is 25 m high. What is the maximum horizontal distance that
a ball thrown with a speed of 40 m s-1 can go without hitting the ceiling of the hall ?
4.16 A cricketer can throw a ball to a maximum horizontal distance of 100 m. How much
high above the ground can the cricketer throw the same ball ?
4.17 A stone tied to the end of a string 80 cm long is whirled in a horizontal circle with a
constant speed. If the stone makes 14 revolutions in 25 s, what is the magnitude and
direction of acceleration of the stone ?
4.18 An aircraft executes a horizontal loop of radius 1.00 km with a steady speed of 900
km/h. Compare its centripetal acceleration with the acceleration due to gravity.
4.19 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The net acceleration of a particle in circular motion is always along the radius of
the circle towards the centre
(b) The velocity vector of a particle at a point is always along the tangent to the path
of the particle at that point
(c) The acceleration vector of a particle in uniform circular motion averaged over one
cycle is a null vector

4.20 The position of a particle is given by

r = 3.0t ˆi − 2.0t 2 ˆj + 4.0 k
ˆ m
where t is in seconds and the coefficients have the proper units for r to be in metres.
(a) Find the v and a of the particle? (b) What is the magnitude and direction of
velocity of the particle at t = 2.0 s ?
4.21 A particle starts from the origin at t = 0 s with a velocity of 10.0 
j m/s and moves in

(
the x-y plane with a constant acceleration of 8.0i+ 2.0  )
j m s-2. (a) At what time is
the x- coordinate of the particle 16 m? What is the y-coordinate of the particle at
that time? (b) What is the speed of the particle at the time ?
4.22 i and 
j are unit vectors along x- and y- axis respectively. What is the magnitude
and direction of the vectors i+ 
j , and i− 
j ? What are the components of a vector
A= 2 i+ 3 j along the directions of i+  j and i− 
j ? [You may use graphical method]
4.23 For any arbitrary motion in space, which of the following relations are true :
(a) vaverage = (1/2) (v (t1) + v (t2))
(b) v average = [r(t2) - r(t1) ] /(t2 – t1)
(c) v (t) = v (0) + a t
(d) r (t) = r (0) + v (0) t + (1/2) a t2
(e) a average =[ v (t2) - v (t1 )] /( t2 – t1)
(The ‘average’ stands for average of the quantity over the time interval t1 to t2)
4.24 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false :
A scalar quantity is one that
(a) is conserved in a process
(b) can never take negative values
(c) must be dimensionless
(d) does not vary from one point to another in space
(e) has the same value for observers with different orientations of axes.
4.25 An aircraft is flying at a height of 3400 m above the ground. If the angle subtended at
a ground observation point by the aircraft positions 10.0 s apart is 30°, what is the
speed of the aircraft ?
88 PHYSICS

Additional Exercises
4.26 A vector has magnitude and direction. Does it have a location in space ? Can it vary
with time ? Will two equal vectors a and b at different locations in space necessarily
have identical physical effects ? Give examples in support of your answer.
4.27 A vector has both magnitude and direction. Does it mean that anything that has
magnitude and direction is necessarily a vector ? The rotation of a body can be specified
by the direction of the axis of rotation, and the angle of rotation about the axis. Does
that make any rotation a vector ?
4.28 Can you associate vectors with (a) the length of a wire bent into a loop, (b) a plane
area, (c) a sphere ? Explain.
4.29 A bullet fired at an angle of 30° with the horizontal hits the ground 3.0 km away. By
adjusting its angle of projection, can one hope to hit a target 5.0 km away ? Assume
the muzzle speed to the fixed, and neglect air resistance.
4.30 A fighter plane flying horizontally at an altitude of 1.5 km with speed 720 km/h passes
directly overhead an anti-aircraft gun. At what angle from the vertical should the gun
be fired for the shell with muzzle speed 600 m s-1 to hit the plane ? At what minimum
altitude should the pilot fly the plane to avoid being hit ? (Take g = 10 m s-2 ).
4.31 A cyclist is riding with a speed of 27 km/h. As he approaches a circular turn on the
road of radius 80 m, he applies brakes and reduces his speed at the constant rate of
0.50 m/s every second. What is the magnitude and direction of the net acceleration of
the cyclist on the circular turn ?
4.32 (a) Show that for a projectile the angle between the velocity and the x-axis as a function
of time is given by

⎛ v0y − gt ⎞
θ(t ) = tan-1⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ vox ⎠
(b) Shows that the projection angle θ0 for a projectile launched from the origin is
given by
⎛ 4h ⎞
θ0 = tan-1⎜ m ⎟
⎝ R ⎠

where the symbols have their usual meaning.

CHAPTER FIVE

LAWS OF MOTION

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding Chapter, our concern was to describe the
motion of a particle in space quantitatively. We saw that
5.1 Introduction uniform motion needs the concept of velocity alone whereas
5.2 Aristotle’s fallacy non-uniform motion requires the concept of acceleration in
5.3 The law of inertia addition. So far, we have not asked the question as to what
5.4 Newton’s first law of motion governs the motion of bodies. In this chapter, we turn to this
5.5 Newton’s second law of
basic question.
motion Let us first guess the answer based on our common
5.6 Newton’s third law of motion experience. To move a football at rest, someone must kick it.
To throw a stone upwards, one has to give it an upward
5.7 Conservation of momentum
push. A breeze causes the branches of a tree to swing; a
5.8 Equilibrium of a particle strong wind can even move heavy objects. A boat moves in a
5.9 Common forces in mechanics flowing river without anyone rowing it. Clearly, some external
5.10 Circular motion agency is needed to provide force to move a body from rest.
5.11 Solving problems in Likewise, an external force is needed also to retard or stop
mechanics motion. You can stop a ball rolling down an inclined plane by
Summary applying a force against the direction of its motion.
Points to ponder In these examples, the external agency of force (hands,
Exercises wind, stream, etc) is in contact with the object. This is not
Additional exercises always necessary. A stone released from the top of a building
accelerates downward due to the gravitational pull of the
earth. A bar magnet can attract an iron nail from a distance.
This shows that external agencies (e.g. gravitational and
magnetic forces ) can exert force on a body even from a
distance.
In short, a force is required to put a stationary body in
motion or stop a moving body, and some external agency is
needed to provide this force. The external agency may or may
not be in contact with the body.
So far so good. But what if a body is moving uniformly (e.g.
a skater moving straight with constant speed on a horizontal
ice slab) ? Is an external force required to keep a body in
uniform motion?
90 PHYSICS

5.2 ARISTOTLE’S FALLACY true law of nature for forces and motion, one has
The question posed above appears to be simple. to imagine a world in which uniform motion is
However, it took ages to answer it. Indeed, the possible with no frictional forces opposing. This
correct answer to this question given by Galileo is what Galileo did.
in the seventeenth century was the foundation 5.3 THE LAW OF INERTIA
of Newtonian mechanics, which signalled the
Galileo studied motion of objects on an inclined
birth of modern science.
plane. Objects (i) moving down an inclined plane
The Greek thinker, Aristotle (384 B.C– 322
accelerate, while those (ii) moving up retard.
B.C.), held the view that if a body is moving,
(iii) Motion on a horizontal plane is an
something external is required to keep it moving.
intermediate situation. Galileo concluded that
According to this view, for example, an arrow
an object moving on a frictionless horizontal
shot from a bow keeps flying since the air behind
plane must neither have acceleration nor
the arrow keeps pushing it. The view was part of
retardation, i.e. it should move with constant
an elaborate framework of ideas developed by
velocity (Fig. 5.1(a)).
Aristotle on the motion of bodies in the universe.
Most of the Aristotelian ideas on motion are now
known to be wrong and need not concern us.
For our purpose here, the Aristotelian law of
motion may be phrased thus: An external force
is required to keep a body in motion.
(i) (ii) (iii)
Aristotelian law of motion is flawed, as we shall
Fig. 5.1(a)
see. However, it is a natural view that anyone
Another experiment by Galileo leading to the
would hold from common experience. Even a
same conclusion involves a double inclined plane.
small child playing with a simple (non-electric)
A ball released from rest on one of the planes rolls
toy-car on a floor knows intuitively that it needs down and climbs up the other. If the planes are
to constantly drag the string attached to the toy- smooth, the final height of the ball is nearly the
car with some force to keep it going. If it releases same as the initial height (a little less but never
the string, it comes to rest. This experience is greater). In the ideal situation, when friction is
common to most terrestrial motion. External absent, the final height of the ball is the same
forces seem to be needed to keep bodies in as its initial height.
motion. Left to themselves, all bodies eventually If the slope of the second plane is decreased
come to rest. and the experiment repeated, the ball will still
What is the flaw in Aristotle’s argument? The reach the same height, but in doing so, it will
answer is: a moving toy car comes to rest because travel a longer distance. In the limiting case, when
the external force of friction on the car by the floor the slope of the second plane is zero (i.e. is a
opposes its motion. To counter this force, the child horizontal) the ball travels an infinite distance.
has to apply an external force on the car in the In other words, its motion never ceases. This is,
direction of motion. When the car is in uniform of course, an idealised situation (Fig. 5.1(b)).
motion, there is no net external force acting on it:
the force by the child cancels the force ( friction)
by the floor. The corollary is: if there were no friction,
the child would not be required to apply any force
to keep the toy car in uniform motion.
The opposing forces such as friction (solids)
and viscous forces (for fluids) are always present
in the natural world. This explains why forces
by external agencies are necessary to overcome
the frictional forces to keep bodies in uniform
motion. Now we understand where Aristotle Fig. 5.1(b) The law of inertia was inferred by Galileo
went wrong. He coded this practical experience from observations of motion of a ball on a
in the form of a basic argument. To get at the double inclined plane.
LAWS OF MOTION 91

In practice, the ball does come to a stop after accomplished almost single-handedly by Isaac
moving a finite distance on the horizontal plane, Newton, one of the greatest scientists of all times.
because of the opposing force of friction which Newton built on Galileo’s ideas and laid the
can never be totally eliminated. However, if there foundation of mechanics in terms of three laws
were no friction, the ball would continue to move of motion that go by his name. Galileo’s law of
with a constant velocity on the horizontal plane. inertia was his starting point which he
Galileo thus, arrived at a new insight on formulated as the First Law of motion:
motion that had eluded Aristotle and those who Every body continues to be in its state
followed him. The state of rest and the state of of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
uniform linear motion (motion with constant line unless compelled by some external
velocity) are equivalent. In both cases, there is force to act otherwise.

Ideas on Motion in Ancient Indian Science

Ancient Indian thinkers had arrived at an elaborate system of ideas on motion. Force, the cause of
motion, was thought to be of different kinds : force due to continuous pressure (nodan), as the force
of wind on a sailing vessel; impact (abhighat), as when a potter’s rod strikes the wheel; persistent
tendency (sanskara) to move in a straight line(vega) or restoration of shape in an elastic body;
transmitted force by a string, rod, etc. The notion of (vega) in the Vaisesika theory of motion perhaps
comes closest to the concept of inertia. Vega, the tendency to move in a straight line, was thought to
be opposed by contact with objects including atmosphere, a parallel to the ideas of friction and air
resistance. It was correctly summarised that the different kinds of motion (translational, rotational
and vibrational) of an extended body arise from only the translational motion of its constituent
particles. A falling leaf in the wind may have downward motion as a whole (patan) and also rotational
and vibrational motion (bhraman, spandan), but each particle of the leaf at an instant only has a
definite (small) displacement. There was considerable focus in Indian thought on measurement of
motion and units of length and time. It was known that the position of a particle in space can be
indicated by distance measured along three axes. Bhaskara (1150 A.D.) had introduced the concept
of ‘instantaneous motion’ (tatkaliki gati), which anticipated the modern notion of instantaneous
velocity using Differential Calculus. The difference between a wave and a current (of water) was clearly
understood; a current is a motion of particles of water under gravity and fluidity while a wave results
from the transmission of vibrations of water particles.

no net force acting on the body. It is incorrect to The state of rest or uniform linear motion both
assume that a net force is needed to keep a body imply zero acceleration. The first law of motion can,
in uniform motion. To maintain a body in therefore, be simply expressed as:
uniform motion, we need to apply an external If the net external force on a body is zero, its
force to ecounter the frictional force, so that acceleration is zero. Acceleration can be non
the two forces sum up to zero net external zero only if there is a net external force on
force. the body.
To summarise, if the net external force is zero,
a body at rest continues to remain at rest and a Two kinds of situations are encountered in the
body in motion continues to move with a uniform application of this law in practice. In some
velocity. This property of the body is called examples, we know that the net external force
inertia. Inertia means ‘resistance to change’. on the object is zero. In that case we can
A body does not change its state of rest or conclude that the acceleration of the object is
uniform motion, unless an external force zero. For example, a spaceship out in
compels it to change that state. interstellar space, far from all other objects and
with all its rockets turned off, has no net
5.4 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION external force acting on it. Its acceleration,
Galileo’s simple, but revolutionary ideas according to the First Law, must be zero. If it
dethroned Aristotelian mechanics. A new is in motion, it must continue to move with a
mechanics had to be developed. This task was uniform velocity.
92 PHYSICS

Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642)

Galileo Galilei, born in Pisa, Italy in 1564 was a key figure in the scientific revolution
in Europe about four centuries ago. Galileo proposed the concept of acceleration.
From experiments on motion of bodies on inclined planes or falling freely, he
contradicted the Aristotelian notion that a force was required to keep a body in
motion, and that heavier bodies fall faster than lighter bodies under gravity. He
thus arrived at the law of inertia that was the starting point of the subsequent
epochal work of Isaac Newton.
Galileo’s discoveries in astronomy were equally revolutionary. In 1609, he designed
his own telescope (invented earlier in Holland) and used it to make a number of
startling observations : mountains and depressions on the surface of the moon;
dark spots on the sun; the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus. He concluded
that the Milky Way derived its luminosity because of a large number of stars not visible to the naked eye.
In his masterpiece of scientific reasoning : Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems, Galileo advocated
the heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by Copernicus, which eventually got universal
acceptance.
With Galileo came a turning point in the very method of scientific inquiry. Science was no longer
merely observations of nature and inferences from them. Science meant devising and doing experiments
to verify or refute theories. Science meant measurement of quantities and a search for mathematical
relations between them. Not undeservedly, many regard Galileo as the father of modern science.

More often, however, we do not know all the normal force R must be equal and opposite to the
forces to begin with. In that case, if we know weight W ”.
that an object is unaccelerated (i.e. it is either
at rest or in uniform linear motion), we can infer
from the first law that the net external force on
the object must be zero. Gravity is everywhere.
For terrestrial phenomena, in particular, every
object experiences gravitational force due to the
earth. Also objects in motion generally experience
friction, viscous drag, etc. If then, on earth, an
object is at rest or in uniform linear motion, it is
not because there are no forces acting on it, but Fig. 5.2 (a) a book at rest on the table, and (b) a car
because the various external forces cancel out moving with uniform velocity. The net force
i.e. add up to zero net external force. is zero in each case.
Consider a book at rest on a horizontal surface Consider the motion of a car starting from
Fig. (5.2(a)). It is subject to two external forces :
rest, picking up speed and then moving on a
the force due to gravity (i.e. its weight W) acting
smooth straight road with uniform speed (Fig.
downward and the upward force on the book by
(5.2(b)). When the car is stationary, there is no
the table, the normal force R . R is a self-adjusting
net force acting on it. During pick-up, it
force. This is an example of the kind of situation
mentioned above. The forces are not quite known accelerates. This must happen due to a net
fully but the state of motion is known. We observe external force. Note, it has to be an external force.
the book to be at rest. Therefore, we conclude The acceleration of the car cannot be accounted
from the first law that the magnitude of R equals for by any internal force. This might sound
that of W. A statement often encountered is : surprising, but it is true. The only conceivable
“Since W = R, forces cancel and, therefore, the book external force along the road is the force of
is at rest”. This is incorrect reasoning. The correct friction. It is the frictional force that accelerates
statement is : “Since the book is observed to be at the car as a whole. (You will learn about friction
rest, the net external force on it must be zero, in section 5.9). When the car moves with
according to the first law. This implies that the constant velocity, there is no net external force.
LAWS OF MOTION 93

The property of inertia contained in the First It relates the net external force to the
law is evident in many situations. Suppose we acceleration of the body.
are standing in a stationary bus and the driver Momentum
starts the bus suddenly. We get thrown Momentum, P of a body is defined to be the
backward with a jerk. Why ? Our feet are in touch product of its mass m and velocity v, and is
with the floor. If there were no friction, we would denoted by p:
remain where we were, while the floor of the bus p=mv (5.1)
would simply slip forward under our feet and the
back of the bus would hit us. However, Momentum is clearly a vector quantity. The
following common experiences indicate the
fortunately, there is some friction between the
importance of this quantity for considering the
feet and the floor. If the start is not too sudden,
effect of force on motion.
i.e. if the acceleration is moderate, the frictional
force would be enough to accelerate our feet • Suppose a light-weight vehicle (say a small
along with the bus. But our body is not strictly car) and a heavy weight vehicle (say a loaded
a rigid body. It is deformable, i.e. it allows some truck) are parked on a horizontal road. We all
relative displacement between different parts. know that a much greater force is needed to
What this means is that while our feet go with push the truck than the car to bring them to
the bus, the rest of the body remains where it is the same speed in same time. Similarly, a
due to inertia. Relative to the bus, therefore, we greater opposing force is needed to stop a
are thrown backward. As soon as that happens, heavy body than a light body in the same time,
however, the muscular forces on the rest of the if they are moving with the same speed.
body (by the feet) come into play to move the body • If two stones, one light and the other heavy,
along with the bus. A similar thing happens are dropped from the top of a building, a
when the bus suddenly stops. Our feet stop due person on the ground will find it easier to catch
to the friction which does not allow relative the light stone than the heavy stone. The
motion between the feet and the floor of the bus. mass of a body is thus an important
But the rest of the body continues to move parameter that determines the effect of force
forward due to inertia. We are thrown forward. on its motion.
The restoring muscular forces again come into • Speed is another important parameter to
play and bring the body to rest. consider. A bullet fired by a gun can easily
pierce human tissue before it stops, resulting
Example 5.1 An astronaut accidentally in casualty. The same bullet fired with
gets separated out of his small spaceship moderate speed will not cause much damage.
accelerating in inter stellar space at a Thus for a given mass, the greater the speed,
constant rate of 100 m s-2. What is the the greater is the opposing force needed to stop
acceleration of the astronaut the instant after the body in a certain time. Taken together,
he is outside the spaceship ? (Assume that the product of mass and velocity, that is
there are no nearby stars to exert momentum, is evidently a relevant variable
gravitational force on him.) of motion. The greater the change in the
momentum in a given time, the greater is the
Answer Since there are no nearby stars to exert
force that needs to be applied.
gravitational force on him and the small
• A seasoned cricketer catches a cricket ball
spaceship exerts negligible gravitational
coming in with great speed far more easily
attraction on him, the net force acting on the
than a novice, who can hurt his hands in the
astronaut, once he is out of the spaceship, is
act. One reason is that the cricketer allows a
zero. By the first law of motion the acceleration
longer time for his hands to stop the ball. As
of the astronaut is zero.
you may have noticed, he draws in the hands
5.5 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION backward in the act of catching the ball (Fig.
The first law refers to the simple case when the 5.3). The novice, on the other hand, keeps
net external force on a body is zero. The second his hands fixed and tries to catch the ball
law of motion refers to the general situation when almost instantly. He needs to provide a much
there is a net external force acting on the body. greater force to stop the ball instantly, and
94 PHYSICS

this hurts.The conclusion is clear: force not This force is provided by our hand through
only depends on the change in momentum, the string. Experience suggests that our hand
but also on how fast the change is brought needs to exert a greater force if the stone is
about. The same change in momentum rotated at greater speed or in a circle of
brought about in a shorter time needs a smaller radius, or both. This corresponds to
greater applied force. In short, the greater the greater acceleration or equivalently a greater
rate of change of momentum, the greater is rate of change in momentum vector. This
the force. suggests that the greater the rate of change
in momentum vector the greater is the force
applied.

Fig. 5.3 Force not only depends on the change in

momentum but also on how fast the change
is brought about. A seasoned cricketer draws Fig. 5.4 Force is necessary for changing the direction
in his hands during a catch, allowing greater of momentum, even if its magnitude is
time for the ball to stop and hence requires a constant. We can feel this while rotating a
smaller force. stone in a horizontal circle with uniform speed
by means of a string.
• Observations confirm that the product of
mass and velocity (i.e. momentum) is basic to These qualitative observations lead to the
the effect of force on motion. Suppose a fixed Second Law of motion expressed by Newton as
force is applied for a certain interval of time follows :
on two bodies of different masses, initially at The rate of change of momentum of a body is
rest, the lighter body picks up a greater speed directly proportional to the applied force and
than the heavier body. However, at the end of takes place in the direction in which the force
the time interval, observations show that each acts.
body acquires the same momentum. Thus Thus, if under the action of a force F for time
the same force for the same time causes interval Δt, the velocity of a body of mass m
the same change in momentum for changes from v to v + Δv i.e. its initial momentum
different bodies. This is a crucial clue to the
p = m v changes by Δp = m Δv . According to the
second law of motion.
• In the preceding observations, the vector Second Law,
character of momentum has not been evident. Δp Δp
F∝ or F = k
In the examples so far, momentum and change Δt Δt
in momentum both have the same direction. where k is a constant of proportionality. Taking
But this is not always the case. Suppose a
stone is rotated with uniform speed in a Δp
the limit Δt → 0, the term becomes the
horizontal plane by means of a string, the Δt
magnitude of momentum is fixed, but its derivative or differential co-efficient of p with
direction changes (Fig. 5.4). A force is needed dp
respect to t, denoted by . Thus
to cause this change in momentum vector. dt
LAWS OF MOTION 95

dp F in the law stands for the net external force

F =k (5.2) on the particle and a stands for acceleration
dt
For a body of fixed mass m, of the particle. It turns out, however, that the
law in the same form applies to a rigid body
dp d dv or, even more generally, to a system of
= (m v ) = m = ma (5.3)
particles. In that case, F refers to the total
dt dt dt
external force on the system and a refers to
i.e the Second Law can also be written as the acceleration of the system as a whole. More
F = kma (5.4)
precisely, a is the acceleration of the centre
which shows that force is proportional to the of mass of the system. Any internal forces in
product of mass m and acceleration a. the system are not to be included in F.
The unit of force has not been defined so far.
In fact, we use Eq. (5.4) to define the unit of force.
We, therefore, have the liberty to choose any
constant value for k. For simplicity, we choose
k = 1. The Second Law then is
dp
F= = ma (5.5)
dt
In SI unit force is one that causes an acceleration
of 1 m s-2 to a mass of 1 kg. This unit is known as
newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s-2.
Fig. 5.5 Acceleration at an instant is determined by
Let us note at this stage some important points
the force at that instant. The moment after a
about the second law : stone is dropped out of an accelerated train,
1. In the second law, F = 0 implies a = 0. The it has no horizontal acceleration or force, if
second Law is obviously consistent with the air resistance is neglected. The stone carries
no memory of its acceleration with the train
first law.
a moment ago.
2. The second law of motion is a vector law. It is
equivalent to three equations, one for each 4. The second law of motion is a local relation
component of the vectors : which means that force F at a point in space
dp x (location of the particle) at a certain instant
Fx = = ma x of time is related to a at that point at that
dt instant. Acceleration here and now is
dp y determined by the force here and now, not by
Fy = = ma y
dt any history of the motion of the particle
dp (See Fig. 5.5).
Fz = z =m a z (5.6)
dt
This means that if a force is not parallel to Example 5.2 A bullet of mass 0.04 kg
the velocity of the body, but makes some angle moving with a speed of 90 m s-1 enters a
with it, it changes only the component of heavy wooden block and is stopped after a
velocity along the direction of force. The distance of 60 cm. What is the average
component of velocity normal to the force resistive force exerted by the block on the
remains unchanged. For example, in the bullet?
motion of a projectile under the vertical
gravitational force, the horizontal component Answer The retardation ‘a’ of the bullet
of velocity remains unchanged (Fig. 5.5). (assumed constant) is given by
3. The second law of motion given by Eq. (5.5) is –u2 – 90 × 90
applicable to a single point particle. The force a= = m s −2 = – 6750 m s −2
2s 2 × 0.6
96 PHYSICS

The retarding force, by the Second Law of ordinary forces. Newtonian mechanics has no
motion, is such distinction. Impulsive force is like any other
= 0.04 kg x 6750 m s-2 = 270 N force – except that it is large and acts for a short
time.
The actual resistive force, and therefore,
retardation of the bullet may not be uniform. The Example 5.4 A batsman hits back a ball
answer therefore, only indicates the average straight in the direction of the bowler without
resistive force. changing its initial speed of 12 m s–1.
Example 5.3 The motion of a particle of If the mass of the ball is 0.15 kg, determine
the impulse imparted to the ball. (Assume
1 2 linear motion of the ball)
mass m is described by y = ut + gt . Find
2
the force acting on the particle. Answer Change in momentum
Answer We know = 0.15 × 12–(–0.15×12)
1 2 = 3.6 N s,
y = ut + gt
2 Impulse = 3.6 N s,
Now, in the direction from the batsman to the bowler.
dy This is an example where the force on the ball
v= = u + gt by the batsman and the time of contact of the
dt
ball and the bat are difficult to know, but the
dv impulse is readily calculated.
acceleration, a = =g
dt
5.6 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
Then the force is given by Eq. (5.5)
F = ma = mg The second law relates the external force on a
Thus the given equation describes the motion body to its acceleration. What is the origin of the
of a particle under acceleration due to gravity external force on the body ? What agency
and y is the position coordinate in the direction provides the external force ? The simple answer
of g. in Newtonian mechanics is that the external
force on a body always arises due to some other
Impulse body. Consider a pair of bodies A and B. B gives
We sometimes encounter examples where a large rise to an external force on A. A natural question
force acts for a very short duration producing a is: Does A in turn give rise to an external force
finite change in momentum of the body. For on B ? In some examples, the answer seems
example, when a ball hits a wall and bounces clear. If you press a coiled spring, the spring is
back, the force on the ball by the wall acts for a compressed by the force of your hand. The
very short time when the two are in contact, yet compressed spring in turn exerts a force on your
the force is large enough to reverse the momentum hand and you can feel it. But what if the bodies
of the ball. Often, in these situations, the force are not in contact ? The earth pulls a stone
and the time duration are difficult to ascertain downwards due to gravity. Does the stone exert
separately. However, the product of force and time, a force on the earth ? The answer is not obvious
which is the change in momentum of the body since we hardly see the effect of the stone on the
remains a measurable quantity. This product is earth. The answer according to Newton is: Yes,
called impulse:
the stone does exert an equal and opposite force
Impulse = Force × time duration on the earth. We do not notice it since the earth
= Change in momentum (5.7) is very massive and the effect of a small force on
A large force acting for a short time to produce a its motion is negligible.
finite change in momentum is called an impulsive Thus, according to Newtonian mechanics,
force. In the history of science, impulsive forces force never occurs singly in nature. Force is the
were put in a conceptually different category from mutual interaction between two bodies. Forces
LAWS OF MOTION 97

always occur in pairs. Further, the mutual forces comes before reaction i.e action is the cause
between two bodies are always equal and and reaction the effect. There is no cause-
opposite. This idea was expressed by Newton in effect relation implied in the third law. The
the form of the third law of motion. force on A by B and the force on B by A act
To every action, there is always an equal and at the same instant. By the same reasoning,
opposite reaction. any one of them may be called action and the
other reaction.
Newton’s wording of the third law is so crisp and 3. Action and reaction forces act on different
beautiful that it has become a part of common bodies, not on the same body. Consider a pair
language. For the same reason perhaps, of bodies A and B. According to the third law,
misconceptions about the third law abound. Let
us note some important points about the third FAB = – FBA (5.8)
law, particularly in regard to the usage of the (force on A by B) = – (force on B by A)
terms : action and reaction.
1. The terms action and reaction in the third law Thus if we are considering the motion of any
mean nothing else but ‘force’. Using different one body (A or B), only one of the two forces is
terms for the same physical concept relevant. It is an error to add up the two forces
can sometimes be confusing. A simple and claim that the net force is zero.
and clear way of stating the third law is as However, if you are considering the system
follows : of two bodies as a whole, FAB and FBA are
internal forces of the system (A + B). They add
Forces always occur in pairs. Force on a up to give a null force. Internal forces in a
body A by B is equal and opposite to the
body or a system of particles thus cancel away
force on the body B by A.
in pairs. This is an important fact that
2. The terms action and reaction in the third law enables the second law to be applicable to a
may give a wrong impression that action body or a system of particles (See Chapter 7).

Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727)

Isaac Newton was born in Woolsthorpe, England in 1642, the year Galileo died.
His extraordinary mathematical ability and mechanical aptitude remained hidden
from others in his school life. In 1662, he went to Cambridge for undergraduate
studies. A plague epidemic in 1665 forced the university town to close and Newton
had to return to his mother’s farm. There in two years of solitude, his dormant
creativity blossomed in a deluge of fundamental discoveries in mathematics and
physics : binomial theorem for negative and fractional exponents, the beginning of
calculus, the inverse square law of gravitation, the spectrum of white light, and so
on. Returning to Cambridge, he pursued his investigations in optics and devised a
reflecting telescope.
In 1684, encouraged by his friend Edmund Halley, Newton embarked on writing what was to be one of
the greatest scientific works ever published : The Principia Mathematica. In it, he enunciated the three
laws of motion and the universal law of gravitation, which explained all the three Kepler’s laws of
planetary motion. The book was packed with a host of path-breaking achievements : basic principles of
fluid mechanics, mathematics of wave motion, calculation of masses of the earth, the sun and other
planets, explanation of the precession of equinoxes, theory of tides, etc. In 1704, Newton brought out
another masterpiece Opticks that summarized his work on light and colour.
The scientific revolution triggered by Copernicus and steered vigorously ahead by Kepler and Galileo
was brought to a grand completion by Newton. Newtonian mechanics unified terrestrial and celestial
phenomena. The same mathematical equation governed the fall of an apple to the ground and the
motion of the moon around the earth. The age of reason had dawned.
98 PHYSICS

magnitude of force cannot be ascertained since

Example 5.5 Two identical billiard balls
the small time taken for the collision has not
strike a rigid wall with the same speed but
been specified in the problem.
at different angles, and get reflected without
any change in speed, as shown in Fig. 5.6. Case (b)
What is (i) the direction of the force on the
wall due to each ball? (ii) the ratio of the ( px ) initial ( )
= m u cos 30o , py initial = − m u sin 30o

magnitudes of impulses imparted to the

balls by the wall ? ( px ) final = – m u cos 30o , py ( ) final = − m u sin 30o

Note, while px changes sign after collision, py

does not. Therefore,
x-component of impulse = –2 m u cos 30°
y-component of impulse = 0
The direction of impulse (and force) is the same
as in (a) and is normal to the wall along the
negative x direction. As before, using Newton’s
third law, the force on the wall due to the ball is
normal to the wall along the positive x direction.
The ratio of the magnitudes of the impulses
Fig. 5.6
imparted to the balls in (a) and (b) is
Answer An instinctive answer to (i) might be
that the force on the wall in case (a) is normal to (
2 m u/ 2 m u cos 30o = ) 2
3
≈ 1.2
the wall, while that in case (b) is inclined at 30°
to the normal. This answer is wrong. The force 5.7 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
on the wall is normal to the wall in both cases.
The second and the third laws of motion lead to
How to find the force on the wall? The trick is
an important consequence: the law of
to consider the force (or impulse) on the ball
conservation of momentum. Take a familiar
due to the wall using the second law, and then
example. A bullet is fired from a gun. If the force
use the third law to answer (i). Let u be the speed
on the bullet by the gun is F, the force on the gun
of each ball before and after collision with the
by the bullet is – F, according to the third law.
wall, and m the mass of each ball. Choose the x
The two forces act for a common interval of time
and y axes as shown in the figure, and consider
Δt. According to the second law, F Δt is the
the change in momentum of the ball in each
change in momentum of the bullet and – F Δt is
case :
the change in momentum of the gun. Since
Case (a) initially, both are at rest, the change in
( px ) initial = mu (p )
y initial =0
momentum equals the final momentum for each.
Thus if pb is the momentum of the bullet after

(p )
firing and pg is the recoil momentum of the gun,
( px ) final
= −mu y final =0 pg = – pb i.e. pb + pg = 0. That is, the total
momentum of the (bullet + gun) system is
Impulse is the change in momentum vector. conserved.
Therefore, Thus in an isolated system (i.e. a system with
x-component of impulse = – 2 m u no external force), mutual forces between pairs
y-component of impulse = 0 of particles in the system can cause momentum
Impulse and force are in the same direction. change in individual particles, but since the
Clearly, from above, the force on the ball due to mutual forces for each pair are equal and
the wall is normal to the wall, along the negative opposite, the momentum changes cancel in pairs
x-direction. Using Newton’s third law of motion, and the total momentum remains unchanged.
the force on the wall due to the ball is normal to This fact is known as the law of conservation
the wall along the positive x-direction. The of momentum :
LAWS OF MOTION 99

The total momentum of an isolated system

of interacting particles is conserved.
An important example of the application of the
law of conservation of momentum is the collision
of two bodies. Consider two bodies A and B, with
initial momenta pA and pB. The bodies collide,
get apart, with final momenta p′ A and p′ B
respectively. By the Second Law Fig. 5.7 Equilibrium under concurrent forces.

FAB Δt = p′A − p A and In other words, the resultant of any two forces
say F1 and F2, obtained by the parallelogram
FBA Δt = p′B − p B law of forces must be equal and opposite to the
(where we have taken a common interval of time third force, F3. As seen in Fig. 5.7, the three
forces in equilibrium can be represented by the
for both forces i.e. the time for which the two
sides of a triangle with the vector arrows taken
bodies are in contact.)
in the same sense. The result can be
Since FAB = − FBA by the third law, generalised to any number of forces. A particle
is in equilibrium under the action of forces F1,
p′A − p A = −( p′B − p B ) F2,... Fn if they can be represented by the sides
of a closed n-sided polygon with arrows directed
i.e. p′A + p′B = p A + p B (5.9) in the same sense.
which shows that the total final momentum of Equation (5.11) implies that
the isolated system equals its initial momentum. F1x + F2x + F3x = 0
Notice that this is true whether the collision is
F1y + F2y + F3y = 0
elastic or inelastic. In elastic collisions, there is
a second condition that the total initial kinetic F1z + F2z + F3z = 0 (5.12)
energy of the system equals the total final kinetic where F1x, F1y and F1z are the components of F1
energy (See Chapter 6). along x, y and z directions respectively.
Example 5.6 See Fig. 5.8 A mass of 6 kg
5.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE is suspended by a rope of length 2 m
from the ceiling. A force of 50 N in the
Equilibrium of a particle in mechanics refers to horizontal direction is applied at the mid-
the situation when the net external force on the point P of the rope, as shown. What is the
particle is zero.* According to the first law, this angle the rope makes with the vertical in
means that, the particle is either at rest or in equilibrium ? (Take g = 10 m s-2). Neglect
uniform motion. the mass of the rope.
If two forces F1 and F2, act on a particle,
equilibrium requires
F1 = −F2 (5.10)
i.e. the two forces on the particle must be equal
and opposite. Equilibrium under three
concurrent forces F1, F2 and F3 requires that
the vector sum of the three forces is zero.
(a) (b) (c)
F1 + F2 + F3 = 0 (5.11) Fig. 5.8

* Equilibrium of a body requires not only translational equilibrium (zero net external force) but also rotational
equilibrium (zero net external torque), as we shall see in Chapter 7.
100 PHYSICS

Answer Figures 5.8(b) and 5.8(c) are known as other types of supports), there are mutual
free-body diagrams. Figure 5.8(b) is the free-body contact forces (for each pair of bodies) satisfying
diagram of W and Fig. 5.8(c) is the free-body the third law. The component of contact force
diagram of point P. normal to the surfaces in contact is called
Consider the equilibrium of the weight W. normal reaction. The component parallel to the
Clearly,T2 = 6 × 10 = 60 N. surfaces in contact is called friction. Contact
Consider the equilibrium of the point P under forces arise also when solids are in contact with
the action of three forces - the tensions T1 and fluids. For example, for a solid immersed in a
T2, and the horizontal force 50 N. The horizontal fluid, there is an upward bouyant force equal to
and vertical components of the resultant force the weight of the fluid displaced. The viscous
must vanish separately : force, air resistance, etc are also examples of
contact forces (Fig. 5.9).
T1 cos θ = T2 = 60 N
Two other common forces are tension in a
T1 sin θ = 50 N string and the force due to spring. When a spring
which gives that is compressed or extended by an external force,
5 ⎛ 5⎞ a restoring force is generated. This force is
tanθ = or θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 40o usually proportional to the compression or
6 ⎝ 6⎠
elongation (for small displacements). The spring
Note the answer does not depend on the length force F is written as F = – k x where x is the
of the rope (assumed massless) nor on the point displacement and k is the force constant. The
at which the horizontal force is applied. negative sign denotes that the force is opposite
5.9 COMMON FORCES IN MECHANICS to the displacement from the unstretched state.
For an inextensible string, the force constant is
In mechanics, we encounter several kinds of
very high. The restoring force in a string is called
forces. The gravitational force is, of course, all
tension. It is customary to use a constant tension
pervasive. Every object on the earth experiences
the force of gravity due to the earth. Gravity also T throughout the string. This assumption is true
governs the motion of celestial bodies. The for a string of negligible mass.
gravitational force can act at a distance without In Chapter 1, we learnt that there are four
the need of any intervening medium. fundamental forces in nature. Of these, the weak
All the other forces common in mechanics are and strong forces appear in domains that do not
contact forces.* As the name suggests, a contact concern us here. Only the gravitational and
force on an object arises due to contact with some electrical forces are relevant in the context of
other object: solid or fluid. When bodies are in mechanics. The different contact forces of
contact (e.g. a book resting on a table, a system mechanics mentioned above fundamentally arise
of rigid bodies connected by rods, hinges and from electrical forces. This may seem surprising

Fig. 5.9 Some examples of contact forces in mechanics.

