P

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LEARNING
I
MICROCONTROLLERS

1 Introduction to Microcontrollers

2 8051 Microcontrollers

3 8051 Pin Description, Connections, I/O Ports and Memory Organization

4 MCS-51 Addressing Modes and Instructions

5 8051 Assembly Language Programming Tools

6 MCS-51 Interrupts, Timer/Counters and Serial Communication

7 Design with Atmel Microcontrollers

8 Applications of MCS-51 and Atmel 89C51 and 89C2051 Microcontrollers

 C
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INTRODUCTION
1
TO
MICROCONTROLLERS

Objectives
l Understand the basic building blocks of a microcontroller device in general.
l Know the history and developments in microcontrollers and microprocessors
l Know the terminologies like embedded and external memory devices, CISC
and RISC processors, etc.
l Know some commercial microcontrollers.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Today, we see many industrial and domestic products like remote controllers, telephone
bill printing machines, automatic power regulators, automatic or semi-automatic washing ma-
chines, microwave ovens, automobiles, engines, indicating and measuring instruments and
similar products. Automation is needed to facilitate the process or mechanism for its operation
and control. Data storage and processing is an integral part of any automatic control system.
The need is to have a device, so called ‘microcontroller’, which allows controlling the timing
and sequencing of these machines and processes. Further, with the help of microcontroller, it
is possible to carry out simple arithmetic and logical operations. Any system that has a remote
controller, almost certainly contains a microcontroller.
 " Learning Microcontrollers

Microcontrollers are single-chip microcomputers, more suited for control and automation of
machines and processes. Microcontrollers have central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/
output ports (I/O), timers and counters, analog-to-digital converter (ADC), digital-to-analog
converter (DAC), serial ports, interrupt logic, oscillator circuitry and many more functional
blocks on chip. Figure 1.1 shows a general functional block diagram of a microcontroller. Note
that there may be variations in the functional blocks from device to device and from one
manufacturer to another. All these functional blocks on a single Integrated Circuit (IC), results
into a reduced size of control board, low power consumption, more reliability and ease of
integration within an application design. The usage of microcontrollers not only reduces the
cost of automation, but also provides more flexibility. The designer is little bit relieved from
the complex interfacing of external peripherals like ADC/DACs, etc. and can concentrate on
applications and development aspects. The device can be programmed to make the system
intelligent. This is possible because of the data processing and memory capability of
microcontrollers. Once a typical microcontroller is learnt and practiced, one may wish to go
for other microcontrollers from various makes. Some of the commonly used microcontrollers
are Intel MCS-51, MCS-96, Motorola 68HC12 family, Microchip’s peripheral interface
controller (PIC) family of microcontrollers 16CXX, 17CXX, etc.

Vcc

CPU ROM/EPROM/E I/Os

RAM
EPROM Parallel
Timing and and
Control Serial
Registers
Unit
DAC
Oscillator or
Circuit Additional device-specific PWM
functional blocks, O/P
e.g. Watchdog Timer

. ADC

Channels
Timers/Counters Interrupt Logic

Fig. 1.1 Generalized Functional Block Diagram of a Microcontroller

Microcontrollers have all the functional blocks which can fulfill the general needs of auto-
mation. Just to get an idea about the use of microcontrollers, consider an example of a
 Introduction to Microcontrollers #

temperature indicator as shown in the Fig. 1.2. A single microcontroller IC can directly get the
analog input, say in the range 0–5 V typically, from a temperature sensor and drives LCD
display. Note that there is no need to connect any external memory; the ADC function is also
built inside the single microcontroller IC. The programmer has to write simple software modules
to operate the LCD display and ADC. For example, the ADC operation involves the selection
of ADC channel, generating the start of conversion command, checking the ADC status and
getting the data into memory. The data may be averaged over some samples to improve the
signal-to-noise ratio.

