EMT 2132 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL SCIENCE

Lecture Notes Compiled By:

Hillary Koros

@February 2018

Students are reminded not to treat these lecture notes as a comprehensive and solely sufficient material
for their studies since the purpose of the notes is not meant to be a substitute for regularly attending
classes, reading relevant textbooks and recommended books. The notes are aimed at providing a quick
reference and a brief guidance for the students.
 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL SCIENCE EMT 2132

(45 Lecture Hours)

Prerequisites: SCH 2120 Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, SPH 2173 Physics for Engineers
Purpose
The aim of this course is to enable the student to;
1. Understand the relationship between the structure of materials and their properties
2. Understand the importance of material science in creation of alloys and their application
or subsequent forming
3. Interpret the microstructure of materials and relate mechanical properties to the crystal
structure
Course objectives
At the end of this course, the student should be able to;
1. interpret the microstructure for steels and other iron alloys
2. relate the mechanical properties of metals to the micro and macro structures
3. change properties of metals by alloying and heat treatment

Course description
Classification of Engineering Materials: Metals, alloys, ceramics, polymers and composites.
Atomic Structure and Bonding: Structure of the atom, bonding between atoms and molecules;
influence of bonding on strength.
Crystal Structure: Types of crystal structures and their characteristics; Simple cubic, BCC, FCC and
HCP. Crystallographic planes and directions; Miller indices and Bravais indices.
Defects in Crystals: Point defects, line defects (or dislocations), area defects
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials: Stress and strain. Tensile test; stress-strain-curves, yield stress,
proof stress, ultimate tensile strength, elongation, ductility, toughness, brittleness, true stress and true
strain. Other mechanical tests; compression-, hardness-, impact-, creep-, fatigue-, bending-, torsion-,
shearing-tests. Ductile-brittle transition.
Alloy Theory and Equilibrium Diagrams: Alloying systems, cooling curves, phase diagrams,
composition and quantities of phases, lever rule.
Physical Properties: Electrical conduction, thermal behaviour, optical properties, magnetism.

Course text books

1. Higgins R.N.(1994), Properties of Engineering Materials, Hodder & Stroughton, 2nd Ed.
2. Srivastava C.M. and Srinivasa C. (1991) Mechanical Properties of Materials, Wesley Eastern.
References
3. Pascoe K.J. (1962) An Introduction to the Properties of Engineering Materials, van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1st Ed.
4. Cottrell A.H. (1975) An Introduction to Metallurgy, Edward Arnold, 2nd Ed.
5. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology

Teaching methodology: 2 hour lectures and 1 hour tutorial per week and at least three 3-hour-laboratory
sessions per semester organized on a rotational basis.

Mode of assessment: 70% written exam, 30% Continuous assessment

Instruction materials/equipment
1. Mechanical Engineering laboratories and workshops;
2. Overhead projectors.
 INTRODUCTION

Material science: involves investigating the relationships that exist between the structures and
properties of materials.

Materials engineering: is, on the basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or

engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.

From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new
materials, whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new products or systems using
existing materials, and/or to develop techniques for processing materials.

Structure: relates to the arrangement of its internal components. E.g. Subatomic structure
involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei while on atomic
level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another.

Property: is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific imposed
stimulus. The property of a material is independent of its shape and size

There are six categories of material properties:

1) Mechanical properties
2) Electrical properties
3) Thermal properties
4) Magnetic properties
5) Optical properties
6) Deteriorative properties

Figure 1: Interrelation Between Four Components of Material Science.

Why study Material Science and Engineering?

Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechatronic, civil, biomechanical, or electrical,

will at one time or another be exposed to a design problem involving materials e.g. gear building,
oil refinery component, or fabrication of an integrated circuit chip.

The materials problem may be one of selecting the right material from thousands that are
available. The final decision is normally based on several criteria or considerations.

First of all, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these will dictate the properties
required of the material e.g. Strength and ductility; normally, a material having a high strength
will have only a limited ductility therefore reasonable compromise between two or more
properties may be necessary.

A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may occur
during service operation e.g. significant reductions in mechanical strength may result from
exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive environments.

Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the finished
product cost? A material may be found that has the ideal set of properties but is prohibitively
expensive. Here again, some compromise is inevitable. The cost of a finished piece also includes
any expense incurred during fabrication to produce the desired shape.

The more familiar an engineer is with the various characteristics and structure–property
relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials, the more proficient and confident he
or she will be in making judicious materials choices based on these criteria. Indeed, adequate
knowledge in materials allows an engineer to properly select the best material for a given design
or application.

Chapters Covered
 Introduction
 Atomic Structures and Bonding
 Crystalline Structures
 Defects in Solids
 Mechanical Properties
 Material Failure
 Phase Diagrams
 Engineering Alloys
 Polymers
 Physical properties of materials
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Everything in our world is made of elements. These elements in isolation or in combination with
other elements form the materials that make objects.

Engineering material is a special class comprising of matter that is of value in engineering

assignments. Engineering materials may be divided into the following sub-groups.

1. Metals
2. Alloys
3. Ceramics
4. Polymers
5. Composites
6. Advanced materials.

An example of an item fabricated from three material types is a beverage container. The material
used for this application must satisfy the following constraints: (1) provide a barrier to the
passage of carbon dioxide, which is under pressure in the container; (2) be nontoxic, unreactive
with the beverage, and, preferably, recyclable; (3) be relatively strong and capable of surviving a
drop from a height of several feet when containing the beverage; (4) be inexpensive, including
the cost to fabricate the final shape; (5) if optically transparent, retain its optical clarity; and (6)
be capable of being produced in different colors and/or adorned with decorative labels.