* We are not considering, for simplicity, charged and magnetic bodies. For these, besides gravity, there are
electrical and magnetic non-contact forces.
LAWS OF MOTION 101

since we are talking of uncharged and non- exist by itself. When there is no applied force,
magnetic bodies in mechanics. At the microscopic there is no static friction. It comes into play the
level, all bodies are made of charged constituents moment there is an applied force. As the applied
(nuclei and electrons) and the various contact force F increases, fs also increases, remaining
forces arising due to elasticity of bodies, molecular equal and opposite to the applied force (up to a
collisions and impacts, etc. can ultimately be certain limit), keeping the body at rest. Hence, it
traced to the electrical forces between the charged is called static friction. Static friction opposes
constituents of different bodies. The detailed impending motion. The term impending motion
means motion that would take place (but does
microscopic origin of these forces is, however,
not actually take place) under the applied force,
complex and not useful for handling problems in
if friction were absent.
mechanics at the macroscopic scale. This is why We know from experience that as the applied
they are treated as different types of forces with force exceeds a certain limit, the body begins to
their characteristic properties determined move. It is found experimentally that the limiting
empirically.
value of static friction f s ( ) max
is independent of
5.9.1 Friction the area of contact and varies with the normal
Let us return to the example of a body of mass m force(N) approximately as :
at rest on a horizontal table. The force of gravity (f )
s max
= μs N (5.13)
(mg) is cancelled by the normal reaction force
where μs is a constant of proportionality
(N) of the table. Now suppose a force F is applied
depending only on the nature of the surfaces in
horizontally to the body. We know from
contact. The constant μs is called the coefficient
experience that a small applied force may not of static friction. The law of static friction may
be enough to move the body. But if the applied thus be written as
force F were the only external force on the body, fs ≤ μs N (5.14)
it must move with acceleration F/m, however
small. Clearly, the body remains at rest because ( )
If the applied force F exceeds f s max the body
some other force comes into play in the begins to slide on the surface. It is found
horizontal direction and opposes the applied experimentally that when relative motion has
force F, resulting in zero net force on the body. started, the frictional force decreases from the
This force fs parallel to the surface of the body in
contact with the table is known as frictional
( )
static maximum value f s max . Frictional force
force, or simply friction (Fig. 5.10(a)). The that opposes relative motion between surfaces
subscript stands for static friction to distinguish in contact is called kinetic or sliding friction and
it from kinetic friction fk that we consider later is denoted by fk . Kinetic friction, like static
friction, is found to be independent of the area
(Fig. 5.10(b)). Note that static friction does not
of contact. Further, it is nearly independent of
the velocity. It satisfies a law similar to that for
static friction:
f k = μk N (5.15)
where μk′ the coefficient of kinetic friction,
depends only on the surfaces in contact. As
mentioned above, experiments show that μk is
Fig. 5.10 Static and sliding friction: (a) Impending less than μs . When relative motion has begun,
motion of the body is opposed by static the acceleration of the body according to the
friction. When external force exceeds the Second Law is ( F – fk )/m. For a body moving
maximum limit of static friction, the body with constant velocity, F = fk. If the applied force
begins to move. (b) Once the body is in on the body is removed, its acceleration is – fk /
motion, it is subject to sliding or kinetic friction m and it eventually comes to a stop.
which opposes relative motion between the The laws of friction given above do not have
two surfaces in contact. Kinetic friction is the status of fundamental laws like those for
usually less than the maximum value of static gravitational, electric and magnetic forces. They
friction. are empirical relations that are only
102 PHYSICS

approximately true. Yet they are very useful in Answer The forces acting on a block of mass m
practical calculations in mechanics. at rest on an inclined plane are (i) the weight
Thus, when two bodies are in contact, each mg acting vertically downwards (ii) the normal
experiences a contact force by the other. Friction, force N of the plane on the block, and (iii) the
by definition, is the component of the contact force static frictional force fs opposing the impending
parallel to the surfaces in contact, which opposes motion. In equilibrium, the resultant of these
impending or actual relative motion between the forces must be zero. Resolving the weight mg
two surfaces. Note that it is not motion, but along the two directions shown, we have
relative motion that the frictional force opposes. m g sin θ = fs , m g cos θ = N
Consider a box lying in the compartment of a train
As θ increases, the self-adjusting frictional force
that is accelerating. If the box is stationary
relative to the train, it is in fact accelerating along fs increases until at θ = θ max, fs achieves its
with the train. What forces cause the acceleration
of the box? Clearly, the only conceivable force in
maximum value, f s ( ) max
= μs N.
the horizontal direction is the force of friction. If Therefore,
there were no friction, the floor of the train would
slip by and the box would remain at its initial tan θmax = μs or θ max = tan–1 μs
position due to inertia (and hit the back side of When θ becomes just a little more than θ max ,
the train). This impending relative motion is there is a small net force on the block and it
opposed by the static friction fs. Static friction begins to slide. Note that θ max depends only on
provides the same acceleration to the box as that μs and is independent of the mass of the block.
of the train, keeping it stationary relative to the
train. For θmax = 15°,
μs = tan 15°
Example 5.7 Determine the maximum = 0.27
acceleration of the train in which a box
lying on its floor will remain stationary, Example 5.9 What is the acceleration of
given that the co-efficient of static friction the block and trolley system shown in a
between the box and the train’s floor is Fig. 5.12(a), if the coefficient of kinetic friction
0.15. between the trolley and the surface is 0.04?
What is the tension in the string? (Take g =
Answer Since the acceleration of the box is due 10 m s-2). Neglect the mass of the string.
to the static friction,
ma = fs ≤μs N = μs m g
i.e. a ≤ μs g
∴amax = μs g = 0.15 x 10 m s–2
= 1.5 m s–2

Example 5.8 See Fig. 5.11. A mass of 4 kg

rests on a horizontal plane. The plane is
gradually inclined until at an angle θ = 15°
with the horizontal, the mass just begins to
slide. What is the coefficient of static friction
between the block and the surface ?
(a)

(b) (c)
Fig. 5.11 Fig. 5.12
LAWS OF MOTION 103

Answer As the string is inextensible, and the is the reason why discovery of the wheel has
pully is smooth, the 3 kg block and the 20 kg been a major milestone in human history.
trolley both have same magnitude of Rolling friction again has a complex origin,
acceleration. Applying second law to motion of though somewhat different from that of static
the block (Fig. 5.12(b)), and sliding friction. During rolling, the surfaces
30 – T = 3a in contact get momentarily deformed a little, and
Apply the second law to motion of the trolley (Fig. this results in a finite area (not a point) of the
5.12(c)), body being in contact with the surface. The net
effect is that the component of the contact force
T – fk = 20 a.
parallel to the surface opposes motion.
Now fk = μk N,
We often regard friction as something
Here μk = 0.04, undesirable. In many situations, like in a
N = 20 x 10 machine with different moving parts, friction
= 200 N. does have a negative role. It opposes relative
Thus the equation for the motion of the trolley is motion and thereby dissipates power in the form
T – 0.04 x 200 = 20 a Or T – 8 = 20a. of heat, etc. Lubricants are a way of reducing
22 kinetic friction in a machine. Another way is to
These equations give a = m s –2 = 0.96 m s-2 use ball bearings between two moving parts of a
23
and T = 27.1 N. machine. (Fig. 5.13(a)) Since the rolling friction
between ball bearings and the surfaces in
Rolling friction contact is very small, power dissipation is
A body like a ring or a sphere rolling without reduced. A thin cushion of air maintained
slipping over a horizontal plane will suffer no between solid surfaces in relative motion is
friction, in principle. At every instant, there is another effective way of reducing friction (Fig.
5.13(a)).
just one point of contact between the body and
In many practical situations, however, friction
the plane and this point has no motion relative
is critically needed. Kinetic friction that
to the plane. In this ideal situation, kinetic or dissipates power is nevertheless important for
static friction is zero and the body should quickly stopping relative motion. It is made use
continue to roll with constant velocity. We know, of by brakes in machines and automobiles.
in practice, this will not happen and some Similarly, static friction is important in daily
resistance to motion (rolling friction) does occur, life. We are able to walk because of friction. It
i.e. to keep the body rolling, some applied force is impossible for a car to move on a very slippery
is needed. For the same weight, rolling friction road. On an ordinary road, the friction between
is much smaller (even by 2 or 3 orders of the tyres and the road provides the necessary
magnitude) than static or sliding friction. This external force to accelerate the car.

Fig. 5.13 Some ways of reducing friction. (a) Ball bearings placed between moving parts of a machine.
(b) Compressed cushion of air between surfaces in relative motion.
104 PHYSICS

5.10 CIRCULAR MOTION is the static friction that provides the centripetal
acceleration. Static friction opposes the
We have seen in Chapter 4 that acceleration of
impending motion of the car moving away from
a body moving in a circle of radius R with uniform
the circle. Using equation (5.14) & (5.16) we get
speed v is v2/R directed towards the centre.
the result
According to the second law, the force f providing
this acceleration is : mv 2
f ≤ μs N =
mv
2 R
f = (5.16)
R μs RN
v2 ≤ = μs Rg [Q N = mg]
m
where m is the mass of the body. This force
directed forwards the centre is called the which is independent of the mass of the car.
centripetal force. For a stone rotated in a circle This shows that for a given value of μs and R,
by a string, the centripetal force is provided by there is a maximum speed of circular motion of
the tension in the string. The centripetal force the car possible, namely
for motion of a planet around the sun is the v max = μs Rg (5.18)

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.14 Circular motion of a car on (a) a level road, (b) a banked road.

gravitational force on the planet due to the sun. Motion of a car on a banked road
For a car taking a circular turn on a horizontal
We can reduce the contribution of friction to the
road, the centripetal force is the force of friction.
circular motion of the car if the road is banked
The circular motion of a car on a flat and
(Fig. 5.14(b)). Since there is no acceleration along
banked road give interesting application of the
the vertical direction, the net force along this
laws of motion.
direction must be zero. Hence,
Motion of a car on a level road
N cos θ = mg + f sin θ (5.19a)
Three forces act on the car. (Fig. 5.14(a)
(i) The weight of the car, mg The centripetal force is provided by the horizontal
(ii) Normal reaction, N components of N and f.
(iii) Frictional force, f mv 2
As there is no acceleration in the vertical N sin θ + f cos θ = (5.20a)
R
direction
N–mg = 0 But f ≤ μs N
N = mg (5.17)
Thus to obtain v we put
The centripetal force required for circular motion max
is along the surface of the road, and is provided f = μs N .
by the component of the contact force between Then Eqs. (5.19) & (5.20) become
road and the car tyres along the surface. This
by definition is the frictional force. Note that it N cos θ = mg + μs N sin θ (5.19b)
LAWS OF MOTION 105

N sin θ + μs N cos θ = mv2/R (5.20b) Example 5.11 A circular racetrack of

We obtain radius 300 m is banked at an angle of 15°.
mg If the coefficient of friction between the
N= wheels of a race-car and the road is 0.2,
cosθ – μs sinθ
what is the (a) optimum speed of the race-
Substituting value of N in Eq. (5.20b), we get car to avoid wear and tear on its tyres, and
mg (sinθ – μs cosθ ) mv max
2 (b) maximum permissible speed to avoid
= slipping ?
cosθ – μs sinθ R
1 Answer On a banked road, the horizontal
⎛ μ + tanθ ⎞ 2 component of the normal force and the frictional
or v max = ⎜ Rg s ⎟ (5.21) force contribute to provide centripetal force to
⎝ 1 – μs tanθ ⎠
keep the car moving on a circular turn without
Comparing this with Eq. (5.18) we see that slipping. At the optimum speed, the normal
maximum possible speed of a car on a banked reaction’s component is enough to provide the
road is greater than that on a flat road. needed centripetal force, and the frictional force
is not needed. The optimum speed vo is given by
For μs = 0 in Eq. (5.21 ), Eq. (5.22):
vo = ( R g tan θ ) ½ (5.22) vO = (R g tan θ )1/2
At this speed, frictional force is not needed at all Here R = 300 m, θ = 15°, g = 9.8 m s-2; we
to provide the necessary centripetal force. have
Driving at this speed on a banked road will cause vO = 28.1 m s-1.
little wear and tear of the tyres. The same The maximum permissible speed vmax is given by
equation also tells you that for v < vo, frictional Eq. (5.21):
force will be up the slope and that a car can be 1/2
parked only if tan θ ≤ μs. ⎛ μ + tan θ ⎞
vmax = ⎜ Rg s = 38.1 m s −1
Example 5.10 A cyclist speeding at 18 ⎝ 1 − μs tan θ ⎟⎠
km/h on a level road takes a sharp circular
turn of radius 3 m without reducing the
speed. The co-efficient of static friction 5.11 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN MECHANICS
between the tyres and the road is 0.1. Will The three laws of motion that you have learnt in
the cyclist slip while taking the turn ? this chapter are the foundation of mechanics.
You should now be able to handle a large variety
Answer On an unbanked road, frictional force of problems in mechanics. A typical problem in
alone can provide the centripetal force needed mechanics usually does not merely involve a
to keep the cyclist moving on a circular turn single body under the action of given forces.
without slipping. If the speed is too large, or if More often, we will need to consider an assembly
the turn is too sharp (i.e. of too small a radius) of different bodies exerting forces on each other.
or both, the frictional force is not sufficient to Besides, each body in the assembly experiences
provide the necessary centripetal force, and the the force of gravity. When trying to solve a
cyclist slips. The condition for the cyclist not to problem of this type, it is useful to remember
slip is given by Eq. (5.18) : the fact that we can choose any part of the
v2 ≤ μs R g assembly and apply the laws of motion to that
part provided we include all forces on the chosen
Now, R = 3 m, g = 9.8 m s-2, μs = 0.1. That is, part due to the remaining parts of the assembly.
μs R g = 2.94 m2 s-2. v = 18 km/h = 5 m s-1; i.e., We may call the chosen part of the assembly as
v2 = 25 m2 s-2. The condition is not obeyed. the system and the remaining part of the
The cyclist will slip while taking the circular assembly (plus any other agencies of forces) as
turn. the environment. We have followed the same
106 PHYSICS

method in solved examples. To handle a typical the net force on the block must be zero i.e.,
problem in mechanics systematically, one R = 20 N. Using third law the action of the
should use the following steps : block (i.e. the force exerted on the floor by
(i) Draw a diagram showing schematically the the block) is equal to 20 N and directed
various parts of the assembly of bodies, the vertically downwards.
links, supports, etc. (b) The system (block + cylinder) accelerates
(ii) Choose a convenient part of the assembly downwards with 0.1 m s-2. The free-body
as one system. diagram of the system shows two forces on
(iii) Draw a separate diagram which shows this the system : the force of gravity due to the
system and all the forces on the system by earth (270 N); and the normal force R ′ by the
the remaining part of the assembly. Include floor. Note, the free-body diagram of the
also the forces on the system by other system does not show the internal forces
agencies. Do not include the forces on the between the block and the cylinder. Applying
environment by the system. A diagram of the second law to the system,
this type is known as ‘a free-body diagram’.
270 – R′ = 27 × 0.1N
(Note this does not imply that the system
ie. R′ = 267.3 N
under consideration is without a net force).
(iv) In a free-body diagram, include information
about forces (their magnitudes and
directions) that are either given or you are
sure of (e.g., the direction of tension in a
string along its length). The rest should be
treated as unknowns to be determined using
laws of motion.
(v) If necessary, follow the same procedure for
another choice of the system. In doing so,
employ Newton’s third law. That is, if in the
free-body diagram of A, the force on A due to
B is shown as F, then in the free-body
diagram of B, the force on B due to A should
be shown as –F.
The following example illustrates the above
procedure :

Example 5.12 See (Fig. 5.15) A wooden Fig. 5.15

block of mass 2 kg rests on a soft horizontal
floor. When an iron cylinder of mass 25 kg By the third law, the action of the system on
is placed on top of the block, the floor yields the floor is equal to 267.3 N vertically downward.
steadily and the block and the cylinder Action-reaction pairs
together go down with an acceleration of
For (a): (i) the force of gravity (20 N) on the block
0.1 m s–2. What is the action of the block
by the earth (say, action); the force of
on the floor (a) before and (b) after the floor
gravity on the earth by the block
yields ? Take g = 10 m s–2. Identify the
(reaction) equal to 20 N directed
action-reaction pairs in the problem.
upwards (not shown in the figure).
(ii) the force on the floor by the block
Answer (action); the force on the block by the
(a) The block is at rest on the floor. Its free-body floor (reaction).
diagram shows two forces on the block, the For (b): (i) the force of gravity (270 N) on the
force of gravitational attraction by the earth system by the earth (say, action); the
equal to 2 × 10 = 20 N; and the normal force force of gravity on the earth by the
R of the floor on the block. By the First Law, system (reaction), equal to 270 N,
LAWS OF MOTION 107

directed upwards (not shown in the gravity on the mass in (a) or (b) and the normal
figure). force on the mass by the floor are not action-
(ii) the force on the floor by the system reaction pairs. These forces happen to be equal
(action); the force on the system by the and opposite for (a) since the mass is at rest.
floor (reaction). In addition, for (b), the They are not so for case (b), as seen already.
force on the block by the cylinder and The weight of the system is 270 N, while the
the force on the cylinder by the block normal force R′ is 267.3 N.
also constitute an action-reaction pair. The practice of drawing free-body diagrams is
The important thing to remember is that an of great help in solving problems in mechanics.
action-reaction pair consists of mutual forces It allows you to clearly define your system and
which are always equal and opposite between consider all forces on the system due to objects
two bodies. Two forces on the same body which that are not part of the system itself. A number
happen to be equal and opposite can never of exercises in this and subsequent chapters will
constitute an action-reaction pair. The force of help you cultivate this practice.

SUMMARY

1. Aristotle’s view that a force is necessary to keep a body in uniform motion is wrong. A
force is necessary in practice to counter the opposing force of friction.
2. Galileo extrapolated simple observations on motion of bodies on inclined planes, and
arrived at the law of inertia. Newton’s first law of motion is the same law rephrased
thus: “Everybody continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line,
unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise”. In simple terms, the First Law
is “If external force on a body is zero, its acceleration is zero”.
3. Momentum (p ) of a body is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v) :
p = mv
4. Newton’s second law of motion :
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts. Thus
dp
F=k =km a
dt
where F is the net external force on the body and a its acceleration. We set the constant
of proportionality k = 1 in S.I. Then
dp
F= = ma
dt
The SI unit of force is newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s-2.
(a) The second law is consistent with the First Law (F = 0 implies a = 0)
(b) It is a vector equation
(c) It is applicable to a particle, and also to a body or a system of particles, provided F
is the total external force on the system and a is the acceleration of the system as
a whole.
(d) F at a point at a certain instant determines a at the same point at that instant.
That is the Second Law is a local law; a at an instant does not depend on the
history of motion.
5. Impulse is the product of force and time which equals change in momentum.
The notion of impulse is useful when a large force acts for a short time to produce a
measurable change in momentum. Since the time of action of the force is very short,
one can assume that there is no appreciable change in the position of the body during
the action of the impulsive force.
6. Newton’s third law of motion:
To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction
108 PHYSICS

In simple terms, the law can be stated thus :

Forces in nature always occur between pairs of bodies. Force on a body A by body
B is equal and opposite to the force on the body B by A.
Action and reaction forces are simultaneous forces. There is no cause-effect
relation between action and reaction. Any of the two mutual forces can be
called action and the other reaction. Action and reaction act on different
bodies and so they cannot be cancelled out. The internal action and reaction
forces between different parts of a body do, however, sum to zero.
7. Law of Conservation of Momentum
The total momentum of an isolated system of particles is conserved. The law
follows from the second and third law of motion.
8. Friction
Frictional force opposes (impending or actual) relative motion between two
surfaces in contact. It is the component of the contact force along the common
tangent to the surface in contact. Static friction fs opposes impending relative
motion; kinetic friction fk opposes actual relative motion. They are independent
of the area of contact and satisfy the following approximate laws :

( )
fs ≤ fs
max
= μs R

f =μ R
k k
μs (co-efficient of static friction) and μk (co-efficient of kinetic friction) are
constants characteristic of the pair of surfaces in contact. It is found
experimentally that μk is less than μs .

POINTS TO PONDER
1. Force is not always in the direction of motion. Depending on the situation, F
may be along v, opposite to v, normal to v or may make some other angle with
v. In every case, it is parallel to acceleration.
2. If v = 0 at an instant, i.e. if a body is momentarily at rest, it does not mean that
force or acceleration are necessarily zero at that instant. For example, when a
ball thrown upward reaches its maximum height, v = 0 but the force continues
to be its weight mg and the acceleration is not zero but g.
3. Force on a body at a given time is determined by the situation at the location of
the body at that time. Force is not ‘carried’ by the body from its earlier history
of motion. The moment after a stone is released out of an accelerated train,
there is no horizontal force (or acceleration) on the stone, if the effects of the
surrounding air are neglected. The stone then has only the vertical force of
gravity.
4. In the second law of motion F = m a, F stands for the net force due to all
material agencies external to the body. a is the effect of the force. ma should
LAWS OF MOTION 109

not be regarded as yet another force, besides F.

5. The centripetal force should not be regarded as yet another kind of force. It is
simply a name given to the force that provides inward radial acceleration to a
body in circular motion. We should always look for some material force like
tension, gravitational force, electrical force, friction, etc as the centripetal force
in any circular motion.
6. Static friction is a self-adjusting force up to its limit μs N (fs ≤μs N). Do not put
fs= μs N without being sure that the maximum value of static friction is coming
into play.
7. The familiar equation mg = R for a body on a table is true only if the body is in
equilibrium. The two forces mg and R can be different (e.g. a body in an
accelerated lift). The equality of mg and R has no connection with the third
law.
8. The terms ‘action’ and ‘reaction’ in the third Law of Motion simply stand for
simultaneous mutual forces between a pair of bodies. Unlike their meaning in
ordinary language, action does not precede or cause reaction. Action and reaction
act on different bodies.
9. The different terms like ‘friction’, ‘normal reaction’ ‘tension’, ‘air resistance’,
‘viscous drag’, ‘thrust’, ‘buoyancy’ ‘weight’ ‘centripetal force’ all stand for ‘force’
in different contexts. For clarity, every force and its equivalent terms
encountered in mechanics should be reduced to the phrase ‘force on A by B’.
10. For applying the second law of motion, there is no conceptual distinction between
inanimate and animate objects. An animate object such as a human also
requires an external force to accelerate. For example, without the external
force of friction, we cannot walk on the ground.
11. The objective concept of force in physics should not be confused with the
subjective concept of the ‘feeling of force’. On a merry-go-around, all parts of
our body are subject to an inward force, but we have a feeling of being pushed
outward – the direction of impending motion.

EXERCISES

(For simplicity in numerical calculations, take g = 10 m s-2)

5.1 Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on
(a) a drop of rain falling down with a constant speed,
(b) a cork of mass 10 g floating on water,
(c) a kite skillfully held stationary in the sky,
(d) a car moving with a constant velocity of 30 km/h on a rough road,
(e) a high-speed electron in space far from all material objects, and free of
electric and magnetic fields.
5.2 A pebble of mass 0.05 kg is thrown vertically upwards. Give the direction
and magnitude of the net force on the pebble,
(a) during its upward motion,
(b) during its downward motion,
(c) at the highest point where it is momentarily at rest. Do your answers
change if the pebble was thrown at an angle of 45° with the horizontal
direction?
Ignore air resistance.
5.3 Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on a stone of mass
0.1 kg,
(a) just after it is dropped from the window of a stationary train,
(b) just after it is dropped from the window of a train running at a constant
velocity of 36 km/h,
(c ) just after it is dropped from the window of a train accelerating with 1 m s-2,
(d) lying on the floor of a train which is accelerating with 1 m s-2, the stone
being at rest relative to the train.
110 PHYSICS

Neglect air resistance throughout.

5.4 One end of a string of length l is connected to a particle of mass m and the
other to a small peg on a smooth horizontal table. If the particle moves in a
circle with speed v the net force on the particle (directed towards the centre)
is :

mv2 mv2
(i) T, (ii) T − , (iii) T + , (iv) 0
l l
T is the tension in the string. [Choose the correct alternative].
5.5 A constant retarding force of 50 N is applied to a body of mass 20 kg moving
initially with a speed of 15 m s-1. How long does the body take to stop ?
5.6 A constant force acting on a body of mass 3.0 kg changes its speed from 2.0 m s-1
to 3.5 m s-1 in 25 s. The direction of the motion of the body remains
unchanged. What is the magnitude and direction of the force ?
5.7 A body of mass 5 kg is acted upon by two perpendicular forces 8 N and 6 N.
Give the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the body.
5.8 The driver of a three-wheeler moving with a speed of 36 km/h sees a child
standing in the middle of the road and brings his vehicle to rest in 4.0 s just
in time to save the child. What is the average retarding force on the vehicle ?
The mass of the three-wheeler is 400 kg and the mass of the driver is 65 kg.
5.9 A rocket with a lift-off mass 20,000 kg is blasted upwards with an initial
acceleration of 5.0 m s-2. Calculate the initial thrust (force) of the blast.
5.10 A body of mass 0.40 kg moving initially with a constant speed of 10 m s-1 to
the north is subject to a constant force of 8.0 N directed towards the south
for 30 s. Take the instant the force is applied to be t = 0, the position of the
body at that time to be x = 0, and predict its position at t = –5 s, 25 s, 100 s.
5.11 A truck starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 2.0 m s-2. At t = 10 s, a
stone is dropped by a person standing on the top of the truck (6 m high from
the ground). What are the (a) velocity, and (b) acceleration of the stone at t =
11s ? (Neglect air resistance.)
5.12 A bob of mass 0.1 kg hung from the ceiling of a room by a string 2 m long is
set into oscillation. The speed of the bob at its mean position is 1 m s-1.
What is the trajectory of the bob if the string is cut when the bob is (a) at one
of its extreme positions, (b) at its mean position.
5.13 A man of mass 70 kg stands on a weighing scale in a lift which is moving
(a) upwards with a uniform speed of 10 m s-1,
(b) downwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m s-2,
(c) upwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m s-2.
What would be the readings on the scale in each case?
(d) What would be the reading if the lift mechanism failed and it hurtled
down freely under gravity ?
5.14 Figure 5.16 shows the position-time graph of a particle of mass 4 kg. What is
the (a) force on the particle for t < 0, t > 4 s, 0 < t < 4 s? (b) impulse at t = 0 and
t = 4 s ? (Consider one-dimensional motion only).

Fig. 5.16
5.15 Two bodies of masses 10 kg and 20 kg respectively kept on a smooth, horizontal
surface are tied to the ends of a light string. a horizontal force F = 600 N is
applied to (i) A, (ii) B along the direction of string. What is the tension in the
LAWS OF MOTION 111

string in each case?

5.16 Two masses 8 kg and 12 kg are connected at the two ends of a light inextensible
string that goes over a frictionless pulley. Find the acceleration of the masses, and
the tension in the string when the masses are released.
5.17 A nucleus is at rest in the laboratory frame of reference. Show that if it disintegrates
into two smaller nuclei the products must move in opposite directions.
5.18 Two billiard balls each of mass 0.05 kg moving in opposite directions with speed 6 m s-1
collide and rebound with the same speed. What is the impulse imparted to each ball due
to the other ?
5.19 A shell of mass 0.020 kg is fired by a gun of mass 100 kg. If the muzzle speed of the
shell is 80 m s-1, what is the recoil speed of the gun ?
5.20 A batsman deflects a ball by an angle of 45° without changing its initial speed which is
equal to 54 km/h. What is the impulse imparted to the ball ? (Mass of the ball is 0.15 kg.)
5.21 A stone of mass 0.25 kg tied to the end of a string is whirled round in a circle of radius
1.5 m with a speed of 40 rev./min in a horizontal plane. What is the tension in the
string ? What is the maximum speed with which the stone can be whirled around if
the string can withstand a maximum tension of 200 N ?
5.22 If, in Exercise 5.21, the speed of the stone is increased beyond the maximum permissible
value, and the string breaks suddenly, which of the following correctly describes the
trajectory of the stone after the string breaks :
(a) the stone moves radially outwards,
(b) the stone flies off tangentially from the instant the string breaks,
(c) the stone flies off at an angle with the tangent whose magnitude depends on the
speed of the particle ?
5.23 Explain why
(a) a horse cannot pull a cart and run in empty space,
(b) passengers are thrown forward from their seats when a speeding bus stops
suddenly,
(c) it is easier to pull a lawn mower than to push it,
(d) a cricketer moves his hands backwards while holding a catch.
Additional Exercises
5.24 Figure 5.17 shows the position-time graph of a body of mass 0.04 kg. Suggest a
suitable physical context for this motion. What is the time between two consecutive
impulses received by the body ? What is the magnitude of each impulse ?

Fig. 5.17
5.25 Figure 5.18 shows a man standing stationary with respect to a horizontal conveyor
belt that is accelerating with 1 m s-2. What is the net force on the man? If the
coefficient of static friction between the man’s shoes and the belt is 0.2, up to what
acceleration of the belt can the man continue to be stationary relative to the belt ?
(Mass of the man = 65 kg.)

Fig. 5.18
112 PHYSICS

5.26 A stone of mass m tied to the end of a string revolves in a vertical circle of radius R.
The net forces at the lowest and highest points of the circle directed vertically
downwards are : [Choose the correct alternative]

Lowest Point Highest Point

(a) mg – T1 mg + T2
(b) mg + T1 mg – T2
(c) mg + T1 – (m v 21 ) / R mg – T2 + (m v 21 ) / R
(d) mg – T1 – (m v 21 ) / R mg + T2 + (m v 21 ) / R

T1 and v1 denote the tension and speed at the lowest point. T2 and v2 denote
corresponding values at the highest point.
5.27 A helicopter of mass 1000 kg rises with a vertical acceleration of 15 m s-2. The crew
and the passengers weigh 300 kg. Give the magnitude and direction of the
(a) force on the floor by the crew and passengers,
(b) action of the rotor of the helicopter on the surrounding air,
(c) force on the helicopter due to the surrounding air.
5.28 A stream of water flowing horizontally with a speed of 15 m s-1 gushes out of a tube of
cross-sectional area 10-2 m2, and hits a vertical wall nearby. What is the force exerted
on the wall by the impact of water, assuming it does not rebound ?
5.29 Ten one-rupee coins are put on top of each other on a table. Each coin has a mass m.
Give the magnitude and direction of
(a) the force on the 7th coin (counted from the bottom) due to all the coins on its top,
(b) the force on the 7th coin by the eighth coin,
(c) the reaction of the 6th coin on the 7th coin.
5.30 An aircraft executes a horizontal loop at a speed of 720 km/h with its wings banked
at 15°. What is the radius of the loop ?
5.31 A train runs along an unbanked circular track of radius 30 m at a speed of 54 km/h.
The mass of the train is 106 kg. What provides the centripetal force required for this
purpose — The engine or the rails ? What is the angle of banking required to prevent
wearing out of the rail ?
5.32 A block of mass 25 kg is raised by a 50 kg man in two different ways as shown in
Fig. 5.19. What is the action on the floor by the man in the two cases ? If the floor
yields to a normal force of 700 N, which mode should the man adopt to lift the block
without the floor yielding ?

Fig. 5.19
LAWS OF MOTION 113

5.33 A monkey of mass 40 kg climbs on a rope (Fig. 5.20) which

can stand a maximum tension of 600 N. In which of the
following cases will the rope break: the monkey
(a) climbs up with an acceleration of 6 m s-2
(b) climbs down with an acceleration of 4 m s-2
(c) climbs up with a uniform speed of 5 m s-1
(d) falls down the rope nearly freely under gravity?
(Ignore the mass of the rope). Fig. 5.20

5.34 Two bodies A and B of masses 5 kg and 10 kg in contact with

each other rest on a table against a rigid wall (Fig. 5.21). The
coefficient of friction between the bodies and the table is
0.15. A force of 200 N is applied horizontally to A. What are
(a) the reaction of the partition (b) the action-reaction forces
between A and B ? What happens when the wall is removed?
Does the answer to (b) change, when the bodies are in motion?
Ignore the difference between μs and μk. Fig. 5.21

5.35 A block of mass 15 kg is placed on a long trolley. The coefficient of static friction
between the block and the trolley is 0.18. The trolley accelerates from rest with
0.5 m s-2 for 20 s and then moves with uniform velocity. Discuss the motion of the
block as viewed by (a) a stationary observer on the ground, (b) an observer moving with
the trolley.

5.36 The rear side of a truck is open and a box of 40 kg

mass is placed 5 m away from the open end as shown
in Fig. 5.22. The coefficient of friction between the
box and the surface below it is 0.15. On a straight
road, the truck starts from rest and accelerates with
2 m s-2. At what distance from the starting point
does the box fall off the truck? (Ignore the size of Fig. 5.22
the box).
1
5.37 A disc revolves with a speed of 33
3
rev/min, and has a radius of 15 cm. Two coins are
placed at 4 cm and 14 cm away from the centre of the record. If the co-efficient of friction
between the coins and the record is 0.15, which of the coins will revolve with the record ?
5.38 You may have seen in a circus a motorcyclist driving in vertical loops inside a ‘death-
well’ (a hollow spherical chamber with holes, so the spectators can watch from outside).
Explain clearly why the motorcyclist does not drop down when he is at the uppermost
point, with no support from below. What is the minimum speed required at the
uppermost position to perform a vertical loop if the radius of the chamber is 25 m ?
5.39 A 70 kg man stands in contact against the inner wall of a hollow cylindrical drum of
radius 3 m rotating about its vertical axis with 200 rev/min. The coefficient of
friction between the wall and his clothing is 0.15. What is the minimum rotational
speed of the cylinder to enable the man to remain stuck to the wall (without falling)
when the floor is suddenly removed ?
5.40 A thin circular loop of radius R rotates about its vertical diameter with an angular
frequency ω. Show that a small bead on the wire loop remains at its lowermost point
for ω ≤ g / R . What is the angle made by the radius vector joining the centre to
the bead with the vertical downward direction for ω = 2g / R ? Neglect friction.
CHAPTER SIX

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The terms ‘work’, ‘energy’ and ‘power’ are frequently used
in everyday language. A farmer ploughing the field, a
6.1 Introduction construction worker carrying bricks, a student studying for
a competitive examination, an artist painting a beautiful
6.2 Notions of work and kinetic
landscape, all are said to be working. In physics, however,
energy : The work-energy
theorem the word ‘Work’ covers a definite and precise meaning.
Somebody who has the capacity to work for 14-16 hours a
6.3 Work
day is said to have a large stamina or energy. We admire a
6.4 Kinetic energy
long distance runner for her stamina or energy. Energy is
6.5 Work done by a variable thus our capacity to do work. In Physics too, the term ‘energy’
force
is related to work in this sense, but as said above the term
6.6 The work-energy theorem for ‘work’ itself is defined much more precisely. The word ‘power’
a variable force is used in everyday life with different shades of meaning. In
6.7 The concept of potential karate or boxing we talk of ‘powerful’ punches. These are
energy delivered at a great speed. This shade of meaning is close to
6.8 The conservation of the meaning of the word ‘power’ used in physics. We shall
mechanical energy find that there is at best a loose correlation between the
6.9 The potential energy of a physical definitions and the physiological pictures these
spring terms generate in our minds. The aim of this chapter is to
6.10 Various forms of energy : the develop an understanding of these three physical quantities.
law of conservation of energy Before we proceed to this task, we need to develop a
6.11 Power mathematical prerequisite, namely the scalar product of two
6.12 Collisions vectors.
Summary 6.1.1 The Scalar Product
Points to ponder
We have learnt about vectors and their use in Chapter 4.
Exercises
Physical quantities like displacement, velocity, acceleration,
Additional exercises
force etc. are vectors. We have also learnt how vectors are
Appendix 6.1
added or subtracted. We now need to know how vectors are
multiplied. There are two ways of multiplying vectors which
we shall come across : one way known as the scalar product
gives a scalar from two vectors and the other known as the
vector product produces a new vector from two vectors. We
shall look at the vector product in Chapter 7. Here we take
up the scalar product of two vectors. The scalar product or
dot product of any two vectors A and B, denoted as A.B (read
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 115

A dot B) is defined as
A = A x i+ Ay 
j + A z k
A .B = A B cos θ (6.1a)
B = B x i+ By 
j + B z k
where θ is the angle between the two vectors as
shown in Fig. 6.1a. Since A, B and cos θ are their scalar product is
scalars, the dot product of A and B is a scalar
quantity. Each vector, A and B, has a direction (
A .B = A x ˆi + Ay ˆj + Az k )(
ˆ . B ˆi + B ˆj + B k
x y z
ˆ )
but their scalar product does not have a = A x B x + Ay B y + A z B z (6.1b)
direction.
From the definition of scalar product and, (Eq.
From Eq. (6.1a), we have 6.1b) we have :
(i) A . A = A x A x + Ay Ay + Az Az
A .B = A (B cos θ )
= B (A cos θ ) Or,
2 2
A = A x + Ay + A z
2 2
(6.1c)
Geometrically, B cos θ is the projection of B onto .
since A A = |A ||A| cos 0 = A . 2

A in Fig.6.1 (b) and A cos θ is the projection of A (ii) A .B = 0, if A and B are perpendicular.
onto B in Fig. 6.1 (c). So, A.B is the product of
the magnitude of A and the component of B along Example 6.1 Find the angle between force
A. Alternatively, it is the product of the F = (3 i + 4 j l unit and displacement
5 k)
magnitude of B and the component of A along B.
d = (5 i + 4 j + 3 k)
l unit. Also find the
Equation (6.1a) shows that the scalar product
follows the commutative law : projection of F on d.
A.B = B.A Answer F.d = Fx d x + Fy d y + Fz d z
Scalar product obeys the distributive = 3 (5) + 4 (4) + (– 3) (3)
law: = 16 unit
A . (B + C) = A .B + A .C Hence F.d = F d cos θ = 16 unit

Further, A. (λ B) = λ (A.B) Now F.F = F 2 = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

where λ is a real number. = 9 + 16 + 25
= 50 unit
The proofs of the above equations are left to
you as an exercise. and d.d = d 2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2

For unit vectors i, = 25 + 16 + 9
j, k we have
= 50 unit
i
⋅i = 
j ⋅ j = k⋅ k= 1 16 16
∴ cos θ = = = 0.32 ,
i
⋅j= 
j ⋅ k= k⋅ i= 0 50 50 50

Given two vectors θ = cos–1 0.32

Fig. 6.1 (a) The scalar product of two vectors A and B is a scalar : A. B = A B cos θ . (b) B cos θ is the projection
of B onto A. (c) A cos θ is the projection of A onto B.
116 PHYSICS

6.2 NOTIONS OF WORK AND KINETIC

ENERGY: THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM known to be proportional to the speed of
the drop but is otherwise undetermined.
The following relation for rectilinear motion under Consider a drop of mass1.00 g falling from
constant acceleration a has been encountered a height 1.00 km. It hits the ground with
in Chapter 3, a speed of 50.0 m s-1. (a) What is the work
v2 − u2 = 2 as done by the gravitational force ? What is
where u and v are the initial and final speeds the work done by the unknown resistive
and s the distance traversed. Multiplying both force?
sides by m/2, we have Answer (a) The change in kinetic energy of the
1 1 drop is
mv 2 − mu 2 = mas = Fs (6.2a)
2 2 1
ΔK = m v2 − 0
where the last step follows from Newton’s 2
Second Law. We can generalise Eq. (6.1) 1
to three dimensions by employing = × 10-3 × 50 × 50
2
vectors = 1.25 J
v2 −u2 = 2 a.d where we have assumed that the drop is initially
at rest.
Once again multiplying both sides by m/2 , we
Assuming that g is a constant with a value
obtain
10 m/s2, the work done by the gravitational force
1 1 is,
mv 2 − mu 2 = m a .d = F .d (6.2b)
2 2 Wg = mgh
The above equation provides a motivation for = 10-3 × 10 × 103
the definitions of work and kinetic energy. The = 10.0 J
left side of the equation is the difference in the (b) From the work-energy theorem
quantity ‘half the mass times the square of the
speed’ from its initial value to its final value. We ΔK = W g + Wr
call each of these quantities the ‘kinetic energy’, where Wr is the work done by the resistive force
denoted by K. The right side is a product of the on the raindrop. Thus
displacement and the component of the force Wr = ΔK − Wg
along the displacement. This quantity is called = 1.25 −10
‘work’ and is denoted by W. Eq. (6.2) is then = − 8.75 J
Kf − Ki = W (6.3) is negative.
where Ki and Kf are respectively the initial and 6.3 WORK
final kinetic energies of the object. Work refers As seen earlier, work is related to force and the
to the force and the displacement over which it displacement over which it acts. Consider a
acts. Work is done by a force on the body over constant force F acting on an object of mass m.
a certain displacement. The object undergoes a displacement d in the
Equation (6.2) is also a special case of the positive x-direction as shown in Fig. 6.2.
work-energy (WE) theorem : The change in
kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the
work done on it by the net force. We shall
generalise the above derivation to a varying force
in a later section.