Vcc

LCD Module

Temp: 32°C
mC

TT

Analog Ground

TT: Temperature Transmitter, LCD: Liquid Crystal Dispaly, mC: Microcontroller IC

Fig. 1.2 Microcontroller-based Temperature Indicator

1.2 MICROCONTROLLERS AND MICROPROCESSORS

The word microprocessor, in a broader sense, means a CPU only. The functional blocks
like memory, and other peripherals are to be connected externally to a microprocessor chip to
form a complete microprocessor board. The system, which is built this way, is called as a
“Single-Board Microcomputer”. For example, 8085, 8086 and 80486 are microprocessors.
If we see the design requirements of automation, as discussed in the earlier section, we need
a device which has all the functional blocks inside a single IC. Therefore, the concept of “single-
chip” microcomputers came into reality. Single-chip microcomputers are ‘Microcontrollers’.
The examples are Intel MCS-51, PIC family by Microchip, Atmel 89CXX, 89CXX51. These
are the microcontrollers used for general-purpose applications in the sense that they are user
programmable and have functional blocks suitable to meet a more general design requirement.
There are general-purpose and application-specific microcontroller products as well. Application-
specific standard products (ASSPs) are tailored for a specific application but are not proprietary
to a single customer, while general-purpose products are neither application nor customer
specific. The application may be like embedded motor control. The job of application-specific
microcontrollers in this particular application is mainly for controlling motors of any types;
like DC, brushless DC, brushless permanent magnet, and AC induction motor.
 $ Learning Microcontrollers

Another important class of processors is the so called ‘Bit-Slice Processors’. The term bit-
slice processor means that the processors can be interconnected to form a processor of any
desired word length. Bit slice processors consist of an ALU typically of 4 or 8 bits1, registers
and control lines. The control lines are connected to each processor slice and all processors
can perform the same operation. An example of a bit-slice processor is AMD’s 2900 series.
The bit-slice microprocessor design has some advantages. The first main advantage is that the
ALUs can be assembled together horizontally to form computers that can handle very large
data at a time. Another advantage of the bit-slice design is that it makes possible the use of
bipolar chip technology that is very fast. Further, the bit-slice design allows users to create
their own instruction sets for their applications. The discussions in this text will be focused
only on the general-purpose microcontrollers and their applications.

1.3 HISTORY OF MICROCONTROLLERS AND MICROPROCESSORS

Since the inception of microprocessors, 4-, 8-, 16- and 32-bit microprocessors/
microcontrollers have developed and appeared in market. Intel 4004 was the first 4-bit processor
which appeared in 1971. The instructions were 8 bits long but the data processed was 4-bit
data. It had separate external memories for program (4K) and data (1K). There were 46
instructions and the clock frequency was 740 kHz. Then, during 1972, Intel 4040, the advanced
version of 4004, was developed. 4040 had 14 more instructions with 8K program memory and
interrupt capability.
In 1974, Texas instruments introduced the first microcontroller TMS 1000. TMS 1000 had
on-chip RAM, ROM, and I/Os. Intel 8080 was then introduced in 1974, as the advanced version
of 8008, which also appeared in 1972. The popular, Intel 8085 was developed in 1976. This
could operate on +5V supply and 3 MHz frequency. In the same year, Zilog Z-80 appeared as
an improvement over Intel 8080. Z80 operating frequency was 2.5 MHz, and in the CMOS
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) version it was 10 MHz.
Immediately after Intel’s 8080, in 1975, Motorola introduced its 6800, later followed by the
6502 and 6809, etc. Next, Intel 8048 was developed as a microcontroller around 1976. This is
the MCS-48 family. On-chip data storage was possible, but the code was stored in the external
program memory. It had 1-byte instructions. This was however immediately replaced by the
MCS-51 family of microcontrollers in 1980. Intel MCS-51 uses more flexible 2-byte instructions.
On-chip (RAM/ROM/EPROM) program memory as well as the 128 bytes of data memory is
provided. External memory connections are also possible. In 1982, Motorola introduced
microcontroller 6805. Peripheral interface controller (PIC) originated at Harvard University