Beverages are marketed in aluminium (metal) cans, glass bottles (ceramic) and plastic bottles
(polymer). The pros and cons for each material include: the aluminum alloy is relatively
strong (but easily dented), is a very good barrier to the diffusion of carbon dioxide, is easily
recycled, cools beverages rapidly, and allows labels to be painted onto its surface. On the
other hand, the cans are optically opaque and relatively expensive to produce. Glass is
impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide, is a relatively inexpensive material, and may be
recycled, but it cracks and fractures easily, and glass bottles are relatively heavy. Whereas
plastic is relatively strong, may be made optically transparent, is inexpensive and lightweight,
and is recyclable, it is not as impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide as the aluminum and
glass.

1. METALS

In chemistry a metal is defined as a material or element with a valence of 1, 2 or 3 (M+,M2+,

M3+). They combine with acids to form salts and with oxygen to form basic oxides and
hydroxides. They have a large number of non-localized electrons i.e. electrons not bound to
particular atom. Many properties of metals are directly attributed to these electrons e.g. good
electrical conductivity.
Most Metals possess common properties such as;
 Lustrous appearance.
 Opacity (not transparent to visible light)
 Malleability
 Ductility (capable of a large amount of deformation without breaking)
 Superior electrical and thermal conductivity.
 Possess good stiffness, strength and fracture resistance.
 Higher density compared to polymers and ceramics.
 Lacks corrosion resistance.
 High melting point.
 Some metals are magnetic.

Some Applications of Metals

 Electrical wiring
 Building and bridge structures
 Automobile: body, chassis, engine block, springs
 Air planes: engines, fuselage, landing gear
 Trains: rails, engine body, wheels
 Industrial machinery
 Machining tools: drills, hammers, saw blade
 Magnets.

Metal may further be classified as:-

a) Ferrous
b) Non-ferrous

Ferrous metals contain iron as the principal element and are significant as the bulk of
engineering structural applications utilise these materials.

Non-ferrous metals comprise all the other engineering metals. E.g. Aluminium and copper are
two significant non-ferrous metals in use today.

2. ALLOYS

An alloy can be defined as the metallic solid or liquid consisting of an intimate association of
two or more elements. These elements which comprise of metals, though in some cases may
contain non-metals mingle at the atomic scales. Carbon is one such non-metal that is significant
in its contribution to the properties of ferrous metals. Combination of elements to form an alloy
is dependent on atom size and relative solubility.
3. CERAMICS

A ceramic is an inorganic material (compound) comprising of one or more metals combined

with non-metals. They are generally non-metallic defined by type of bonding.

The word ceramic is derived from Greek word ceramos –potters clay.

Ceramics may be grouped as follows:

a. Amorphous ceramics; these are mainly glasses.

b. Crystalline ceramics; this may be single faced materials such as MgO or Al 2O3(Alumina)
or various mixtures of similar materials.
c. Bonded ceramic; these are materials in which individual crystals are bonded together by a
glass matrix.
d. Cements; they are far less ductile than metals and fracture soon after application of loads.

Traditional ceramics include clay, cement and glass while Engineering ceramics are mostly
oxides, nitrides and carbides e.g. aluminium oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon carbide, silicon
nitride.

In addition a good number of them find use in a high temperature situation (of concrete).

Properties of Ceramics

i. Stiffness and strengths are comparable to metals.

ii. They are hard and brittle and very susceptible to fracture.
iii. They are stable at high temperature.
iv. Poor heat and electrical conductivity.
v. Good corrosion resistance.
vi. There are ceramics which are transparent, translucent and opaque.
vii. Some are magnetic.
viii. Lower density than metals.

Some Application of Ceramics

i. Thermal insulation and coating Electrical insulators

ii. Abrasives.
iii. Glasses: windows, TV screens, optical fiber.
iv. Cement, concrete
v. Ceramic tiles
vi. Furnace lining bricks
4. POLYMERS

Polymers are organic substances largely comprising of carbon and hydrogen and capable of
joining to form long chains of molecules.

The polymer is formed when the repeating unit called a monomer combines with other
monomers to form a polymer. The process of joining the monomers is known as polymerisation.
Common polymers include polyethylene, nylon, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonate and
polystyrene.

Polymers are classified as follows:

a. Rubbers (Elastomers); these are formed from long chain molecule that are crosslinked
along the length and entangled with each other. On application of load, the chains align
themselves in the direction of loading but on removal of the load, the cross-linking and
coiling enables them to regain their initial shape.
b. Thermosetting plastics- These forms from network chains which set on heating without
subsequent loss of hardness. Thermosetting plastics are formed under heat and pressure.
It initially softens and with increasing heat and pressure, polymerisation takes place. This
results in hardening of the material. These plastics cannot be deformed or remoulded
again under heat and pressure. Some examples of thermosetting plastics are phenol
formaldehyde (Bakelite), phenol-furfural (Durite), epoxy resins, phenolic resins etc.
c. Thermoplastics- These form from linear and branched chains which soften on heating
and harden on cooling. Thermoplastics do not become hard with the application of heat
and pressure and no chemical change takes place. They remain soft at elevated
temperatures until they are hardened by cooling. These can be re-melted and remoulded
by application of heat and pressure. Some examples of thermoplastics are cellulose
nitrate (celluloid), polythene, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride ( PVC) etc.