Example 6.2 It is well known that a

raindrop falls under the influence of the
downward gravitational force and the Fig. 6.2 An object undergoes a displacement d
opposing resistive force. The latter is under the influence of the force F.
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 117

The work done by the force is defined to be Table 6.1 Alternative Units of Work/Energy in J
the product of component of the force in the
direction of the displacement and the
magnitude of this displacement. Thus
W = (F cos θ )d = F.d (6.4)
We see that if there is no displacement, there
is no work done even if the force is large. Thus,
when you push hard against a rigid brick wall,
the force you exert on the wall does no work. Yet Example 6.3 A cyclist comes to a skidding
your muscles are alternatively contracting and stop in 10 m. During this process, the force
relaxing and internal energy is being used up on the cycle due to the road is 200 N and
and you do get tired. Thus, the meaning of work is directly opposed to the motion. (a) How
in physics is different from its usage in everyday much work does the road do on the cycle ?
language. (b) How much work does the cycle do on
the road ?
No work is done if :
(i) the displacement is zero as seen in the
example above. A weightlifter holding a 150 Answer Work done on the cycle by the road is
kg mass steadily on his shoulder for 30 s the work done by the stopping (frictional) force
does no work on the load during this time. on the cycle due to the road.
(ii) the force is zero. A block moving on a smooth (a) The stopping force and the displacement make
horizontal table is not acted upon by a an angle of 180o (π rad) with each other.
horizontal force (since there is no friction), but Thus, work done by the road,
may undergo a large displacement. Wr = Fd cosθ
(iii) the force and displacement are mutually
= 200 × 10 × cos π
perpendicular. This is so since, for θ = π/2 rad
(= 90o), cos (π /2) = 0. For the block moving on = – 2000 J
a smooth horizontal table, the gravitational It is this negative work that brings the cycle
force mg does no work since it acts at right to a halt in accordance with WE theorem.
angles to the displacement. If we assume that (b) From Newton’s Third Law an equal and
the moon’s orbits around the earth is opposite force acts on the road due to the
perfectly circular then the earth’s cycle. Its magnitude is 200 N. However, the
gravitational force does no work. The moon’s road undergoes no displacement. Thus,
instantaneous displacement is tangential work done by cycle on the road is zero.
while the earth’s force is radially inwards and The lesson of this example is that though
θ = π/2. the force on a body A exerted by the body B is
Work can be both positive and negative. If θ is always equal and opposite to that on B by A
between 0o and 90o, cos θ in Eq. (6.4) is positive. (Newton’s Third Law); the work done on A by B
If θ is between 90o and 180o, cos θ is negative. is not necessarily equal and opposite to the work
In many examples the frictional force opposes done on B by A.
displacement and θ = 180o. Then the work done
6.4 KINETIC ENERGY
by friction is negative (cos 180o = –1).
From Eq. (6.4) it is clear that work and energy As noted earlier, if an object of mass m has
have the same dimensions, [ML2T–2]. The SI unit velocity v, its kinetic energy K is
of these is joule (J), named after the famous British
1 1
physicist James Prescott Joule (1811-1869). Since K = m v. v = mv 2 (6.5)
work and energy are so widely used as physical 2 2
concepts, alternative units abound and some of Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. The kinetic
these are listed in Table 6.1. energy of an object is a measure of the work an
118 PHYSICS

Table 6.2 Typical kinetic energies (K)

object can do by the virtue of its motion. This This is illustrated in Fig. 6.3(a). Adding
notion has been intuitively known for a long time. successive rectangular areas in Fig. 6.3(a) we
The kinetic energy of a fast flowing stream get the total work done as
has been used to grind corn. Sailing xf
ships employ the kinetic energy of the wind. Table
6.2 lists the kinetic energies for various
W≅ ∑F (x )Δx
xi
(6.6)

objects. where the summation is from the initial position

xi to the final position xf.
Example 6.4 In a ballistics demonstration
a police officer fires a bullet of mass 50.0 g If the displacements are allowed to approach
with speed 200 m s-1 (see Table 6.2) on soft zero, then the number of terms in the sum
plywood of thickness 2.00 cm. The bullet increases without limit, but the sum approaches
emerges with only 10% of its initial kinetic a definite value equal to the area under the curve
energy. What is the emergent speed of the in Fig. 6.3(b). Then the work done is
bullet ? xf

Answer The initial kinetic energy of the bullet

W = lim
Δx → 0 ∑F (x )Δx
xi
is mv2/2 = 1000 J. It has a final kinetic energy
of 0.1× 1000 = 100 J. If vf is the emergent speed xf

of the bullet, = ∫ F ( x ) dx (6.7)

1 2
xi
mv f = 100 J where ‘lim’ stands for the limit of the sum when
2
Δx tends to zero. Thus, for a varying force
2 × 100 J the work done can be expressed as a definite
vf =
0.05 kg integral of force over displacement (see also
Appendix 3.1).
= 63.2 m s–1
The speed is reduced by approximately 68%
(not 90%).

6.5 WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE

A constant force is rare. It is the variable force,
which is more commonly encountered. Fig. 6.2
is a plot of a varying force in one dimension.
If the displacement Δx is small, we can take
the force F (x) as approximately constant and
the work done is then
ΔW =F (x) Δx Fig. 6.3(a)
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 119

The work done by the frictional force is

WF →area of the rectangle AGHI
Wf = (−50) × 20
= − 1000 J
The area on the negative side of the force axis
has a negative sign.
6.6 THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM FOR A
VARIABLE FORCE
Fig. 6.3 (a) The shaded rectangle represents the We are now familiar with the concepts of work
work done by the varying force F(x), over and kinetic energy to prove the work-energy
the small displacement Δx, ΔW = F(x)Δx. theorem for a variable force. We confine
(b) adding the areas of all the rectangles ourselves to one dimension. The time rate of
we find that for Δx → 0, the area under change of kinetic energy is
the curve is exactly equal to the work done
dK d ⎛1 2⎞
by F(x). = ⎜ m v ⎟⎠
dt dt ⎝ 2
Example 6.5 A woman pushes a trunk on
dv
a railway platform which has a rough =m v
surface. She applies a force of 100 N over dt
a distance of 10 m. Thereafter, she gets =F v (from Newton’s Second Law)
progressively tired and her applied force dx
reduces linearly with distance to 50 N. The =F
dt
total distance through which the trunk has
Thus
been moved is 20 m. Plot the force applied
dK = Fdx
by the woman and the frictional force,
Integrating from the initial position (x i ) to final
which is 50 N. Calculate the work done by
position ( x f ), we have
the two forces over 20 m.
Kf xf

Answer ∫ dK = ∫ Fdx
Ki xi

where, Ki and K f are the initial and final kinetic

energies corresponding to x i and x f.
xf

or K f − Ki = ∫ Fdx (6.8a)
xi
Fig. 6.4 Plot of the force F applied by the woman and
From Eq. (6.7), it follows that
the opposing frictional force f.
Kf − Ki = W (6.8b)
The plot of the applied force is shown in Fig.
6.4. At x = 20 m, F = 50 N (≠ 0). We are given Thus, the WE theorem is proved for a variable
that the frictional force f is |f|= 50 N. It opposes force.
motion and acts in a direction opposite to F. It While the WE theorem is useful in a variety of
is therefore, shown on the negative side of the problems, it does not, in general, incorporate the
force axis. complete dynamical information of Newton’s
The work done by the woman is Second Law. It is an integral form of Newton’s
WF →area of the rectangle ABCD + area of second law. Newton’s second law is a relation
the trapezium CEID between acceleration and force at any instant of
1 time. Work-energy theorem involves an integral
WF = 100 × 10 + (100 + 50) × 10 over an interval of time. In this sense, the temporal
2
= 1000 + 750 (time) information contained in the statement of
= 1750 J Newton’s second law is ‘integrated over’ and is
120 PHYSICS

not available explicitly. Another observation is that are like ‘compressed springs’. They possess a
Newton’s second law for two or three dimensions large amount of potential energy. An earthquake
is in vector form whereas the work-energy results when these fault lines readjust. Thus,
theorem is in scalar form. In the scalar form, potential energy is the ‘stored energy’ by virtue
information with respect to directions contained of the position or configuration of a body. The
in Newton’s second law is not present. body left to itself releases this stored energy in
the form of kinetic energy. Let us make our notion
Example 6.6 A block of mass m = 1 kg, of potential energy more concrete.
moving on a horizontal surface with speed The gravitational force on a ball of mass m is
vi = 2 ms–1 enters a rough patch ranging mg . g may be treated as a constant near the earth
from x = 0.10 m to x = 2.01 m. The retarding surface. By ‘near’ we imply that the height h of
force Fr on the block in this range is inversely the ball above the earth’s surface is very small
proportional to x over this range, compared to the earth’s radius RE (h <<RE) so that
−k we can ignore the variation of g near the earth’s
Fr = for 0.1 < x < 2.01 m surface*. In what follows we have taken the
x
= 0 for x < 0.1m and x > 2.01 m upward direction to be positive. Let us raise the
where k = 0.5 J. What is the final kinetic ball up to a height h. The work done by the external
energy and speed vf of the block as it agency against the gravitational force is mgh. This
crosses this patch ? work gets stored as potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy of an object, as a
function of the height h, is denoted by V(h) and it
Answer From Eq. (6.8a) is the negative of work done by the gravitational
2.01
( −k ) force in raising the object to that height.
K f = Ki + ∫ x
dx V (h) = mgh
0.1 If h is taken as a variable, it is easily seen that
the gravitational force F equals the negative of
1
= mvi2 − k ln ( x ) 2.01
0.1
the derivative of V(h) with respect to h. Thus,
2
d
F =− V(h) = −m g
1
= mvi2 − k ln (2.01/0.1) dh
2 The negative sign indicates that the
= 2 −0.5 ln (20.1) gravitational force is downward. When released,
the ball comes down with an increasing speed.
= 2 −1.5 = 0.5 J Just before it hits the ground, its speed is given
v f = 2K f /m = 1 m s−1 by the kinematic relation,
v2 = 2gh
This equation can be written as
Here, note that ln is a symbol for the natural
logarithm to the base e and not the logarithm to 1
the base 10 [ln X = loge X = 2.303 log10 X]. m v2 = m g h
2
6.7 THE CONCEPT OF POTENTIAL ENERGY which shows that the gravitational potential
energy of the object at height h, when the object
The word potential suggests possibility or is released, manifests itself as kinetic energy of
capacity for action. The term potential energy the object on reaching the ground.
brings to one’s mind ‘stored’ energy. A stretched Physically, the notion of potential energy is
bow-string possesses potential energy. When it applicable only to the class of forces where work
is released, the arrow flies off at a great speed. done against the force gets ‘stored up’ as energy.
The earth’s crust is not uniform, but has When external constraints are removed, it
discontinuities and dislocations that are called manifests itself as kinetic energy. Mathematically,
fault lines. These fault lines in the earth’s crust (for simplicity, in one dimension) the potential

* The variation of g with height is discussed in Chapter 8 on Gravitation.

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 121

energy V(x) is defined if the force F(x) can be which means that K + V, the sum of the kinetic
written as and potential energies of the body is a constant.
dV Over the whole path, xi to xf, this means that
F (x ) = − Ki + V(xi ) = Kf + V(xf ) (6.11)
dx
This implies that The quantity K +V(x), is called the total
mechanical energy of the system. Individually
xf Vf
the kinetic energy K and the potential energy
∫ F(x) dx = − ∫ dV = Vi − V f V(x) may vary from point to point, but the sum
xi Vi
is a constant. The aptness of the term
The work done by a conservative force such as ‘conservative force’ is now clear.
gravity depends on the initial and final positions Let us consider some of the definitions of a
only. In the previous chapter we have worked conservative force.
on examples dealing with inclined planes. If an z A force F(x) is conservative if it can be derived
object of mass m is released from rest, from the from a scalar quantity V(x) by the relation
top of a smooth (frictionless) inclined plane of given by Eq. (6.9). The three-dimensional
height h, its speed at the bottom generalisation requires the use of a vector
is 2gh irrespective of the angle of inclination. derivative, which is outside the scope of this
Thus, at the bottom of the inclined plane it book.
acquires a kinetic energy, mgh. If the work done z The work done by the conservative force
depends only on the end points. This can be
or the kinetic energy did depend on other factors
seen from the relation,
such as the velocity or the particular path taken
W = Kf – Ki = V (xi ) – V(xf )
by the object, the force would be called non-
which depends on the end points.
conservative.
z A third definition states that the work done
The dimensions of potential energy are
by this force in a closed path is zero. This is
[ML2T –2] and the unit is joule (J), the same as
once again apparent from Eq. (6.11) since
kinetic energy or work. To reiterate, the change
xi = xf .
in potential energy, for a conservative force,
ΔV is equal to the negative of the work done by Thus, the principle of conservation of total
the force mechanical energy can be stated as
ΔV = − F(x) Δx (6.9) The total mechanical energy of a system is
In the example of the falling ball considered in conserved if the forces, doing work on it, are
this section we saw how potential energy was conservative.
converted to kinetic energy. This hints at an The above discussion can be made more
important principle of conservation in mechanics, concrete by considering the example of the
which we now proceed to examine. gravitational force once again and that of the
spring force in the next section. Fig. 6.5 depicts
6.8 THE CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL a ball of mass m being dropped from a cliff of
ENERGY height H.
For simplicity we demonstrate this important
principle for one-dimensional motion. Suppose
that a body undergoes displacement Δx under
the action of a conservative force F. Then from
the WE theorem we have,
ΔK = F(x) Δx
If the force is conservative, the potential energy
function V(x) can be defined such that
− ΔV = F(x) Δx
The above equations imply that Fig. 6.5 The conversion of potential energy to kinetic
ΔK + ΔV = 0 energy for a ball of mass m dropped from a
Δ(K + V ) = 0 (6.10) height H.
122 PHYSICS

The total mechanical energies E0, Eh, and EH Answer (i) There are two external forces on
of the ball at the indicated heights zero (ground the bob : gravity and the tension (T ) in the
level), h and H, are string. The latter does no work since the
EH = mgH (6.11 a) displacement of the bob is always normal to the
string. The potential energy of the bob is thus
1
Eh = mgh + mvh2 (6.11 b) associated with the gravitational force only. The
2 total mechanical energy E of the system is
E0 = (1/2) mv2 (6.11 c)
conserved. We take the potential energy of the
The constant force is a special case of a spatially system to be zero at the lowest point A. Thus,
dependent force F(x). Hence, the mechanical at A :
energy is conserved. Thus
EH = E0 1 2
1 E= mv0 (6.12)
or, mgH = mv 2f 2
2
v f = 2gH
mv02
TA − mg = [Newton’s Second Law]
L
a result that was obtained in section 3.7 for a
freely falling body. where TA is the tension in the string at A. At the
Further, highest point C, the string slackens, as the
EH = Eh tension in the string (TC ) becomes zero.
which implies, Thus, at C
2
vh = 2 g(H − h) (6.11 d) 1
E= mvc2 + 2mgL (6.13)
and is a familiar result from kinematics. 2
At the height H, the energy is purely potential.
mvc2
It is partially converted to kinetic at height h and mg = [Newton’s Second Law] (6.14)
is fully kinetic at ground level. This illustrates L
the conservation of mechanical energy. where vC is the speed at C. From Eqs. (6.13) and
(6.14)
Example 6.7 A bob of mass m is suspended
by a light string of length L . It is imparted a 5
E =
mgL
horizontal velocity vo at the lowest point A 2
such that it completes a semi-circular Equating this to the energy at A
trajectory in the vertical plane with the string
becoming slack only on reaching the topmost 5 m 2
mgL = v0
point, C. This is shown in Fig. 6.6. Obtain an 2 2
expression for (i) vo; (ii) the speeds at points or, v0 = 5gL
B and C; (iii) the ratio of the kinetic energies
(KB/KC) at B and C. Comment on the nature (ii) It is clear from Eq. (6.14)
of the trajectory of the bob after it reaches vC = gL
the point C.
At B, the energy is
1
E = mv B2 + mgL
2
Equating this to the energy at A and employing
the result from (i), namely v 02 = 5 gL ,

1 1
mv B2 + mgL = mv02
2 2

5
= mgL
Fig. 6.6 2
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 123

∴ v B = 3gL k xm2
W =+ (6.16)
2
(iii) The ratio of the kinetic energies at B and C
is :
1 2
mv
KB 2 B 3
= =
KC 1 2 1
mvC
2
At point C, the string becomes slack and the
velocity of the bob is horizontal and to the left. If
the connecting string is cut at this instant, the
bob will execute a projectile motion with
horizontal projection akin to a rock kicked
horizontally from the edge of a cliff. Otherwise
the bob will continue on its circular path and
complete the revolution.
6.9 THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SPRING
The spring force is an example of a variable force
which is conservative. Fig. 6.7 shows a block
attached to a spring and resting on a smooth
horizontal surface. The other end of the spring
is attached to a rigid wall. The spring is light
and may be treated as massless. In an ideal
spring, the spring force Fs is proportional to
x where x is the displacement of the block from
the equilibrium position. The displacement could
be either positive [Fig. 6.7(b)] or negative
[Fig. 6.7(c)]. This force law for the spring is called
Hooke’s law and is mathematically stated as

Fs = − kx
The constant k is called the spring constant. Its
unit is N m-1. The spring is said to be stiff if k is
large and soft if k is small. Fig. 6.7 Illustration of the spring force with a block
Suppose that we pull the block outwards as in attached to the free end of the spring.
Fig. 6.7(b). If the extension is xm, the work done by (a) The spring force Fs is zero when the
the spring force is displacement x from the equilibrium position
is zero. (b) For the stretched spring x > 0
xm xm and Fs < 0 (c) For the compressed spring
Ws = ∫ Fs dx =− ∫ kx dx x < 0 and Fs > 0.(d) The plot of Fs versus x.
0 0 The area of the shaded triangle represents
the work done by the spring force. Due to the
2
k xm opposing signs of Fs and x, this work done is
=− (6.15)
2 2
negative, Ws = −kx m / 2.
This expression may also be obtained by
considering the area of the triangle as in The same is true when the spring is
Fig. 6.7(d). Note that the work done by the compressed with a displacement xc (< 0). The
external pulling force F is positive since it
overcomes the spring force. spring force does work Ws = − kxc2 / 2 while the
124 PHYSICS

external force F does work + kx c2 / 2 . If the block and vice versa, however, the total mechanical
energy remains constant. This is graphically
is moved from an initial displacement xi to a depicted in Fig. 6.8.
final displacement xf , the work done by the
spring force Ws is Example 6.8 To simulate car accidents, auto
xf
manufacturers study the collisions of moving
k x i2 k x 2f cars with mounted springs of different spring
Ws = − ∫ k x dx = − (6.17)
xi
2 2 constants. Consider a typical simulation with
Thus the work done by the spring force depends a car of mass 1000 kg moving with a speed
only on the end points. Specifically, if the block 18.0 km/h on a smooth road and colliding
is pulled from xi and allowed to return to xi ; with a horizontally mounted spring of spring
constant 6.25 × 103 N m–1. What is the
xi
k x i2 k x i2 maximum compression of the spring ?
Ws = − ∫ k x dx = −
xi
2 2

=0 (6.18)
The work done by the spring force in a cyclic
process is zero. We have explicitly demonstrated
that the spring force (i) is position dependent
only as first stated by Hooke, (Fs = − kx); (ii)
does work which only depends on the initial and
final positions, e.g. Eq. (6.17). Thus, the spring
force is a conservative force.
We define the potential energy V(x) of the spring
to be zero when block and spring system is in the
equilibrium position. For an extension (or Fig. 6.8 Parabolic plots of the potential energy V and
compression) x the above analysis suggests that kinetic energy K of a block attached to a
spring obeying Hooke’s law. The two plots
kx 2 are complementary, one decreasing as the
V(x) = (6.19)
other increases. The total mechanical
2
You may easily verify that − dV/dx = −k x, the energy E = K + V remains constant.
spring force. If the block of mass m in Fig. 6.7 is
extended to xm and released from rest, then its Answer At maximum compression the kinetic
total mechanical energy at any arbitrary point x, energy of the car is converted entirely into the
where x lies between – xm and + xm, will be given by potential energy of the spring.
The kinetic energy of the moving car is
1 2 1 1
k xm = k x 2 + m v2 1
2 2 2 K = mv 2
where we have invoked the conservation of 2
mechanical energy. This suggests that the speed 1
and the kinetic energy will be maximum at the = × 103 × 5 × 5
2
equilibrium position, x = 0, i.e.,
K = 1.25 × 104 J
1 2 1 2
m vm = k xm where we have converted 18 km h–1 to 5 m s–1 [It is
2 2 useful to remember that 36 km h–1 = 10 m s–1].
where vm is the maximum speed. At maximum compression xm, the potential
energy V of the spring is equal to the kinetic
k energy K of the moving car from the principle of
or vm = xm
m conservation of mechanical energy.
Note that k/m has the dimensions of [T-2] and
our equation is dimensionally correct. The 1 2
V = k xm
kinetic energy gets converted to potential energy 2
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 125

= 1.25 × 104 J
We obtain
xm = 2.00 m
We note that we have idealised the situation.
The spring is considered to be massless. The
surface has been considered to possess
negligible friction.
We conclude this section by making a few Fig. 6.9 The forces acting on the car.
remarks on conservative forces.
(i) Information on time is absent from the above 1
discussions. In the example considered ΔK = Kf − Ki = 0 − m v 2
2
above, we can calculate the compression, but The work done by the net force is
not the time over which the compression
1
occurs. A solution of Newton’s Second Law W =− kx m2 − μm g x m
for this system is required for temporal 2
information. Equating we have
(ii) Not all forces are conservative. Friction, for
1 1
example, is a non-conservative force. The m v 2 = k x m2 + μm g x m
2 2
principle of conservation of energy will have
to be modified in this case. This is illustrated Now μmg = 0.5 × 103 × 10 = 5 × 103 N (taking
in Example 6.9. g =10.0 m s -2). After rearranging the above
(iii) The zero of the potential energy is arbitrary. equation we obtain the following quadratic
It is set according to convenience. For the equation in the unknown xm.
spring force we took V(x) = 0, at x = 0, i.e. the k x m2 + 2μm g x m − m v 2 = 0
unstretched spring had zero potential
1/2
energy. For the constant gravitational force − μ m g + ⎡⎣ μ 2m 2 g 2 + m k v 2 ⎤⎦
mg, we took V = 0 on the earth’s surface. In xm =
k
a later chapter we shall see that for the force
due to the universal law of gravitation, the where we take the positive square root since xm
zero is best defined at an infinite distance is positive. Putting in numerical values we
from the gravitational source. However, once obtain
xm = 1.35 m
the zero of the potential energy is fixed in a
given discussion, it must be consistently which, as expected, is less than the result in
adhered to throughout the discussion. You Example 6.8.
cannot change horses in midstream ! If the two forces on the body consist of a
conservative force Fc and a non-conservative
force Fnc , the conservation of mechanical energy
Example 6.9 Consider Example 6.7 taking
formula will have to be modified. By the WE
the coefficient of friction, μ, to be 0.5 and
theorem
calculate the maximum compression of the
spring. (Fc+ Fnc ) Δx = ΔK
But Fc Δx = − ΔV
Answer In presence of friction, both the spring Hence, Δ(K + V) = Fnc Δx
force and the frictional force act so as to oppose ΔE = Fnc Δx
the compression of the spring as shown in where E is the total mechanical energy. Over
Fig. 6.9. the path this assumes the form
We invoke the work-energy theorem, rather Ef − Ei = Wnc
than the conservation of mechanical energy. Where W nc is the total work done by the
The change in kinetic energy is non-conservative forces over the path. Note that
126 PHYSICS

unlike the conservative force, Wnc depends on Chemical energy arises from the fact that the
the particular path i to f. molecules participating in the chemical reaction
have different binding energies. A stable chemical
6.10 VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY : THE LAW compound has less energy than the separated parts.
OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY A chemical reaction is basically a rearrangement
In the previous section we have discussed of atoms. If the total energy of the reactants is more
mechanical energy. We have seen that it can be than the products of the reaction, heat is released
classified into two distinct categories : one based and the reaction is said to be an exothermic
on motion, namely kinetic energy; the other on reaction. If the reverse is true, heat is absorbed and
configuration (position), namely potential energy. the reaction is endothermic. Coal consists of
Energy comes in many a forms which transform carbon and a kilogram of it when burnt releases
into one another in ways which may not often 3 × 107 J of energy.
be clear to us. Chemical energy is associated with the forces
6.10.1 Heat that give rise to the stability of substances. These
forces bind atoms into molecules, molecules into
We have seen that the frictional force is excluded
from the category of conservative forces. However, polymeric chains, etc. The chemical energy
work is associated with the force of friction. A arising from the combustion of coal, cooking gas,
block of mass m sliding on a rough horizontal wood and petroleum is indispensable to our daily
surface with speed v0 comes to a halt over a existence.
distance x0. The work done by the force of kinetic 6.10.3 Electrical Energy
friction f over x0 is –f x0. By the work-energy
The flow of electrical current causes bulbs to
theorem m vo /2 = f x 0 . If we confine our scope
2
glow, fans to rotate and bells to ring. There are
to mechanics, we would say that the kinetic laws governing the attraction and repulsion of
energy of the block is ‘lost’ due to the frictional charges and currents, which we shall learn
force. On examination of the block and the table later. Energy is associated with an electric
we would detect a slight increase in their current. An urban Indian household consumes
temperatures. The work done by friction is not about 200 J of energy per second on an average.
‘lost’, but is transferred as heat energy. This
raises the internal energy of the block and the 6.10.4 The Equivalence of Mass and Energy
table. In winter, in order to feel warm, we Till the end of the nineteenth century, physicists
generate heat by vigorously rubbing our palms believed that in every physical and chemical
together. We shall see later that the internal process, the mass of an isolated system is
energy is associated with the ceaseless, often conserved. Matter might change its phase, e.g.
random, motion of molecules. A quantitative idea glacial ice could melt into a gushing stream, but
of the transfer of heat energy is obtained by matter is neither created nor destroyed; Albert
noting that 1 kg of water releases about 42000 J Einstein (1879-1955) however, showed that mass
of energy when it cools by10 °C. and energy are equivalent and are related by
6.10.2 Chemical Energy the relation
One of the greatest technical achievements of E = m c2 (6.20)
humankind occurred when we discovered how where c, the speed of light in vacuum is
to ignite and control fire. We learnt to rub two approximately 3 × 108 m s–1. Thus, a staggering
flint stones together (mechanical energy), got amount of energy is associated with a mere
them to heat up and to ignite a heap of dry leaves kilogram of matter
(chemical energy), which then provided E = 1× (3 × 108)2 J = 9 × 1016 J.
sustained warmth. A matchstick ignites into a This is equivalent to the annual electrical output
bright flame when struck against a specially of a large (3000 MW) power generating station.
prepared chemical surface. The lighted
matchstick, when applied to a firecracker, 6.10.5 Nuclear Energy
results in a spectacular display of sound and The most destructive weapons made by man, the
light. fission and fusion bombs are manifestations of
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 127

Table 6.3 Approximate energy associated with various phenomena

the above equivalence of mass and energy [Eq.

Example 6.10 Examine Tables 6.1-6.3
(6.20)]. On the other hand the explanation of the
and express (a) The energy required to
life-nourishing energy output of the sun is also
break one bond in DNA in eV; (b) The
based on the above equation. In this case
kinetic energy of an air molecule (10—21 J)
effectively four light hydrogen nuclei fuse to form in eV; (c) The daily intake of a human adult
a helium nucleus whose mass is less than the in kilocalories.
sum of the masses of the reactants. This mass
difference, called the mass defect Δm is the
Answer (a) Energy required to break one bond
source of energy (Δm)c2. In fission, a heavy
of DNA is
nucleus like uranium 235 , is split by a neutron
92 U 10 −20 J
into lighter nuclei. Once again the final mass is ~ 0.06 eV
1.6 × 10 −19 J/eV
less than the initial mass and the mass difference
translates into energy, which can be tapped to where the symbol ‘~’ stands for approximate.
provide electrical energy as in nuclear power Note 0.1 eV = 100 meV (100 millielectron volt).
plants (controlled nuclear fission) or can be (b) The kinetic energy of an air molecule is
employed in making nuclear weapons
10 −21 J
(uncontrolled nuclear fission). Strictly, the energy ~ 0.0062 eV
ΔE released in a chemical reaction can also be 1.6 × 10 −19 J/eV
related to the mass defect Δm = ΔE/c2. However, This is the same as 6.2 meV.
for a chemical reaction, this mass defect is much (c) The average human consumption in a day is
smaller than for a nuclear reaction. Table 6.3
lists the total energies for a variety of events and 107 J
~ 2400 kcal
phenomena. 4.2 ×103 J/kcal
128 PHYSICS

We point out a common misconception created W

by newspapers and magazines. They mention Pav =
food values in calories and urge us to restrict t
diet intake to below 2400 calories. What they The instantaneous power is defined as the
should be saying is kilocalories (kcal) and not limiting value of the average power as time
calories. A person consuming 2400 calories a interval approaches zero,
day will soon starve to death! 1 food calorie is dW
1 kcal. P = (6.21)
dt

6.10.6 The Principle of Conservation of The work dW done by a force F for a displacement
Energy dr is dW = F.dr. The instantaneous power can
also be expressed as
We have seen that the total mechanical energy
dr
of the system is conserved if the forces doing work P = F.
on it are conservative. If some of the forces dt
involved are non-conservative, part of the = F.v (6.22)
mechanical energy may get transformed into
where v is the instantaneous velocity when the
other forms such as heat, light and sound.
force is F.
However, the total energy of an isolated system Power, like work and energy, is a scalar
does not change, as long as one accounts for all quantity. Its dimensions are [ML2T – 3]. In the SI,
forms of energy. Energy may be transformed from its unit is called a watt (W). The watt is 1 J s–1.
one form to another but the total energy of an The unit of power is named after James Watt,
isolated system remains constant. Energy can one of the innovators of the steam engine in the
neither be created, nor destroyed. eighteenth century.
Since the universe as a whole may be viewed There is another unit of power, namely the
as an isolated system, the total energy of the horse-power (hp)
universe is constant. If one part of the universe
1 hp = 746 W
loses energy, another part must gain an equal
This unit is still used to describe the output of
amount of energy. automobiles, motorbikes, etc.
The principle of conservation of energy cannot We encounter the unit watt when we buy
be proved. However, no violation of this principle electrical goods such as bulbs, heaters and
has been observed. The concept of conservation refrigerators. A 100 watt bulb which is on for 10
and transformation of energy into various forms hours uses 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) of energy.
links together various branches of physics, 100 (watt) × 10 (hour)
chemistry and life sciences. It provides a = 1000 watt hour
unifying, enduring element in our scientific =1 kilowatt hour (kWh)
pursuits. From engineering point of view all = 103 (W) × 3600 (s)
electronic, communication and mechanical = 3.6 × 106 J
devices rely on some forms of energy Our electricity bills carry the energy
transformation. consumption in units of kWh. Note that kWh is
6.11 POWER a unit of energy and not of power.
Often it is interesting to know not only the work
Example 6.11 An elevator can carry a
done on an object, but also the rate at which
maximum load of 1800 kg (elevator +
this work is done. We say a person is physically
passengers) is moving up with a constant
fit if he not only climbs four floors of a building
speed of 2 m s–1. The frictional force opposing
but climbs them fast. Power is defined as the
the motion is 4000 N. Determine the
time rate at which work is done or energy is
minimum power delivered by the motor to
transferred.
the elevator in watts as well as in horse
The average power of a force is defined as the
power.
ratio of the work, W, to the total time t taken
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 129

Answer The downward force on the elevator is by the second particle. F21 is likewise the force
F = m g + Ff = (1800 × 10) + 4000 = 22000 N exerted on the second particle by the first particle.
Now from Newton’s Third Law, F12 = − F21. This
The motor must supply enough power to balance implies
this force. Hence,
Δp1 + Δp2 = 0
P = F. v = 22000 × 2 = 44000 W = 59 hp
The above conclusion is true even though the
6.12 COLLISIONS forces vary in a complex fashion during the
In physics we study motion (change in position). collision time Δt. Since the third law is true at
At the same time, we try to discover physical every instant, the total impulse on the first object
quantities, which do not change in a physical is equal and opposite to that on the second.
process. The laws of momentum and energy On the other hand, the total kinetic energy of
conservation are typical examples. In this the system is not necessarily conserved. The
section we shall apply these laws to a commonly impact and deformation during collision may
encountered phenomena, namely collisions. generate heat and sound. Part of the initial kinetic
Several games such as billiards, marbles or energy is transformed into other forms of energy.
carrom involve collisions.We shall study the A useful way to visualise the deformation during
collision of two masses in an idealised form. collision is in terms of a ‘compressed spring’. If
Consider two masses m1 and m2. The particle the ‘spring’ connecting the two masses regains
m1 is moving with speed v1i , the subscript ‘i’ its original shape without loss in energy, then
implying initial. We can cosider m2 to be at rest. the initial kinetic energy is equal to the final
No loss of generality is involved in making such kinetic energy but the kinetic energy during the
a selection. In this situation the mass m 1 collision time Δt is not constant. Such a collision
collides with the stationary mass m2 and this is called an elastic collision. On the other hand
is depicted in Fig. 6.10. the deformation may not be relieved and the two
bodies could move together after the collision. A
collision in which the two particles move together
after the collision is called a completely inelastic
collision. The intermediate case where the
deformation is partly relieved and some of the
initial kinetic energy is lost is more common and
is appropriately called an inelastic collision.
6.12.2 Collisions in One Dimension
Consider first a completely inelastic collision
Fig. 6.10 Collision of mass m1, with a stationary mass m2.
in one dimension. Then, in Fig. 6.10,
The masses m 1 and m 2 fly-off in different
θ1=θ2=0
directions. We shall see that there are
relationships, which connect the masses, the m1v1i = (m1+m2)vf (momentum conservation)
velocities and the angles.
m1
vf = v1i (6.23)
6.12.1 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions m1 + m 2
In all collisions the total linear momentum is
The loss in kinetic energy on collision is
conserved; the initial momentum of the system
is equal to the final momentum of the system. 1 1
One can argue this as follows. When two objects ΔK = m1v1i2 − (m1 + m 2 )v 2f
2 2
collide, the mutual impulsive forces acting over
the collision time Δt cause a change in their 1 1 m12
respective momenta : = m1v12i − v12i [using Eq. (6.23)]
2 m
2 1 + m 2
Δp1 = F12 Δt
Δp2 = F21 Δt 1 ⎡ m1 ⎤
= m1v12i ⎢1 − ⎥
where F12 is the force exerted on the first particle 2 ⎣ m1 + m 2 ⎦
130 PHYSICS

An experiment on head-on collision

In performing an experiment on collision on a horizontal surface, we face three difficulties.

One, there will be friction and bodies will not travel with uniform velocities. Two, if two bodies
of different sizes collide on a table, it would be difficult to arrange them for a head-on collision
unless their centres of mass are at the same height above the surface. Three, it will be fairly
difficult to measure velocities of the two bodies just before and just after collision.
By performing this experiment in a vertical direction, all the three difficulties vanish. Take
two balls, one of which is heavier (basketball/football/volleyball) and the other lighter (tennis
ball/rubber ball/table tennis ball). First take only the heavier ball and drop it vertically from
some height, say 1 m. Note to which it rises. This gives the velocities near the floor or ground,
just before and just after the bounce (by using v 2 = 2 gh ). Hence you
will get the coefficient of restitution.
Now take the big ball and a small ball and hold them in your
hands one over the other, with the heavier ball below the lighter
one, as shown here. Drop them together, taking care that they remain
together while falling, and see what happens. You will find that the
heavier ball rises less than when it was dropped alone, while the
lighter one shoots up to about 3 m. With practice, you will be able to
hold the ball properly so that the lighter ball rises vertically up and
does not fly sideways. This is head-on collision.
You can try to find the best combination of balls which gives you
the best effect. You can measure the masses on a standard balance.
We leave it to you to think how you can determine the initial and
final velocities of the balls.