1
Bit is the basic unit of digital information. Four bits form a nibble and a byte consists of eight bits.
 Introduction to Microcontrollers %

during 1975. PIC family of microcontrollers was introduced around 1985, by Microchip. PIC
uses Harvard architecture, and has a Reduced Instruction Set. In 1978, Intel 8086, a 16-bit
processor, was developed. Followed by this, Motorola introduced a 16-bit microprocessor
68000, and Zilog introduced Z8000, a 16-bit microprocessor. The historical developments in
microprocessor products are listed in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Historical Developments in Microprocessors and Microcontrollers
Year Microprocessor/microcontroller Remark
1971 Intel 4004 4-bit microprocessor
1972 Intel 4040 4-bit microprocessor
1974 Intel 8080 8 bit microprocessor
TMS 1000 8 bit microcontroller
1975 Motorola 6800 8 bit microprocessor
1976 MCS-48 8-bit microcontroller
Intel 8085 8-bit microprocessor
1978 8086, Motorola 68000, Zilog Z-8000 16-bit microprocessor
1979
1980 8051 8-bit microcontroller
1982 68010, 6805, Microcontroller
80186, 80188, 80286 16-bit microprocessors
8096 (MCS-96) 16-bit microcontrollers
1984 68020 32-bit microprocessor
1985 80386 32-bit microprocessor
PIC microcontrollers by Microchip 8-bit microcontrollers
1987 Z280 16-bit microprocessor
1989 80386sx, 80486 32-bit microprocessor
1993 Pentium 32-bit microprocessor
1997 Atmel 8-bit AVR family 8-bit RISC microcontrollers

In June 1997, ATMEL 8-bit AVR microcontrollers were introduced which also have reduced
instruction set. Today, we see a number of microcontroller families, from multiple sources and
in many versions. Before discussing more about microcontrollers, let us look at some impor-
tant terms related to microcontrollers.

1.4 EMBEDDED VERSUS EXTERNAL MEMORY DEVICES

Embedded devices are becoming very popular now-a-days. Such a device has all the
functional blocks on chip, including the program and data memory. There is no external data/
address bus provided. For example, ATMEL 89C2051 is one example of Embedded Controller,
which has timers/counters, on-chip RAM, EEPROM, I/Os, a precision comparator along with
CPU and timing and control unit. It has only 20 pins. The code is executed from the internal
program memory only. One can see that this type of IC is definitely better than the control
boards in earlier designs, which used many logic gates and other digital ICs.
 & Learning Microcontrollers

However, we see normally that devices like 8031 from MCS-51 family need external program
memory interface. These devices are External Memory Devices. In case of 8051/8751, a part
of program execution is possible from the on-chip program memory and rest of the program
execution is from the external memory. Further, there is an option of executing the whole
program only from the external program memory as well. This feature of external memory is
useful, only when the program memory requirement exceeds the one which is available on-
chip. In external memory devices, there is an external address/data bus. Naturally, the number
of pins is more and an additional Printed Circuit Board (PCB) space is needed for memories
and latches, etc.

1.5 8-BIT AND 16-BIT MICROCONTROLLERS

Several features define the word length of a processor. One can define an 8-bit micro-
processor or microcontroller in a much broader sense, as a device which has most of its registers
8-bit wide and most of its instructions use operands which are 8-bit wide. There is almost no
direct dependency of this definition on the width of the data or address bus. For example, 8088
has 8-bit external data bus, but it is a 16-bit processor. 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor. MCS-
51 is an 8-bit microcontroller family. MCS-96 is a 16- bit microcontroller family.
From the application point of view, it is very important to decide if an 8-bit or a 16-bit
microcontroller is to be used in a typical design. 8-bit microcontrollers have dominated over the
16-bit microcontrollers. The reason is that many designers are familiar with 8-bit microcontrollers
and we can always perform 16-bit operations on 8-bit controllers, by writing suitable programs.