Polymers have the following properties

 Lower density than metals and ceramics.
 Lacks stiffness and strength.
 Extremely ductile
 Good corrosion resistance.
 Lower melting point – easily softens or decomposes.
 Low electrical conductivities.
 Not magnetic.
 Some polymers are transparent but most are opaque.
Some Applications of Polymers
 Adhesive and glue
 Plastic products
 Coating and paints
 Solid lubricants: Teflon
  Sealing: gasket, O-rings, liquid seals
 Clothing and furniture covering
5. COMPOSITES
A composite is a combination of two or more materials i.e. metal, ceramic or polymer when
the final material has different properties from constituent materials. They are designed to
achieve a combination of properties not possessed by a single material.

The base material which is present in large amount is known as the matrix while the other
materials are known as reinforcing phase. Some naturally occurring composites include wood
and bone.

Common composite includes fibreglass (small glass fibres embedded within polymeric material).
The glass fibres are relatively strong, stiff and brittle but the polymer is ductile, weak and
flexible. Thus the composite of the two is relatively stiff, strong, flexible and ductile fibreglass.

Composites may be classified as follows:

a. Those whose matrix is relatively weak or brittle. The reinforcing phase constitutes of
fibre particles of high tensile strength.
b. Tough and ductile matrix carries a second phase comprising of hard spherical particles.
This forms hard and high-compressive strength materials.
c. Dispersal toughened materials in which the strength of the materials is increased by the
action of the microscopic particles.

Some Applications of Composites

 Aerospace, Marine, Automotive

 Sporting goods
 Storage tanks
 Coating
 Piping for oil, seawater, sewage.
Advanced Materials

These are materials that are utilized in high technology applications. The term high
technology refers to a device or product that operates using relatively complex and
sophisticated principles. E.g. electronic equipment (VCRs, DVDs, CD players,
etc.), computers, fiberoptic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons, which is
encircled by moving electrons. Both electrons and protons are electrically charged, the charge
magnitude being 1.602 x10-19 C, which is negative in sign for electrons and positive for protons;
neutrons are electrically neutral.

Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus for characterizing each chemical
element.

Atomic mass (A) of a specific atom may be expressed as the sum of the masses of protons and
neutrons within the nucleus.

Isotopes are element with the same atomic number but different atomic mass due to varying
number of neutrons.

Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells or energy levels. Bohr suggested that when an electron
receives energy it move from lower to higher level within the shell. Conversely when it gave up
that energy it will fall back again to its former level (quantum theory).

Electrons surrounding the atomic nucleus are at different energy levels. Electrons are therefore
grouped into shells with different energy characteristics. The greatest number of electrons in a
given shell is 2n2 where n is known as the quantum number of the shell.

Pauli’s exclusion principle states that there are definite rules governing the energy levels and
probable position of electrons which are in orbit around an atom. This is against quantum shell
concept which suggests electrons within a shell are equal whereas in practice they are not.

All elements are classified according to electron configuration in a periodic table.

TYPES OF BONDS

All materials are made up of a collection of atoms held together by bonds.

The bonds formed depend on the electronic distribution of the individual atoms.

First Ionization Energy (IE); is the energy required to remove the most weakly bound (usually
outermost) electron from an isolated gaseous atom.

atom  g   IE  positive ion (g) + e-

This can be calculated using the energy of the outermost electron as given by the Bohr model and
Schr o dinger’s equation (in eV):

13.6Z 2
IE 
n2

Where Z is the effective nuclear charge and n is the principle quantum number.

General trend in the periodic table is for the ionization energy to increase from bottom to top
and from left to right.

Electron Affinity (EA); is the reverse process to the ionization energy; it is the energy change
(often expressed in eV) associated with an isolated gaseous atom accepting one electron:

atom  g  + e-  negative ion (g)

The EA is positive if energy is released upon formation of the negative ion. If energy is required,
EA is negative. The general trend in the periodic table is again toward an increase in EA as we go
from the bottom to top, and left to right.

Atomic and Ionic Radii; in general, positive ions are smaller than neutral atoms, while negative
ions are larger.

Electronegativity (X); it is relationship of the electron affinity and ionization energy between
two atoms to measure the attraction an atom will have on the electrons in the bond formed. There
are several methods of calculating this energy. Based on scale developed by Mulliken
electronegativity is given by:

IE  EA
X
2

Electronegativity is very useful quantity to help categorize bonds, because it provides excess
binding energy between atoms. It also provides bond dissociation energy. The bond dissociation
energy is the energy required to separate two bonded atoms. The greater the electronegativity
difference, the greater the excess binding energy. These quantities give us a method of
characterizing bond types. More importantly, they relate to important physical properties, such as
melting point.
The bonds may be grouped into two main classes:

1. Primary bonds
a) Ionic bonds
b) Covalent bonds
c) Polar covalent
d) Metallic bonds
2. Secondary bonds
a) Permanent dipole bonds
b) Molecular bonds
c) Vander Waals bonds

1. PRIMARY BONDS

These are due to exchange or sharing of electrons by atoms and are therefore very strong. In the
exchange or sharing of electrons only the outer orbital shell of electrons are utilised.

a) Ionic bonds or heteropolar bond

These are formed by the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions. Electrons are
transferred from the more electropositive atom to a more electronegative atom e.g. NaCl. Ions
are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons. Ionic bonds usually result when the
electronegativity difference between two atoms in a diatomic molecule is greater than about 2.0.

b) Covalent bonds or homopolar bond

These are formed by the sharing of valence electrons driven by the need to complete outer orbital
shells of the atom (e.g. H-H). Covalent bonds are typically found in homonuclear diatomics such
as O2 and N2, though the atoms need not be the same to have similar electronegativities.
Electronegativity differences of less than about 0.4 characterize covalent bonds.