(m1 − m 2 )
1 m1m 2 2 v1 f = v1i
= v1i m1 + m 2 (6.27)
2 m1 + m 2
2m1v1i
which is a positive quantity as expected. and v2 f = (6.28)
m1 + m 2
Consider next an elastic collision. Using the Thus, the ‘unknowns’ {v1f, v2f} are obtained in
above nomenclature with θ 1 = θ 2 = 0, the terms of the ‘knowns’ {m1, m2, v1i}. Special cases
momentum and kinetic energy conservation of our analysis are interesting.
equations are
Case I : If the two masses are equal
m1v1i = m1v1f + m2v2f (6.24)
v1f = 0
v2f = v1i
m v =m v
2
1 1i
2
1 1f +m v 2
2 2f (6.25)
The first mass comes to rest and pushes off the
From Eqs. (6.24) and (6.25) it follows that, second mass with its initial speed on collision.
m 1v1i (v 2 f − v1i ) = m 1v1 f (v 2 f − v1 f ) Case II : If one mass dominates, e.g. m2 > > m1
v1f ~ −v1i v2f ~ 0
or, v 2 f (v1i − v1 f ) = v12i − v12f The heavier mass is undisturbed while the
lighter mass reverses its velocity.
= (v1i − v1 f )(v1i + v1 f )
Example 6.12 Slowing down of neutrons:
Hence, ∴ v 2 f = v1i + v1 f (6.26) In a nuclear reactor a neutron of high
speed (typically 107 m s–1) must be slowed
Substituting this in Eq. (6.24), we obtain
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 131

to 103 m s–1 so that it can have a high 6.12.3 Collisions in Two Dimensions

probability of interacting with isotope 235 Fig. 6.10 also depicts the collision of a moving
92 U
mass m1 with the stationary mass m2. Linear
and causing it to fission. Show that a
momentum is conserved in such a collision.
neutron can lose most of its kinetic energy
in an elastic collision with a light nuclei Since momentum is a vector this implies three
like deuterium or carbon which has a mass equations for the three directions {x, y, z}.
of only a few times the neutron mass. The Consider the plane determined by the final
material making up the light nuclei, usually velocity directions of m1 and m2 and choose it to
heavy water (D2O) or graphite, is called a be the x-y plane. The conservation of the
moderator. z-component of the linear momentum implies
that the entire collision is in the x-y plane. The
Answer The initial kinetic energy of the neutron x- and y-component equations are
is m1v1i = m1v1f cos θ 1 + m2v2f cos θ 2 (6.29)
1 0 = m1v1f sin θ 1 − m2v2f sin θ 2
K1i = m1v12i (6.30)
2
One knows {m1, m2, v1i} in most situations. There
while its final kinetic energy from Eq. (6.27) are thus four unknowns {v1f , v2f , θ 1 and θ2}, and
1 1 ⎛ m − m2 ⎞ 2
2 only two equations. If θ 1 = θ 2 = 0, we regain
K1 f = m1v12f = m1 ⎜ 1 v1i Eq. (6.24) for one dimensional collision.
2 2 ⎝ m1 + m 2 ⎟⎠
If, further the collision is elastic,
1 1 1
The fractional kinetic energy lost is m1v1i 2 = m1v1 f 2 + m 2v2 f 2 (6.31)
2 2 2
2
K1 f ⎛ m − m2 ⎞ We obtain an additional equation. That still
f1 = =⎜ 1
K1i ⎝ m1 + m 2 ⎟⎠ leaves us one equation short. At least one of
while the fractional kinetic energy gained by the the four unknowns, say θ 1, must be made known
moderating nuclei K2f /K1i is for the problem to be solvable. For example, θ 1
can be determined by moving a detector in an
f2 = 1 −f1 (elastic collision) angular fashion from the x to the y axis. Given
4m1m 2 {m1, m2, v1i , θ 1} we can determine {v1f , v2f , θ2}
= from Eqs. (6.29)-(6.31).
(m1 + m 2 )2
Example 6.13 Consider the collision
One can also verify this result by substituting depicted in Fig. 6.10 to be between two
from Eq. (6.28). billiard balls with equal masses m1 = m2.
For deuterium m 2 = 2m 1 and we obtain The first ball is called the cue while the
f1 = 1/9 while f2 = 8/9. Almost 90% of the second ball is called the target. The
neutron’s energy is transferred to deuterium. For billiard player wants to ‘sink’ the target
carbon f1 = 71.6% and f2 = 28.4%. In practice, ball in a corner pocket, which is at an
however, this number is smaller since head-on angle θ 2 = 37°. Assume that the collision
collisions are rare. is elastic and that friction and rotational
If the initial velocities and final velocities of motion are not important. Obtain θ 1.
both the bodies are along the same straight line, Answer From momentum conservation, since
then it is called a one-dimensional collision, or the masses are equal
head-on collision. In the case of small spherical
bodies, this is possible if the direction of travel v1i = v1f + v 2f
of body 1 passes through the centre of body 2
which is at rest. In general, the collision is two-
or ( )(
v 1i 2 = v1 f + v 2 f ⋅ v1 f + v 2 f )
dimensional, where the initial velocities and the
final velocities lie in a plane. = v1 f 2 + v2 f 2 + 2 v1 f .v 2 f
132 PHYSICS

= {v 1f
2
+ v 2 f 2 + 2v1 f v 2 f cos (θ1 + 37° ) } (6.32)
The matter simplifies greatly if we consider
spherical masses with smooth surfaces, and
Since the collision is elastic and m1 = m2 it follows assume that collision takes place only when the
from conservation of kinetic energy that bodies touch each other. This is what happens
in the games of marbles, carrom and billiards.
v1i 2 = v1 f 2 + v 2 f 2 (6.33)
In our everyday world, collisions take place only
Comparing Eqs. (6.32) and (6.33), we get when two bodies touch each other. But consider
a comet coming from far distances to the sun, or
cos (θ1 + 37°) = 0 alpha particle coming towards a nucleus and
or θ 1 + 37° = 90° going away in some direction. Here we have to
deal with forces involving action at a distance.
Thus, θ1 = 53° Such an event is called scattering. The velocities
This proves the following result : when two equal and directions in which the two particles go away
masses undergo a glancing elastic collision with depend on their initial velocities as well as the
one of them at rest, after the collision, they will type of interaction between them, their masses,
move at right angles to each other. shapes and sizes.

SUMMARY

1. The work-energy theorem states that the change in kinetic energy of a body is the work
done by the net force on the body.
Kf - Ki = Wnet
2. A force is conservative if (i) work done by it on an object is path independent and
depends only on the end points {xi, xj}, or (ii) the work done by the force is zero for an
arbitrary closed path taken by the object such that it returns to its initial position.
3. For a conservative force in one dimension, we may define a potential energy function V(x)
such that
dV ( x )
F (x ) = −
dx
xf

or Vi − V f = ∫ F ( x ) dx
xi

4. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total mechanical
energy of a body remains constant if the only forces that act on the body are conservative.
5. The gravitational potential energy of a particle of mass m at a height x about the earth’s
surface is
V(x) = m g x
where the variation of g with height is ignored.
6. The elastic potential energy of a spring of force constant k and extension x is
1
V (x ) = k x2
2
7. The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and B is written as A.B and is a scalar
quantity given by : A.B = AB cos θ , where θ is the angle between A and B. It can be
positive, negative or zero depending upon the value of θ . The scalar product of two
vectors can be interpreted as the product of magnitude of one vector and component
of the other vector along the first vector. For unit vectors :
ˆi ⋅ ˆi = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = k
ˆ ⋅k
ˆ = 1 and ˆi ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ k
ˆ =k
ˆ ⋅ ˆi = 0
Scalar products obey the commutative and the distributive laws.
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 133

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The phrase ‘calculate the work done’ is incomplete. We should refer (or imply
clearly by context) to the work done by a specific force or a group of forces on a
given body over a certain displacement.
2. Work done is a scalar quantity. It can be positive or negative unlike mass and
kinetic energy which are positive scalar quantities. The work done by the friction
or viscous force on a moving body is negative.
3. For two bodies, the sum of the mutual forces exerted between them is zero from
Newton’s Third Law,
F12 + F21 = 0
But the sum of the work done by the two forces need not always cancel, i.e.
W12 + W21 ≠ 0
However, it may sometimes be true.
4. The work done by a force can be calculated sometimes even if the exact nature of
the force is not known. This is clear from Example 6.1 where the WE theorem is
used in such a situation.
5. The WE theorem is not independent of Newton’s Second Law. The WE theorem
may be viewed as a scalar form of the Second Law. The principle of conservation
of mechanical energy may be viewed as a consequence of the WE theorem for
conservative forces.
6. The WE theorem holds in all inertial frames. It can also be extended to non-
inertial frames provided we include the pseudoforces in the calculation of the
net force acting on the body under consideration.
7. The potential energy of a body subjected to a conservative force is always
undetermined upto a constant. For example, the point where the potential
energy is zero is a matter of choice. For the gravitational potential energy mgh,
the zero of the potential energy is chosen to be the ground. For the spring
potential energy kx2/2 , the zero of the potential energy is the equilibrium position
of the oscillating mass.
8. Every force encountered in mechanics does not have an associated potential
energy. For example, work done by friction over a closed path is not zero and no
potential energy can be associated with friction.
9. During a collision : (a) the total linear momentum is conserved at each instant of
the collision ; (b) the kinetic energy conservation (even if the collision is elastic)
applies after the collision is over and does not hold at every instant of the collision.
In fact the two colliding objects are deformed and may be momentarily at rest
with respect to each other.
134 PHYSICS

EXERCISES

6.1 The sign of work done by a force on a body is important to understand. State carefully
if the following quantities are positive or negative:
(a) work done by a man in lifting a bucket out of a well by means of a rope tied to the
bucket.
(b) work done by gravitational force in the above case,
(c) work done by friction on a body
sliding down an inclined plane,
(d) work done by an applied force on
a body moving on a rough
horizontal plane with uniform
velocity,
(e) work done by the resistive force of
air on a vibrating pendulum in
bringing it to rest.
6.2 A body of mass 2 kg initially at rest
moves under the action of an applied
horizontal force of 7 N on a table with
coefficient of kinetic friction = 0.1.
Compute the
(a) work done by the applied force in
10 s,
(b) work done by friction in 10 s,
(c) work done by the net force on the
body in 10 s,
(d) change in kinetic energy of the
body in 10 s,
and interpret your results.
6.3 Given in Fig. 6.11 are examples of some
potential energy functions in one
dimension. The total energy of the
particle is indicated by a cross on the
ordinate axis. In each case, specify the
regions, if any, in which the particle
cannot be found for the given energy.
Also, indicate the minimum total
energy the particle must have in each
case. Think of simple physical contexts
for which these potential energy shapes
are relevant.

Fig. 6.11
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 135

6.4 The potential energy function for a

particle executing linear simple
harmonic motion is given by V(x) =
kx2/2, where k is the force constant
of the oscillator. For k = 0.5 N m-1,
the graph of V(x) versus x is shown
in Fig. 6.12. Show that a particle of
total energy 1 J moving under this
Fig. 6.12
potential must ‘turn back’ when it
reaches x = ± 2 m.

6.5 Answer the following :

(a) The casing of a rocket in flight
burns up due to friction. At
whose expense is the heat
energy required for burning
obtained? The rocket or the
atmosphere?
(b) Comets move around the sun
in highly elliptical orbits. The
gravitational force on the
comet due to the sun is not Fig. 6.13
normal to the comet’s velocity
in general. Yet the work done by the gravitational force over every complete orbit
of the comet is zero. Why ?
(c) An artificial satellite orbiting the earth in very thin atmosphere loses its energy
gradually due to dissipation against atmospheric resistance, however small. Why
then does its speed increase progressively as it comes closer and closer to the earth ?
(d) In Fig. 6.13(i) the man walks 2 m carrying a mass of 15 kg on his hands. In Fig.
6.13(ii), he walks the same distance pulling the rope behind him. The rope goes
over a pulley, and a mass of 15 kg hangs at its other end. In which case is the work
done greater ?
6.6 Underline the correct alternative :
(a) When a conservative force does positive work on a body, the potential energy of
the body increases/decreases/remains unaltered.
(b) Work done by a body against friction always results in a loss of its kinetic/potential
energy.
(c) The rate of change of total momentum of a many-particle system is proportional
to the external force/sum of the internal forces on the system.
(d) In an inelastic collision of two bodies, the quantities which do not change after
the collision are the total kinetic energy/total linear momentum/total energy of
the system of two bodies.
6.7 State if each of the following statements is true or false. Give reasons for your answer.
(a) In an elastic collision of two bodies, the momentum and energy of each body is
conserved.
(b) Total energy of a system is always conserved, no matter what internal and external
forces on the body are present.
(c) Work done in the motion of a body over a closed loop is zero for every force in
nature.
(d) In an inelastic collision, the final kinetic energy is always less than the initial
kinetic energy of the system.
6.8 Answer carefully, with reasons :
(a) In an elastic collision of two billiard balls, is the total kinetic energy conserved
during the short time of collision of the balls (i.e. when they are in contact) ?
(b) Is the total linear momentum conserved during the short time of an elastic collision
of two balls ?
136 PHYSICS

(c) What are the answers to (a) and (b) for an inelastic collision ?
(d) If the potential energy of two billiard balls depends only on the separation distance
between their centres, is the collision elastic or inelastic ? (Note, we are talking
here of potential energy corresponding to the force during collision, not gravitational
potential energy).
6.9 A body is initially at rest. It undergoes one-dimensional motion with constant
acceleration. The power delivered to it at time t is proportional to
(i) t1/2 (ii) t (iii) t3/2 (iv) t2
6.10 A body is moving unidirectionally under the influence of a source of constant power.
Its displacement in time t is proportional to
(i) t1/2 (ii) t (iii) t3/2 (iv) t2
6.11 A body constrained to move along the z-axis of a coordinate system is subject to a
constant force F given by
F = −ˆi + 2 ˆj + 3 k
ˆ N

where ˆi, ˆj, k

ˆ are unit vectors along the x-, y- and z-axis of the system respectively.
What is the work done by this force in moving the body a distance of 4 m along the
z-axis ?
6.12 An electron and a proton are detected in a cosmic ray experiment, the first with kinetic
energy 10 keV, and the second with 100 keV. Which is faster, the electron or the
proton ? Obtain the ratio of their speeds. (electron mass = 9.11× 10-31 kg, proton mass
= 1.67× 10–27 kg, 1 eV = 1.60 × 10–19 J).
6.13 A rain drop of radius 2 mm falls from a height of 500 m above the ground. It falls with
decreasing acceleration (due to viscous resistance of the air) until at half its original
height, it attains its maximum (terminal) speed, and moves with uniform speed
thereafter. What is the work done by the gravitational force on the drop in the first
and second half of its journey ? What is the work done by the resistive force in the
entire journey if its speed on reaching the ground is 10 m s–1 ?
6.14 A molecule in a gas container hits a horizontal wall with speed 200 m s–1 and angle 30°
with the normal, and rebounds with the same speed. Is momentum conserved in the
collision ? Is the collision elastic or inelastic ?
6.15 A pump on the ground floor of a building can pump up water to fill a tank of volume 30 m3
in 15 min. If the tank is 40 m above the ground, and the efficiency of the pump is 30%,
how much electric power is consumed by the pump ?
6.16 Two identical ball bearings in contact with each other and resting on a frictionless
table are hit head-on by another ball bearing of the same mass moving initially with a
speed V. If the collision is elastic, which of the following (Fig. 6.14) is a possible result
after collision ?

Fig. 6.14
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 137

6.17 The bob A of a pendulum released from 30o to the

vertical hits another bob B of the same mass at rest
on a table as shown in Fig. 6.15. How high does
the bob A rise after the collision ? Neglect the size of
the bobs and assume the collision to be elastic.

6.18 The bob of a pendulum is released from a horizontal

position. If the length of the pendulum is 1.5 m,
what is the speed with which the bob arrives at the
lowermost point, given that it dissipated 5% of its
initial energy against air resistance ?
6.19 A trolley of mass 300 kg carrying a sandbag of 25 kg
is moving uniformly with a speed of 27 km/h on a Fig. 6.15
frictionless track. After a while, sand starts leaking
out of a hole on the floor of the trolley at the rate of
0.05 kg s–1. What is the speed of the trolley after the entire sand bag is empty ?
6.20 A body of mass 0.5 kg travels in a straight line with velocity v =a x3/2 where a =
5 m–1/2 s–1. What is the work done by the net force during its displacement from x
= 0 to x = 2 m ?
6.21 The blades of a windmill sweep out a circle of area A. (a) If the wind flows at a
velocity v perpendicular to the circle, what is the mass of the air passing through it
in time t ? (b) What is the kinetic energy of the air ? (c) Assume that the windmill
converts 25% of the wind’s energy into electrical energy, and that A = 30 m2, v = 36
km/h and the density of air is 1.2 kg m–3. What is the electrical power produced ?
6.22 A person trying to lose weight (dieter) lifts a 10 kg mass, one thousand times, to a
height of 0.5 m each time. Assume that the potential energy lost each time she
lowers the mass is dissipated. (a) How much work does she do against the gravitational
force ? (b) Fat supplies 3.8 × 107J of energy per kilogram which is converted to
mechanical energy with a 20% efficiency rate. How much fat will the dieter use up?
6.23 A family uses 8 kW of power. (a) Direct solar energy is incident on the horizontal
surface at an average rate of 200 W per square meter. If 20% of this energy can be
converted to useful electrical energy, how large an area is needed to supply 8 kW?
(b) Compare this area to that of the roof of a typical house.
Additional Exercises
6.24 A bullet of mass 0.012 kg and horizontal speed 70 m s–1 strikes a block of wood of
mass 0.4 kg and instantly comes to rest with respect to the block. The block is
suspended from the ceiling by means of thin wires. Calculate the height to which
the block rises. Also, estimate the amount of heat produced in the block.
6.25 Two inclined frictionless tracks, one gradual and the other steep meet at A from
where two stones are allowed to slide down from rest, one on each track (Fig. 6.16).
Will the stones reach the bottom at the same time ? Will they reach there with the
same speed? Explain. Given θ1 = 300, θ2 = 600, and h = 10 m, what are the speeds and
times taken by the two stones ?

Fig. 6.16
138 PHYSICS

6.26 A 1 kg block situated on a rough incline is connected to a spring of spring constant 100
N m–1 as shown in Fig. 6.17. The block is released from rest with the spring in the
unstretched position. The block moves 10 cm down the incline before coming to rest.
Find the coefficient of friction between the block and the incline. Assume that the
spring has a negligible mass and the pulley is frictionless.

Fig. 6.17
6.27 A bolt of mass 0.3 kg falls from the ceiling of an elevator moving down with an uniform
speed of 7 m s–1. It hits the floor of the elevator (length of the elevator = 3 m) and does
not rebound. What is the heat produced by the impact ? Would your answer be different
if the elevator were stationary ?
6.28 A trolley of mass 200 kg moves with a uniform speed of 36 km/h on a frictionless track.
A child of mass 20 kg runs on the trolley from one end to the other (10 m away) with a
speed of 4 m s–1 relative to the trolley in a direction opposite to the its motion, and
jumps out of the trolley. What is the final speed of the trolley ? How much has the
trolley moved from the time the child begins to run ?
6.29 Which of the following potential energy curves in Fig. 6.18 cannot possibly describe the
elastic collision of two billiard balls ? Here r is the distance between centres of the balls.

Fig. 6.18

6.30 Consider the decay of a free neutron at rest : n p + e–

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 139

Show that the two-body decay of this type must necessarily give an electron of fixed
energy and, therefore, cannot account for the observed continuous energy distribution
in the β-decay of a neutron or a nucleus (Fig. 6.19).

Fig. 6.19
[Note: The simple result of this exercise was one among the several arguments advanced by W.
Pauli to predict the existence of a third particle in the decay products of β-decay. This
particle is known as neutrino. We now know that it is a particle of intrinsic spin ½ (like
e—, p or n), but is neutral, and either massless or having an extremely small mass
(compared to the mass of electron) and which interacts very weakly with matter. The
correct decay process of neutron is : n p + e–+ ν ]
140 PHYSICS

APPENDIX 6.1 : POWER CONSUMPTION IN WALKING

The table below lists the approximate power expended by an adult human of mass 60 kg.

Table 6.4 Approximate power consumption

Mechanical work must not be confused with the everyday usage

of the term work. A woman standing with a very heavy load on
her head may get very tired. But no mechanical work is involved.
That is not to say that mechanical work cannot be estimated in
ordinary human activity.

Consider a person walking with constant speed v0. The mechanical work he does may be estimated simply
with the help of the work-energy theorem. Assume :
(a) The major work done in walking is due to the acceleration and deceleration of the legs with each stride
(See Fig. 6.20).
(b) Neglect air resistance.
(c) Neglect the small work done in lifting the legs against gravity.
(d) Neglect the swinging of hands etc. as is common in walking.

As we can see in Fig. 6.20, in each stride the leg is brought from rest to a speed, approximately equal to the
speed of walking, and then brought to rest again.

Fig. 6.20 An illustration of a single stride in walking. While the first leg is maximally off the round, the second leg
is on the ground and vice-versa
The work done by one leg in each stride is m l v02 by the work-energy theorem. Here ml is the mass of the leg.

Note m l v02 /2 energy is expended by one set of leg muscles to bring the foot from rest to speed v0 while an

additional m l v02 /2 is expended by a complementary set of leg muscles to bring the foot to rest from speed v0.
Hence work done by both legs in one stride is (study Fig. 6.20 carefully)
Ws =2m l v02 (6.34)
-1
Assuming ml = 10 kg and slow running of a nine-minute mile which translates to 3 m s in SI units, we obtain
Ws = 180 J / stride
If we take a stride to be 2 m long, the person covers 1.5 strides per second at his speed of 3 m s-1. Thus the
power expended
J stride
P = 180 ×1.5
stride second
= 270 W
We must bear in mind that this is a lower estimate since several avenues of power loss (e.g. swinging of hands,
air resistance etc.) have been ignored. The interesting point is that we did not worry about the forces involved.
The forces, mainly friction and those exerted on the leg by the muscles of the rest of the body, are hard to
estimate. Static friction does no work and we bypassed the impossible task of estimating the work done by the
muscles by taking recourse to the work-energy theorem. We can also see the advantage of a wheel. The wheel
permits smooth locomotion without the continual starting and stopping in mammalian locomotion.
CHAPTER SEVEN

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier chapters we primarily considered the motion
of a single particle (A particle is represented as a point mass.
7.1 Introduction It has practically no size). We applied the results of our
7.2 Centre of mass study even to the motion of bodies of finite size, assuming
7.3 Motion of centre of mass that motion of such bodies can be described in terms of the
7.4 Linear momentum of a motion of a particle.
system of particles Any real body which we encounter in daily life has a
7.5 Vector product of two finite size. In dealing with the motion of extended bodies
vectors (bodies of finite size) often the idealised model of a particle is
7.6 Angular velocity and its inadequate. In this chapter we shall try to go beyond this
relation with linear velocity inadequacy. We shall attempt to build an understanding of
7.7 T orque and angular the motion of extended bodies. An extended body, in the
momentum first place, is a system of particles. We shall begin with the
7.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body consideration of motion of the system as a whole. The centre
7.9 Moment of inertia of mass of a system of particles will be a key concept here.
7.10 Theorems of perpendicular We shall discuss the motion of the centre of mass of a system
and parallel axes of particles and usefulness of this concept in understanding
7.11 Kinematics of rotational the motion of extended bodies.
motion about a fixed axis A large class of problems with extended bodies can be
7.12 Dynamics of rotational solved by considering them to be rigid bodies. Ideally a
motion about a fixed axis rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and
7.13 Angular momentum in case unchanging shape. The distances between different pairs
of rotation about a fixed axis of such a body do not change. It is evident from this
7.14 Rolling motion definition of a rigid body that no real body is truly rigid, since
real bodies deform under the influence of forces. But in many
Summary situations the deformations are negligible. Thus, in a number
Points to Ponder of situations involving bodies such as wheels, tops, steel
Exercises beams, molecules and planets on the other hand, we can ignore
Additional exercises that they warp, bend or vibrate and treat them as rigid.

7.1.1 What kind of motion can a rigid body have?

Let us try to explore this question by taking some examples
of the motion of rigid bodies. Let us begin with a rectangular
block sliding down an inclined plane without any sidewise
142 PHYSICS

that it does not have translational motion is to

fix it along a straight line. The only possible
motion of such a rigid body is rotation. The
line along which the body is fixed is termed as
its axis of rotation. If you look around, you
will come across many examples of rotation
about an axis, a ceiling fan, a potter’s wheel, a
giant wheel in a fair, a merry-go-round and so
on (Fig 7.3(a) and (b)).
Fig 7.1 Translational (sliding) motion of a block down
an inclined plane.
(Any point like P1 or P2 of the block moves
with the same velocity at any instant of time.)

movement. The block is a rigid body. Its motion

down the plane is such that all the particles of
the body are moving together, i.e. they have the
same velocity at any instant of time. The rigid
body here is in pure translational motion
(Fig. 7.1).
In pure translational motion at any
instant of time every particle of the body has
the same velocity.
Consider now the rolling motion of a solid
metallic or wooden cylinder down the same
(a)
inclined plane (Fig. 7.2). The rigid body in this
problem, namely the cylinder, shifts from the
top to the bottom of the inclined plane, and thus,
has translational motion. But as Fig. 7.2 shows,
all its particles are not moving with the same
velocity at any instant. The body therefore, is
not in pure translation. Its motion is translation
plus ‘something else.’

Fig. 7.2 Rolling motion of a cylinder It is not pure

translational motion. Points P1, P2, P3 and P4
have different velocities (shown by arrows)
(b)
at any instant of time. In fact, the velocity of
Fig. 7.3 Rotation about a fixed axis
the point of contact P3 is zero at any instant,
(a) A ceiling fan
if the cylinder rolls without slipping.
(b) A potter’s wheel.
In order to understand what this ‘something
else’ is, let us take a rigid body so constrained Let us try to understand what rotation is,
that it cannot have translational motion. The what characterises rotation. You may notice
most common way to constrain a rigid body so that in rotation of a rigid body about a fixed
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 143

Fig. 7.5 (a) A spinning top

(The point of contact of the top with the
ground, its tip O, is fixed.)

Fig. 7.4 A rigid body rotation about the z-axis

(Each point of the body such as P 1 or
P2 describes a circle with its centre (C1
or C 2) on the axis. The radius of the
circle (r 1 or r 2 ) is the perpendicular
distance of the point (P1 or P2 ) from the
axis. A point on the axis like P3 remains
stationary).

axis, every particle of the body moves in a

circle, which lies in a plane perpendicular to
Fig. 7.5 (b) An oscillating table fan. The pivot of the
the axis and has its centre on the axis. Fig.
fan, point O, is fixed.
7.4 shows the rotational motion of a rigid body
about a fixed axis (the z-axis of the frame of
In some examples of rotation, however, the
reference). Let P1 be a particle of the rigid body,
axis may not be fixed. A prominent example of
arbitrarily chosen and at a distance r1 from fixed this kind of rotation is a top spinning in place
axis. The particle P1 describes a circle of radius [Fig. 7.5(a)]. (We assume that the top does not
r1 with its centre C1 on the fixed axis. The circle slip from place to place and so does not have
lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis. The translational motion.) We know from experience
figure also shows another particle P2 of the rigid that the axis of such a spinning top moves
body, P2 is at a distance r2 from the fixed axis. around the vertical through its point of contact
The particle P2 moves in a circle of radius r2 and with the ground, sweeping out a cone as shown
with centre C2 on the axis. This circle, too, lies in Fig. 7.5(a). (This movement of the axis of the
in a plane perpendicular to the axis. Note that top around the vertical is termed precession.)
the circles described by P1 and P2 may lie in Note, the point of contact of the top with
different planes; both these planes, however, ground is fixed. The axis of rotation of the top
are perpendicular to the fixed axis. For any at any instant passes through the point of
particle on the axis like P3, r = 0. Any such contact. Another simple example of this kind of
particle remains stationary while the body rotation is the oscillating table fan or a pedestal
rotates. This is expected since the axis is fixed. fan. You may have observed that the axis of
144 PHYSICS

rotation of such a fan has an oscillating fixed. Thus, for us rotation will be about a fixed
(sidewise) movement in a horizontal plane about axis only unless stated otherwise.
the vertical through the point at which the axis The rolling motion of a cylinder down an
is pivoted (point O in Fig. 7.5(b)). inclined plane is a combination of rotation about
While the fan rotates and its axis moves a fixed axis and translation. Thus, the
sidewise, this point is fixed. Thus, in more ‘something else’ in the case of rolling motion
general cases of rotation, such as the rotation which we referred to earlier is rotational motion.
of a top or a pedestal fan, one point and not You will find Fig. 7.6(a) and (b) instructive from
one line, of the rigid body is fixed. In this case this point of view. Both these figures show
the axis is not fixed, though it always passes motion of the same body along identical
through the fixed point. In our study, however, translational trajectory. In one case, Fig. 7.6(a),
we mostly deal with the simpler and special case the motion is a pure translation; in the other
of rotation in which one line (i.e. the axis) is case [Fig. 7.6(b)] it is a combination of
translation and rotation. (You may try to
reproduce the two types of motion shown using
a rigid object like a heavy book.)
We now recapitulate the most important
observations of the present section: The motion
of a rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed
in some way is either a pure translation or a
combination of translation and rotation. The
motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or
Fig. 7.6(a) Motion of a rigid body which is pure
fixed in some way is rotation. The rotation
translation.
may be about an axis that is fixed (e.g. a ceiling
fan) or moving (e.g. an oscillating table fan). We
shall, in the present chapter, consider rotational
motion about a fixed axis only.

7.2 CENTRE OF MASS

We shall first see what the centre of mass of a
system of particles is and then discuss its
significance. For simplicity we shall start with
a two particle system. We shall take the line
Fig. 7.6(b) Motion of a rigid body which is a joining the two particles to be the x- axis.
combination of translation and
rotation.
Fig 7.6 (a) and 7.6 (b) illustrate different motions of
the same body. Note P is an arbitrary point of the
body; O is the centre of mass of the body, which is
defined in the next section. Suffice to say here that
the trajectories of O are the translational trajectories
Tr1 and Tr2 of the body. The positions O and P at
three different instants of time are shown by O1, O2,
and O3, and P1, P2 and P3 respectively in Fig. 7.6 (a)
and (b) both. As seen from Fig. 7.6(a), at any instant
the velocities of any particles like O and P of the body
are the same in pure translation. Notice, in this case
the orientation of OP, i.e. the angle OP makes with a
Fig. 7.7
fixed direction, say the horizontal, remains the same,
i.e. α1 = α2 = α3. Fig. 7.6 (b) illustrates a case of
combination of translation and rotation. In this case, Let the distances of the two particles be x1
at any instants the velocities of O and P differ. Also, and x2 respectively from some origin O. Let m1
α1, α2 and α3 may all be different. and m2 be respectively the masses of the two
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 145

particles. The centre of mass of the system is

m (y1 + y 2 + y 3 ) y1 + y2 + y3
that point C which is at a distance X from O, Y = =
where X is given by 3m 3
Thus, for three particles of equal mass, the
m1x 1 + m 2 x 2
X = (7.1)
centre of mass coincides with the centroid of
m1 + m 2 the triangle formed by the particles.
In Eq. (7.1), X can be regarded as the mass- Results of Eqs. (7.3a) and (7.3b) are
weighted mean of x1 and x2. If the two particles generalised easily to a system of n particles, not
have the same mass m1 = m2 = m, then necessarily lying in a plane, but distributed in
space. The centre of mass of such a system is
mx1 + mx 2 x 1 + x 2
X = = at (X, Y, Z ), where
2m 2
Thus, for two particles of equal mass the X =
∑mi xi (7.4a)
centre of mass lies exactly midway between M
them.
If we have n particles of masses m1, m2, Y =
∑ m i yi (7.4b)
...mn respectively, along a straight line taken as M
the x- axis, then by definition the position of
the centre of the mass of the system of particles and Z =
∑ m i zi (7.4c)
is given by M

m1x 1 + m 2 x 2 + .... + m n x n ∑ mi xi Here M = ∑ mi is the total mass of the

X = =
m1 + m 2 + .... + m n ∑ mi system. The index i runs from 1 to n; mi is the
mass of the ith particle and the position of the
(7.2) ith particle is given by (xi, yi, zi).
where x 1, x 2,...x n are the distances of the
Eqs. (7.4a), (7.4b) and (7.4c) can be
particles from the origin; X is also measured
combined into one equation using the notation
from the same origin. The symbol ∑ (the Greek of position vectors. Let ri be the position vector
letter sigma) denotes summation, in this case of the ith particle and R be the position vector of
over n particles. The sum the centre of mass:
∑ mi =M r = x $i + y $j + z k
i i i
µ
i
is the total mass of the system.
Suppose that we have three particles, not and R = X i$+ Y $j + Z k
µ
lying in a straight line. We may define x and y-
axes in the plane in which the particles lie and Then R =
∑ m i ri (7.4d)
represent the positions of the three particles by M
coordinates (x1,y1), (x2,y2) and (x3,y3) respectively. The sum on the right hand side is a vector
Let the masses of the three particles be m1, m2 sum.
and m3 respectively. The centre of mass C of Note the economy of expressions we achieve
the system of the three particles is defined and by use of vectors. If the origin of the frame of
located by the coordinates (X, Y) given by reference (the coordinate system) is chosen to

X =
m1x1 + m 2 x 2 + m 3 x 3 be the centre of mass then ∑ m i ri = 0 for the
m1 + m 2 + m 3 (7.3a) given system of particles.
A rigid body, such as a metre stick or a
m1y1 + m 2y2 + m 3y3 flywheel, is a system of closely packed particles;
Y = (7.3b)
m1 + m 2 + m 3 Eqs. (7.4a), (7.4b), (7.4c) and (7.4d) are
For the particles of equal mass m = m1 = m2 therefore, applicable to a rigid body. The number
= m3 , of particles (atoms or molecules) in such a body
is so large that it is impossible to carry out the
m ( x1 + x 2 + x 3 ) x1 + x 2 + x 3 summations over individual particles in these
X = =
3m 3 equations. Since the spacing of the particles is
146 PHYSICS

small, we can treat the body as a continuous Let us consider a thin rod, whose width and
distribution of mass. We subdivide the body into breath (in case the cross section of the rod is
n small elements of mass; Δm1, Δm2... Δmn; the rectangular) or radius (in case the cross section
ith element Δmi is taken to be located about the of the rod is cylindrical) is much smaller than
point (xi, yi, zi). The coordinates of the centre of its length. Taking the origin to be at the
mass are then approximately given by geometric centre of the rod and x-axis to be
along the length of the rod, we can say that on
X =
∑ ( Δm i )x i ,Y = ∑ (Δm i )yi , Z = ∑ ( Δm i )zi account of reflection symmetry, for every
∑ Δm i ∑ Δm i ∑ Δm i element dm of the rod at x, there is an element
As we make n bigger and bigger and each of the same mass dm located at –x (Fig. 7.8).
Δmi smaller and smaller, these expressions
become exact. In that case, we denote the sums The net contribution of every such pair to
over i by integrals. Thus, the integral and hence the integral ∫ x dm itself
∑ Δm i → ∫ dm = M , is zero. From Eq. (7.6), the point for which the
integral itself is zero, is the centre of mass.
∑ ( Δm i )x i → ∫ x dm , Thus, the centre of mass of a homogenous thin
rod coincides with its geometric centre. This can
∑ ( Δm i )yi → ∫ y dm , be understood on the basis of reflection symmetry.
The same symmetry argument will apply to
and ∑ (Δm i )zi → ∫ z dm homogeneous rings, discs, spheres, or even
Here M is the total mass of the body. The thick rods of circular or rectangular cross
coordinates of the centre of mass now are section. For all such bodies you will realise that
for every element dm at a point (x,y,z ) one can
1 1 1
X =
M ∫ x dm , Y =
M∫
y dm and Z =
M∫
z dm (7.5a) always take an element of the same mass at
the point (-x,-y,-z ). (In other words, the origin
The vector expression equivalent to these is a point of reflection symmetry for these
three scalar expressions is bodies.) As a result, the integrals in Eq. (7.5 a)
1 all are zero. This means that for all the above
M∫
R= r dm (7.5b) bodies, their centre of mass coincides with their
If we choose, the centre of mass as the origin geometric centre.
of our coordinate system,
X Example 7.1 Find the centre of mass of
R ( x , y, z ) = 0 three particles at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle. The masses of the
i.e., ∫ r dm = 0
particles are 100g, 150g, and 200g
respectively. Each side of the equilateral
or ∫ x dm = ∫ y dm = ∫ z dm = 0 (7.6)
triangle is 0.5m long.
Often we have to calculate the centre of mass
of homogeneous bodies of regular shapes like Answer
rings, discs, spheres, rods etc. (By a
homogeneous body we mean a body with
uniformly distributed mass.) By using symmetry
consideration, we can easily show that the
centres of mass of these bodies lie at their
geometric centres.

Fig. 7.8 Determining the CM of a thin rod. Fig. 7.9

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 147

With the X and Y axes chosen as shown in Fig. of concurrence of the medians, i.e. on the
7.9, the coordinates of points O, A and B forming centroid G of the triangle. W
the equilateral triangle are respectively (0,0),
(0.5,0), (0.25,0.25 3 ). Let the masses 100 g, X Example 7.3 Find the centre of mass of a
150g and 200g be located at O, A and B be uniform L-shaped lamina (a thin flat plate)
respectively. Then, with dimensions as shown. The mass of
the lamina is 3 kg.
m1x1 + m 2 x 2 + m 3 x 3
X =
m1 + m 2 + m 3 Answer Choosing the X and Y axes as shown
in Fig. 7.11 we have the coordinates of the
⎡100 (0) + 150(0.5) + 200(0.25)⎦⎤ g m
= ⎣
vertices of the L-shaped lamina as given in the
(100 + 150 + 200) g figure. We can think of the
L-shape to consist of 3 squares each of length
75 + 50 125 5 1m. The mass of each square is 1kg, since the
= m= m= m
450 450 18 lamina is uniform. The centres of mass C1, C2
and C3 of the squares are, by symmetry, their
⎡100(0) + 150(0) + 200(0.25 3)⎤ gm geometric centres and have coordinates (1/2,1/2),
Y = ⎣ ⎦
(3/2,1/2), (1/2,3/2) respectively. We take the
450 g
masses of the squares to be concentrated at
these points. The centre of mass of the whole
50 3 3 1
= m= m= m L shape (X, Y) is the centre of mass of these
450 9 3 3 mass points.
The centre of mass C is shown in the figure.
Note that it is not the geometric centre of the
triangle OAB. Why? W

X Example 7.2 Find the centre of mass of a

triangular lamina.