1.6 CISC AND RISC PROCESSORS

Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC) and Reduced Instruction Set Computers
(RISC) are common terminologies used while talking about microcontrollers or microprocessors.
CISC processors have large number of instructions. A larger instruction set helps assembly
language programmers by providing flexibility to write effective and short programs. The
objective of CISC architecture is to write a program in as few lines of assembly language code
as possible. This is made possible by developing processor hardware that can understand and
execute a number of operations. For example, in MCS-51, the MUL (multiply) instruction is a
complex instruction for which only operands are to be specified in the instruction, and the
operation of multiplication is done by hardware. In such type of instructions, the building of
complex instructions directly into the hardware helps in two different ways. Not only is the
hardware implementation faster, but also it saves the program memory space in the sense that
the instruction code is very short as compared to the one needed for the multiply operation
using ADD instruction. Thus, the programmer works at a relatively higher level.
 Introduction to Microcontrollers '

Programmers want to have fewer, simpler and faster instructions, than the large, complex
and slower CISC instructions. This is, however, at the cost of writing more instructions to
accomplish a task. One advantage of RISC is that because of the more simple instructions,
RISC chips require lesser hardware implementation, which makes them simpler to design and
hence lesser cost of production. And it is always easier to write optimized compilers, because
of a small number of instructions. One example of RISC microcontrollers is the popular PIC
family of microcontrollers by Microchip.
More importance is given to how fast a chip can execute the instructions and how it runs
available or designed software.

1.7 HARVARD AND VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURES

There are two major classes of computer architectures, namely, ‘Harvard architectures’,
and the ‘Von Neumann (or Princeton) architectures’. Figure 1.3 shows the Harvard architecture.
Many special designs of microcontrollers and DSP (Digital Signal Processor) use Harvard
architectures.
Harvard architecture uses separate memories for program and data with their independent
address and data buses. Because of two different streams of data and address, there is no need
to have any time division multiplexing of address and data buses. Not only the architecture
supports parallel buses for address and data, but also it allows a different internal organization
such that instruction can be pre-fetched and decoded while multiple data are being fetched and
operated on. Further, the data bus may have different size than the address bus. This allows the
optimal bus widths of the data and address buses for fast execution of the instruction. For
example, the MCS-51 family of microcontrollers by Intel has Harvard architecture because
there are different memory spaces for program and data and separate (internal) buses for
address and data. Similarly, PIC microcontrollers by Microchip use Harvard architecture.
In Von Neumann architecture, programs and data share the same memory space. Figure 1.4
shows the Von Neumann architecture. Von Neumann architecture allows storing or modifying

CPU CPU

Data Program Memory

Memory Memory

Fig. 1.3 Harvard Architecture Fig. 1.4 Von Neumann Architecture

 Learning Microcontrollers

the programs easily. However, the code storage may not be optimal and requires multiple
fetches to form the instruction. Program and data fetches are done using time division
multiplexing which affect the performance. One example of the microcontroller using the Von
Neumann (Princeton) architecture is Motorola 68HC11 microcontroller.

1.8 COMMERCIAL MICROCONTROLLER DEVICES

For a given application, it is necessary to find out the functional needs and select a
suitable microcontroller. One should be aware of some of the commercially available
microcontrollers. A brief overview of some commercial microcontrollers is given below. The
families, which we will discuss in this book, are PIC by Microchip, Intel MCS-51, and Atmel
89CXX /89CXX51.
1.8.1 MCS-51 and Atmel 89CXX, 89CXX51 Microcontrollers
MCS-51 and Atmel 89CXX, 89CXX51 microcontrollers are 8-bit microcontrollers. Atmel
89CXX and 89CXX51 are compatible with the MCS-51 family. Therefore, while learning
MCS-51, one can learn these Atmel microcontrollers. Let us consider MCS-51 as a starting
point for learning the microcontrollers for which the literature and development systems are
already available in many institutions and industries where some work on microcontrollers is
already going on. However, today one can get these development tools and application notes
easily from the manufacturers, for the other microcontroller families as well.
1.8.2 The MCS-51 Family
MCS-51 is the family of 8-bit microcontrollers, operating at the frequency of 12 MHz, and it
was introduced to replace the earlier MCS-48 microcontrollers. Table 1.2 lists the various
devices of this family. The design is based on HMOS (High-Speed Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
technology. CHMOS (Complementary High-Speed Metal Oxide Semiconductor) versions of
these devices are also available and are represented by the part number with an additional
letter ‘C’, e.g. 80C51, 87C51, etc. CHMOS is the name given to Intel’s high-speed CMOS
process. There are some advantages of using these CHMOS versions of MCS-51 microcontrollers
over the HMOS versions. CHMOS version has lower power consumption, higher noise immunity
and higher speed. The CHMOS devices are architecturally compatible with their HMOS
counterparts. The only difference is that the CHMOS devices have additional features like
power down and idle modes, etc.
 Introduction to Microcontrollers 