Covalent bonds are directional in nature due to the repulsion of electrons in separate bonds
giving rise to fixed angles between bonds. Polymeric materials typify this bond.

Coordination number is the number of covalent bonds that atoms may form with other atoms
e.g. carbon is 4.

c) Polar Covalent;

These are interatomic bonds that are partially ionic and partially covalent formed between two
atoms with an electronegativity difference of between 0.4 and 2.0. An example of a polar
covalent bond can be found in the molecule hydrogen fluoride, HF. The percent ionic character
of the bond can again be related to the electronegativities of the individual atoms:
  
%ionic character=100 1  exp 0.25  X A  X B  
2



Where: XA and XB are electronegativities of the respective elements. The larger the
electronegativity difference, the more ionic character the bond has.

d) Metallic bonds

Metallic bond is found in an assembly of homonuclear atoms, such as copper or sodium. These
elements are of low electronegativity (usually found in the lower left region of the periodic
table). In metals the outer orbital shell electrons in an atom are shielded from the nucleus by
inner orbital shell electrons. The outer orbital shell electrons are therefore easily lost. These
electrons become “decentralized” and are shared by the core of positive nuclei. The resulting
positive ions are held together by the clouds of electrons resulting in non-directional bonds.

The clouds of electrons give metals the good electrical and thermo-conductivity and make the
material opaque (electrons absorb light photons). The atoms are not held rigidly in space and
layers of atoms are able to slide over each other therefore exhibiting ductility. Table 1 below
illustrates the different types of bonding and typical examples.
Table 1: Examples of substances with different interatomic bonding [1].

2. SECONDARY BONDS OR WEAK BONDS

These are intermolecular bonds which occur due to indirect interaction of electrons in adjacent
atoms or molecules. Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular dipoles

a) Permanent Dipole bonds

When different atoms bond covalently, there is different electronegativity resulting in more
electronegative atom drawing the shared electron towards its nucleus. This induces a dipole in
the molecule e.g. HCL, H2O and NH3.

H  CL  H  CL
  dipole    
In essence, an electric dipole exists whenever there is some separation of positive and negative
portions of an atom or molecule. The bonding results from the coulombic attraction between the
positive end of one dipole and the negative region of an adjacent one.The greater the
electronegativity the greater is the dipole formed.

b) Van der Walls

These are fluctuating temporally dipole bonds. Electrons are in constant motion within the orbital
shell and at some instant the centres of the positive charges and the negative charges may not
coincide. This induces a weak dipole enabling the molecules to interact with other molecules.

Temporary dipoles are due to statistical irregularities in electron distribution (dispersion effect)
and are frequent in molecules formed of atoms with similar electro-negativities.

c) Hydrogen Bonding

This is the attraction between hydrogen in a highly polar molecule and the electronegative atom
in another polar molecule. In the water molecule, oxygen draws much of the electron density
around it, creating positively charged centers at the two hydrogen atoms. These positively
charged hydrogen atoms can interact with the negative center around the oxygen in adjacent
water molecules. Hydrogen bonding plays an important role in many biological and
environmental phenomena. It is responsible for causing ice to be less dense than water, an
occurrence that allows fish to survive at the bottom of frozen lakes.

BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES

There are two types of forces which influence the type and nature of atomic bonding; Attractive
(FA) or Chemical Affinity and repulsive (FR), and the magnitude of each depends on the
separation or interatomic distance (r). The origin of an attractive force FA depends on the
particular type of bonding that exists between the two atoms. This attraction is due to the
electrostatic force between the nucleus and electron clouds of the separate atoms. It should make
sense to you that the attractive energy (EA) is inversely proportional to the separation distance, r;
i.e., the further the atoms are apart, the weaker the attraction:

a
EA   m
r

Where: a, is a constant and m is a constant with a value 1 for ions and 6 for molecules. Repulsive
forces arise from interactions between the negatively charged electron clouds for the two atoms
and are important only at small values of r as the outer electron shells of the two atoms begin to
overlap (primary constituents of this repulsive energy are nucleus–nucleus and electron–electron
repulsions). As with the attractive energy, the repulsive energy is inversely proportional to the
separation distance;
 b
ER 
rn

Where: b and n are constants, the value of n known as repulsive exponent depend on the outer
core configuration of the atom.

The net force between the two atoms is just the sum of attractive and repulsive components:

FN  FA  FR

It is more convenient to work with potential energy than with forces. The mathematical
relationship between energy and force is given by:

E   Fdr

for atomic systems;

r
EN   FN dr


r r
EN   FAdr   FR dr
 

 E A  ER

in which EN, EA, and ER are respectively the net, attractive, and repulsive energies for two
isolated and adjacent atoms.
Figure 2 (a) The dependence of repulsive, attractive and net forces on interatomic separation for
two isolated atoms (b) The dependence of repulsive, attractive and net potential energies on
interatomic separation for two isolated atoms [2].
At equilibrium spacing ro the net force is zero and a state of equilibrium exists. In the plot
between EN, EA, and ER. The minimum point in the net energy curve corresponds equilibrium
spacing, ro. Furthermore, the bonding energy, for the two atoms, Eo corresponds to the energy at
this minimum point. It represents the energy that would be required to separate these two atoms
to an infinite separation.