Answer The lamina (ΔLMN ) may be subdivided

into narrow strips each parallel to the base (MN)
as shown in Fig. 7.10

Fig. 7.11

Hence

X =
[1(1/ 2) + 1(3 / 2) + 1(1/ 2)] kg m 5
= m
Fig. 7.10 (1 + 1 + 1) kg 6

By symmetry each strip has its centre of ⎡[1(1/ 2) + 1(1/ 2) + 1(3 / 2)] ⎤⎦ kg m
Y = ⎣
5
mass at its midpoint. If we join the midpoint of = m
all the strips we get the median LP. The centre (1 + 1 + 1) kg 6
of mass of the triangle as a whole therefore, The centre of mass of the L-shape lies on
has to lie on the median LP. Similarly, we can the line OD. We could have guessed this without
argue that it lies on the median MQ and NR. calculations. Can you tell why? Suppose, the
This means the centre of mass lies on the point three squares that make up the L shaped lamina
148 PHYSICS

of Fig. 7.11 had different masses. How will you Thus, the total mass of a system of particles
then determine the centre of mass of the times the acceleration of its centre of mass is
lamina? W the vector sum of all the forces acting on the
system of particles.
7.3 MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS Note when we talk of the force F1 on the first
Equipped with the definition of the centre of particle, it is not a single force, but the vector
mass, we are now in a position to discuss its sum of all the forces on the first particle; likewise
physical importance for a system of particles. for the second particle etc. Among these forces
We may rewrite Eq.(7.4d) as on each particle there will be external forces
exerted by bodies outside the system and also
MR = ∑ m i ri = m1r1 + m 2 r2 + ... + m n rn (7.7) internal forces exerted by the particles on one
Differentiating the two sides of the equation another. We know from Newton’s third law that
with respect to time we get these internal forces occur in equal and opposite
dR dr dr dr pairs and in the sum of forces of Eq. (7.10),
M = m1 1 + m 2 2 + ... + m n n their contribution is zero. Only the external
dt dt dt dt
forces contribute to the equation. We can then
rewrite Eq. (7.10) as
or
MA = Fext (7.11)
M V = m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n vn (7.8)
where Fext represents the sum of all external
where v1 ( = dr1 /dt ) is the velocity of the first
forces acting on the particles of the system.
particle v 2 ( = dr 2 dt ) is the velocity of the Eq. (7.11) states that the centre of mass
of a system of particles moves as if all the
second particle etc. and V = dR / dt is the mass of the system was concentrated at the
velocity of the centre of mass. Note that we centre of mass and all the external forces
assumed the masses m1, m2, ... etc. do not were applied at that point.
change in time. We have therefore, treated them Notice, to determine the motion of the centre
as constants in differentiating the equations of mass no knowledge of internal forces of the
with respect to time. system of particles is required; for this purpose
Differentiating Eq.(7.8) with respect to time, we need to know only the external forces.
we obtain To obtain Eq. (7.11) we did not need to
specify the nature of the system of particles.
dV dv1 dv 2 dv n
M = m1 + m2 + ... + m n The system may be a collection of particles in
dt dt dt dt which there may be all kinds of internal
or motions, or it may be a rigid body which has
either pure translational motion or a
MA = m1a1 + m 2 a 2 + ... + m n a n (7.9)
combination of translational and rotational
where a1 ( = dv1 /dt ) is the acceleration of the motion. Whatever is the system and the motion
of its individual particles, the centre of mass
first particle, a 2 ( = dv 2 /dt ) is the acceleration moves according to Eq. (7.11).
Instead of treating extended bodies as single
of the second particle etc. and A ( = dV / dt ) is
particles as we have done in earlier chapters,
the acceleration of the centre of mass of the we can now treat them as systems of particles.
system of particles. We can obtain the translational component of
Now, from Newton’s second law, the force their motion, i.e. the motion centre of mass of
acting on the first particle is given by F1 = m1a1 . the system, by taking the mass of the whole
The force acting on the second particle is given system to be concentrated at the centre of mass
and all the external forces on the system to be
by F2 = m 2 a 2 and so on. Eq. (7.9) may be written
acting at the centre of mass.
as This is the procedure that we followed earlier
MA = F1 + F2 + ... + Fn (7.10) in analysing forces on bodies and solving
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 149

problems without explicitly outlining and where F is the force on the particle. Let us
justifying the procedure. We now realise that in consider a system of n particles with masses
earlier studies we assumed, without saying so, m 1 , m 2 ,...m n respectively and velocities
that rotational motion and/or internal motion v1 , v 2 ,.......vn respectively. The particles may be
of the particles were either absent or negligible.
interacting and have external forces acting on
We no longer need to do this. We have not only
them. The linear momentum of the first particle
found the justification of the procedure we
followed earlier; but we also have found how to is m1 v1 , of the second particle is m 2 v 2 and so
describe and separate the translational motion on.
of (1) a rigid body which may be rotating as For the system of n particles, the linear
well, or (2) a system of particles with all kinds momentum of the system is defined to be the
of internal motion. vector sum of all individual particles of the
system,
P = p1 + p2 + ... + pn
= m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n vn (7.14)
Comparing this with Eq. (7.8)
P=MV (7.15)
Thus, the total momentum of a system
of particles is equal to the product of the
total mass of the system and the velocity of
its centre of mass. Differentiating Eq. (7.15)
with respect to time,
Fig. 7.12 The centre of mass of the fragments dP dV
=M = MA (7.16)
of the projectile continues along the dt dt
same parabolic path which it would Comparing Eq.(7.16) and Eq. (7.11),
have followed if there were no
explosion. dP
= Fext (7.17)
dt
Figure 7.12 is a good illustration of Eq.
(7.11). A projectile, following the usual parabolic This is the statement of Newton’s second
trajectory, explodes into fragments midway in law extended to a system of particles.
air. The forces leading to the explosion are Suppose now, that the sum of external
internal forces. They contribute nothing to the forces acting on a system of particles is zero.
motion of the centre of mass. The total external Then from Eq.(7.17)
force, namely, the force of gravity acting on the dP
= 0 or P = Constant (7.18a)
body, is the same before and after the explosion. dt
The centre of mass under the influence of the Thus, when the total external force acting
external force continues, therefore, along the on a system of particles is zero, the total linear
same parabolic trajectory as it would have momentum of the system is constant. This is
followed if there were no explosion. the law of conservation of the total linear
momentum of a system of particles. Because of
7.4 LINEAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF
Eq. (7.15), this also means that when the
PARTICLES
total external force on the system is zero
Let us recall that the linear momentum of a the velocity of the centre of mass remains
particle is defined as constant. (We assume throughout the
p=mv (7.12) discussion on systems of particles in this
Let us also recall that Newton’s second law chapter that the total mass of the system
written in symbolic form for a single particle is remains constant.)
Note that on account of the internal forces,
dp i.e. the forces exerted by the particles on one
F= (7.13)
dt another, the individual particles may have
150 PHYSICS

complicated trajectories. Yet, if the total external

force acting on the system is zero, the centre of
mass moves with a constant velocity, i.e., moves
uniformly in a straight line like a free particle.
The vector Eq. (7.18a) is equivalent to three
scalar equations,
Px = c1, Py = c2 and Pz = c3 (7.18 b) (a) (b)
Here Px, Py and Pz are the components of
the total linear momentum vector P along the Fig. 7.14 (a) Trajectories of two stars, S1 (dotted
x, y and z axes respectively; c1, c2 and c3 are line) and S 2 (solid line) forming a
constants. binary system with their centre of
mass C in uniform motion.
(b) The same binary system, with the
centre of mass C at rest.

move back to back with their centre of mass

remaining at rest as shown in Fig.7.13 (b).
In many pr oblems on the system of
particles as in the above radioactive decay
problem, it is convenient to work in the centre
of mass frame rather than in the laboratory
frame of reference.
(a) (b)
In astronomy, binary (double) stars is a
common occurrence. If there are no external
forces, the centre of mass of a double star
Fig. 7.13 (a) A heavy nucleus (Ra) splits into a
moves like a free particle, as shown in Fig.7.14
lighter nucleus (Rn) and an alpha
particle (He). The CM of the system is (a). The trajectories of the two stars of equal
in uniform motion. mass are also shown in the figure; they look
(b) The same spliting of the heavy nucleus complicated. If we go to the centre of mass
(Ra) with the centre of mass at rest. frame, then we find that there the two stars
The two product particles fly back to are moving in a circle, about the centre of
back. mass, which is at rest. Note that the position
of the stars have to be diametrically opposite
As an example, let us consider the to each other [Fig. 7.14(b)]. Thus in our frame
radioactive decay of a moving unstable particle, of reference, the trajectories of the stars are a
like the nucleus of radium. A radium nucleus combination of (i) uniform motion in a straight
disintegrates into a nucleus of radon and an line of the centre of mass and (ii) circular
alpha particle. The forces leading to the decay orbits of the stars about the centre of mass.
are internal to the system and the external As can be seen from the two examples,
forces on the system are negligible. So the total separating the motion of different parts of a
linear momentum of the system is the same system into motion of the centre of mass and
before and after decay. The two particles motion about the centre of mass is a very
useful technique that helps in understanding
produced in the decay, the radon nucleus and
the motion of the system.
the alpha particle, move in different directions
in such a way that their centre of mass moves
7.5 VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
along the same path along which the original
decaying radium nucleus was moving We are already familiar with vectors and their
[Fig. 7.13(a)]. use in physics. In chapter 6 (Work, Energy,
If we observe the decay from the frame of Power) we defined the scalar product of two
reference in which the centre of mass is at rest, vectors. An important physical quantity, work,
the motion of the particles involved in the decay is defined as a scalar product of two vector
looks particularly simple; the product particles quantities, force and displacement.
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 151

We shall now define another product of two A simpler version of the right hand rule is
vectors. This product is a vector. Two important the following : Open up your right hand palm
quantities in the study of rotational motion, and curl the fingers pointing from a to b. Your
namely, moment of a force and angular stretched thumb points in the direction of c.
momentum, are defined as vector products. It should be remembered that there are two
angles between any two vectors a and b . In
Definition of Vector Product
Fig. 7.15 (a) or (b) they correspond to θ (as
A vector product of two vectors a and b is a shown) and (3600– θ ). While applying either of
vector c such that the above rules, the rotation should be taken
(i) magnitude of c = c = ab sin θ where a and b through the smaller angle (<1800) between a
are magnitudes of a and b and θ is the and b. It is θ here.
angle between the two vectors. Because of the cross used to denote the
(ii) c is perpendicular to the plane containing vector product, it is also referred to as cross
a and b. product.
(iii) if we take a right handed screw with its head
• Note that scalar product of two vectors is
lying in the plane of a and b and the screw
commutative as said earlier, a.b = b.a
perpendicular to this plane, and if we turn
The vector product, however, is not
the head in the direction from a to b, then
commutative, i.e. a × b ≠ b × a
the tip of the screw advances in the direction
The magnitude of both a × b and b × a is the
of c. This right handed screw rule is
same ( ab sin θ ); also, both of them are
illustrated in Fig. 7.15a.
perpendicular to the plane of a and b. But the
Alternately, if one curls up the fingers of
rotation of the right-handed screw in case of
right hand around a line perpendicular to the a × b is from a to b, whereas in case of b × a it
plane of the vectors a and b and if the fingers is from b to a. This means the two vectors are
are curled up in the direction from a to b, then in opposite directions. We have
the stretched thumb points in the direction of
c, as shown in Fig. 7.15b. a × b = −b × a
• Another interesting property of a vector
product is its behaviour under reflection.
Under reflection (i.e. on taking the mirror
image) we have x → −x , y → −y and z → −z .
As a result all the components of a vector
change sign and thus a → −a , b → −b .
What happens to a × b under reflection?
a × b → ( −a ) × ( − b ) = a × b
Thus, a × b does not change sign under
reflection.
• Both scalar and vector products are
distributive with respect to vector addition.
Thus,
a.( b + c) = a.b + a.c
a × ( b + c) = a × b + a × c
(a) (b) • We may write c = a × b in the component
form. For this we first need to obtain some
elementary cross products:
Fig. 7.15 (a) Rule of the right handed screw for (i) a × a = 0 (0 is a null vector, i.e. a vector
defining the direction of the vector
with zero magnitude)
product of two vectors.
(b) Rule of the right hand for defining the This follows since magnitude of a × a is
direction of the vector product. a 2 sin 0° = 0 .
152 PHYSICS

From this follow the results

ˆi ˆj ˆ
k
ˆi × ˆi = 0, ˆj × ˆj = 0, k
ˆ ×k
ˆ =0
a×b= 3 −4 5 = 7ˆi − ˆj − 5k
ˆ
(ii) ˆi × ˆj = k
ˆ −2 1 −3
Note that the magnitude of ˆi × ˆj is sin900
Note b × a = −7ˆi + ˆj + 5k
ˆ
or 1, since î and ĵ both have unit
magnitude and the angle between them is 900. 7.6 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ITS
RELATION WITH LINEAR VELOCITY
Thus, ˆi × ˆj is a unit vector. A unit vector
In this section we shall study what is angular
perpendicular to the plane of î and ĵ and velocity and its role in rotational motion. We
related to them by the right hand screw rule is have seen that every particle of a rotating body
moves in a circle. The linear velocity of the
k̂ . Hence, the above result. You may verify particle is related to the angular velocity. The
similarly,
relation between these two quantities involves
ˆj × kˆ = ˆi and k ˆ × ˆi = ˆj a vector product which we learnt about in the
From the rule for commutation of the cross last section.
product, it follows: Let us go back to Fig. 7.4. As said above, in
rotational motion of a rigid body about a fixed
ˆj × ˆi = − k
ˆ, k
ˆ × ˆj = −ˆi, ˆi × k
ˆ = − ˆj axis, every particle of the body moves in a circle,
Note if ˆi, ˆj, k
ˆ occur cyclically in the above
vector product relation, the vector product is
positive. If ˆi, ˆj, k
ˆ do not occur in cyclic order,
the vector product is negative.
Now,
a × b = (a ˆi + a ˆj + a k
x y
ˆ ) × (b ˆi + b ˆj + b k
z x
ˆ)
y z

ˆ − a b ˆj − a b k
= a x by k ˆ + a b ˆi + a b ˆj − a b ˆi
x z y x y z z x z y

= (a ybz − a z b x )ˆi + (a z b x − a x b z )ˆj + (a x by − a yb x )k

ˆ
We have used the elementary cross products
in obtaining the above relation. The expression
for a × b can be put in a determinant form
which is easy to remember.
ˆi ˆj kˆ
a × b = ax ay az
bx by bz

Example 7.4 Find the scalar and vector Fig. 7.16 Rotation about a fixed axis. (A particle (P)
of the rigid body rotating about the fixed
products of two vectors. a = (3î – 4ĵ + 5k̂ )
(z-) axis moves in a circle with centre (C)
and b = (– 2î + ĵ – 3k̂ ) on the axis.)

Answer which lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis

and has its centre on the axis. In Fig. 7.16 we
a gb = (3ˆi − 4 ˆj + 5k
ˆ )g( −2ˆi + ˆj − 3k
ˆ)
redraw Fig. 7.4, showing a typical particle (at a
= −6 − 4 − 15 point P) of the rigid body rotating about a fixed
= −25 axis (taken as the z-axis). The particle describes
 SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 153

a circle with a centre C on the axis. The radius and points out in the direction in which a right
of the circle is r, the perpendicular distance of handed screw would advance, if the head of the
the point P from the axis. We also show the screw is rotated with the body. (See Fig. 7.17a).
linear velocity vector v of the particle at P. It is The magnitude of this vector is
along the tangent at P to the circle.
referred as above.
Let P′ be the position of the particle after an
interval of time Δt (Fig. 7.16). The angle PCP′
describes the angular displacement Δθ of the
particle in time Δt. The average angular velocity
of the particle over the interval Δt is Δθ /Δt. As
Δt tends to zero (i.e. takes smaller and smaller
values), the ratio Δθ/Δt approaches a limit which
is the instantaneous angular velocity dθ /dt of
the particle at the position P. We denote the
instantaneous angular velocity by ω (the
Greek letter omega). We know from our study Fig. 7.17 (a) If the head of a right handed screw
of circular motion that the magnitude of linear rotates with the body, the screw
velocity v of a particle moving in a circle is advances in the direction of the angular
related to the angular velocity of the particle ω velocity ω. If the sense (clockwise or
by the simple relation υ = ω r , where r is the anticlockwise) of rotation of the body
radius of the circle. changes, so does the direction of ω.
We observe that at any given instant the
relation v = ω r applies to all particles of the
rigid body. Thus for a particle at a perpendicular
distance ri from the fixed axis, the linear velocity
at a given instant vi is given by
ω = dθ dt vi = ω ri (7.19)
The index i runs from 1 to n, where n is the
total number of particles of the body.
For particles on the axis, r = 0 , and hence
v = ω r = 0. Thus, particles on the axis are
stationary. This verifies that the axis is fixed.
Note that we use the same angular velocity
ω for all the particles. We therefore, refer to
ω as the angular velocity of the whole body.
We have characterised pure translation of Fig. 7.17 (b) The angular velocity vector ω is
a body by all parts of the body having the same directed along the fixed axis as shown.
velocity at any instant of time. Similarly, we The linear velocity of the particle at P
may characterise pure rotation by all parts of is v = ω × r. It is perpendicular to both
ω and r and is directed along the
the body having the same angular velocity at
tangent to the circle described by the
any instant of time. Note that this particle.
characterisation of the rotation of a rigid body
about a fixed axis is just another way of saying We shall now look at what the vector product
as in Sec. 7.1 that each particle of the body moves ω × r corresponds to. Refer to Fig. 7.17(b) which
in a circle, which lies in a plane perpendicular is a part of Fig. 7.16 reproduced to show the
to the axis and has the centre on the axis. path of the particle P. The figure shows the
In our discussion so far the angular velocity vector ω directed along the fixed (z-) axis and
appears to be a scalar. In fact, it is a vector. We also the position vector r = OP of the particle
shall not justify this fact, but we shall accept at P of the rigid body with respect to the origin
it. For rotation about a fixed axis, the angular O. Note that the origin is chosen to be on the
velocity vector lies along the axis of rotation, axis of rotation.
154 PHYSICS

Now ω × r = ω × OP = ω × (OC + CP ) If the axis of rotation is fixed, the direction

of ω and hence, that of α is fixed. In this case
But ω × OC = 0 as ω is along OC the vector equation reduces to a scalar equation
Hence ω × r = ω × CP dω
α= (7.22)
The vector ω × CP is perpendicular to ω, i.e. dt
to CP, the z-axis and also to the radius of the
circle described by the particle at P. It is 7.7 TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
therefore, along the tangent to the circle at P.
In this section, we shall acquaint ourselves with
Also, the magnitude of ω × CP is ω (CP) since
two physical quantities which are defined as
ω and CP are perpendicular to each other. We
vector products of two vectors. These as we shall
shall denote CP by r⊥ and not by r, as we did see, are especially important in the discussion
earlier. of motion of systems of particles, particularly
Thus, ω × r is a vector of magnitude ωr⊥ rigid bodies.
and is along the tangent to the circle described
by the particle at P. The linear velocity vector v 7.7.1 Moment of force (Torque)
at P has the same magnitude and direction.
Thus, We have learnt that the motion of a rigid body
in general is a combination of rotation and
v=ω × r (7.20)
translation. If the body is fixed at a point or
In fact, the relation, Eq. (7.20), holds good
along a line, it has only rotational motion. We
even for rotation of a rigid body with one point
fixed, such as the rotation of the top [Fig. 7.6(a)]. know that force is needed to change the
In this case r represents the position vector of translational state of a body, i.e. to produce
the particle with respect to the fixed point taken linear acceleration. We may then ask, what is
as the origin. the analogue of force in the case of rotational
We note that for rotation about a fixed motion? To look into the question in a concrete
axis, the direction of the vector ω does not situation let us take the example of opening or
change with time. Its magnitude may, closing of a door. A door is a rigid body which
however, change from instant to instant. For
can rotate about a fixed vertical axis passing
the more general rotation, both the
magnitude and the direction of ω may change through the hinges. What makes the door
from instant to instant. rotate? It is clear that unless a force is applied
the door does not rotate. But any force does
7.6.1 Angular acceleration not do the job. A force applied to the hinge line
You may have noticed that we are developing cannot produce any rotation at all, whereas a
the study of rotational motion along the lines force of given magnitude applied at right angles
of the study of translational motion with which to the door at its outer edge is most effective in
we are already familiar. Analogous to the kinetic producing rotation. It is not the force alone, but
variables of linear displacement and velocity (v) how and where the force is applied is important
in translational motion, we have angular in rotational motion.
displacement and angular velocity ( ω) in The rotational analogue of force is moment
rotational motion. It is then natural to define of force. It is also referred to as torque. (We
in rotational motion the concept of angular shall use the words moment of force and torque
acceleration in analogy with linear acceleration interchangeably.) We shall first define the
defined as the time rate of change of velocity in moment of force for the special case of a single
translational motion. We define angular particle. Later on we shall extend the concept
acceleration α as the time rate of change of
to systems of particles including rigid bodies.
angular velocity; Thus,
We shall also relate it to a change in the state
dω of rotational motion, i.e. is angular acceleration
α= (7.21)
dt of a rigid body.
 SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 155

of the line of action of F form the origin and

F⊥ ( = F sin θ ) is the component of F in the
direction perpendicular to r. Note that τ = 0 if
r = 0, F = 0 or θ = 00 or 1800 . Thus, the moment
of a force vanishes if either the magnitude of
the force is zero, or if the line of action of the
force passes through the origin.
One may note that since r × F is a vector
product, properties of a vector product of two
vectors apply to it. If the direction of F is
reversed, the direction of the moment of force
is reversed. If directions of both r and F are
reversed, the direction of the moment of force
remains the same.

7.7.2 Angular momentum of a particle

Just as the moment of a force is the rotational
analogue of force, the quantity angular
momentum is the rotational analogue of linear
Fig. 7.18 τ = r × F , τ is perpendicular to the momentum. We shall first define angular
plane containing r and F, and its
momentum for the special case of a single
direction is given by the right handed
particle and look at its usefulness in the context
screw rule.
of single particle motion. We shall then extend
the definition of angular momentum to systems
If a force acts on a single particle at a point
of particles including rigid bodies.
P whose position with respect to the origin O is
l = r p⊥ Like moment of a force, angular momentum
given by the position vector r (Fig. 7.18), the
is also a vector product. It could also be referred
moment of the force acting on the particle with
to as moment of (linear) momentum. From this
respect to the origin O is defined as the vector
term one could guess how angular momentum
product
is defined.
τ =r×F (7.23)
Consider a particle of mass m and linear
The moment of force (or torque) is a vector
momentum p at a position r relative to the origin
quantity. The symbol τ stands for the Greek
O. The angular momentum l of the particle with
letter tau. The magnitude of τ is
respect to the origin O is defined to be
τ = rF sinθ (7.24a)
l=r×p (7.25a)
where r is the magnitude of the position vector
The magnitude of the angular momentum
r, i.e. the length OP, F is the magnitude of force
vector is
F and θ is the angle between r and F as
shown. l = r p sinθ (7.26a)
Moment of force has dimensions M L2 T -2. where p is the magnitude of p and θ is the angle
Its dimensions are the same as those of work between r and p. We may write
or energy. It is, however, a very different physical or r⊥ p (7.26b)
quantity than work. Moment of a force is a
vector, while work is a scalar. The SI unit of where r⊥ (= r sinθ) is the perpendicular distance
moment of force is Newton-metre (Nm). The of the directional line of p from the origin and
magnitude of the moment of force may be p ⊥ ( = p sin θ ) is the component of p in a direction
written
perpendicular to r. We expect the angular
τ = (r sin θ )F = r⊥ F (7.24b) momentum to be zero (l = 0), if the linear
momentum vanishes (p = 0), if the particle is at
or τ = rF sin θ = rF⊥ (7.24c)
the origin (r = 0), or if the directional line of p
where r⊥ = r sinθ is the perpendicular distance passes through the origin θ = 00 or 1800.
156 PHYSICS

The physical quantities, moment of a force

and angular momentum, have an important An experiment with the bicycle rim
relation between them. It is the rotational
T ake a
analogue of the relation between force and linear bicycle rim
momentum. For deriving the relation in the and extend
context of a single particle, we differentiate its axle on
l = r × p with respect to time, both sides.
T ie two
dl d
= ( r × p) s t r i n g s
dt dt at both ends
Applying the product rule for differentiation A and B,
to the right hand side, as shown
in the
d dr dp adjoining
( r × p) = ×p+r×
dt dt dt figure. Hold
Now, the velocity of the particle is v = dr/dt both the
and p = m v Initially After s t r i n g s
together in
dr one hand such that the rim is vertical. If you
Because of this × p = v × m v = 0,
dt leave one string, the rim will tilt. Now keeping
as the vector product of two parallel vectors the rim in vertical position with both the strings
in one hand, put the wheel in fast rotation
vanishes. Further, since dp / dt = F,
around the axle with the other hand. Then leave
dp one string, say B, from your hand, and observe
r× = r×F = τ what happens.
dt
The rim keeps rotating in a vertical plane
d and the plane of rotation turns around the
Hence ( r × p) = τ string A which you are holding. We say that the
dt
axis of rotation of the rim or equivalently
dl its angular momentum precesses about the
or =τ (7.27) string A.
dt
The rotating rim gives rise to an angular
Thus, the time rate of change of the angular momentum. Determine the direction of this
momentum of a particle is equal to the torque angular momentum. When you are holding the
acting on it. This is the rotational analogue of rotating rim with string A, a torque is generated.
the equation F = dp/dt, which expresses (We leave it to you to find out how the torque is
Newton’s second law for the translational motion generated and what its direction is.) The effect
of a single particle. of the torque on the angular momentum is to
make it precess around an axis perpendicular
Torque and angular momentum for a system to both the angular momentum and the torque.
Verify all these statements.
of particles
To get the total angular momentum of a system
of particles about a given point we need to add particle has mass mi and velocity vi ) We may
vectorially the angular momenta of individual write the total angular momentum of a system
particles. Thus, for a system of n particles, of particles as
n L = ∑ li = ∑ ri × pi
L = l1 + l2 + ... + ln = ∑l i i
(7.25b)
i =1
This is a generalisation of the definition of
The angular momentum of the ith particle angular momentum (Eq. 7.25a) for a single
is given by particle to a system of particles.
l i = ri × pi Using Eqs. (7.23) and (7.25b), we get
where ri is the position vector of the ith particle
with respect to a given origin and p = (mivi) is
the linear momentum of the particle. (The
dL
dt
=
d
dt
(∑ l ) = ∑ ddlt = ∑ τ
i
i
i (7.28a)
i i
158 PHYSICS

Answer Let the particle with velocity v be at acceleration nor angular acceleration. This
point P at some instant t. We want to calculate means
the angular momentum of the particle about (1) the total force, i.e. the vector sum of the
an arbitrary point O. forces, on the rigid body is zero;
n
F1 + F2 + ... + Fn = ∑F i =0 (7.30a)
i =1

If the total force on the body is zero, then

the total linear momentum of the body does
not change with time. Eq. (7.30a) gives the
condition for the translational equilibrium
of the body.
(2) The total torque, i.e. the vector sum of the
torques on the rigid body is zero,
n
Fig 7.19 τ1 + τ 2 + ... + τ n = ∑τ i =0 (7.30b)
i =1
The angular momentum is l = r × mv. Its
If the total torque on the rigid body is zero,
magnitude is mvr sinθ , where θ is the angle
the total angular momentum of the body does
between r and v as shown in Fig. 7.19. Although
the particle changes position with time, the line not change with time. Eq. (7.30 b) gives the
of direction of v remains the same and hence condition for the rotational equilibrium of the
body.
OM = r sin θ . is a constant.
One may raise a question, whether the
Further, the direction of l is perpendicular
to the plane of r and v. It is into the page of the rotational equilibrium condition [Eq. 7.30(b)]
figure.This direction does not change with time. remains valid, if the origin with respect to which
Thus, l remains the same in magnitude and the torques are taken is shifted. One can show
direction and is therefore conserved. Is there that if the translational equilibrium condition
any external torque on the particle? W [Eq. 7.30(a)] holds for a rigid body, then such a
shift of origin does not matter, i.e. the rotational
7.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY equilibrium condition is independent of the
location of the origin about which the torques
We are now going to concentrate on the motion
are taken. Example 7.7 gives a proof of this
of rigid bodies rather than on the motion of
general systems of particles. result in a special case of a couple, i.e. two forces
We shall recapitulate what effect the acting on a rigid body in translational
external forces have on a rigid body. (Henceforth equilibrium. The generalisation of this result to
we shall omit the adjective ‘external’ because n forces is left as an exercise.
unless stated otherwise, we shall deal with only Eq. (7.30a) and Eq. (7.30b), both, are vector
external forces and torques.) The forces change equations. They are equivalent to three scalar
the translational state of the motion of the rigid equations each. Eq. (7.30a) corresponds to
body, i.e. they change its total linear momentum n n n
in accordance with Eq. (7.17). But this is not ∑ Fix =0, ∑ Fiy = 0 and ∑ Fiz =0 (7.31a)
i =1 i =1 i =1
the only effect the forces have. The total torque
on the body may not vanish. Such a torque where Fix, Fiy and Fiz are respectively the x, y
changes the rotational state of motion of the and z components of the forces Fi. Similarly,
rigid body, i.e. it changes the total angular Eq. (7.30b) is equivalent to three scalar
momentum of the body in accordance with Eq. equations
(7.28 b). n n n
A rigid body is said to be in mechanical ∑ τ ix = 0, ∑ τ iy = 0 and ∑ τ iz =0 (7.31b)
equilibrium, if both its linear momentum and i =1 i =1 i =1

angular momentum are not changing with time, where τ ix, τ iy and τ iz are respectively the x, y
or equivalently, the body has neither linear and z components of the torque τ i .
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 159

Eq. (7.31a) and (7.31b) give six independent

conditions to be satisfied for mechanical
equilibrium of a rigid body. In a number of
problems all the forces acting on the body are
coplanar. Then we need only three conditions
to be satisfied for mechanical equilibrium. Two
of these conditions correspond to translational
equilibrium; the sum of the components of the Fig. 7.20 (b)
forces along any two perpendicular axes in the
plane must be zero. The third condition The force at B in Fig. 7.20(a) is reversed in
corresponds to rotational equilibrium. The sum Fig. 7.20(b). Thus, we have the same rod with
of the components of the torques along any axis two equal and opposite forces applied
perpendicular to the plane of the forces must perpendicular to the rod, one at end A and the
be zero. other at end B. Here the moments of both the
The conditions of equilibrium of a rigid body forces are equal, but they are not opposite; they
may be compared with those for a particle, act in the same sense and cause anticlockwise
rotation of the rod. The total force on the body
which we considered in earlier chapters. Since
is zero; so the body is in translational
consideration of rotational motion does not
equilibrium; but it is not in rotational
apply to a particle, only the conditions for
equilibrium. Although the rod is not fixed in
translational equilibrium (Eq. 7.30 a) apply to any way, it undergoes pure rotation (i.e. rotation
a particle. Thus, for equilibrium of a particle without translation).
the vector sum of all the forces on it must be A pair of equal and opposite forces with
zero. Since all these forces act on the single different lines of action is known as a couple. A
particle, they must be concurrent. Equilibrium couple produces rotation without translation.
under concurrent forces was discussed in the When we open the lid of a bottle by turning
earlier chapters. it, our fingers are applying a couple to the lid
A body may be in partial equilibrium, i.e., it [Fig. 7.21(a)]. Another known example is a
may be in translational equilibrium and not in compass needle in the earth’s magnetic field as
rotational equilibrium, or it may be in rotational shown in the Fig. 7.21(b). The earth’s magnetic
equilibrium and not in translational field exerts equal forces on the north and south
equilibrium. poles. The force on the North Pole is towards
Consider a light (i.e. of negligible mass) rod the north, and the force on the South Pole is
(AB), at the two ends (A and B) of which two toward the south. Except when the needle points
parallel forces both equal in magnitude are in the north-south direction; the two forces do
applied perpendicular to the rod as shown in not have the same line of action. Thus there is
Fig. 7.20(a). a couple acting on the needle due to the earth’s
magnetic field.

Fig. 7.20 (a)

Let C be the midpoint of AB, CA = CB = a.

the moment of the forces at A and B will both
be equal in magnitude (aF), but opposite in
sense as shown. The net moment on the rod
will be zero. The system will be in rotational
equilibrium, but it will not be in translational
Fig. 7.21(a) Our fingers apply a couple to turn the
equilibrium; ∑F ≠ 0 lid.
160 PHYSICS

length. This point is called the fulcrum. A see-

saw on the children’s playground is a typical
example of a lever. Two forces F1 and F2, parallel
to each other and usually perpendicular to the
lever, as shown here, act on the lever at
distances d 1 and d 2 respectively from the
fulcrum as shown in Fig. 7.23.

Fig. 7.21(b) The Earth’s magnetic field exerts equal Fig. 7.23
and opposite forces on the poles of a
compass needle. These two forces form The lever is a system in mechanical
a couple. equilibrium. Let R be the reaction of the support
at the fulcrum; R is directed opposite to the
X Example 7.7 Show that moment of a forces F1 and F2. For translational equilibrium,
couple does not depend on the point about
which you take the moments. R – F1 – F2 = 0 (i)

Answer For considering rotational equilibrium we

take the moments about the fulcrum; the sum
of moments must be zero,
d 1F 1 – d 2 F 2 = 0 (ii)
Normally the anticlockwise (clockwise)
moments are taken to be positive (negative). Note
R acts at the fulcrum itself and has zero moment
Fig. 7.22 about the fulcrum.
In the case of the lever force F1 is usually
Consider a couple as shown in Fig. 7.22 some weight to be lifted. It is called the load
acting on a rigid body. The forces F and -F act and its distance from the fulcrum d1 is called
respectively at points B and A. These points have the load arm. Force F2 is the effort applied to lift
position vectors r1 and r2 with respect to origin the load; distance d2 of the effort from the
O. Let us take the moments of the forces about fulcrum is the effort arm.
the origin. Eq. (ii) can be written as
The moment of the couple = sum of the d 1F 1 = d 2 F 2 (7.32a)
moments of the two forces making the couple or load arm × load = effort arm × effort
= r1 × (–F) + r2 × F The above equation expresses the principle
= r 2 × F – r1 × F of moments for a lever. Incidentally the ratio
= (r2–r1) × F F1/F2 is called the Mechanical Advantage (M.A.);
But r1 + AB = r2, and hence AB = r2 – r1. F1 d 2
The moment of the couple, therefore, is M.A. = F = d (7.32b)
AB × F. 2 1

Clearly this is independent of the origin, the If the effort arm d2 is larger than the load
point about which we took the moments of the arm, the mechanical advantage is greater than
forces. W one. Mechanical advantage greater than one
means that a small effort can be used to lift a
7.8.1 Principle of moments large load. There are several examples of a lever
An ideal lever is essentially a light (i.e. of around you besides the see-saw. The beam of a
negligible mass) rod pivoted at a point along its balance is a lever. Try to find more such
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 161

examples and identify the fulcrum, the effort The CG of the cardboard is so located that
and effort arm, and the load and the load arm the total torque on it due to the forces m1g, m2g
of the lever in each case. …. etc. is zero.
You may easily show that the principle of If ri is the position vector of the ith particle
moment holds even when the parallel forces F1 of an extended body with respect to its CG, then
and F2 are not perpendicular, but act at some the torque about the CG, due to the force of
angle, to the lever. gravity on the particle is τ i = ri × mi g. The total
gravitational torque about the CG is zero, i.e.
7.8.2 Centre of gravity
τ g = ∑ τi = ∑r
i × mi g = 0 (7.33)
Many of you may have the experience of We may therefore, define the CG of a body
balancing your notebook on the tip of a finger. as that point where the total gravitational torque
Figure 7.24 illustrates a similar experiment that on the body is zero.
you can easily perform. Take an irregular- We notice that in Eq. (7.33), g is the same
shaped cardboard and a narrow tipped object for all particles, and hence it comes out of the
like a pencil. You can locate by trial and error a summation. This gives, since g is nonzero,
point G on the cardboard where it can be
balanced on the tip of the pencil. (The cardboard ∑m r i i = 0. Remember that the position vectors
remains horizontal in this position.) This point (ri) are taken with respect to the CG. Now, in
of balance is the centre of gravity (CG) of the accordance with the reasoning given below
cardboard. The tip of the pencil provides a Eq. (7.4a) in Sec. 7.2, if the sum is zero, the
vertically upward force due to which the origin must be the centre of mass of the body.
cardboard is in mechanical equilibrium. As Thus, the centre of gravity of the body coincides
shown in the Fig. 7.24, the reaction of the tip is with the centre of mass. We note that this is
equal and opposite to Mg, the total weight of true because the body being small, g does not
(i.e., the force of gravity on) the cardboard and
hence the cardboard is in translational
equilibrium. It is also in rotational equilibrium;
if it were not so, due to the unbalanced torque
it would tilt and fall. There are torques on the
card board due to the forces of gravity like m1g,
m2g …. etc, acting on the individual particles
that make up the cardboard.

Fig. 7.25 Determining the centre of gravity of a body

Fig. 7.24 Balancing a cardboard on the tip of a of irregular shape. The centre of gravity G
pencil. The point of support, G, is the lies on the vertical AA1 through the point
centre of gravity. of suspension of the body A.
162 PHYSICS

vary from one point of the body to the other. If 4.00 kg and W1= suspended weight = 6.00 kg;
the body is so extended that g varies from part R 1 and R 2 are the normal reactions of the
to part of the body, then the centre of gravity support at the knife edges.
and centre of mass will not coincide. Basically, For translational equilibrium of the rod,
the two are different concepts. The centre of R1+R2 –W1 –W = 0 (i)
mass has nothing to do with gravity. It depends Note W1 and W act vertically down and R1
only on the distribution of mass of the body. and R2 act vertically up.
In Sec. 7.2 we found out the position of the For considering rotational equilibrium, we
centre of mass of several regular, homogeneous take moments of the forces. A convenient point
objects. Obviously the method used there gives to take moments about is G. The moments of
us also the centre of gravity of these bodies, if R2 and W1 are anticlockwise (+ve), whereas the
they are small enough. moment of R1 is clockwise (-ve).
Figure 7.25 illustrates another way of For rotational equilibrium,
determining the CG of an regular shaped body –R1 (K1G) + W1 (PG) + R2 (K2G) = 0 (ii)
like a cardboard. If you suspend the body from It is given that W = 4.00g N and W1 = 6.00g
some point like A, the vertical line through A N, where g = acceleration due to gravity. We
passes through the CG. We mark the vertical take g = 9.8 m/s2.
AA1. We then suspend the body through other With numerical values inserted, from (i)
points like B and C. The intersection of the R1 + R2 – 4.00g – 6.00g = 0
verticals gives the CG. Explain why the method or R1 + R2 = 10.00g N (iii)
works. Since the body is small enough, the = 98.00 N
method allows us to determine also its centre From (ii) – 0.25 R1 + 0.05 W1 + 0.25 R2 = 0
of mass. or R2 – R1 = 1.2g N = 11.76 N (iv)
From (iii) and (iv), R1 = 54.88 N,
Example 7.8 A metal bar 70 cm long R2 = 43.12 N
and 4.00 kg in mass supported on two Thus the reactions of the support are about
knife-edges placed 10 cm from each end. 55 N at K1 and 43 N at K2.
A 6.00 kg weight is suspended at 30 cm
from one end. Find the reactions at the Example 7.9 A 3m long ladder weighing
knife-edges. (Assume the bar to be of 20 kg leans on a frictionless wall. Its feet
uniform cross section and homogeneous.) rest on the floor 1 m from the wall as shown
in Fig.7.27. Find the reaction forces of the
Answer wall and the floor.