Table 1.2 MCS-51 Family Members

Device On-chip data On-chip program No. of 16-bit No. of vectored Full duplex
memory (bytes) memory timers/counters interrupts serial I/O
8031 128 None 2 5 1
8032 256 None 3 6 1
8051 128 4K ROM 2 5 1
8052 256 8K ROM 3 6 1
8751 128 4K EPROM 2 5 1
8752 256 8K EPROM 3 6 1

The selection criteria among these are only based on the functional requirements power
supply constraints, available printed circuit board space, pin count and the cost of production.
For a mass production, the designer may go for ROM versions. However, for lesser production,
EPROM version or CPU version with external program memory is suitable. Many a times it is
preferred to go for the EPROM/ROM versions to avoid the external memory connections,
provided the size of the code is less than the size of on-chip program memory. However, one
should note that the EPROM has limited write/erase cycles, typically 1000 write/erase. From
maintenance point of view, one may prefer EPROM or ROM version, because it requires
replacing only a single IC from the board. Further, during the product development, one
spends a lot of intellectual man-hours to design software. So, it is better to use the built-in
‘security fuse’ facility to avoid stealing or unauthorized copying of software. For the
development work, an EPROM eraser and programmer is needed to write or change the code,
along with the testing and debugging tools.
1.8.3 Atmel Microcontrollers
Few devices from the Atmel family are listed in Table 1.3. Mainly we discuss here about the
reprogrammable flash devices. The emphasis is given on 20-pin devices. These devices sup-
port fully static operation from 0 to 24 MHz. The low-frequency operation is very important
when the power consumption is to be kept minimum. For example, in case of the battery
operated instruments, power consumption is crucial. Note, however that the execution speed is
also reduced at low frequencies. Timer-clocking periods are also dependent on the operating
frequency. The power-down modes and IDLE modes can be used to keep the power consumption
to a minimum level. One can select a device with low-voltage operation, typically in the range
2.7–6 V. Atmel 89C1051/2051 devices support this low-voltage operation. For Atmel 89C4051,
this range is 3–6 V.
 Learning Microcontrollers

Table 1.3 Atmel Microcontrollers

Device On-chip On-chip No. of Digital Full No. of Precision
data program 16-bit I/Os duplex pins in on-chip
memory memory timers/ serial (PDIP) analog
(bytes) (flash) counters I/Os comparators
AT89C51 128 4K 2 32 1 40 None
AT89C52 256 8K 3 32 1 40 None
AT89C55WD 256 20K 3 32 1 40 None
AT89C1051 64 1K 2 15 1 20 1
AT89C2051 128 2K 2 15 1 20 1
AT89C4051 128 4K 2 15 1 20 1
AT89LV52 256 8K 3 32 1 40 None