The magnitude of this bonding energy and the shape of the energy–versus–interatomic separation
curve vary from material to material, and they both depend on the type of atomic bonding.
Furthermore, a number of material properties depend on E0, the curve shape, and bonding type.
For example, materials having large bonding energies typically also have high melting
temperatures; at room temperature, solid substances are formed for large bonding energies,
whereas for small energies the gaseous state is favored; liquids prevail when the energies are of
intermediate magnitude. In addition, mechanical stiffness (or modulus of elasticity) of a material
is dependent on the shape of its force–versus–interatomic separation curve. The slope for a
relatively stiff material at the r =r0 position on the curve will be quite steep; slopes are shallower
for more flexible materials. Furthermore, how much a material expands upon heating or
contracts upon cooling (that is, its linear coefficient of thermal expansion) is related to the shape
of its E0-versus-r0 curve. A deep and narrow “trough,” which typically occurs for materials
having large bonding energies, normally correlates with a low coefficient of thermal expansion
and relatively small dimensional alterations for changes in temperature. Therefore: The deeper
‘well’ or ‘trough’ represents stronger interatomic attraction; hence it is more difficult to melt
these substances, which have correspondingly large elastic moduli and low thermal expansion
coefficient. Fig 2 below illustrates the relation of net energy EN and interatomic distance r.

Figure 3: Schematic representation of the relationship between the shape of the potential energy
well and selected physical properties. Materials with a deep well (a) have a high melting point,
high elastic modulus, and low thermal expansion coefficient. Those with a shallow well (b) have
a low melting point, low elastic modulus, and high thermal expansion coefficient [1].

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Crystalline Material; atoms are situated in repeating or periodic array over large atomic
distance.

When describing crystal structures atoms (ions) are thought as solid hard spheres having well
defined diameters. Spheres representing nearest neighbours touch one another.

Unit cell is a basic structural unit or building block of the crystal structure and defines the crystal
structure by virtue of its geometry and atom position.

STRUCTURE OF METALS AND ALLOYS

There are three relatively simple structures for most metals. Each sphere represents an ion core.
 Face-Centred Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structure

It has a cubic geometry with atoms located at each of the corners and centres of all the cube
faces. Examples of metals having this structure are copper, aluminium, silver and gold. Figure 3
below shows (a) atoms touching one another in FCC structure whereas (b) atoms represented as
small spheres for better perspective of atom position.

Figure 4: Face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure showing (a) atoms touching and (b) atoms
as small spheres (c) an aggregate of many atoms adapted from [2] .
For FCC each corner atom is shared among eight unit cells whereas face centered atom belongs
to only two. Therefore, one-eighth (1/8) of each of the eight corner atoms and one-half (1/2) of
each of the six face atoms, or a total of four whole atoms, may be assigned to a given unit cell.

Ion cores or spheres touch one another along face diagonals. The cube edge length a and the
atomic radius R are related through:

a  2R 2

Coordination number is the total number of nearest neighbours or touching atoms. For FCC it
is 12.

Atomic packing factor (APF) is the sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms within a unit cell
(assuming the atomic hard-sphere model) divided by the unit cell volume;

Volume of atoms in a unit cell Vs

APF= 
Total unit cell volume Vc

The APF for FCC is 0.74 (proof?)

 Body Centred Cubic (BCC) crystal structure

It has a cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight corners and a single atom at the cube
center. Chromium, iron and tungsten are examples of metals with BCC crystal structure. Fig 4
illustrates the BCC crystal structure.

Figure 5: Basic centered cubic (BCC) showing (a) atoms touching (b) reduced sphere or atoms
unit cell and (c) aggregate of many atoms adapted from [2].
Two atoms are associated with BCC unit cell: equivalent of one atom from the eight corners and
one centre atom. Its atomic packing factor is 0.68. Center and corner atoms touch one another
along cube diagonals, and unit cell length a and atomic radius R are related through

4R
a
3

The Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) Crystal structure

The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of six atoms that form regular hexagons and
surround a single atom in the center. Another plane that provides three additional atoms to the
unit cell is situated between the top and bottom planes. Fig 5 below illustrates the HCP structure.

The total number of whole atoms in the HCP unit cell is

3 × 1 = 3 center atoms
2 × (1 2 ) = 1 face atom
12 × (1 6 ) = 2 corner atoms
6 total atoms

The coordination number and the atomic packing factor for the HCP crystal structure are the
same as for FCC: 12 and 0.74, respectively. The HCP metals include cadmium, magnesium,
titanium, and zinc.
Figure 6: Hexagonal close-packed (HCP) crystal structure showing (a) reduced atom unit cell (a
and c are short and long edge lengths respectively) (b) aggregate of many atoms adapted from
[2].
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

The Bravais lattice is a periodic array (3-dimensional) in which the repeated units of the crystals
are arranged. A Bravais Lattice is an infinite array of discrete points with an arrangement and
orientation that appears exactly the same regardless of the point from which the array is viewed.

The unit cell geometry is defined using six lattice parameters: three edge lengths (lattice
translation vectors) a, b and c and three inter-axial angles  , β and γ.