Answer

Fig. 7.26

Figure 7.26 shows the rod AB, the positions

of the knife edges K1 and K2 , the centre of
gravity of the rod at G and the suspended weight
at P.
Note the weight of the rod W acts at its
centre of gravity G. The rod is uniform in cross
section and homogeneous; hence G is at the
centre of the rod; AB = 70 cm. AG = 35 cm, AP Fig. 7.27
= 30 cm, PG = 5 cm, AK1= BK2 = 10 cm and K1G The ladder AB is 3 m long, its foot A is at
= K2G = 25 cm. Also, W= weight of the rod = distance AC = 1 m from the wall. From
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 163

Pythagoras theorem, BC = 2 2 m. The forces linear velocity is υi = ri ω . The kinetic energy of

on the ladder are its weight W acting at its centre motion of this particle is
of gravity D, reaction forces F1 and F2 of the wall 1 1
and the floor respectively. Force F 1 is ki = m iυi2 = m i ri2ω 2
2 2
perpendicular to the wall, since the wall is
frictionless. Force F 2 is resolved into two where mi is the mass of the particle. The total
components, the normal reaction N and the kinetic energy K of the body is then given by
force of friction F. Note that F prevents the ladder the sum of the kinetic energies of individual
from sliding away from the wall and is therefore particles,
directed toward the wall. n
1 n
K = ∑ ki = ∑ (m i ri2ω 2 )
For translational equilibrium, taking the i =1 2 i =1
forces in the vertical direction, Here n is the number of particles in the body.
N–W=0 (i) Note ω is the same for all particles. Hence, taking
Taking the forces in the horizontal direction, ω out of the sum,
F – F1 = 0 (ii) 1 n
K = ω 2 ( ∑ m i ri2 )
For rotational equilibrium, taking the 2 i =1
moments of the forces about A,
We define a new parameter characterising
2 2 F1 − (1/2) W = 0 (iii) the rigid body, called the moment of inertia I ,
given by
n
Now W = 20 g = 20 × 9.8 N = 196.0 N I = ∑ m i ri2 (7.34)
From (i) N = 196.0 i =1

With this definition,

From (iii) F1 = W 4 2 = 196.0 / 4 2 = 34.6 N
1 2
From (ii) F = F1 = 34.6 N K= Iω (7.35)
2
Note that the parameter I is independent of
F2 = F 2 + N 2 = 199.0 N the magnitude of the angular velocity. It is a
The force F2 makes an angle α with the characteristic of the rigid body and the axis
horizontal, about which it rotates.
Compare Eq. (7.35) for the kinetic energy of
tan α = N F = 4 2 , α = tan −1 (4 2 ) ≈ 80o a rotating body with the expression for the
kinetic energy of a body in linear (translational)
7.9 MOMENT OF INERTIA motion,
We have already mentioned that we are 1
K= m υ2
developing the study of rotational motion 2
parallel to the study of translational motion with Here m is the mass of the body and v is its
which we are familiar. We have yet to answer velocity. We have already noted the analogy
one major question in this connection. What is between angular velocity ω(in respect of rotational
the analogue of mass in rotational motion? motion about a fixed axis) and linear velocity v (in
We shall attempt to answer this question in the respect of linear motion). It is then evident that
the parameter, moment of inertia I, is the desired
present section. To keep the discussion simple,
rotational analogue of mass. In rotation (about a
we shall consider rotation about a fixed axis
fixed axis), the moment of inertia plays a similar
only. Let us try to get an expression for the role as mass does in linear motion.
kinetic energy of a rotating body. We know We now apply the definition Eq. (7.34), to
that for a body rotating about a fixed axis, each calculate the moment of inertia in two simple
particle of the body moves in a circle with linear cases.
velocity given by Eq. (7.19). (Refer to Fig. 7.16). (a) Consider a thin ring of radius R and mass
For a particle at a distance from the axis, the M, rotating in its own plane around its
164 PHYSICS

centre with angular velocity ω. Each mass to the body as a whole. As a measure of the way
element of the ring is at a distance R from in which the mass of a rotating rigid body is
the axis, and moves with a speed Rω. The distributed with respect to the axis of rotation,
kinetic energy is therefore, we can define a new parameter, the radius of
1 1 gyration. It is related to the moment of inertia
K= Mυ 2 = MR 2ω 2 and the total mass of the body.
2 2
Comparing with Eq. (7.35) we get I = MR 2 Notice from the Table 7.1 that in all cases,
for the ring. we can write I = Mk2, where k has the dimension
of length. For a rod, about the perpendicular
axis at its midpoint, k 2 = L2 12, i.e.

k 2 = L 12 . Similarly, k = R/2 for the circular

disc about its diameter. The length k is a
geometric property of the body and axis of
rotation. It is called the radius of gyration. The
radius of gyration of a body about an axis
may be defined as the distance from the axis of
a mass point whose mass is equal to the mass
of the whole body and whose moment of inertia
is equal to the moment of inertia of the body
Fig. 7.28 A light rod of length l with a pair of masses
rotating about an axis through the centre of
about the axis.
mass of the system and perpendicular to Thus, the moment of inertia of a rigid body
the rod. The total mass of the system is M. depends on the mass of the body, its shape and
size; distribution of mass about the axis of
(b) Next, take a rigid massless rod of length l rotation, and the position and orientation of the
with a pair of small masses, rotating about axis of rotation.
an axis through the centre of mass From the definition, Eq. (7.34), we can infer
perpendicular to the rod (Fig. 7.28). Each that the dimensions of moments of inertia we
mass M/2 is at a distance l/2 from the axis. ML2 and its SI units are kg m2.
The moment of inertia of the masses is The property of this extremely important
therefore given by quantity I as a measure of rotational inertia of
(M/2) (l/2)2 + (M/2)(l/2)2 the body has been put to a great practical use.
Thus, for the pair of masses, rotating about The machines, such as steam engine and the
the axis through the centre of mass automobile engine, etc., that produce rotational
perpendicular to the rod motion have a disc with a large moment of
I = Ml 2 / 4 inertia, called a flywheel. Because of its large
Table 7.1 gives the moment of inertia of various moment of inertia, the flywheel resists the
familiar regular shaped solids about specific sudden increase or decrease of the speed of the
axes. vehicle. It allows a gradual change in the speed
As the mass of a body resists a change in and prevents jerky motions, thereby ensuring
its state of linear motion, it is a measure of its a smooth ride for the passengers on the vehicle.
inertia in linear motion. Similarly, as the
moment of inertia about a given axis of rotation 7.10 THEOREMS OF PERPENDICULAR AND
resists a change in its rotational motion, it can PARALLEL AXES
be regarded as a measure of rotational inertia
of the body; it is a measure of the way in which These are two useful theorems relating to
different parts of the body are distributed at moment of inertia. We shall first discuss the
different distances from the axis. Unlike the theorem of perpendicular axes and its simple
mass of a body, the moment of inertia is not a yet instructive application in working out the
fixed quantity but depends on the orientation moments of inertia of some regular-shaped
and position of the axis of rotation with respect bodies.
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 165

Table 7.1 Moments of Inertia of some regular shaped bodies about specific axes

Z Body Axis Figure I

(1) Thin circular Perpendicular to M R2

ring, radius R plane, at centre

(2) Thin circular Diameter M R2/2

ring, radius R

(3) Thin rod, Perpendicular to M L2/12

length L rod, at mid point

(4) Circular disc, Perpendicular to M R2/2

radius R disc at centre

(5) Circular disc, Diameter M R2/4

radius R

(6) Hollow cylinder, Axis of cylinder M R2

radius R

(7) Solid cylinder, Axis of cylinder M R2/2

radius R

(8) Solid sphere, Diameter 2 M R2/5

radius R

Theorem of perpendicular axes the theorem. It states that the moment of

inertia of a planar body (lamina) about an axis
This theorem is applicable to bodies which are perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum
planar. In practice this means the theorem of its moments of inertia about two
applies to flat bodies whose thickness is very perpendicular axes concurrent with
small compared to their other dimensions (e.g. perpendicular axis and lying in the plane of
length, breadth or radius). Fig. 7.29 illustrates the body.
166 PHYSICS

Answer We assume the moment of inertia of

the disc about an axis perpendicular to it and
through its centre to be known; it is MR2/2,
where M is the mass of the disc and R is its
radius (Table 7.1)
The disc can be considered to be a planar
body. Hence the theorem of perpendicular axes
is applicable to it. As shown in Fig. 7.30, we
take three concurrent axes through the centre
of the disc, O as the x,y,z axes; x and y-axes lie
in the plane of the disc and z is perpendicular
to it. By the theorem of perpendicular axes,
Iz = I x + Iy

Fig. 7.29 Theorem of perpendicular axes Now, x and y axes are along two diameters
applicable to a planar body; x and y axes of the disc, and by symmetry the moment of
are two perpendicular axes in the plane inertia of the disc is the same about any
and the z-axis is perpendicular to the diameter. Hence
plane. Ix = I y
and Iz = 2Ix
The figure shows a planar body. An axis
But Iz = MR2/2
perpendicular to the body through a point O is
taken as the z-axis. Two mutually perpendicular So finally, Ix = Iz/2 = MR2/4
axes lying in the plane of the body and Thus the moment of inertia of a disc about
concurrent with z-axis, i.e. passing through O, any of its diameter is MR2/4 .
are taken as the x and y-axes. The theorem Find similarly the moment of inertia of a
states that ring about any of its diameter. Will the theorem
Iz = I x + Iy (7.36) be applicable to a solid cylinder?
Let us look at the usefulness of the theorem
through an example.

Example 7.10 What is the moment of

inertia of a disc about one of its diameters?

Fig.7.31 The theorem of parallel axes The z and z′

Fig. 7.30 M.I. of a disc about a diameter, given its axes are two parallel axes separated by
M.I. about the perpendicular axis through a distance a; O is the centre of mass of
its centre. the body, OO’ = a.
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 167

7.10.1 Theorem of parallel axes The distance between these two parallel axes is
R, the radius of the ring. Using the parallel axes
This theorem is applicable to a body of any
theorem,
shape. It allows to find the moment of inertia of
a body about any axis, given the moment of
inertia of the body about a parallel axis through
the centre of mass of the body. We shall only
state this theorem and not give its proof. We
shall, however, apply it to a few simple situations
which will be enough to convince us about the
usefulness of the theorem. The theorem may
be stated as follows:
The moment of inertia of a body about any
axis is equal to the sum of the moment of
inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing
through its centre of mass and the product of
Fig. 7.32
its mass and the square of the distance
between the two parallel axes. As shown in
the Fig. 7.31, z and z′ are two parallel axes MR 2 3
I tangent = I dia + MR 2 = + MR 2 = MR 2 .
separated by a distance a. The z-axis passes 2 2
through the centre of mass O of the rigid body.
Then according to the theorem of parallel axes 7.11 KINEMATICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION
Iz′ = Iz + Ma2 (7.37) ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
where Iz and Iz′ are the moments of inertia of the
body about the z and z′ axes respectively, M is the We have already indicated the analogy between
total mass of the body and a is the perpendicular rotational motion and translational motion. For
distance between the two parallel axes. example, the angular velocity ω plays the same
role in rotation as the linear velocity v in
Example 7.11 What is the moment of translation. We wish to take this analogy
inertia of a rod of mass M, length l about further. In doing so we shall restrict the
an axis perpendicular to it through one discussion only to rotation about fixed axis. This
end? case of motion involves only one degree of
freedom, i.e., needs only one independent
Answer For the rod of mass M and length l, variable to describe the motion. This in
I = Ml2/12. Using the parallel axes theorem, translation corresponds to linear motion. This
I′ = I + Ma2 with a = l/2 we get, section is limited only to kinematics. We shall
l2 ⎛l ⎞
2
Ml 2 turn to dynamics in later sections.
I′ = M +M⎜ ⎟ = We recall that for specifying the angular
12 ⎝2⎠ 3
displacement of the rotating body we take any
We can check this independently since I is particle like P (Fig.7.33) of the body. Its angular
half the moment of inertia of a rod of mass 2M
displacement θ in the plane it moves is the
and length 2l about its midpoint,
angular displacement of the whole body; θ is
4l 2 1 Ml 2 measured from a fixed direction in the plane of
I ′ = 2M . × =
12 2 3 motion of P, which we take to be the x′ - axis,
chosen parallel to the x-axis. Note, as shown,
Example 7.12 What is the moment of the axis of rotation is the z – axis and the plane
inertia of a ring about a tangent to the of the motion of the particle is the x - y plane.
circle of the ring? Fig. 7.33 also shows θ 0 , the angular
displacement at t = 0.
Answer We also recall that the angular velocity is
The tangent to the ring in the plane of the ring the time rate of change of angular displacement,
is parallel to one of the diameters of the ring. ω = dθ /dt. Note since the axis of rotation is
168 PHYSICS

fixed, there is no need to treat angular velocity

Example 7.13 Obtain Eq. (7.38) from first
as a vector. Further, the angular acceleration,
principles.
α = dω/dt.
The kinematical quantities in rotational Answer The angular acceleration is uniform,
motion, angular displacement (θ θ ), angular
hence
velocity (ω ω) and angular acceleration (α)
respectively correspond to kinematic quantities dω
= α = constant (i)
in linear motion, displacement (x ), velocity (v) dt
and acceleration (a). We know the kinematical Integrating this equation,
equations of linear motion with uniform (i.e.
constant) acceleration: ω = ∫ α dt + c
v = v0 + at (a)
= α t + c (as α is constant)
1
x = x 0 + υ0t + at 2 (b) At t = 0, ω = ω0 (given)
2 From (i) we get at t = 0, ω = c = ω0
υ 2 = υ02 + 2ax (c) Thus, ω = αt + ω0 as required.
where x0 = initial displacement and v0= initial With the definition of ω = dθ /dt we may
velocity. The word ‘initial’ refers to values of the integrate Eq. (7.38) to get Eq. (7.39). This
quantities at t = 0 derivation and the derivation of Eq. (7.40) is
The corresponding kinematic equations for left as an exercise.
rotational motion with unifor m angular
acceleration are: Example 7.14 The angular speed of a
motor wheel is increased from 1200 rpm
ω = ω0 + α t (7.38)
to 3120 rpm in 16 seconds. (i) What is its
1 2 angular acceleration, assuming the
θ = θ0 + ω0t + αt (7.39) acceleration to be uniform? (ii) How many
2
revolutions does the engine make during
and ω 2 = ω0 2 + 2α (θ – θ 0 ) (7.40) this time?
where θ 0= initial angular displacement of the Answer
rotating body, and ω0 = initial angular velocity (i) We shall use ω = ω0 + αt
of the body. ω0 = initial angular speed in rad/s
= 2π × angular speed in rev/s

2π × angular speed in rev/min

=
60 s/min

2π × 1200
= rad/s
60
= 40π rad/s
Similarly ω = final angular speed in rad/s
2π × 3120
= rad/s
60
= 2π × 52 rad/s
= 104 π rad/s

∴ Angular acceleration

Fig.7.33 Specifying the angular position of a rigid ω − ω0

body. α= = 4 π rad/s2
t
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 169

The angular acceleration of the engine = (1) We need to consider only those forces that
4π rad/s2 lie in planes perpendicular to the axis.
(ii) The angular displacement in time t is Forces which are parallel to the axis will
given by give torques perpendicular to the axis and
need not be taken into account.
1 2
θ = ω 0t + αt (2) We need to consider only those components
2 of the position vectors which are
1 perpendicular to the axis. Components of
= (40π × 16 + × 4π × 162 ) rad position vectors along the axis will result in
2
torques perpendicular to the axis and need
= (640π + 512π ) rad not be taken into account.
= 1152π rad
Work done by a torque
1152π
Number of revolutions = = 576
2π
7.12 DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION
ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
Table 7.2 lists quantities associated with linear
motion and their analogues in rotational motion.
We have already compared kinematics of the
two motions. Also, we know that in rotational
motion moment of inertia and torque play the
same role as mass and force respectively in
linear motion. Given this we should be able to
guess what the other analogues indicated in the Fig. 7.34 Work done by a force F1 acting on a particle
table are. For example, we know that in linear of a body rotating about a fixed axis; the
particle describes a circular path with
motion, work done is given by F dx, in rotational
centre C on the axis; arc P1P′ 1(ds1) gives
motion about a fixed axis it should be τ dθ , the displacement of the particle.
since we already know the correspondence
Figure 7.34 shows a cross-section of a rigid
dx → dθ and F → τ . It is, however, necessary body rotating about a fixed axis, which is taken
that these correspondences are established on as the z-axis (perpendicular to the plane of the
sound dynamical considerations. This is what page; see Fig. 7.33). As said above we need to
we now turn to. consider only those forces which lie in planes
Before we begin, we note a simplification perpendicular to the axis. Let F1 be one such
that arises in the case of rotational motion typical force acting as shown on a particle of
about a fixed axis. Since the axis is fixed, only the body at point P1 with its line of action in a
those components of torques, which are along plane perpendicular to the axis. For convenience
the direction of the fixed axis need to be we call this to be the x′ –y′ plane (coincident
considered in our discussion. Only these with the plane of the page). The particle at P1
components can cause the body to rotate about describes a circular path of radius r1 with centre
the axis. A component of the torque C on the axis; CP1 = r1.
perpendicular to the axis of rotation will tend In time Δt, the point moves to the position
to turn the axis from its position. We specifically P 1 ′ . The displacement of the particle ds 1 ,
assume that there will arise necessary forces of therefore, has magnitude ds 1 = r 1 d θ and
constraint to cancel the ef fect of the direction tangential at P1 to the circular path
perpendicular components of the (external) as shown. Here dθ is the angular displacement
torques, so that the fixed position of the axis
of the particle, dθ = ∠P1CP1′ .The work done by
will be maintained. The perpendicular
components of the torques, therefore need not the force on the particle is
be taken into account. This means that for our dW1 = F1. ds1= F1ds1 cosφ1= F1(r1 dθ )sinα1
calculation of torques on a rigid body: where φ1 is the angle between F1 and the tangent
170 PHYSICS

Table 7.2 Comparison of Translational and Rotational Motion

Linear Motion Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis

1 Displacement x Angular displacement θ
2 Velocity v = dx/dt Angular velocity ω = dθ /dt
3 Acceleration a = dv/dt Angular acceleration α = dω/dt
4 Mass M Moment of inertia I
5 Force F = Ma Torque τ = I α
6 Work dW = F ds Work W = τ dθ
7 Kinetic energy K = Mv2/2 Kinetic energy K = Iω2/2
8 Power P = F v Power P = τω
9 Linear momentum p = Mv Angular momentum L = Iω

at P1, and α1 is the angle between F1 and the Dividing both sides of Eq. (7.41) by dt gives
radius vector OP1; φ1 + α1 = 90° . dW dθ
P = =τ = τω
The torque due to F1 about the origin is dt dt
OP 1 × F 1. Now OP 1 = OC + OP 1. [Refer to or P = τω (7.42)
Fig. 7.17(b).] Since OC is along the axis, the This is the instantaneous power. Compare
torque resulting from it is excluded from our this expression for power in the case of
consideration. The effective torque due to F1 is rotational motion about a fixed axis with the
τ 1= CP × F1; it is directed along the axis of rotation expression for power in the case of linear motion,
and has a magnitude τ 1= r1F1 sinα , Therefore, P = Fv
dW1 = τ 1dθ In a perfectly rigid body there is no internal
If there are more than one forces acting on motion. The work done by external torques is
the body, the work done by all of them can be therefore, not dissipated and goes on to increase
added to give the total work done on the body. the kinetic energy of the body. The rate at which
Denoting the magnitudes of the torques due to work is done on the body is given by Eq. (7.42).
the different forces as τ 1, τ 2, … etc, This is to be equated to the rate at which kinetic
energy increases. The rate of increase of kinetic
dW = (τ1 + τ 2 + ...)dθ energy is
Remember, the forces giving rise to the d ⎛ Iω2 ⎞ (2ω ) dω
torques act on different particles, but the ⎜ ⎟ =I
dt ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 dt
angular displacement dθ is the same for all
particles. Since all the torques considered are We assume that the moment of inertia does
parallel to the fixed axis, the magnitude τ of the not change with time. This means that the mass
total torque is just the algebraic sum of the of the body does not change, the body remains
magnitudes of the torques, i.e., τ = τ 1 + τ 2 + ..... rigid and also the axis does not change its
We, therefore, have position with respect to the body.
Since α = dω /dt , we get
dW = τ dθ (7.41)
This expression gives the work done by the d ⎛ Iω2 ⎞
=Iωα
total (external) torque τ which acts on the body dt ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
rotating about a fixed axis. Its similarity with
the corresponding expression Equating rates of work done and of increase
dW= F ds in kinetic energy,
for linear (translational) motion is obvious. τω = I ω α
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 171

τ = Iα (7.43)
MR 2
Eq. (7.43) is similar to Newton’s second law I = M. I. of flywheel about its axis =
2
for linear motion expressed symbolically as
F = ma 20.0 × (0.2)2
= = 0.4 kg m2
Just as force produces acceleration, torque 2
produces angular acceleration in a body. The α = angular acceleration
angular acceleration is directly proportional to = 5.0 N m/0.4 kg m2 = 12.35 s–2
the applied torque and is inversely proportional (b) Work done by the pull unwinding 2m of the
to the moment of inertia of the body. Eq.(7.43) cord
can be called Newton’s second law for rotation = 25 N × 2m = 50 J
about a fixed axis. (c) Let ω be the final angular velocity. The
1 2
Example 7.15 A cord of negligible mass kinetic energy gained = Iω ,
is wound round the rim of a fly wheel of 2
mass 20 kg and radius 20 cm. A steady since the wheel starts from rest. Now,
pull of 25 N is applied on the cord as shown ω 2 = ω02 + 2αθ , ω0 = 0
in Fig. 7.35. The flywheel is mounted on a
The angular displacement θ = length of
horizontal axle with frictionless bearings.
unwound string / radius of wheel
(a) Compute the angular acceleration of = 2m/0.2 m = 10 rad
the wheel.
ω 2 = 2 × 12.5 × 10.0 = 250(rad/s)2
(b) Find the work done by the pull, when
2m of the cord is unwound. 1
∴ K .E . gained = × 0.4 × 250 = 50 J
(c) Find also the kinetic energy of the 2
wheel at this point. Assume that the (d) The answers are the same, i.e. the kinetic
wheel starts from rest. energy gained by the wheel = work done
by the force. There is no loss of energy due
(d) Compare answers to parts (b) and (c).
to friction.
Answer 7.13 ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN CASE OF
ROTATION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
We have studied in section 7.7, the angular
momentum of a system of particles. We already
know from there that the time rate of total
angular momentum of a system of particles
about a point is equal to the total external torque
on the system taken about the same point.
When the total external torque is zero, the total
angular momentum of the system is conserved.
We now wish to study the angular
momentum in the special case of rotation about
a fixed axis. The general expression for the total
angular momentum of the system is
N
L = ∑ ri × pi (7.25b)
i =1
Fig. 7.35 We first consider the angular momentum of
a typical particle of the rotating rigid body. We
(a) We use I α= τ
then sum up the contributions of individual
the torque τ =FR particles to get L of the whole body.
= 25 × 0.20 Nm (as R = 0.20m) For a typical particle l = r × p. As seen in
= 5.0 Nm the last section r = OP = OC + CP [Fig. 7.17(b)].
172 PHYSICS

With p = m v , Note L = L z + L ⊥ (7.44c)

l = ( OC × m v ) + ( CP × m v ) The rigid bodies which we have mainly
The magnitude of the linear velocity v of the considered in this chapter are symmetric about
particle at P is given by v = ωr⊥ where r⊥ is the the axis of rotation, i.e. the axis of rotation is
length of CP or the perpendicular distance of P one of their symmetry axes. For such bodies,
from the axis of rotation. Further, v is tangential for a given OCi, for every particle which has a
at P to the circle which the particle describes. velocity vi , there is another particle of velocity
Using the right-hand rule one can check that –vi located diametrically opposite on the circle
CP × v is parallel to the fixed axis. The unit with centre Ci described by the particle. Together
vector along the fixed axis (chosen as the z-axis) such pairs will contribute zero to L ⊥ and as a
µ . Hence
is k
result for symmetric bodies L ⊥ is zero, and
CP × m v = r (mv ) k
⊥
µ
hence
k (since v = wr⊥ )
= mr⊥2 ω µ µ
L = Lz = Iωk (7.44d)
Similarly, we can check that OC × v is For bodies, which are not symmetric about
perpendicular to the fixed axis. Let us denote the axis of rotation, L is not equal to Lz and
the part of l along the fixed axis (i.e. the z-axis) hence L does not lie along the axis of rotation.
by lz, then Referring to table 7.1, can you tell in which
l = CP × m v = mr 2ω k µ cases L = Lz will not apply?
z ⊥
Let us differentiate Eq. (7.44b). Since kµ is a
and l = l z + OC × m v
fixed (constant) vector, we get
We note that lz is parallel to the fixed axis,
(L z ) = ⎜⎛⎝ ( I ω )⎟⎞⎠ kµ
but l is not. In general, for a particle, the angular d d
momentum l is not along the axis of rotation, dt dt
i.e. for a particle, l and ω are not necessarily Now, Eq. (7.28b) states
parallel. Compare this with the corresponding
fact in translation. For a particle, p and v are dL
= τ
always parallel to each other. dt
For computing the total angular momentum As we have seen in the last section, only
of the whole rigid body, we add up the those components of the external torques which
contribution of each particle of the body. are along the axis of rotation, need to be taken
into account, when we discuss rotation about a
Thus L = ∑ li = ∑ l iz + ∑ OCi × m i v i
fixed axis. This means we can take τ = τ k µ.
We denote by L ⊥ and L z the components
Since L = L z + L ⊥ and the direction of Lz (vector
of L respectively perpendicular to the z-axis
and along the z-axis; µ ) is fixed, it follows that for rotation about a
k
L ⊥ = ∑ OCi × m i vi (7.44a) fixed axis,

where mi and vi are respectively the mass and dL z µ

=τk (7.45a)
the velocity of the ith particle and Ci is the centre dt
of the circle described by the particle;
dL ⊥
⎛ ⎞ µ and =0 (7.45b)
and L z = ∑ liz = ⎜ ∑ m i ri2 ⎟ ω k dt
⎝ i ⎠
Thus, for rotation about a fixed axis, the
or Lz = Iω k µ (7.44b) component of angular momentum
perpendicular to the fixed axis is constant. As
The last step follows since the perpendicular
distance of the ith particle from the axis is ri; µ , we get from Eq. (7.45a),
L = Iωk
z
and by definition the moment of inertia of the
d
body about the axis of rotation is I = ∑ m i ri2 . (I ω ) = τ (7.45c)
dt
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 173

If the moment of inertia I does not change with horizontally. What happens? Your angular
time, speed is reduced. If you bring back your arms
closer to your body, the angular speed increases
d dω
(I ω ) = I = Iα again. This is a situation where the principle
dt dt of conservation of angular momentum is
and we get from Eq. (7.45c), applicable. If friction in the rotational
τ = Iα (7.43) mechanism is neglected, there is no external
We have already derived this equation using torque about the axis of rotation of the chair
the work - kinetic energy route. and hence I ω is constant. Stretching the arms
increases I about the axis of rotation, resulting
7.13.1 Conservation of angular momentum in decreasing the angular speed ω . Bringing
the arms closer to the body has the opposite
We are now in a position to revisit the principle
effect.
of conservation of angular momentum in the
A circus acrobat and a diver take advantage
context of rotation about a fixed axis. From Eq.
of this principle. Also, skaters and classical,
(7.45c), if the external torque is zero,
Indian or western, dancers performing a
Lz = Iω = constant (7.46)
pirouette on the toes of one foot display ‘mastery’
For symmetric bodies, from Eq. (7.44d), Lz
over this principle. Can you explain?
may be replaced by L .(L and Lz are respectively
the magnitudes of L and Lz.)
7.14 ROLLING MOTION
This then is the required form, for fixed axis
rotation, of Eq. (7.29a), which expresses the One of the most common motions observed in
general law of conservation of angular daily life is the rolling motion. All wheels used
momentum of a system of particles. Eq. (7.46) in transportation have rolling motion. For
applies to many situations that we come across specificness we shall begin with the case of a
in daily life. You may do this experiment with disc, but the result will apply to any rolling body
your friend. Sit on a swivel chair with your rolling on a level surface. We shall assume that
arms folded and feet not resting on, i.e., away the disc rolls without slipping. This means that
from, the ground. Ask your friend to rotate the at any instant of time the bottom of the disc
chair rapidly. While the chair is rotating with which is in contact with the surface is at rest
considerable angular speed stretch your arms on the surface.

Fig 7.36 (a) A demonstration of conservation of

angular momentum. A girl sits on a Fig 7.36 (b) An acrobat employing the principle of
swivel chair and stretches her arms/ conservation of angular momentum in
brings her arms closer to the body. her performance.
174 PHYSICS

We have remarked earlier that rolling motion At Po, the linear velocity, vr, due to rotation
is a combination of rotation and translation. is directed exactly opposite to the translational
We know that the translational motion of a velocity vcm. Further the magnitude of vr here is
system of particles is the motion of its centre of R ω, where R is the radius of the disc. The
mass. condition that Po is instantaneously at rest
requires vcm = Rω. Thus for the disc the condition
for rolling without slipping is
(7.47)
Incidentally, this means that the velocity of
point P 1 at the top of the disc (v 1 ) has a
magnitude v cm+ R ω or 2 v cm and is directed
parallel to the level surface. The condition (7.47)
applies to all rolling bodies.
7.14.1 Kinetic Energy of Rolling Motion
Our next task will be to obtain an expression
for the kinetic energy of a rolling body. The
kinetic energy of a rolling body can be separated
into kinetic energy of translation and kinetic
energy of rotation. This is a special case of a
Fig. 7.37 The rolling motion (without slipping) of a general result for a system of particles,
disc on a level surface. Note at any instant, according to which the kinetic energy of a
the point of contact P0 of the disc with the system of particles (K) can be separated into
surface is at rest; the centre of mass of the kinetic energy of motion of the centre of
the disc moves with velocity, vcm. The disc
mass (translation) (MV2/2) and kinetic energy
rotates with angular velocity about its
of rotational motion about the centre of mass
axis which passes through C; vcm =Rω,
of the system of particles (K′ ). Thus,
where R is the radius of the disc.
K = K ′ + MV 2 / 2 (7.48)
Let vcm be the velocity of the centre of mass We assume this general result (see Exercise
and therefore the translational velocity of the 7.31), and apply it to the case of rolling motion.
disc. Since the centre of mass of the rolling disc In our notation, the kinetic energy of the centre
is at its geometric centre C (Fig. 7. 37), vcm is of mass, i.e., the kinetic energy of translation,
the velocity of C. It is parallel to the level of the rolling body is mv2cm /2, where m is the
surface. The rotational motion of the disc is mass of the body and vcm is the centre of the
about its symmetry axis, which passes through mass velocity. Since the motion of the rolling
C. Thus, the velocity of any point of the disc, body about the centre of mass is rotation, K′
like P0, P1 or P2, consists of two parts, one is the represents the kinetic energy of rotation of the
translational velocity vcm and the other is the body; K ′ = I ω 2 2 , where I is the moment of
linear velocity vr on account of rotation. The inertia about the appropriate axis, which is the
magnitude of vr is vr = rω, where ω is the angular symmetry axis of the rolling body. The kinetic
velocity of the rotation of the disc about the axis energy of a rolling body, therefore, is given by
1 1
and r is the distance of the point from the axis K = I ω 2 + mυcm 2
(7.49a)
(i.e. from C). The velocity v r is directed 2 2
2
perpendicular to the radius vector of the given Substituting I = mk where k = the
point with respect to C. In Fig. 7.37, the velocity corresponding radius of gyration of the body
and vcm= R ω , we get
of the point P2 (v2) and its components vr and
vcm are shown; vr here is perpendicular to CP2 . 1 mk 2υcm
2
1
K= + mυcm
2
It is easy to show that vz is perpendicular to the 2 R 2
2
line POP2. Therefore the line passing through PO
1 2 ⎛ k2 ⎞
and parallel to ω is called the instantaneous or K = 2 mυcm ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ (7.49b)
axis of rotation. ⎝ R ⎠
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 175

Equation (7.49b) applies to any rolling body:

1 ⎛ k2 ⎞
a disc, a cylinder, a ring or a sphere. mgh = mυ 2 ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
2 ⎝ R ⎠
X Example 7.16 Three bodies, a ring, a solid
cylinder and a solid sphere roll down the ⎛ 2 gh ⎞
or υ = ⎜
2
2 ⎟
same inclined plane without slipping. They ⎝1 + k R ⎠
2

start from rest. The radii of the bodies are

identical. Which of the bodies reaches the Note is independent of the mass of the
ground with maximum velocity? rolling body;
For a ring, k2 = R2
Answer We assume conservation of energy of 2 gh
the rolling body, i.e. there is no loss of energy υring =
1 +1 ,
due to friction etc. The potential energy lost by
the body in rolling down the inclined plane = gh
(= mgh) must, therefore, be equal to kinetic
energy gained. (See Fig.7.38) Since the bodies For a solid cylinder k2 = R2/2
start from rest the kinetic energy gained is equal 2gh
to the final kinetic energy of the bodies. From υdisc =
1 +1 2
1 2 ⎛ k2 ⎞
Eq. (7.49b), K = 2 mυ ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ , where v is the 4 gh
⎝ R ⎠ =
3
final velocity of (the centre of mass of) the body.
Equating K and mgh, For a solid sphere k2 = 2R2/5
2 gh
υsphere =
1+ 2 5

10 gh
=
7
From the results obtained it is clear that among
the three bodies the sphere has the greatest and
the ring has the least velocity of the centre of mass
at the bottom of the inclined plane.
Suppose the bodies have the same mass. Which
body has the greatest rotational kinetic energy while
Fig.7.38 reaching the bottom of the inclined plane? W

SUMMARY

1. Ideally, a rigid body is one for which the distances between different particles of the
body do not change, even though there are forces on them.
2. A rigid body fixed at one point or along a line can have only rotational motion. A rigid
body not fixed in some way can have either pure translation or a combination of
translation and rotation.
3. In rotation about a fixed axis, every particle of the rigid body moves in a circle which
lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and has its centre on the axis. Every Point in
the rotating rigid body has the same angular velocity at any instant of time.
4. In pure translation, every particle of the body moves with the same velocity at any
instant of time.
5. Angular velocity is a vector. Its magnitude is ω = dθ /dt and it is directed along the axis
of rotation. For rotation about a fixed axis, this vector ω has a fixed direction.
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 177

15. Rotation about a fixed axis is directly analogous to linear motion in respect of kinematics
and dynamics.
16. The angular acceleration of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is given by Iα = τ . If
the external torque τ is zero, the component of angular momentum about the fixed axis
Iω of such a rotating body is constant.
17. For rolling motion without slipping vcm = Rω, where vcm is the velocity of translation (i.e.
of the centre of mass), R is the radius and m is the mass of the body. The kinetic energy
of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic energies of translation and rotation:
1 1
K = m vcm
2
+ Iω2 .
2 2

POINTS TO PONDER
1. To determine the motion of the centre of mass of a system no knowledge of internal
forces of the system is required. For this purpose we need to know only the external
forces on the body.
2. Separating the motion of a system of particles as, i.e. the motion of the centre of mass
transnational motion of the system and motion about (i.e. relative to) the centre of
mass of the system is a useful technique in dynamics of a system of particles. One
example of this technique is separating the kinetic energy of a system of particles K as
the kinetic energy of the system about its centre of mass K′ and the kinetic energy of
the centre of mass MV2/2,
K = K′ + MV2/2
3. Newton’s Second Law for finite sized bodies (or systems of particles) is based in Newton’s
Second Law and also Newton’s Third Law for particles.
4. To establish that the time rate of change of the total angular momentum of a system of
particles is the total external torque in the system, we need not only Newton’s second
law for particles, but also Newton’s third law with the provision that the forces between
any two particle act along the line joining the particles.
5. The vanishing of the total external force and the vanishing of the total external torque
are independent conditions. We can have one without the other. In a couple, total
external force is zero but total torque is non-zero.
6. The total torque on a system is independent of the origin if the total external force is
zero.
7. The centre of gravity of a body coincides with its centre of mass only if the gravitational
field does not vary from one part of the body to the other.
8. The angular momentum L and the angular velocity ω are not necessarily parallel vectors.
However, for the simpler situations discussed in this chapter when rotation is about a
ω holds good,
fixed axis which is an axis of symmetry of the rigid body, the relation L = Iω
where I is the moment of the inertia of the body about the rotation axis.
178 PHYSICS

EXERCISES

7.1 Give the location of the centre of mass of a (i) sphere, (ii) cylinder, (iii) ring, and (iv)
cube, each of uniform mass density. Does the centre of mass of a body necessarily
lie inside the body ?
7.2 In the HC1 molecule, the separation between the nuclei of the two atoms is about
1.27 Å (1 Å = 10-10 m). Find the approximate location of the CM of the molecule,
given that a chlorine atom is about 35.5 times as massive as a hydrogen atom and
nearly all the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
7.3 A child sits stationary at one end of a long trolley moving uniformly with a speed V
on a smooth horizontal floor. If the child gets up and runs about on the trolley in any
manner, what is the speed of the CM of the (trolley + child) system ?
7.4 Show that the area of the triangle contained between the vectors a and b is one half
of the magnitude of a × b.
7.5 Show that a.(b × c) is equal in magnitude to the volume of the parallelepiped formed
on the three vectors , a, b and c.
7.6 Find the components along the x, y, z axes of the angular momentum l of a particle,
whose position vector is r with components x, y, z and momentum is p with
components px, py and pz. Show that if the particle moves only in the x-y plane the
angular momentum has only a z-component.
7.7 Two particles, each of mass m and speed v, travel in opposite directions along parallel
lines separated by a distance d. Show that the vector angular momentum of the two
particle system is the same whatever be the point about which the angular momentum
is taken.
7.8 A non-uniform bar of weight W is suspended at rest by two strings of negligible
weight as shown in Fig.7.39. The angles made by the strings with the vertical are
36.9° and 53.1° respectively. The bar is 2 m long. Calculate the distance d of the
centre of gravity of the bar from its left end.

Fig. 7.39

7.9 A car weighs 1800 kg. The distance between its front and back axles is 1.8 m. Its
centre of gravity is 1.05 m behind the front axle. Determine the force exerted by the
level ground on each front wheel and each back wheel.

7.10 (a) Find the moment of inertia of a sphere about a tangent to the sphere, given the
moment of inertia of the sphere about any of its diameters to be 2MR2/5, where
M is the mass of the sphere and R is the radius of the sphere.
(b) Given the moment of inertia of a disc of mass M and radius R about any of its
diameters to be MR2/4, find its moment of inertia about an axis normal to the
disc and passing through a point on its edge.
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 179

7.11 Torques of equal magnitude are applied to a hollow cylinder and a solid sphere, both
having the same mass and radius. The cylinder is free to rotate about its standard
axis of symmetry, and the sphere is free to rotate about an axis passing through its
centre. Which of the two will acquire a greater angular speed after a given time.
7.12 A solid cylinder of mass 20 kg rotates about its axis with angular speed 100 rad s-1.
The radius of the cylinder is 0.25 m. What is the kinetic energy associated with the
rotation of the cylinder? What is the magnitude of angular momentum of the cylinder
about its axis?
7.13 (a) A child stands at the centre of a turntable with his two arms outstretched. The
turntable is set rotating with an angular speed of 40 rev/min. How much is the
angular speed of the child if he folds his hands back and thereby reduces his
moment of inertia to 2/5 times the initial value ? Assume that the turntable
rotates without friction.
(b) Show that the child’s new kinetic energy of rotation is more than the initial
kinetic energy of rotation. How do you account for this increase in kinetic energy?
7.14 A rope of negligible mass is wound round a hollow cylinder of mass 3 kg and radius
40 cm. What is the angular acceleration of the cylinder if the rope is pulled with a
force of 30 N ? What is the linear acceleration of the rope ? Assume that there is no
slipping.
7.15 To maintain a rotor at a uniform angular speed or 200 rad s-1, an engine needs to
transmit a torque of 180 N m. What is the power required by the engine ?
(Note: uniform angular velocity in the absence of friction implies zero torque. In
practice, applied torque is needed to counter frictional torque). Assume that the
engine is 100% efficient.
7.16 From a uniform disk of radius R, a circular hole of radius R/2 is cut out. The centre
of the hole is at R/2 from the centre of the original disc. Locate the centre of gravity
of the resulting flat body.
7.17 A metre stick is balanced on a knife edge at its centre. When two coins, each of mass
5 g are put one on top of the other at the 12.0 cm mark, the stick is found to be
balanced at 45.0 cm. What is the mass of the metre stick?

7.18 A solid sphere rolls down two different inclined planes of the same heights but
different angles of inclination. (a) Will it reach the bottom with the same speed in
each case? (b) Will it take longer to roll down one plane than the other? (c) If so,
which one and why?
7.19 A hoop of radius 2 m weighs 100 kg. It rolls along a horizontal floor so that its centre
of mass has a speed of 20 cm/s. How much work has to be done to stop it?
7.20 The oxygen molecule has a mass of 5.30 × 10-26 kg and a moment of inertia of
1.94×10-46 kg m2 about an axis through its centre perpendicular to the lines joining
the two atoms. Suppose the mean speed of such a molecule in a gas is 500 m/s and
that its kinetic energy of rotation is two thirds of its kinetic energy of translation.
Find the average angular velocity of the molecule.
7.21 A solid cylinder rolls up an inclined plane of angle of inclination 30° . At the bottom
of the inclined plane the centre of mass of the cylinder has a speed of 5 m/s.
(a) How far will the cylinder go up the plane?
(b) How long will it take to return to the bottom?