Twenty-pin devices are very much suited when the PCB space available is small, and the
need of I/O lines is fulfilled with 15 I/Os. The precision analog comparator along with timers
can be used for building the counter type ADC. Flash PEROM (Programmable and Erasable
Read Only Memory) is another very useful feature. Ultraviolet EPROM eraser is not needed at
all. The device can be programmed and erased electrically. Atmel 89LV52 is a low-voltage 8K
flash microcontroller compatible with 8032. The operating voltage range is 2.7 V–6 V. For
more details one may refer the Atmel microcontroller product literature. It is also interesting to
see the Atmel AVR family of RISC processors.
1.8.4 PIC Microcontrollers
PIC16CXX and PIC17CXX, 8-bit microcontrollers by Microchip, use CMOS technology. PIC
microcontrollers are popular because of high performance, low cost and small size. It uses
high-speed RISC architecture. PIC 16CXX has only 33 single-word instructions. The operating
frequency typically for 16CXX parts ranges from DC to 20 MHz. It is possible to add external
program memory, up to 64K words. The PIC 17C42 has a number of counter/timer resources
and I/O handling capabilities. 16C71 has built in 8-bit ADC with 4 channels.
To have a 10-bit ADC with 12 channels, one can go for 17C752 device. PIC microcontroller
devices are briefly described in Table 1.4. There are many more devices by Microchip in many
versions, which are not listed in the table. General features include, timers, watchdog timers,
embedded ADC, extended instruction/data memory, serial communication, pulse width
modulated (PWM) outputs, and ROM, EPROM and EEPROM memories.
 Introduction to Microcontrollers !

Table 1.4 Few Devices from PIC Microcontrollers

Device Pins Digital ADC channels EPROM RAM (bytes)
(for DIP) I/Os ¥ 12 words
16C54 18 12 None 512 25
16C55 28 20 None 512 24
16C56 18 12 None 1K 25
16C57 28 20 None 2K 72
17C42A 40 33 None 2K 232
17C43 40 33 None 4K 454
17C44 40 33 None 8K 454
16C71 18 13 4 (8-bit ADC) 1K ¥ 14 36
17C752 40 33 12 (10-bit ADC) 8K ¥ 16 678

Summary
In this chapter, various microcontroller building blocks have been discussed
and the reader is introduced to some of the commercially available
microcontroller devices. Terminologies like CISC and RISC processors,
embedded and external memory devices have been discussed. A historical
background of microprocessors has been given to understand how the
microcontroller development has taken place. A comparison of various devices
and their selection criteria is a part of practice; however, efforts have been
made to introduce the basic concepts behind this process. The readers may
go through the manufacturer data sheets and product information in more
detail before working on their own designs. This is because a large number
of devices with different versions are available in market. The following hands-
on exercises will help in keeping the necessary information ready, at the time
of designing a microcontroller-based product.

Review Questions

1.1 What do you mean by the term embedded controllers and external memory devices?
1.2 Discuss the advantages of microcontrollers over microprocessors in control applications.
1.3 What are RISC and CISC processors?
1.4 Discuss the criteria for selecting a microcontroller device.
1.5 How do you distinguish between 8-bit and 16-bit microcontrollers?
1.6 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Harvard and Von Neumann architectures.
1.7 Why would one may possibly go for microcontrollers other than the popular 8051?
" Learning Microcontrollers

1.8 What are the various issues while selecting a microcontroller having RISC philosophy?
1.9 When a microcontroller like PIC by Microchip, which is a RISC processor, is there;
why and in which situation one should go for CISC processor like 8051?
1.10 In case of Harvard architecture, why there is no need for multiplexing the address and
data buses? How and why the address and data buses may have different widths? If this
is true, why is it difficult to have external memory expansion in case of these devices?
1.11 Out of the microcontrollers discussed in this chapter, which microcontrollers use Harvard
architecture? Also state whether they are RISC processors.
1.12 List the factors to be considered while going for ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, and Flash
memory versions of microcontroller devices.
1.13 Why is it not advisable to use dynamic RAM with microcontrollers?
1.14 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a battery backup RAM?
1.15 List the domestic applications where microcontrollers would be possibly useful or do
better?

Hands-on Exercises

1.1 Collect the data sheets of the microcontroller devices available in market and compare
them with respect to their salient features and specifications. For this you may refer some
of the web sites given below:
Intel: www.intel.com
Atmel: www.atmel.com
Siemens: www.sci.siemens.com
1.2 Collect the information about the development tools available for the various
microcontroller devices.
1.3 Get the information about the EPROM programmer and EPROM eraser. See the devices
supported by the programmer.