Figure 7: Definition of coordinate systems for Crystal structures adapted from [1].
There are seven possible combinations of lattice parameters to form crystal systems. These
seven crystal systems are: cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal, orthorhombic, rhombohedral,
monoclinic, and triclinic. Table 2 below illustrates the seven crystal systems. The cubic system
Table 2: Lattice parameter relationship & figures for unit cell geometries for seven crystal
systems
System No of Lattice Lattice parameters and Unit Cell
Lattice Symbols interaxial angles geometry
structures
Cubic 3 P,I, F a=b=c
α=β=γ=90

Tetragonal 2 P,I a=b  c

α=β=γ=90

Orthorhombic 4 P,C,I,F a bc

α=β=γ=90

Monoclinic 2 P,C a bc

α=γ=90  β

Triclinic 1 P a bc
α β  γ

Trigonal 1 R a=b=c
(Rhombohedral)
α=β=γ<120  90
Hexagonal 1 P a=b  c
α=β=90 γ=120

for which a=b=c and α=β=γ=90 has the greatest degree of symmetry. The simplest Bravais
lattice in this system is simple cubic. This lattice is designated P (primitive) and each point in
the simple cubic P lattice has six nearest neighbours one lattice point per cell (1/8 x8=1sphere).
When a second lattice point is added at the centre of the cube, body centred cubic (BCC) lattice
is formed designated I (internal). This cubic lattice has two lattice points per cell and has 8-
nearest neighbours. The third Bravais lattice is obtained by placing a lattice point at the centre of
each face of cubic P lattice to give rise to the cubic F (face) lattice or face centred cubic (FCC).
This lattice contains 4-lattice points and has 12 nearest neighbours.

If a cubic P and a cubic I lattices are stretched along one axis so that a=b=c and α=β=γ then a
tetragonal P and a tetragonal I lattices are formed respectively.

Symmetry can be lowered further by making a  b  c and α=β=γ  90 . The cell is said to be
orthorhombic. There are four types of orthorhombic space lattices: simple orthorhombic, face-
centered orthorhombic, body-centered orthorhombic, and a type we have not yet
encountered, base-centered orthorhombic. The base-centered orthorhombic space lattice has a
lattice point (atom) at each corner, as well as a lattice point only on the top and bottom faces
(called basal faces).

Other Bravais lattices are created by setting a  b  c and α=β=γ  90 while β  90 giving
rise to monoclinic Bravais Lattice. There are two types of monoclinic space lattices: simple
monoclinic and base-centered monoclinic. When a  b  c and α  β  γ we obtain the
lowest level of symmetry knowns as the triclinic lattice.

NB: When atoms combine to form the minimum energy crystal structures, they almost always
have some symmetry greater than triclinic lattice.

Hexagonal lattice can be created when a=b  c and α=β=90 γ  120 while trigonal lattice
can be created by stretching a cube along the body diagonal and has the following parameters.
a=b=c and α=β=γ  90 . There is only one space lattice in the rhombohedral crystal system.
This crystal is sometimes called hexagonal R or trigonal R. The rhombohedral crystal has
uniform lattice parameters in all directions and has equivalent interaxial angles, but the angles
are non-orthogonal and are less than 120◦.

The large space in the center of the simple cubic (SC) structure is called an interstitial site,
which is a vacant position between atoms that can be occupied by a small impurity atom or
alloying element. This interstitial site is surrounded by 8 atoms. Two different types of interstitial
sites are found in FCC, depending on how many atoms surround the interstitial site i.e.
tetrahedral interstice (4 groups of atom surround) and octahedral interstice (6 atoms arranged
in octahedron). These interstitial sites play an important role in determining solubility of
impurities and phase stability of alloys.
Some elements can have multiple crystal structures, depending on temperature and pressure. This
phenomenon is called allotropy and is very common in elemental metals. Common allotropes
include: carbon (graphite at ambient conditions, diamond at high pressures and temperature),
pure iron (BCC at room temperature, FCC at 912◦C and back to BCC at 1394◦C), and titanium
(HCP to BCC at 882◦C).

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, AND PLANES

Point Coordinates

The position of any point located within a unit cell may be specified in terms of its coordinates as
fractional multiples of the unit cell edge lengths (i.e., in terms of a, b, and c). The coordinates are
less than or equal to unity. For example: Specify point coordinates for all atom positions for a
BCC unit cell. The solution is given with reference to the following figure:

Point Fractional lengths Point

Number Coordinates
x-axis y-axis z-axis
1 0 0 0 000
2 1 0 0 100
3 1 1 0 110
4 0 1 0 010
5 1 1 1 111
2 2 2 222
6 0 0 1 001
7 1 0 1 101
8 1 1 1 111
9 0 1 1 011
 Crystallographic Direction

A crystallographic direction is defined as a line between two points, or a vector. Steps to

determine three directional indices include:

1. A vector of convenient length r is positioned such that it passes through the origin of the
coordinate system. Any vector may be translated throughout the crystal lattice without
alteration, if parallelism is maintained.
2. The length of the vector projection on each of the three axes is determined; these are
measured in terms of the unit cell dimensions a, b, and c.
3. These three numbers are multiplied or divided by a common factor to reduce them to the
smallest integer values.
4. The three indices, not separated by commas, are enclosed in square brackets, thus: [uvw].
The u, v, and w integers correspond to the reduced projections along the x, y, and z axes,
respectively i.e. r=ua+vb+wc.

Negative indices are represented by a bar over the appropriate index.

For example: Determine the indices for the direction shown in the accompanying figure:

x y z
Projections a b 0c
2
Projections in terms 1 1 0
of a, b and c 2
Reduction 1 2 0
Direction vector [120]

Crystallographic Planes

The planes in a crystal structure are specified by a set of numbers called miller indices
represented by (hkl). The steps to determine h,k and l index numbers are as follows:
 1. If the plane passes through the selected origin, either another parallel plane must be
constructed within the unit cell by an appropriate translation or a new origin must be
established at the corner of another unit cell.
2. At this point the crystallographic plane either intersects or parallels each of the three
axes; the length of the planar intercept for each axis is determined in terms of the lattice
parameters a, b, and c.
3. The reciprocals of these numbers are taken. A plane that parallels an axis may be
considered to have an infinite intercept, and, therefore, a zero index.
4. If necessary, these three numbers are changed to the set of smallest integers by
multiplication or division by a common factor.
5. Finally, the integer indices, not separated by commas, are enclosed within parentheses,
thus: (hkl).