Additional Exercises

7.22 As shown in Fig.7.40, the two sides of a step ladder BA and CA are 1.6 m long and
hinged at A. A rope DE, 0.5 m is tied half way up. A weight 40 kg is suspended from
a point F, 1.2 m from B along the ladder BA. Assuming the floor to be frictionless
and neglecting the weight of the ladder, find the tension in the rope and forces
exerted by the floor on the ladder. (Take g = 9.8 m/s2)
(Hint: Consider the equilibrium of each side of the ladder separately.)
180 PHYSICS

Fig.7.40

7.23 A man stands on a rotating platform, with his arms stretched horizontally holding a
5 kg weight in each hand. The angular speed of the platform is 30 revolutions per
minute. The man then brings his arms close to his body with the distance of each
weight from the axis changing from 90cm to 20cm. The moment of inertia of the
man together with the platform may be taken to be constant and equal to 7.6 kg m2.
(a) What is his new angular speed? (Neglect friction.)
(b) Is kinetic energy conserved in the process? If not, from where does the change
come about?
7.24 A bullet of mass 10 g and speed 500 m/s is fired into a door and gets embedded
exactly at the centre of the door. The door is 1.0 m wide and weighs 12 kg. It is
hinged at one end and rotates about a vertical axis practically without friction. Find
the angular speed of the door just after the bullet embeds into it.
(Hint: The moment of inertia of the door about the vertical axis at one end is ML2/3.)

7.25 Two discs of moments of inertia I1 and I2 about their respective axes (normal to the
disc and passing through the centre), and rotating with angular speeds ω1 and ω2
are brought into contact face to face with their axes of rotation coincident. (a) What
is the angular speed of the two-disc system? (b) Show that the kinetic energy of the
combined system is less than the sum of the initial kinetic energies of the two discs.
How do you account for this loss in energy? Take ω1 ≠ ω2.
7.26 (a) Prove the theorem of perpendicular axes.
(Hint : Square of the distance of a point (x, y) in the x–y plane from an axis through
the origin perpendicular to the plane is x2+y2).
(b) Prove the theorem of parallel axes.
(Hint : If the centre of mass is chosen to be the origin ∑ m i ri = 0 ).
7.27 Prove the result that the velocity v of translation of a rolling body (like a ring, disc,
cylinder or sphere) at the bottom of an inclined plane of a height h is given by
2 gh
v2 =
(
1 + k2 / R2 )
using dynamical consideration (i.e. by consideration of forces and torques). Note k is
the radius of gyration of the body about its symmetry axis, and R is the radius of the
body. The body starts from rest at the top of the plane.
7.28 A disc rotating about its axis with angular speed ωo is placed lightly (without any
translational push) on a perfectly frictionless table. The radius of the disc is R. What
are the linear velocities of the points A, B and C on the disc shown in
Fig. 7.41? Will the disc roll in the direction indicated ?
 SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 181

Fig. 7.41
7.29 Explain why friction is necessary to make the disc in Fig. 7.41 roll in the direction indicated.
(a) Give the direction of frictional force at B, and the sense of frictional torque, before perfect rolling
begins.
(b) What is the force of friction after perfect rolling begins ?
7.30 A solid disc and a ring, both of radius 10 cm are placed on a horizontal table
simultaneously, with initial angular speed equal to 10 π rad s-1. Which of the two will start to roll
earlier ? The co-efficient of kinetic friction is μ = 0.2.
k
7.31 A cylinder of mass 10 kg and radius 15 cm is rolling perfectly on a plane of inclination 30o. The co-
efficient of static friction μs = 0.25.
(a) How much is the force of friction acting on the cylinder ?
(b) What is the work done against friction during rolling ?
(c) If the inclination θ of the plane is increased, at what value of θ does the cylinder begin to skid,
and not roll perfectly ?
L = L ′ + R × MV
7.32 Read each statement below carefully, and state, with reasons, if it is true or false;
(a) During rolling, the force of friction acts in the same direction as the direction of motion of the CM
of the body.
(b) The instantaneous speed of the point of contact during rolling is zero.
(c) The instantaneous acceleration of the point of contact during rolling is zero.
(d) For perfect rolling motion, work done against friction is zero.
(e) A wheel moving down a perfectly frictionless inclined plane will undergo slipping (not rolling)
motion.
7.33 Separation of Motion of a system of particles into motion of the centre of mass and motion about the
centre of mass :
(a) Show p = pi′ + m i V
where pi is the momentum of the ith particle (of mass mi) and p′′ i = mi v′′ i. Note v′′ i is the velocity of
the ith particle relative to the centre of mass.
Also, prove using the definition of the centre of mass ∑ pi′ = 0
(b) Show K = K ′ + ½MV 2
where K is the total kinetic energy of the system of particles, K ′ is the total kinetic energy of the
system when the particle velocities are taken with respect to the centre of mass and MV2/2 is the
kinetic energy of the translation of the system as a whole (i.e. of the centre of mass motion of the
system). The result has been used in Sec. 7.14.
(c) Show

where L ′ = ∑ r ′i × pi′ is the angular momentum of the system about the centre of mass with

velocities taken relative to the centre of mass. Remember ri′ = ri – R ; rest of the notation is the
182 PHYSICS

standard notation used in the chapter. Note L ′ and MR × V can be said to be

angular momenta, respectively, about and of the centre of mass of the system of
particles.
dL ′ dp′
(d) Show = ∑ ri′ ×
dt dt
Further, show that
dL ′
′
= τext
dt
′ is the sum of all external torques acting on the system about the
where τext
centre of mass.
(Hint : Use the definition of centre of mass and Newton’s Third Law. Assume the
internal forces between any two particles act along the line joining the particles.)
CHAPTER EIGHT

GRAVITATION

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Early in our lives, we become aware of the tendency of all
material objects to be attracted towards the earth. Anything
8.1 Introduction
thrown up falls down towards the earth, going uphill is lot
8.2 Kepler’s laws
more tiring than going downhill, raindrops from the clouds
8.3 Universal law of
above fall towards the earth and there are many other such
gravitation
phenomena. Historically it was the Italian Physicist Galileo
8.4 The gravitational
constant
(1564-1642) who recognised the fact that all bodies,
irrespective of their masses, are accelerated towards the earth
8.5 Acceleration due to
gravity of the earth with a constant acceleration. It is said that he made a public
8.6 Acceleration due to demonstration of this fact. To find the truth, he certainly did
gravity below and above experiments with bodies rolling down inclined planes and
the surface of earth arrived at a value of the acceleration due to gravity which is
8.7 Gravitational potential close to the more accurate value obtained later.
energy A seemingly unrelated phenomenon, observation of stars,
8.8 Escape speed planets and their motion has been the subject of attention in
8.9 Earth satellites many countries since the earliest of times. Observations since
8.10 Energy of an orbiting early times recognised stars which appeared in the sky with
satellite positions unchanged year after year. The more interesting
8.11 Geostationary and polar objects are the planets which seem to have regular motions
satellites against the background of stars. The earliest recorded model
8.12 Weightlessness for planetary motions proposed by Ptolemy about 2000 years
Summary ago was a ‘geocentric’ model in which all celestial objects,
Points to ponder stars, the sun and the planets, all revolved around the earth.
Exercises The only motion that was thought to be possible for celestial
Additional exercises objects was motion in a circle. Complicated schemes of motion
were put forward by Ptolemy in order to describe the observed
motion of the planets. The planets were described as moving
in circles with the center of the circles themselves moving in
larger circles. Similar theories were also advanced by Indian
astronomers some 400 years later. However a more elegant
model in which the Sun was the center around which the
planets revolved – the ‘heliocentric’ model – was already
mentioned by Aryabhatta (5th century A.D.) in his treatise. A
thousand years later, a Polish monk named Nicolas
184 PHYSICS

Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed a definitive of the ellipse (Fig. 8.1a). This law was a deviation
model in which the planets moved in circles from the Copernican model which allowed only
around a fixed central sun. His theory was circular orbits. The ellipse, of which the circle is
discredited by the church, but notable amongst a special case, is a closed curve which can be
its supporters was Galileo who had to face drawn very simply as follows.
prosecution from the state for his beliefs.
Select two points F1 and F2. Take a length
It was around the same time as Galileo, a
of a string and fix its ends at F1 and F2 by pins.
nobleman called Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
hailing from Denmark, spent his entire lifetime With the tip of a pencil stretch the string taut
recording observations of the planets with the and then draw a curve by moving the pencil
naked eye. His compiled data were analysed keeping the string taut throughout.(Fig. 8.1(b))
later by his assistant Johannes Kepler (1571- The closed curve you get is called an ellipse.
1640). He could extract from the data three Clearly for any point T on the ellipse, the sum of
elegant laws that now go by the name of Kepler’s the distances from F1 and F2 is a constant. F1,
laws. These laws were known to Newton and F2 are called the focii. Join the points F1 and F2
enabled him to make a great scientific leap in and extend the line to intersect the ellipse at
proposing his universal law of gravitation. points P and A as shown in Fig. 8.1(b). The
midpoint of the line PA is the centre of the ellipse
8.2 KEPLER’S LAWS
O and the length PO = AO is called the semi-
The three laws of Kepler can be stated as follows: major axis of the ellipse. For a circle, the two
1. Law of orbits : All planets move in elliptical focii merge into one and the semi-major axis
orbits with the Sun situated at one of the foci becomes the radius of the circle.
2. Law of areas : The line that joins any planet
B
to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals
of time (Fig. 8.2). This law comes from the
observations that planets appear to move slower
2b when they are farther from the sun than when
P S S' A
they are nearer.

C
2a

Fig. 8.1(a) An ellipse traced out by a planet around

the sun. The closest point is P and the
farthest point is A, P is called the
perihelion and A the aphelion. The
semimajor axis is half the distance AP.

Fig. 8.2 The planet P moves around the sun in an

elliptical orbit. The shaded area is the area
ΔA swept out in a small interval of time Δt.

3. Law of periods : The square of the time period

of revolution of a planet is proportional to the
cube of the semi-major axis of the ellipse traced
out by the planet.
Fig. 8.1(b) Drawing an ellipse. A string has its ends The table below gives the approximate time
fixed at F1 and F2. The tip of a pencil holds periods of revolution of nine planets around the
the string taut and is moved around. sun along with values of their semi-major axes.
GRAVITATION 185

Table 1 Data from measurement of planetary as the planet goes around. Hence, Δ A /Δt is a
motions given below confirm Kepler’s
constant according to the last equation. This is
Law of Periods
the law of areas. Gravitation is a central force
a ≡ Semi-major axis in units of 1010 m.
T ≡ Time period of revolution of the planet
and hence the law of areas follows.
in years(y).
Q ≡ The quotient ( T2/a3 ) in units of W Example 8.1 Let the speed of the planet
10 -34 y2 m-3. at the perihelion P in Fig. 8.1(a) be vP and
the Sun-planet distance SP be rP. Relate
Planet a T Q {rP, vP} to the corresponding quantities at
the aphelion {rA, vA}. Will the planet take
Mercury 5.79 0.24 2.95 equal times to traverse BAC and CPB ?
Venus 10.8 0.615 3.00
Earth 15.0 1 2.96
Mars 22.8 1.88 2.98 Answer The magnitude of the angular
Jupiter 77.8 11.9 3.01 momentum at P is Lp = mp rp vp, since inspection
Saturn 143 29.5 2.98
tells us that r p and v p are mutually
Uranus 287 84 2.98
Neptune 450 165 2.99 perpendicular. Similarly, LA = mp rA vA. From
Pluto 590 248 2.99 angular momentum conservation
mp r p v p = m p rA v A
The law of areas can be understood as a vp rA
consequence of conservation of angular or = W
momentum whch is valid for any central force . vA rp
A central force is such that the force on the Since rA > rp, vp > vA .
planet is along the vector joining the sun and The area SBAC bounded by the ellipse and
the planet. Let the sun be at the origin and let the radius vectors SB and SC is larger than SBPC
the position and momentum of the planet be in Fig. 8.1. From Kepler’s second law, equal areas
denoted by r and p respectively. Then the area
are swept in equal times. Hence the planet will
swept out by the planet of mass m in time
take a longer time to traverse BAC than CPB.
interval Δt is (Fig. 8.2) ΔA given by
ΔA = ½ (r × vΔt) (8.1) 8.3 UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION
Hence Legend has it that observing an apple falling
ΔA /Δt =½ (r × p)/m, (since v = p/m) from a tree, Newton was inspired to arrive at an
= L / (2 m) (8.2) universal law of gravitation that led to an
explanation of terrestrial gravitation as well as
where v is the velocity, L is the angular
momentum equal to ( r × p ). For a central of Kepler’s laws. Newton’s reasoning was that
force, which is directed along r, L is a constant the moon revolving in an orbit of radius Rm was
subject to a centripetal acceleration due to
earth’s gravity of magnitude
Johannes Kepler
(1571–1630) was a 4π 2 Rm
V2
scientist of Ger man am = = (8.3)
origin. He formulated Rm T2
the three laws of where V is the speed of the moon related to the
planetary motion based
time period T by the relation V = 2π Rm / T . The
on the painstaking
observations of Tycho time period T is about 27.3 days and Rm was
Brahe and coworkers. Kepler himself was an already known then to be about 3.84 × 108m. If
assistant to Brahe and it took him sixteen long we substitute these numbers in equation (8.3),
years to arrive at the three planetary laws. He we get a value of am much smaller than the value
is also known as the founder of geometrical of acceleration due to gravity g on the surface of
optics, being the first to describe what happens
the earth, arising also due to earth’s gravitational
to light after it enters a telescope.
attraction.
186 PHYSICS

Central Forces
We know the time rate of change of the angular momentum of a single particle about the origin
is
dl
=r ×F
dt
The angular momentum of the particle is conserved, if the torque τ = r × F due to the
force F on it vanishes. This happens either when F is zero or when F is along r. We are
interested in forces which satisfy the latter condition. Central forces satisfy this condition.
A ‘central’ force is always directed towards or away from a fixed point, i.e., along the position
vector of the point of application of the force with respect to the fixed point. (See Figure below.)
Further, the magnitude of a central force F depends on r, the distance of the point of application
of the force from the fixed point; F = F(r).
In the motion under a central force the angular momentum is always conserved. Two important
results follow from this:
(1) The motion of a particle under the central force is always confined to a plane.
(2) The position vector of the particle with respect to the centre of the force (i.e. the fixed point)
has a constant areal velocity. In other words the position vector sweeps out equal areas in
equal times as the particle moves under the influence of the central force.
Try to prove both these results. You may need to know that the areal velocity is given by :
dA/dt = ½ r v sin α.
An immediate application of the above discussion can be made to the motion of a planet
under the gravitational force of the sun. For convenience the sun may be taken to be so heavy
that it is at rest. The gravitational force of the sun on the planet is directed towards the sun.
This force also satisfies the requirement F = F(r), since F = G m1m2/r2 where m1 and m2 are
respectively the masses of the planet and the sun and G is the universal constant of gravitation.
The two results (1) and (2) described above, therefore, apply to the motion of the planet. In fact,
the result (2) is the well-known second law of Kepler.

Tr is the trejectory of the particle under the central force. At a position P, the force is directed
along OP, O is the centre of the force taken as the origin. In time Δt, the particle moves from P to P′ ,
arc PP′ = Δs = v Δt. The tangent PQ at P to the trajectory gives the direction of the velocity at P. The
area swept in Δt is the area of sector POP′ ≈ (r sin α ) PP′ /2 = (r v sin a) Δt/2.)
GRAVITATION 187

This clearly shows that the force due to The gravitational force is attractive, i.e., the
earth’s gravity decreases with distance. If one force F is along – r. The force on point mass m1
assumes that the gravitational force due to the due to m2 is of course – F by Newton’s third law.
earth decreases in proportion to the inverse Thus, the gravitational force F12 on the body 1
square of the distance from the center of the due to 2 and F21 on the body 2 due to 1 are
earth, we will have a m α Rm−2 ; g α R E–2 and we get related as F12 = – F21.
Before we can apply Eq. (8.5) to objects under
g R2 consideration, we have to be careful since the
= m2 ; 3600 (8.4) law refers to point masses whereas we deal with
am RE
extended objects which have finite size. . If we
in agreement with a value of g ; 9.8 m s-2 and have a collection of point masses,the force on
the value of a m from Eq. (8.3). These any one of them is the vector sum of the
observations led Newton to propose the following gravitational forces exerted by the other point
Universal Law of Gravitation : masses as shown in Fig 8.4.
Every body in the universe attracts every other
body with a force which is directly proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
The quotation is essentially from Newton’s
famous treatise called ‘Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy’ (Principia for short).
Stated Mathematically, Newton’s gravitation
law reads : The force F on a point mass m2 due
to another point mass m1 has the magnitude
m1 m 2
|F | = G (8.5)
r2
Equation (8.5) can be expressed in vector form as

F= G
m1 m 2
r 2 ( )
– r$ = – G
m1 m 2 $
r2
r

m1 m 2 $
= –G 3
r
r
Fig. 8.4 Gravitational force on point mass m1 is the
where G is the universal gravitational constant, vector sum of the gravitational forces exerted
r$ is the unit vector from m1 to m2 and r = r2 – r1 by m2, m3 and m4.
as shown in Fig. 8.3.
The total force on m1 is
Gm 2 m1 $ Gm 3 m1 $ Gm 4 m1 $
F1 = 2
r 21 + 2
r 31 + 2
r 41
r21 r31 r41

W Example 8.2 Three equal masses of m kg

each are fixed at the vertices of an
O equilateral triangle ABC.
(a) What is the force acting on a mass 2m
placed at the centroid G of the triangle ?
(b) What is the force if the mass at the
vertex A is doubled ?
Fig. 8.3 Gravitational force on m1 due to m2 is along Take AG = BG = CG = 1m (see Fig. 8.5)
r where the vector r is (r2– r1).
188 PHYSICS

( )
+ 2Gm 2 ˆi cos 30ο − ˆj sin 30ο = 0
Alternatively, one expects on the basis of
symmetry that the resultant force ought to be
zero.
(b) By symmetry the x-component of the
force cancels out. The y-component survives.
FR = 4Gm 2ˆj − 2Gm 2ˆj = 2Gm 2ˆj W
For the gravitational force between an
extended object (like the earth) and a point mass,
Eq. (8.5) is not directly applicable. Each point mass
in the extended object will exert a force on the
given point mass and these force will not all be in
Fig. 8.5 Three equal masses are placed at the three
vertices of the Δ ABC. A mass 2m is placed the same direction. We have to add up these forces
at the centroid G. vectorially for all the point masses in the extended
object to get the total force. This is easily done
using calculus. For two special cases, a simple
Answer (a) The angle between GC and the
law results when you do that :
positive x-axis is 30° and so is the angle between
(1) The force of attraction between a hollow
GB and the negative x-axis. The individual forces
spherical shell of uniform density and a
in vector notation are point mass situated outside is just as if
Gm (2m ) ˆ the entire mass of the shell is
FGA = j concentrated at the centre of the shell.
1
Qualitatively this can be understood as
Gm (2m ) ˆ
FGB =
1
(
− i cos 30ο − ˆj sin 30ο ) follows: Gravitational forces caused by the
various regions of the shell have
components along the line joining the point
Gm (2m ) ˆ
FGC =
1
(
+ i cos 30ο − ˆj sin 30ο ) mass to the centre as well as along a
direction prependicular to this line. The
From the principle of superposition and the law components prependicular to this line
of vector addition, the resultant gravitational cancel out when summing over all regions
force FR on (2m) is of the shell leaving only a resultant force
FR = FGA + FGB + FGC along the line joining the point to the centre.
The magnitude of this force works out to
(
FR = 2Gm 2 ˆj + 2Gm 2 −ˆi cos 30ο −ˆj sin 30ο ) be as stated above.

Newton’s Principia

Kepler had formulated his third law by 1619. The announcement of the underlying universal law of
gravitation came about seventy years later with the publication in 1687 of Newton’s masterpiece
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, often simply called the Principia.
Around 1685, Edmund Halley (after whom the famous Halley’s comet is named), came to visit
Newton at Cambridge and asked him about the nature of the trajectory of a body moving under the
influence of an inverse square law. Without hesitation Newton replied that it had to be an ellipse,
and further that he had worked it out long ago around 1665 when he was forced to retire to his farm
house from Cambridge on account of a plague outbreak. Unfortunately, Newton had lost his papers.
Halley prevailed upon Newton to produce his work in book form and agreed to bear the cost of
publication. Newton accomplished this feat in eighteen months of superhuman effort. The Principia
is a singular scientific masterpiece and in the words of Lagrange it is “the greatest production of the
human mind.” The Indian born astrophysicist and Nobel laureate S. Chandrasekhar spent ten
years writing a treatise on the Principia. His book, Newton’s Principia for the Common Reader
brings into sharp focus the beauty, clarity and breath taking economy of Newton’s methods.
GRAVITATION 189

(2) The force of attraction due to a hollow its neighbouring small sphere. Due to this
spherical shell of uniform density, on a torque, the suspended wire gets twisted till such
point mass situated inside it is zero. time as the restoring torque of the wire equals
Qualitatively, we can again understand this the gravitational torque . If θ is the angle of
result. Various regions of the spherical shell twist of the suspended wire, the restoring torque
attract the point mass inside it in various is proportional to θ , equal to τθ. Where τ is the
directions. These forces cancel each other restoring couple per unit angle of twist. τ can be
completely. measured independently e.g. by applying a
known torque and measuring the angle of twist.
8.4 THE GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT The gravitational force between the spherical
balls is the same as if their masses are
The value of the gravitational constant G
concentrated at their centers. Thus if d is the
entering the Universal law of gravitation can be
separation between the centers of the big and
determined experimentally and this was first
its neighbouring small ball, M and m their
done by English scientist Henry Cavendish in
masses, the gravitational force between the big
1798. The apparatus used by him is
sphere and its neighouring small ball is.
schematically shown in figure.8.6
Mm
F =G (8.6)
d2
If L is the length of the bar AB , then the
torque arising out of F is F multiplied by L. At
equilibrium, this is equal to the restoring torque
and hence
Mm
G L =τ θ (8.7)
d2
Observation of θ thus enables one to
calculate G from this equation.
Since Cavendish’s experiment, the
measurement of G has been refined and the
currently accepted value is
G = 6.67×10-11 N m2/kg2 (8.8)
Fig. 8.6 Schematic drawing of Cavendish’s
experiment. S1 and S2 are large spheres
8.5 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY OF
which are kept on either side (shown
shades) of the masses at A and B. When THE EARTH
the big spheres are taken to the other side
The earth can be imagined to be a sphere made
of the masses (shown by dotted circles), the
bar AB rotates a little since the torque of a large number of concentric spherical shells
reverses direction. The angle of rotation can with the smallest one at the centre and the
be measured experimentally. largest one at its surface. A point outside the
earth is obviously outside all the shells. Thus,
The bar AB has two small lead spheres all the shells exert a gravitational force at the
attached at its ends. The bar is suspended from point outside just as if their masses are
a rigid support by a fine wire. Two large lead concentrated at their common centre according
spheres are brought close to the small ones but to the result stated in the last section. The total
on opposite sides as shown. The big spheres mass of all the shells combined is just the mass
attract the nearby small ones by equal and of the earth. Hence, at a point outside the earth,
opposite force as shown. There is no net force the gravitational force is just as if its entire mass
on the bar but only a torque which is clearly of the earth is concentrated at its center.
equal to F times the length of the bar,where F is For a point inside the earth, the situation
the force of attraction between a big sphere and is different. This is illustrated in Fig. 8.7.
190 PHYSICS

The acceleration experienced by the mass

m, which is usually denoted by the symbol g is
related to F by Newton’s 2nd law by relation
F = mg. Thus
F GM E
g= = (8.12)
m R E2
Acceleration g is readily measurable. RE is a
known quantity. The measurement of G by
Cavendish’s experiment (or otherwise), combined
with knowledge of g and RE enables one to
estimate ME from Eq. (8.12). This is the reason
why there is a popular statement regarding
Fig. 8.7 The mass m is in a mine located at a depth
d below the surface of the Earth of mass
Cavendish : “Cavendish weighed the earth”.
ME and radius RE. We treat the Earth to be
spherically symmetric. 8.6 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
BELOW AND ABOVE THE SURFACE OF
Again consider the earth to be made up of EARTH
concentric shells as before and a point mass m
situated at a distance r from the centre. The Consider a point mass m at a height h above the
point P lies outside the sphere of radius r. For surface of the earth as shown in Fig. 8.8(a). The
the shells of radius greater than r, the point P radius of the earth is denoted by RE . Since this
lies inside. Hence according to result stated in point is outside the earth,
the last section, they exert no gravitational force
on mass m kept at P. The shells with radius ≤ r
make up a sphere of radius r for which the point
P lies on the surface. This smaller sphere
therefore exerts a force on a mass m at P as if
its mass mr is concentrated at the center. Thus
the force on the mass m at P has a magnitude
Gm (m r )
F = (8.9)
r2
We assume that the entire earth is of uniform
4π 3
density and hence its mass is M E = RE ρ
3
where ME is the mass of the earth RE is its radius
and ρ is the density. On the other hand the
4π
mass of the sphere Mr of radius r is ρ r 3 and Fig. 8.8 (a) g at a height h above the surface of the
3 earth.
hence
⎛ 4π ⎞ r
3
⎛ M ⎞ r3 its distance from the centre of the earth is (RE +
F = Gm ⎜ ρ⎟ 2 = G m ⎜ 3E ⎟ 2
⎝ 3 ⎠ r ⎝ RE ⎠ r h ). If F (h) denoted the magnitude of the force
G m ME on the point mass m , we get from Eq. (8.5) :
= r (8.10)
RE 3
If the mass m is situated on the surface of GM E m
F (h ) = (8.13)
earth, then r = RE and the gravitational force (R E + h )2
on it is, from Eq. (8.10)
The acceleration experienced by the point
M Em
F =G (8.11) mass is F (h )/ m ≡ g(h ) and we get
R E2
GRAVITATION 191

F (h ) GM E Thus the force on the point mass is

g(h ) = = . (8.14)
m (RE + h )2 F (d) = G Ms m / (RE – d ) 2 (8.17)
This is clearly less than the value of g on the Substituting for Ms from above , we get
GM E
surface of earth : g = R 2 . For h << R E , we can F (d) = G ME m ( RE – d ) / RE 3 (8.18)
E and hence the acceleration due to gravity at
expand the RHS of Eq. (8.14) : a depth d,
GM −2
g(h ) = 2 = g (1 + h / RE ) F (d )
R E (1 + h / R E )2 g(d) = is
m
h
For R << 1 , using binomial expression, F (d ) GM E
E g (d ) = = (R E − d )
⎛ 2h ⎞ m R E3
g (h ) ≅ g ⎜1 − ⎟ . (8.15)
⎝ R E ⎠ RE − d
Equation (8.15) thus tells us that for small =g = g(1 − d / R E ) (8.19)
RE
heights h above the value of g decreases by a
Thus, as we go down below earth’s surface,
factor (1 − 2h / R E ). the acceleration due gravity decreases by a factor
Now, consider a point mass m at a depth d
(1 − d / R E ). The remarkable thing about
below the surface of the earth (Fig. 8.8(b)), so
that its distance from the center of the earth is acceleration due to earth’s gravity is that it is
maximum on its surface decreasing whether you
( RE − d ) as shown in the figure. The earth can go up or down.
be thought of as being composed of a smaller
sphere of radius (RE – d ) and a spherical shell 8.7 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
of thickness d. The force on m due to the outer
shell of thickness d is zero because the result We had discussed earlier the notion of potential
quoted in the previous section. As far as the energy as being the energy stored in the body at
smaller sphere of radius ( RE – d ) is concerned, its given position. If the position of the particle
the point mass is outside it and hence according changes on account of forces acting on it, then
to the result quoted earlier, the force due to this the change in its potential energy is just the
smaller sphere is just as if the entire mass of amount of work done on the body by the force.
the smaller sphere is concentrated at the centre. As we had discussed earlier, forces for which
If Ms is the mass of the smaller sphere, then, the work done is independent of the path are
Ms / ME = ( RE – d ) 3 / RE 3 ( 8.16) the conservative forces.
Since mass of a sphere is proportional to be The force of gravity is a conservative force
cube of its radius. and we can calculate the potential energy of a
body arising out of this force, called the
gravitational potential energy. Consider points
close to the surface of earth, at distances from
the surface much smaller than the radius of the
earth. In such cases, the force of gravity is
practically a constant equal to mg, directed
towards the center of the earth. If we consider
a point at a height h1 from the surface of the
earth and another point vertically above it at a
height h2 from the surface, the work done in
lifting the particle of mass m from the first to
the second position is denoted by W12
Fig. 8.8 (b) g at a depth d. In this case only the
smaller sphere of radius (R E –d) W12 = Force × displacement
contributes to g. = mg (h2 – h1) (8.20)
192 PHYSICS

If we associate a potential energy W(h) at a We have calculated the potential energy at

point at a height h above the surface such that a point of a particle due to gravitational forces
W(h) = mgh + Wo (8.21) on it due to the earth and it is proportional to
the mass of the particle. The gravitational
(where Wo = constant) ;
potential due to the gravitational force of the
then it is clear that
earth is defined as the potential energy of a
W12 = W(h2) – W(h1) (8.22)
particle of unit mass at that point. From the
The work done in moving the particle is just
earlier discussion, we learn that the gravitational
the difference of potential energy between its
potential energy associated with two particles
final and initial positions.Observe that the
of masses m1 and m2 separated by distance by a
constant Wo cancels out in Eq. (8.22). Setting
distance r is given by
h = 0 in the last equation, we get W ( h = 0 ) =
Wo. . h = 0 means points on the surface of the Gm1m 2
V =– (if we choose V = 0 as r → ∞ )
earth. Thus, Wo is the potential energy on the r
surface of the earth. It should be noted that an isolated system
If we consider points at arbitrary distance of particles will have the total potential energy
from the surface of the earth, the result just that equals the sum of energies (given by the
derived is not valid since the assumption that above equation) for all possible pairs of its
the gravitational force mg is a constant is no constituent particles. This is an example of the
longer valid. However, from our discussion we application of the superposition principle.
know that a point outside the earth, the force of
gravitation on a particle directed towards the W Example 8.3 Find the potential energy of
center of the earth is a system of four particles placed at the
G ME m vertices of a square of side l. Also obtain
F= (8.23) the potential at the centre of the square.
r2
where ME = mass of earth, m = mass of the
particle and r its distance from the center of the Answer Consider four masses each of mass m
earth. If we now calculate the work done in at the corners of a square of side l ; See Fig. 8.9.
lifting a particle from r = r1 to r = r2 (r2 > r1) along We have four mass pairs at distance l and two
a vertical path, we get instead of Eq. (8.20) diagonal pairs at distance 2 l
r2 GMm Hence,
W12 = ∫ dr
r1 r2
G m2 G m2
W (r ) = − 4 −2
⎛ 1 1⎞ l 2l
= −G ME m ⎜ − ⎟ (8.24)
⎝ r2 r1 ⎠
In place of Eq. (8.21), we can thus associate
a potential energy W(r) at a distance r, such that
G ME m
W (r ) = − + W1 , (8.25)
r
valid for r > R ,
so that once again W 12 = W(r 2) – W(r 1).
Setting r = infinity in the last equation, we get
W ( r = infinity ) = W1 . Thus, W1 is the
potential energy at infinity. One should note that
only the difference of potential energy between
two points has a definite meaning from Eqs.
(8.22) and (8.24). One conventionally sets W1
equal to zero, so that the potential energy at a
point is just the amount of work done in
displacing the particle from infinity to that point. Fig. 8.9
GRAVITATION 193

Thus, the minimum speed required for an object

2G m2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ G m2
=− ⎜⎜ 2 + ⎟⎟ = − 5.41 to reach infinity (i.e. escape from the earth)
l ⎝ 2⎠ l corresponds to
The gravitational potential at the centre of
the square ( r = 2 l / 2 ) is
1
2
( )
m Vi2
min
=
GmM E
h + RE (8.30)

Gm
If the object is thrown from the surface of
U (r ) = − 4 2 the earth, h=0, and we get
l . W
2GM E
8.8 ESCAPE SPEED (Vi )min = (8.31)
RE
If a stone is thrown by hand, we see it falls back
to the earth. Of course using machines we can Using the relation g = GM E / R E2 , we get
shoot an object with much greater speeds and
with greater and greater initial speed, the object (Vi )min = 2 gR E (8.32)
scales higher and higher heights. A natural
query that arises in our mind is the following: Using the value of g and RE, numerically
‘can we throw an object with such high initial (Vi)min≈ 11.2 km/s. This is called the escape
speeds that it does not fall back to the earth?’ speed, sometimes loosely called the escape
The principle of conservation of energy helps velocity.
us to answer this question. Suppose the object Equation (8.32) applies equally well to an
did reach infinity and that its speed there was object thrown from the surface of the moon with
Vf . The energy of an object is the sum of potential g replaced by the acceleration due to Moon’s
and kinetic energy. As before W1 denotes that gravity on its surface and rE replaced by the
gravitational potential energy of the object at radius of the moon. Both are smaller than their
infinity. The total energy of the projectile at values on earth and the escape speed for the
infinity then is moon turns out to be 2.3 km/s, about five times
smaller. This is the reason that moon has no
atmosphere. Gas molecules if formed on the
mV f2
E (∞ ) = W1 + (8.26) surface of the moon having velocities larger than
2 this will escape the gravitational pull of the
If the object was thrown initially with a speed moon.
Vi from a point at a distance (h+RE) from the
center of the earth (RE = radius of the earth), its W Example 8.4 Two uniform solid spheres
energy initially was of equal radii R, but mass M and 4 M have
a center to centre separation 6 R, as shown
1 GmM E
E (h + R E ) = mVi 2 – + W1 (8.27) in Fig. 8.10. The two spheres are held fixed.
2 (h + R E ) A projectile of mass m is projected from
By the principle of energy conservation the surface of the sphere of mass M directly
Eqs. (8.26) and (8.27) must be equal. Hence towards the centre of the second sphere.
2
Obtain an expression for the minimum
mVi2 GmM E mV f speed v of the projectile so that it reaches
– = (8.28)
2 (h + R E ) 2 the surface of the second sphere.
The R.H.S. is a positive quantity with a
minimum value zero hence so must be the L.H.S.
Thus, an object can reach infinity as long as Vi
is such that
mVi 2 GmM E
– ≥0 (8.29)
2 (h + R E ) Fig. 8.10
The minimum value of Vi corresponds to the Answer The projectile is acted upon by two
case when the L.H.S. of Eq. (8.29) equals zero. mutually opposing gravitational forces of the two
194 PHYSICS

spheres. The neutral point N (see Fig. 8.10) is its own axis. Since, 1957, advances in
defined as the position where the two forces technology have enabled many countries
cancel each other exactly. If ON = r, we have including India to launch artificial earth
satellites for practical use in fields like
GMm 4G M m
= telecommunication, geophysics and
r2 (6 R −r )2 meteorology.
(6R – r)2 = 4r2 We will consider a satellite in a circular orbit
6R – r = ±2r of a distance (RE + h ) from the centre of the earth,
r = 2R or – 6R. where RE = radius of the earth. If m is the mass
The neutral point r = – 6R does not concern of the satellite and V its speed, the centripetal
us in this example. Thus ON = r = 2R. It is force required for this orbit is
sufficient to project the particle with a speed
which would enable it to reach N. Thereafter, mV 2
F(centripetal) = ( R + h ) (8.33)
the greater gravitational pull of 4M would E
suffice. The mechanical energy at the surface directed towards the center. This centripetal force
of M is is provided by the gravitational force, which is
1 GMm 4G M m
Ei = m v2 − − . G m ME
2 R 5R F(gravitation) = (R + h )2 (8.34)
E
At the neutral point N, the speed approaches
zero. The mechanical energy at N is purely Where ME is the mass of the earth.
potential. Equating R.H.S of Eqs. (8.33) and (8.34) and
cancelling out m, we get
G M m 4G M m
EN = − − . G ME
2R 4R V2 = (8.35)
From the principle of conservation of (R E + h )
mechanical energy Thus V decreases as h increases. From
equation (8.35),the speed V for h = 0 is
1 2 GM 4GM GM GM V 2 (h = 0) = GM / R E = gR E (8.36)
v − − =− −
2 R 5R 2R R where we have used the relation
or 2
g = GM / RE . In every orbit, the satellite
2G M⎛ 4 1⎞
2
v = ⎜ − ⎟ traverses a distance 2π(RE + h) with speed V. It’s
R ⎝ 5 2⎠
time period T therefore is
⎛ 3G M ⎞
1/2
2π ( R E + h ) 2π ( R E + h )3 / 2
v =⎜ ⎟ W T = = (8.37)
⎝ 5R ⎠ V G ME
A point to note is that the speed of the projectile on substitution of value of V from Eq. (8.35).
is zero at N, but is nonzero when it strikes the Squaring both sides of Eq. (8.37), we get
heavier sphere 4 M. The calculation of this speed T 2 = k ( RE + h)3 (where k = 4 π2 / GME) (8.38)
is left as an exercise to the students.
which is Kepler’s law of periods, as applied to
8.9 EARTH SATELLITES motion of satellites around the earth. For a
satellite very close to the surface of earth h can
Earth satellites are objects which revolve around be neglected in comparison to RE in Eq. (8.38).
the earth. Their motion is very similar to the Hence, for such satellites, T is To, where
motion of planets around the Sun and hence
T0 = 2π R E / g (8.39)
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are equally
applicable to them. In particular, their orbits If we substitute the numerical values
around the earth are circular or elliptic. Moon g ; 9.8 m s-2 and RE = 6400 km., we get
is the only natural satellite of the earth with a
6.4 × 106
near circular orbit with a time period of T0 = 2π s
approximately 27.3 days which is also roughly 9.8
equal to the rotational period of the moon about Which is approximately 85 minutes.
GRAVITATION 195

W Example 8.5 The planet Mars has two

moons, phobos and delmos. (i) phobos has =
(
9.81 × 6.37 × 10 )
6 2

-11
a period 7 hours, 39 minutes and an orbital 6.67 × 10
radius of 9.4 × 103 km. Calculate the mass = 5.97× 1024 kg.
of mars. (ii) Assume that earth and mars The moon is a satellite of the Earth. From
move in circular orbits around the sun, the derivation of Kepler’s third law [see Eq.
with the martian orbit being 1.52 times (8.38)]
the orbital radius of the earth. What is 4π2R 3
the length of the martian year in days ? T2 =
G ME

Answer (i) We employ Eq. (8.38) with the sun’s 4π2R 3

ME =
mass replaced by the martian mass Mm G T2
2
2 4π 3 4 × 3.14 × 3.14 × ( 3.84 ) × 10
3 24
T = R =
GM m × ( 27.3 × 24 × 60 × 60)
-11 2
6.67 × 10
24
4π
2
R
3
= 6.02 × 10 kg
Mm =
G T
2 Both methods yield almost the same answer,
the difference between them being less than 1%.
4 × ( 3.14 ) × ( 9.4) × 10
2 3 18
W
=
× ( 459 × 60)
-11 2
6.67 × 10
W Example 8.7 Express the constant k of
18
4 × ( 3.14 ) × ( 9.4 ) × 10
2 3 Eq. (8.38) in days and kilometres. Given
Mm = -5 k = 10–13 s2 m–3. The moon is at a distance
6.67 × ( 4.59 × 6) 2 × 10 of 3.84 × 105 km from the earth. Obtain its
= 6.48 × 1023 kg. time-period of revolution in days.
(ii) Once again Kepler’s third law comes to our
aid, Answer Given
2 3 k = 10–13 s2 m–3
TM R MS
2
= 3 ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
TE R ES −13 1 2 1
= 10 ⎢ d ⎥⎢ ⎥
where RMS is the mars -sun distance and RES is ⎢⎣ ( 24 × 60 × 60) 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ (1 / 1000) 3 km3 ⎥⎦
the earth-sun distance. = 1.33 × 10–14 d2 km–3
∴TM = (1.52)3/2 × 365 Using Eq. (8.38) and the given value of k,
= 684 days the time period of the moon is
We note that the orbits of all planets except T 2 = (1.33 × 10-14)(3.84 × 105)3
Mercury, Mars and Pluto are very close to being T = 27.3 d W
circular. For example, the ratio of the semi- Note that Eq. (8.38) also holds for elliptical
minor to semi-major axis for our Earth is, b/a orbits if we replace (RE+h) by the semi-major
= 0.99986. W axis of the ellipse. The earth will then be at one
of the foci of this ellipse.
W Example 8.6 Weighing the Earth : You
are given the following data: g = 9.81 ms–2, 8.10 ENERGY OF AN ORBITING SATELLITE
RE = 6.37× 106 m, the distance to the moon
R = 3.84× 108 m and the time period of the Using Eq. (8.35), the kinetic energy of the
moon’s revolution is 27.3 days. Obtain the satellite in a circular orbit with speed v is
mass of the Earth ME in two different ways. 1
K gE = m v2
2
Answer From Eq. (8.12) we have
Gm M E
2
g RE =
ME =
G 2(R E + h ) , (8.40)
196 PHYSICS

Considering gravitational potential energy at While finally

infinity to be zero, the potential energy at G ME m
distance (R +h) from the center of the earth is Ef = −
e 8 RE
G m ME The change in the total energy is
P .E = − (8.41)
(RE + h ) ΔE = Ef – Ei
The K.E is positive whereas the P.E is
negative. However, in magnitude the K.E. is half G M E m ⎛⎜ G M E ⎞ m RE
⎟
= =⎜ ⎟ 8
the P.E, so that the total E is 8 RE ⎝ RE
2
⎠
G m ME
E = K .E + P .E = − g m RE 9.81 × 400 × 6.37 × 106
2(R E + h ) (8.42) ΔE = = = 3.13 × 109 J
8 8
The total energy of an circularly orbiting The kinetic energy is reduced and it mimics
satellite is thus negative, with the potential ΔE, namely, ΔK = Kf – Ki = – 3.13 × 109 J.
energy being negative but twice is magnitude of The change in potential energy is twice the
the positive kinetic energy. change in the total energy, namely
When the orbit of a satellite becomes ΔV = Vf – Vi = – 6.25 × 109 J W
elliptic, both the K.E. and P.E. vary from point
to point. The total energy which remains 8.11 GEOSTATIONARY AND POLAR
constant is negative as in the circular orbit case. SATELLITES
This is what we expect, since as we have
discussed before if the total energy is positive or An interesting phenomenon arises if in we
zero, the object escapes to infinity. Satellites arrange the value of (R + h) such that T in
E

are always at finite distance from the earth and Eq. (8.37) becomes equal to 24 hours. If the
hence their energies cannot be positive or zero. circular orbit is in the equatorial plane of the
earth, such a satellite, having the same period
W Example 8.8 A 400 kg satellite is in a as the period of rotation of the earth about its
circular orbit of radius 2R E about the own axis would appear stationery viewed from
Earth. How much energy is required to a point on earth. The (R + h) for this purpose
E

transfer it to a circular orbit of radius 4RE ? works out to be large as compared to R : E

What are the changes in the kinetic and 1/ 3

⎛ T 2 G ME ⎞
potential energies ? RE + h = ⎜ ⎟ (8.43)
⎝ 4π
2
⎠
Answer Initially, and for T = 24 hours, h works out to be 35800 km.
G ME m which is much larger than R . Satellites in a
Ei = −
E

4 RE circular orbits around the earth in the

India’s Leap into Space

India entered the space age with the launching of the low orbit satellite Aryabhatta in 1975. In the first
few years of its programme the launch vehicles were provided by the erstwhile Soviet Union. Indigenous
launch vehicles were employed in the early 1980’s to send the Rohini series of satellites into space.
The programme to send polar satellites into space began in late 1980’s. A series of satellites labelled
IRS (Indian Remote Sensing Satellites) have been launched and this programme is expected to continue
in future. The satellites have been employed for surveying, weather prediction and for carrying out
experiments in space. The INSAT (Indian National Satellite) series of satellites were designed and
made operational for communications and weather prediction purposes beginning in 1982. European
launch vehicles have been employed in the INSAT series. India tested its geostationary launch capability
in 2001 when it sent an experimental communications satellite (GSAT-1) into space. In 1984 Rakesh
Sharma became the first Indian astronaut. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the
umbrella organisation that runs a number of centre. Its main lauch centre at Sriharikota (SHAR) is
100 km north of Chennai. The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) is near Hyderabad. Its national
centre for research in space and allied sciences is the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) at Ahmedabad.
GRAVITATION 197

equatorial plane with T = 24 hours are called Another class of satellites are called the Polar
Geostationery Satellites. Clearly, since the earth satellites (Fig. 8.11). These are low altitude (h l
rotates with the same period, the satellite would 500 to 800 km) satellites, but they go around
appear fixed from any point on earth. It takes the poles of the earth in a north-south direction
very powerful rockets to throw up a satellite to whereas the earth rotates around its axis in an
such large heights above the earth but this has east-west direction. Since its time period is
been done in view of the several benefits of many around 100 minutes it crosses any altitude many
practical applications. times a day. However, since its height h above
It is known that electromagnetic waves above the earth is about 500-800 km, a camera fixed
a certain frequency are not reflected from on it can view only small strips of the earth in
ionosphere. Radio waves used for radio one orbit. Adjacent strips are viewed in the next
broadcast which are in the frequency range 2 orbit, so that in effect the whole earth can be
MHz to 10 MHz, are below the critical frequency. viewed strip by strip during the entire day. These
They are therefore reflected by the ionosphere. satellites can view polar and equatorial regions
Thus radio waves broadcast from an antenna at close distances with good resolution.
can be received at points far away where the Information gathered from such satellites
direct wave fail to reach on account of the is extremely useful for remote sensing,
curvature of the earth. Waves used in television meterology as well as for environmental studies
broadcast or other forms of communication have of the earth.
much higher frequencies and thus cannot be
received beyond the line of sight. A 8.12 WEIGHTLESSNESS
Geostationery satellite, appearing fixed above the Weight of an object is the force with which the
broadcasting station can however receive these earth attracts it. We are conscious of our own
signals and broadcast them back to a wide area weight when we stand on a surface, since the
on earth. The INSAT group of satellites sent up surface exerts a force opposite to our weight to
by India are one such group of Geostationary keep us at rest. The same principle holds good
satellites widely used for telecommunications in when we measure the weight of an object by a
India. spring balance hung from a fixed point e.g. the
ceiling. The object would fall down unless it is
subject to a force opposite to gravity. This is
exactly what the spring exerts on the object. This
is because the spring is pulled down a little by
the gravitational pull of the object and in turn
the spring exerts a force on the object vertically
upwards.
Now, imagine that the top end of the balance
is no longer held fixed to the top ceiling of the
room. Both ends of the spring as well as the
object move with identical acceleration g. The
spring is not stretched and does not exert any
upward force on the object which is moving down
with acceleration g due to gravity. The reading
recorded in the spring balance is zero since the
spring is not stretched at all. If the object were
a human being, he or she will not feel his weight
since there is no upward force on him. Thus,
when an object is in free fall, it is weightless
Fig. 8.11 A Polar satellite. A strip on earth’s surface
(shown shaded) is visible from the satellite
and this phenomenon is usually called the
during one cycle. For the next revolution of phenomenon of weightlessness.
the satellite, the earth has rotated a little In a satellite around the earth, every part
on its axis so that an adjacent strip becomes and parcel of the satellite has an acceleration
visible. towards the center of the earth which is exactly
198 PHYSICS

the value of earth’s acceleration due to gravity experience no gravity. Gravity for us defines the
at that position. Thus in the satellite everything vertical direction and thus for them there are no
inside it is in a state of free fall. This is just as horizontal or vertical directions, all directions are
if we were falling towards the earth from a height. the same. Pictures of astronauts floating in a
Thus, in a manned satellite, people inside satellite reflect show this fact.

SUMMARY

1. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force of attraction
between any two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r has the
magnitude
m1m 2
F =G 2
r
where G is the universal gravitational constant, which has the value 6.672 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
2. If we have to find the resultant gravitational force acting on the particle m due to a
number of masses M1, M2,….Mn etc. we use the principle of superposition. Let F1, F2,….Fn
be the individual forces due to M1, M2, ….Mn, each given by the law of gravitation. From
the principle of superposition each force acts independently and uninfluenced by the
other bodies. The resultant force FR is then found by vector addition
n
FR = F1 + F2 +……+ Fn = ∑ Fi
i =1
where the symbol ‘Σ’ stands for summation.

3. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion state that

(a) All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one of the focal points
(b) The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
time intervals. This follows from the fact that the force of gravitation on the planet is
central and hence angular momentum is conserved.
(c) The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-
major axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet
The period T and radius R of the circular orbit of a planet about the Sun are related
by
⎛ 4π2 ⎞ 3
T2 = ⎜ ⎟R
⎜G M ⎟
⎝ s ⎠
where Ms is the mass of the Sun. Most planets have nearly circular orbits about the
Sun. For elliptical orbits, the above equation is valid if R is replaced by the semi-major
axis, a.
4. The acceleration due to gravity.
(a) at a height h above the Earth’s surface
G ME
g(h ) =
(RE + h)
2

G ME ⎛ 2h ⎞
≈ ⎜⎝1 − R ⎟⎠ for h << RE
R E2 E

⎛ 2h ⎞ G ME
g(h ) = g (0) ⎜1 − where g (0) =
⎝ R E ⎟⎠ R E2
GRAVITATION 199

(b) at depth d below the Earth’s surface is

G ME ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞
g (d ) = 1 − = g (0 ) 1 −
R E2 ⎝⎜ R E ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ R E ⎠⎟
5. The gravitational force is a conservative force, and therefore a potential energy function
can be defined. The gravitational potential energy associated with two particles separated
by a distance r is given by
G m1 m 2
V =−
r
where V is taken to be zero at r →∞. The total potential energy for a system of particles
is the sum of energies for all pairs of particles, with each pair represented by a term of
the form given by above equation. This prescription follows from the principle of
superposition.
6. If an isolated system consists of a particle of mass m moving with a speed v in the
vicinity of a massive body of mass M, the total mechanical energy of the particle is given by
1 GMm
E= m v2 −
2 r
That is, the total mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies.
The total energy is a constant of motion.
7. If m moves in a circular orbit of radius a about M, where M >> m, the total energy of the
system is
GMm
E=−
2a
with the choice of the arbitrary constant in the potential energy given in the point 5.,
above. The total energy is negative for any bound system, that is, one in which the orbit
is closed, such as an elliptical orbit. The kinetic and potential energies are
GMm
K=
2a
GMm
V =−
a
8. The escape speed from the surface of the Earth is
2 G ME
ve = = 2gR E
RE
and has a value of 11.2 km s–1.
9. If a particle is outside a uniform spherical shell or solid sphere with a spherically
symmetric internal mass distribution, the sphere attracts the particle as though the
mass of the sphere or shell were concentrated at the centre of the sphere.
10.If a particle is inside a uniform spherical shell, the gravitational force on the particle is
zero. If a particle is inside a homogeneous solid sphere, the force on the particle acts
toward the centre of the sphere. This force is exerted by the spherical mass interior to
the particle.
11. A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) satellite moves in a circular orbit in
the equatorial plane at a approximate distance of 4.22 × 104 km from the Earth’s centre.
200 PHYSICS

POINTS TO PONDER
1. In considering motion of an object under the gravitational influence of another object
the following quantities are conserved:
(a) Angular momentum
(b) Total mechanical energy
Linear momentum is not conserved
2. Angular momentum conservation leads to Kepler’s second law. However, it is not special
to the inverse square law of gravitation. It holds for any central force.
3. In Kepler’s third law (see Eq. (8.1) and T2 = KS R3. The constant KS is the same for all
planets in circular orbits. This applies to satellites orbiting the Earth [(Eq. (8.38)].
4. An astronaut experiences weightlessness in a space satellite. This is not because the
gravitational force is small at that location in space. It is because both the astronaut
and the satellite are in “free fall” towards the Earth.
5. The gravitational potential energy associated with two particles separated by a distance
r is given by
G m1 m 2
V =– + constant
r
The constant can be given any value. The simplest choice is to take it to be zero. With
this choice
G m1 m 2
V =–
r
This choice implies that V → 0 as r → ∞. Choosing location of zero of the gravitational
energy is the same as choosing the arbitrary constant in the potential energy. Note that
the gravitational force is not altered by the choice of this constant.
6. The total mechanical energy of an object is the sum of its kinetic energy (which is always
positive) and the potential energy. Relative to infinity (i.e. if we presume that the potential
energy of the object at infinity is zero), the gravitational potential energy of an object is
negative. The total energy of a satellite is negative.
7. The commonly encountered expression m g h for the potential energy is actually an
approximation to the difference in the gravitational potential energy discussed in the
point 6, above.
8. Although the gravitational force between two particles is central, the force between two
finite rigid bodies is not necessarily along the line joining their centre of mass. For a
spherically symmetric body however the force on a particle external to the body is as if
the mass is concentrated at the centre and this force is therefore central.
9. The gravitational force on a particle inside a spherical shell is zero. However, (unlike a
metallic shell which shields electrical forces) the shell does not shield other bodies outside
it from exerting gravitational forces on a particle inside. Gravitational shielding is not
possible.
GRAVITATION 201

EXERCISES
8.1 Answer the following :
(a) You can shield a charge from electrical forces by putting it inside a hollow conductor.
Can you shield a body from the gravitational influence of nearby matter by putting
it inside a hollow sphere or by some other means ?
(b) An astronaut inside a small space ship orbiting around the earth cannot detect
gravity. If the space station orbiting around the earth has a large size, can he hope
to detect gravity ?
(c) If you compare the gravitational force on the earth due to the sun to that due
to the moon, you would find that the Sun’s pull is greater than the moon’s pull.
(you can check this yourself using the data available in the succeeding exercises).
However, the tidal effect of the moon’s pull is greater than the tidal effect of sun.
Why ?
8.2 Choose the correct alternative :
(a) Acceleration due to gravity increases/decreases with increasing altitude.
(b) Acceleration due to gravity increases/decreases with increasing depth (assume
the earth to be a sphere of uniform density).
(c) Acceleration due to gravity is independent of mass of the earth/mass of the body.
(d) The formula –G Mm(1/r 2 – 1/r 1) is more/less accurate than the formula
mg(r2 – r1) for the difference of potential energy between two points r2 and r1 distance
away from the centre of the earth.
8.3 Suppose there existed a planet that went around the sun twice as fast as the earth.
What would be its orbital size as compared to that of the earth ?
8.4 Io, one of the satellites of Jupiter, has an orbital period of 1.769 days and the radius
of the orbit is 4.22 × 108 m. Show that the mass of Jupiter is about one-thousandth
that of the sun.
8.5 Let us assume that our galaxy consists of 2.5 × 1011 stars each of one solar mass. How
long will a star at a distance of 50,000 ly from the galactic centre take to complete one
revolution ? Take the diameter of the Milky Way to be 105 ly.
8.6 Choose the correct alternative:
(a) If the zero of potential energy is at infinity, the total energy of an orbiting satellite
is negative of its kinetic/potential energy.
(b) The energy required to launch an orbiting satellite out of earth’s gravitational
influence is more/less than the energy required to project a stationary object at
the same height (as the satellite) out of earth’s influence.
8.7 Does the escape speed of a body from the earth depend on (a) the mass of the body, (b)
the location from where it is projected, (c) the direction of projection, (d) the height of
the location from where the body is launched?
8.8 A comet orbits the sun in a highly elliptical orbit. Does the comet have a constant (a)
linear speed, (b) angular speed, (c) angular momentum, (d) kinetic energy, (e) potential
energy, (f) total energy throughout its orbit? Neglect any mass loss of the comet when
it comes very close to the Sun.
8.9 Which of the following symptoms is likely to afflict an astronaut in space (a) swollen
feet, (b) swollen face, (c) headache, (d) orientational problem.
In the following two exercises, choose the correct answer from among the given ones:
8.10 The gravitational intensity at the centre of a hemispherical shell of uniform mass
density has the direction indicated by the arrow (see Fig 8.12) (i) a, (ii) b, (iii) c, (iv) 0.

Fig. 8.12
202 PHYSICS

8.11 For the above problem, the direction of the gravitational intensity at an arbitrary
point P is indicated by the arrow (i) d, (ii) e, (iii) f, (iv) g.
8.12 A rocket is fired from the earth towards the sun. At what distance from the earth’s
centre is the gravitational force on the rocket zero ? Mass of the sun = 2× 1030 kg,
mass of the earth = 6× 1024 kg. Neglect the effect of other planets etc. (orbital radius
= 1.5 × 1011 m).
8.13 How will you ‘weigh the sun’, that is estimate its mass? The mean orbital radius of
the earth around the sun is 1.5 × 108 km.
8.14 A saturn year is 29.5 times the earth year. How far is the saturn from the sun if the
earth is 1.50 × 108 km away from the sun ?
8.15 A body weighs 63 N on the surface of the earth. What is the gravitational force on it
due to the earth at a height equal to half the radius of the earth ?
8.16 Assuming the earth to be a sphere of uniform mass density, how much would a body
weigh half way down to the centre of the earth if it weighed 250 N on the surface ?
8.17 A rocket is fired vertically with a speed of 5 km s-1 from the earth’s surface. How far
from the earth does the rocket go before returning to the earth ? Mass of the earth
= 6.0 × 1024 kg; mean radius of the earth = 6.4 × 106 m; G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
8.18 The escape speed of a projectile on the earth’s surface is 11.2 km s–1. A body is
projected out with thrice this speed. What is the speed of the body far away from the
earth? Ignore the presence of the sun and other planets.
8.19 A satellite orbits the earth at a height of 400 km above the surface. How much
energy must be expended to rocket the satellite out of the earth’s gravitational
influence? Mass of the satellite = 200 kg; mass of the earth = 6.0× 1024 kg; radius of
the earth = 6.4 × 106 m; G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
8.20 Two stars each of one solar mass (= 2× 1030 kg) are approaching each other for a head
on collision. When they are a distance 109 km, their speeds are negligible. What is
the speed with which they collide ? The radius of each star is 104 km. Assume the
stars to remain undistorted until they collide. (Use the known value of G).
8.21 Two heavy spheres each of mass 100 kg and radius 0.10 m are placed 1.0 m apart
on a horizontal table. What is the gravitational force and potential at the mid point
of the line joining the centres of the spheres ? Is an object placed at that point in
equilibrium? If so, is the equilibrium stable or unstable ?

Additional Exercises

8.22 As you have learnt in the text, a geostationary satellite orbits the earth at a height of
nearly 36,000 km from the surface of the earth. What is the potential due to earth’s
gravity at the site of this satellite ? (Take the potential energy at infinity to be zero).
Mass of the earth = 6.0× 1024 kg, radius = 6400 km.
8.23 A star 2.5 times the mass of the sun and collapsed to a size of 12 km rotates with a
speed of 1.2 rev. per second. (Extremely compact stars of this kind are known as
neutron stars. Certain stellar objects called pulsars belong to this category). Will an
object placed on its equator remain stuck to its surface due to gravity ? (mass of the
sun = 2× 1030 kg).
8.24 A spaceship is stationed on Mars. How much energy must be expended on the
spaceship to launch it out of the solar system ? Mass of the space ship = 1000 kg;
mass of the sun = 2× 1030 kg; mass of mars = 6.4× 1023 kg; radius of mars = 3395 km;
radius of the orbit of mars = 2.28 × 108 km; G = 6.67× 10-11 N m2 kg–2.
8.25 A rocket is fired ‘vertically’ from the surface of mars with a speed of 2 km s–1. If 20%
of its initial energy is lost due to martian atmospheric resistance, how far will the
rocket go from the surface of mars before returning to it ? Mass of mars = 6.4× 1023
kg; radius of mars = 3395 km; G = 6.67× 10-11 N m2 kg–2.
ANSWERS 203

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A 1
THE GREEK ALPHABET

APPENDIX A 2
COMMON SI PREFIXES AND SYMBOLS FOR MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES
204 PHYSICS

APPENDIX A 3
SOME IMPORTANT CONSTANTS

Other useful constants

APPENDICES 205

APPENDIX A 4
CONVERSION FACTORS

Conversion factors are written as equations for simplicity.

Length Angle and Angular Speed

1 km = 0.6215 mi π rad = 180°
1mi = 1.609 km 1 rad = 57.30°
1m = 1.0936 yd = 3.281 ft = 39.37 in 1° = 1.745 × 10–2 rad
1 in = 2.54 cm 1 rev min–1 = 0.1047 rad s–1
1 ft = 12 in = 30.48 cm 1 rad s–1 = 9.549 rev min–1
1 yd = 3ft = 91.44 cm Mass
15
1 lightyear = 1 ly = 9.461 x 10 m 1 kg = 1000 g
°
1 A = 0.1nm 1 tonne = 1000 kg = 1 Mg
Area 1 u = 1.6606 × 10–27 kg
1 m2 = 104 cm2 1 kg = 6.022 × 1026 u
1km2 = 0.3861 mi2 = 247.1 acres 1 slug = 14.59 kg
1 in2= 6.4516 cm2 1 kg = 6.852 × 10–2 slug
1ft2= 9.29 x 10-2m2 1 u = 931.50 MeV/c2
1 m2= 10.76 ft2 Density
1 acre = 43,560 ft2 1 g cm–3 = 1000 kg m–3 = 1 kg L–1
1 mi2= 460 acres = 2.590 km2 Force
Volume 1 N = 0.2248 lbf = 105 dyn
1m3= 106cm3 1 lbf = 4.4482 N
3 -3 3
1 L = 1000 cm = 10 m 1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf
1 gal = 3.786 L Time
1 gal = 4 qt = 8 pt = 128 oz = 231 in3 1 h = 60 min = 3.6 ks
1 in3 = 16.39 cm3 1 d = 24 h = 1440 min = 86.4 ks
1ft3 = 1728 in3 = 28.32 L = 2.832 × 104 cm3 1y = 365.24 d = 31.56 Ms
Speed Pressure
–1 –1 –1
1 km h = 0.2778 m s = 0.6215 mi h 1 Pa = 1 N m–2
1mi h–1 = 0.4470 m s–1 = 1.609 km h–1 1 bar = 100 kPa
1mi h–1 = 1.467 ft s–1 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
Magnetic Field 1atm = 14.7 lbf/in2 = 760 mm Hg
1 G = 10–4 T = 29.9 in Hg = 33.8 ft H2O
–2 4
1 T = 1 Wb m = 10 G 1 lbf in–2 = 6.895 kPa
1 torr = 1mm Hg = 133.32 Pa
206 PHYSICS

Energy Power
1 kW h = 3.6 MJ 1 horsepower (hp) = 550 ft lbf/s
1 cal = 4.186 J = 745.7 W
–3
1ft lbf = 1.356 J = 1.286 × 10 Btu 1 Btu min–1 = 17.58 W
1 L atm = 101.325 J 1 W = 1.341 × 10–3 hp
1 L atm = 24.217 cal = 0.7376 ft lbf/s
1 Btu = 778 ft lb = 252 cal = 1054.35 J Thermal Conductivity
–19
1 eV = 1.602 × 10 J 1 W m–1 K–1 = 6.938 Btu in/hft2 °F
1 u c2 = 931.50 MeV 1 Btu in/hft2 °F = 0.1441 W/m K
1 erg = 10–7J

APPENDIX A 5
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

Geometry y x
sin θ = cos θ =
Circle of radius r: circumference = 2πr; r r
y x
area = πr2 tan θ = cot θ =
x y
Sphere of radius r: area = 4πr2;
r r
4 3 sec θ = csc θ =
volume = πr x y
3
Right circular cylinder of radius r Pythagorean Theorem
and height h: area = 2π r 2 +2π r h;
In this right triangle, a2 + b2 = c2
volume = π r h ;
2

Triangle of base a and altitude h.

1
area = ah
2
Quadratic Formula
If ax2 + bx + c = 0,

− b ± b2 − 4 ac
then x=
2
Trigonometric Functions of Angle θ Fig. A 5.2

Triangles
Angles are A, B, C
Opposite sides are a, b, c
Angles A + B + C = 1800

sin A sin B sin C

= =
a b c

c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C
Fig. A 5.1 Exterior angle D = A + C
APPENDICES 207

cos α + cos β

1
= 2 cos
2
(α + β ) cos 12 (α – β )

cos α – cos β

1
= −2 sin (α + β) sin 1 (α – β)
Fig. A 5.3 2 2

Mathematical Signs and Symbols

Binomial Theorem
= equals
≅ equals approximately nx n(n − 1)x 2
~ is the order of magnitude of (1 ± x )n = 1 ± + + .....( x 2 < 1)
1! 2!
≠ is not equal to
≡ is identical to, is defined as
nx n(n + 1)x 2
> is greater than (>> is much greater than) (1 ± x )− n = 1 P + + .....( x 2 < 1)
< is less than (<< is much less than) 1! 2!
≥ is greater than or equal to (or, is no less
than) Exponential Expansion
≤ is less than or equal to (or, is no more
x2 x3
than) ex = 1 + x + + + .....
± plus or minus 2! 3!
∝ is proportional to Logarithmic Expansion
∑ the sum of
1 2 1 3
x or < x > or xav the average value of x ln (1+x) = x-
2
x + x -.....
3
( x <1 )
Trigonometric Identities
sin (900 – θ ) = cos θ Trigonometric Expansion
θ in radians)
(θ
cos (900 – θ ) = sin θ
sin θ/ cos θ = tan θ θ3 θ5
sin θ = θ − + − .....
3! 5!
sin θ + cos θ =1
2 2
θ2 θ4
cos θ = 1 − + − .....
2! 4!
sec2 θ – tan2 θ = 1
θ3 2θ 5
tan θ = θ + + − .....
csc θ – cot θ = 1
2 2
3 15

sin2 θ = 2 sin θ cos θ Products of Vectors

cos2 θ = cos θ – sin θ = 2cos θ –1
2 2 2
Let 
i, j and kbe unit vectors in the x, y and z
= 1– 2 sin2 θ
directions. Then
sin(α ± β ) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β

i ⋅ i = 
j ⋅ j = k⋅ k= 1, 
i⋅j= 
j ⋅ k= k⋅ 
i=0
cos (α ± β ) = cos α cos β P sin α sin β
ˆi × ˆi = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0, ˆi × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = ˆi, kˆ × ˆi = ˆj

tan (α ± β ) = = tan α ± tan β

Any vector a with components ax, ay, and az
1 P tan α tan β along the x,y, and z axes can be written,

1 1
sin α ± sin β = 2 sin (a ± b ) cos (a mb ) a = ax
i + a y
j + a zk
2 2
208 PHYSICS

Let a, b and c be arbitary vectors with a × b = ab sin θ

magnitudes a, b and c. Then
a × ( b + c) = ( a × b ) + ( a × c) ˆi ˆj kˆ
a ´ b = - b ´ a = ax ay az
( sa) × b = a × ( sb) = s(a × b) (s is a scalar)
bx by bz
Let θ be the smaller of the two angles ( ) ( )
= a ybz - bya z ˆi + (a z bx - bz a x ) ˆj + a x by - bx a y k
ˆ
between a and b. Then
a . (b × c) = b. (c × a) = c . ( a × b)
a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a = a x b x + a y b y + a z bz = ab cosθ
a × (b × c) = (a . c) b – (a . b) c

APPENDIX A 6
SI DERIVED UNITS
A 6.1 Some SI Derived Units expressed in SI Base Units
APPENDICES 209

A 6.2 SI Derived Units with special names

A 6.3 Some SI Derived Units expressed by means of SI Units with special names
210 PHYSICS

Absorbed dose rate

APPENDIX A 7
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USING SYMBOLS FOR PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, CHEMICAL
ELEMENTS AND NUCLIDES

• Symbols for physical quantities are normally single letters and printed in italic (or sloping) type.
However, in case of the two letter symbols, appearing as a factor in a product, some spacing is
necessary to separate this symbol from other symbols.
• Abbreviations, i.e., shortened forms of names or expressions, such as p.e. for potential energy,
are not used in physical equations. These abbreviations in the text are written in ordinary
normal/roman (upright) type.
• Vectors are printed in bold and normal/roman (upright) type. However, in class room situations,
vectors may be indicated by an arrow on the top of the symbol.
• Multiplication or product of two physical quantities is written with some spacing between them.
Division of one physical quantity by another may be indicated with a horizontal bar or with
APPENDICES 211

solidus, a slash or a short oblique stroke mark (/) or by writing it as a product of the
numerator and the inverse first power of the denominator, using brackets at appropriate
places to clearly distinguish between the numerator and the denominator.
• Symbols for chemical elements are written in normal/roman (upright) type. The symbol is
not followed by a full stop.
For example, Ca, C, H, He, U, etc.
• The attached numerals specifying a nuclide are placed as a left subscript (atomic number)
and superscript (mass number).
For example, a U-235 nuclide is expressed as 235
92 U (with 235 expressing the mass number
and 92 as the atomic number of uranium with chemical symbol U).
• The right superscript position is used, if required, for indicating a state of ionisation (in
case of ions).
For example, Ca2+, PO34−

APPENDIX A 8
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USING SYMBOLS FOR SI UNITS, SOME OTHER UNITS, AND
SI PREFIXES

• Symbols for units of physical quantities are printed/written in Normal/Roman (upright) type.
• Standard and recommended symbols for units are written in lower case roman (upright)
type, starting with small letters. The shorter designations for units such as kg, m, s, cd,
etc., are symbols and not the abbreviations. The unit names are never capitalised. However,
the unit symbols are capitalised only if the symbol for a unit is derived from a proper name
of scientist, beginning with a capital, normal/roman letter.
For example, m for the unit ‘metre’, d for the unit ‘day’, atm for the unit ‘atmospheric
pressure’, Hz for the unit ‘hertz’, Wb for the unit ‘weber’, J for the unit ‘joule’, A for the unit
‘ampere’, V for the unit ‘volt’, etc. The single exception is L, which is the symbol for the
unit ‘litre’. This exception is made to avoid confusion of the lower case letter l with the
Arabic numeral l.
• Symbols for units do not contain any final full stop at the end of recommended letter and
remain unaltered in the plural, using only singular form of the unit.
For example, for a length of 25 centimetres the unit symbol is written as 25 cm
and not 25 cms or 25 cm. or 25 cms., etc.
• Use of solidus ( / ) is recommended only for indicating a division of one letter unit symbol by
another unit symbol. Not more than one solidus is used.
For example :
m/s2 or m s–2 (with a spacing between m and s–2) but not m/s/s;
1 Pl =1 N s m –2 = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/s m=1 kg m–1 s–1, but not 1 kg/m/s;
J/K mol or J K–1 mol–1, but not J/K/mol; etc.
• Prefix symbols are printed in normal/roman (upright) type without spacing between the
prefix symbol and the unit symbol. Thus certain approved prefixes written very close to the
unit symbol are used to indicate decimal fractions or multiples of a SI unit, when it is
inconveniently small or large.
For example :
megawatt ( 1MW = 106 W); nanosecond (1 ns = 10–9 s);
–2
centimetre (1 cm = 10 m); picofarad (1 pF = 10–12 F);.
3
kilometre ( 1 km = 10 m); microsecond (1μs = 10–6 s);
–3
millivolt (1 mV= 10 V); gigahertz (1GHz = 109 Hz);
212 PHYSICS

kilowatt-hour (1 kW h = 103 W h = 3.6 MJ = 3.6 × 106 J);

microampere (1μ A = 10–6 A); micron (1μm = 10–6 m);
°
angstrom (1 Α =0.1 nm = 10–10 m); etc.
The unit ‘micron’ which equals 10–6 m, i.e. a micrometre, is simply the name given to
convenient sub-multiple of the metre. In the same spirit, the unit ‘fermi’, equal to a
femtometre or 10–15 m has been used as the convenient length unit in nuclear studies.
Similarly, the unit ‘barn’, equal to 10–28 m2, is a convenient measure of cross-sectional
areas in sub-atomic particle collisions. However, the unit ‘micron’ is preferred over the
unit ‘micrometre’ to avoid confusion of the ‘micrometre’ with the length measuring
instrument called ‘micrometer’. These newly formed multiples or sub-multiples (cm, km,
μm, μs, ns) of SI units, metre and second, constitute a new composite inseparable symbol
for units.
• When a prefix is placed before the symbol of a unit, the combination of prefix and symbol is
considered as a new symbol, for the unit, which can be raised to a positive or negative
power without using brackets. These can be combined with other unit symbols to form
compound unit. Rules for binding-in indices are not those of ordinary algebra.
For example :
cm3 means always (cm)3 = (0.01 m)3 = (10–2 m)3 = 10–6 m3, but never 0.01 m3 or
10–2 m3 or 1cm3 (prefix c with a spacing with m3 is meaningless as prefix c is to be attached
to a unit symbol and it has no physical significance or independent existence without
attachment with a unit symbol).
Similarly, mA2 means always (mA)2= (0.001A)2 = (10–3 A)2 =10–6 A2, but never 0.001 A2 or
10–3 A2 or m A2;
1 cm–1 = (10–2m)–1=102 m–1, but not 1c m–1 or 10–2 m–1;
1μs–1 means always (10–6s)–1=106 s–1, but not 1 × 10–6 s–1;
1 km2 means always (km)2 = (103 m)2=106 m2, but not 103 m2;
1mm2 means always (mm)2= (10–3 m)2=10–6 m2, but not 10–3 m2.
• A prefix is never used alone. It is always attached to a unit symbol and written or fixed
before (pre-fix) the unit symbol.
For example :
103/m3 means 1000/m3 or 1000 m-3, but not k/m3 or k m-3.
106/m3 means 10,00,000/m3 or 10,00,000 m–3, but not M/m3 or M m–3
• Prefix symbol is written very close to the unit symbol without spacing between them, while
unit symbols are written separately with spacing when units are multiplied together.
For example :
m s-1 (symbols m and s–1, in lower case, small letter m and s, are separate and independent
unit symbols for metre and second respectively, with spacing between them) means ‘metre
per second’, but not ‘milli per second’.
Similarly, ms–1 [symbol m and s are written very close to each other, with prefix symbol m
(for prefix milli) and unit symbol s, in lower case, small letter (for unit ‘second’) without
any spacing between them and making ms as a new composite unit] means ‘per millisecond’,
but never ‘metre per second’.
mS–1[symbol m and S are written very close to each other, with prefix symbol m (for prefix
milli) and unit symbol S, in capital roman letter S (for unit ‘siemens’) without any spacing
between them, and making mS as a new composite unit] means ‘per millisiemens’, but
never ‘per millisecond’.
C m [symbol C and m are written separately, representing unit symbols C (for unit ‘coulomb’)
and m (for unit ‘metre’), with spacing between them] means ‘coulomb metre’, but never
‘centimetre’, etc.
• The use of double prefixes is avoided when single prefixes are available.
For example :
APPENDICES 213

10–9 m = 1nm (nanometre), but not 1mμm (millimicrometre),

10–6 m= 1μm (micron), but not 1mmm(millimillimetre),
10–12 F= 1 pF (picofarad), but not 1μμF (micromicrofarad),
109 W=1 GW (giga watt), but not 1 kMW (kilomegawatt), etc.
• The use of a combination of unit and the symbols for units is avoided when the physical quantity
is expressed by combining two or more units.
For example :
joule per mole kelvin is written as J/mol K or J mol –1 K –1, but not joule/mole K or
J/ mol kelvin or J/mole K, etc.
joule per tesla is written as J/T or J T–1, but not joule /T or J per tesla or J/tesla, etc.
newton metre second is written as N m s, but not Newton m second or N m second or N metre s
or newton metre s, etc.
joule per kilogram kelvin is written as J/kg K or J kg–1 K–1, but not J/kilog K or joule/kg K or J/
kg kelvin or J/kilogram K, etc.
• To simplify calculations, the prefix symbol is attached to the unit symbol in the numerator and
not to the denominator.
For example :
106 N/m2 is written more conveniently as MN/m2, in preference to N/mm2.
A preference has been expressed for multiples or sub-multiples involving the factor 1000, 10+3n
where n is the integer.
• Proper care is needed when same symbols are used for physical quantities and units of physical
quantities.
For example :
The physical quantity weight (W) expressed as a product of mass (m) and acceleration due to
gravity (g) may be written in terms of symbols W, m and g printed in italic ( or sloping) type as W
= m g, preferably with a spacing between m and g. It should not be confused with the unit
symbols for the units watt (W), metre (m) and gram (g). However, in the equation W=m g, the
symbol W expresses the weight with a unit symbol J, m as the mass with a unit symbol kg and
g as the acceleration due to gravity with a unit symbol m/s2. Similarly, in equation F = m a, the
symbol F expresses the force with a unit symbol N, m as the mass with a unit symbol kg, and a
as the acceleration with a unit symbol m/s2. These symbols for physical quantities should not
be confused with the unit symbols for the units ‘farad’ (F), ‘metre’(m) and ‘are’ (a).
Proper distinction must be made while using the symbols h (prefix hecto, and unit hour), c
(prefix centi, and unit carat), d (prefix deci and unit day), T (prefix tera, and unit tesla), a (prefix
atto, and unit are), da (prefix deca, and unit deciare), etc.
• SI base unit ‘kilogram’ for mass is formed by attaching SI prefix (a multiple equal to 103) ‘kilo’ to
a cgs (centimetre, gram, second) unit ‘gram’ and this may seem to result in an anomaly. Thus,
while a thousandth part of unit of length (metre) is called a millimetre (mm), a thousandth part
of the unit of mass (kg) is not called a millikilogram, but just a gram. This appears to give the
impression that the unit of mass is a gram (g) which is not true. Such a situation has arisen
because we are unable to replace the name ‘kilogram’ by any other suitable unit. Therefore, as
an exception, name of the multiples and sub-multiples of the unit of mass are formed by attaching
prefixes to the word ‘gram’ and not to the word ‘kilogram’.
For example :
103 kg =1 megagram ( 1Mg), but not 1 kilo kilogram (1 kkg);
10–6 kg = 1 milligram ( 1 mg), but not 1 microkilogram ( 1μkg);
10–3 kg = 1 gram (1g), but not 1 millikilogram (1 mkg), etc.
It may be emphasised again that you should use the internationally approved and recommended
symbols only. Continual practice of following general rules and guidelines in unit symbol writing
would make you learn mastering the correct use of SI units, prefixes and related symbols for physical
quantities in a proper perspective.
214 PHYSICS

APPENDIX A 9
DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
APPENDICES 215
216 PHYSICS
APPENDICES 217
218 PHYSICS