For example: Determine the Miller indices for the plane shown in the accompanying sketch (a).

The summary of the solution is shown in the table below.

x y z
Intercepts ∞a -b c
2
Intercepts in terms of ∞ -1 1
lattice parameters (a,b 2
and c)
Reciprocal 0 -1 2
Reduction (unnecessary)
Miller indices 012 
 DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS

Crystals are rarely perfect but would contain imperfection or defects that disrupt the regular
ordered arrangement of atoms in space lattice. Many important materials phenomena that are
based on defective structures can be exploited for very important uses e.g. a catalytic converter is
a pollutant reducing device that is located in the automobile exhaust system, molecules of
pollutant gases become attached to surface defects of crystalline metallic materials found in the
catalytic converter. While attached to these sites, the molecules experience chemical reactions
that convert them into other non- or less-polluting substances.

These defects can be classified according to spatial extend:

1. Point defect (has zero dimensions).

2. Line Defect (dislocations) is one dimensional.
3. Surface or area defects are two dimensional.

These defects may occur individually or in combination.

1. Point Defects

These are localised to a region on a single lattice site. They include:

a) Vacancy

This is a vacant lattice site, one normally occupied from which an atom is missing. Atom is
absent leaving a space because of the improper co-ordinations of the remaining atoms. The
electronic bonding fields are disrupted from the ideal patterns. Effective radii of adjacent atoms
change slightly and the crystal is weakened. If sufficient vacancies are generated in a crystal
structure it loses long range order and symmetry becoming a liquid. Fig 7 below illustrate
vacancy and self-interstitial defect

Figure 8: Representation of a vacancy and self-interstitial defect in crystalline solid[1].

b) Impurity Point Defects

Impurity can happen in two ways:

  Interstitial impurity; an atom occupies an interstitial site.
 Substitutional impurity; when an impurity atom replaces an atom in the perfect
lattice (see fig 8).
i) Interstitial atom

This occurs when an atom is located in a position where it is not supposed to be. In this case
either the same atom in the lattice or impurity atoms occupy an interstitial site. This results in
considerable lattice strain as the atomic planes distort slightly to accommodate the misplaced
atom. If an atom is displaced from lattice site and relocated to an interstitial location, the defect
pair is known as Frenkel defect (Frenkel disorder) the two defects shown in fig 7 happen
simultaneously.

Figure 9: Representation of interstitial and substitutional atom in a crystalline solid [1].

If the vacancy occurs as the absence of cations-anion pair in an ionic or ceramic crystal, it is
known as Schottky defect as shown in fig 9 below.

Figure 10: Representation of a Frenkel and Schottky Defect in Crystalline Solid [1].
 c) Substitution atom

It occurs when atom from another element occupies the lattice position of an atom in a lattice. It
occurs from impurity atom, when foreign atom substitutes for a parent atom in a lattice. Alloys
are examples of substitutional impurity. .e.g. example of a substitutional solid solution is found
for copper and nickel: The two elements are completely soluble to one another according to as
they satisfy factors governing the degree of solubility: the atomic radii for copper and nickel are
0.128 and 0.125 nm, respectively; both have the FCC crystal structure; and their
electronegativities are 1.9 and 1.8 finally, the most common valences are +1 for copper
(although it sometimes can be +2) and +2 for nickel.

All point defects produce local variations in the order of atom arrangement in a crystal and
consequently affect the bond structure and energy distribution in crystal formation. These occur
naturally in the course of formation of a material.

2. Line Defects/Dislocation

This is a material defect where the ordered arrangement of atoms is disrupted over a line. They
are called dislocations.

Dislocations may be; edge dislocations, screw dislocations or a combination of the two known as
mixed dislocation.

a) Edge dislocation

This occurs when an extra halve planes of an atom is inserted in an ordered lattice. These are
normally accompanied by zones of tensions and compression so that there is a net increase in
energy along a dislocation. Figure 11 below illustrates edge dislocation.

Figure 11: Edge dislocation DC results from introducing an extra half-plane of atoms ABCD.
 b) Screw Dislocation

This occurs when atomic planes are rotated relative to each other shearing the solids. It is formed
by a shear stress that is applied to produce the distortion shown in Figure 12 (a) the upper front
region of the crystal is shifted one atomic distance to the right relative to the bottom portion. The
atomic distortion associated with a screw dislocation is also linear and along a dislocation line,
line AB shown in Figure 12 (b).

Figure 12: (a) A Screw Dislocation within a crystal structure (b) The screw dislocation in (a) as
viewed from above. The dislocation line extends along line AB.
The third line defect is a combination of the two and is known as mixed dislocation as shown in
Figure 13 below.
Figure 13: (a) Schematic representation of edge, screw and mixed dislocation (b) Top view, at
point A dislocation is pure screw, while at point B is pure edge and regions in between where
there is curvature in the dislocation line the dislocation is mixed edge and screw.

The magnitude and direction of lattice distortion associated with dislocation is given in terms of
burgers vector denoted by b in fig 11 and fig 12. Furthermore the nature of a dislocation (either
edge or screw) is defined by the relative orientation of dislocation line and Burgers vector. For
an edge they are perpendicular whereas for screw they are parallel. They are neither parallel nor
perpendicular for mixed dislocation.

Dislocations that contribute to slip are found on close packed planes. Slip is the relative
movement of atom planes that cumulatively give rise to the macro scale plastic flow materials.

When two dislocations on separate slip planes (with a common intersection line) meet, if energy
considerations favour, the dislocations will ‘zip’ forming a junction.

3. Surface Defect or Interfacial Defect

Interfacial defects are boundaries that have two dimensions and normally separate regions of the
materials that have different crystal structures and/or crystallographic orientations. These defects
arise from a change in the stacking order/orientation of atomic planes across boundaries. They
include:

a) Stacking Fault

This is a planar defect comprising of a local region where the regular sequence of atom layers
has been interrupted. Stacking faults are found in FCC metals and HCP structures when there is
an interruption in ABCABCABC…stacking sequence of close packed planes. Figure 14 below
shows the FCC structure ABCABCABC... stacking sequence. If a plane of atoms is missing from
this sequence, as in ABCAB|ABC, an intrinsic stacking fault results. If an additional plane is
inserted into the sequence for example an extra C plane in the sequence ABCA|C|BCABC an
extrinsic stacking fault results.

Finally, a twinning fault occurs when the sequence reverses itself about a mirror plane, as in
ABCABCBACBA, where C is the mirror plane and CBA is the reverse sequence to ABC.
Figure 14: (a) Close packed packing sequence for FCC (b) A corner has been removed to show
the relation of stacking of close packed planes of atoms in FCC structure[2].
b) Grain Boundary

Polycrystalline materials are composed are composed of many crystals or grains that usually
have random crystallographic orientations relative to each other. The region where these grains
intersect is called a grain boundary. The two grain boundaries are:

i. Tilt Boundary

This is formed when angular misfit of the order of a few degrees occurs between adjacent set of
planes. It is usually a set of edge dislocation as shown in Figure 15 below.

Figure 15: Demonstration of how a tilt boundary having an angle of mis-orientation θ results
from an alignment of edge dislocation.
 ii. Twist Boundary

When the angle of mis-orientation is parallel to the boundary, twist boundary is formed. It is an
array of screw dislocation.

c) Twin Boundaries

When adjacent parts of a crystal are regularly arranged such that one part is a mirror image of the
other then a twin boundary is formed.

Figure 16: Schematic diagram showing a twin plane or boundary and adjacent atom positions

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS

Structural materials used in mechanical and civil engineering practice must have strength.
Strength is a measure of the externally applied forces which are necessary to overcome internal
forces of attraction between fundamental particles. All materials when subjected to a load will
deform. A load is a force that causes an extension or contraction to a material.

If the applied load (P) is divided by the cross-sectional area (A), we obtain a physical parameter
with units of pressure known as stress and denoted by Greek symbol σ (sigma). Stress is defined
as force per unit area. It is expressed in Newtons per square metre (N/m2) though in material
science it is more conveniently measured in N/mm2.

P
stress (σ)=
A

Example: A steel rod 6mm in diameter is under the action of a tensile force of 400N. Calculate
the tensile stress in the bar.

Tensile force P
Tensile stress (σ)= 
Area of cross-sectional of rod A
 400
= N/mm 2
3.142  3 2

 14.15N/mm2

If the extension or elongation e is divided by the initial length of the material L we obtain a
parameter with no units known as strain and denoted by Greek symbol ε (epsilon). Strain refers
to the proportional deformation produced in a material under the influence of stress.

e
strain (ε)=
L

Example: A 40mm gauge length is marked on an aluminium test piece. The test piece is strained
in tension so that the gauge length becomes 42.3mm. Calculate the strain.

Increase in length e
strain (ε)= 
Original length L

42.3  40

40
 0.0575

Strain is usually expressed in percentage: Therefore;

Strain  0.0575 100%

=5.75%

The stress σ and strain ε are used to represent mechanical response of a material under a load.
Plotting σ verse ε gives the stress-strain curve as shown below.

Deformation is the change in dimension to a material due to an applied load. This produces
strain. Deformation under load takes place in two characteristics zones:

 Elastic strain

In this zone the magnitude of the applied force is proportional to the extension or strain is
roughly proportional to applied stress. Elastic strain is reversible and disappears when the stress
is removed.

Young’s modulus of Elasticity (E) is the ratio between stress applied and elastic strain it
produces. It is the stress required to produce a unit quantity of elastic strain. Modulus of
elasticity is expressed in terms of either tensile or compressive stresses and its units are the same
as those for stress,
 stress
E
strain
N/mm 2
=
mm/mm
=N/mm 2

 Plastic strain

In this zone the load is not proportional to the extension. Instead the extension propagates at a
rate faster than the load. It results when a material is stressed to the extent where its elastic limit
(limit of proportionality beyond which plastic deformation occurs) is exceeded. When the stress
is removed only elastic strain disappears and any plastic strain produced is retained. Figure 17
below illustrate elastic (A-B) and plastic (B-C) deformation zones.

Figure 17: Typical elastic and plastic deformation curve for rigid bodies.
The yield stress is the stress at which the material response changes from elastic to plastic. The
maximum stress which a material can withstand before plastic flow sets is known as yield
strength. In softer ferrous materials (wrought iron and low carbon steels) and some plastic
materials the onset of plastic flow is marked by a very definite yield point.
Figure 18: Representative stress/strain diagrams for (a) Ferrous materials (wrought iron and low
carbon steels) and some plastic materials with definite yield point (b) All ductile metals and
alloys and most plastic materials where elastic limit is not defined for determining proof stress
[1].
NB: P-proportional limit E-elastic limit Y-upper yield L-lower yield point U-ultimate tensile
strength R-breaking point, rupture point or fracture point.

0.2% proof stress is the stress required to produce 0.2% permanent strain. Typically, this is a
value of 0.2% strain (0.002), and the distance OD in fig 17 (b) is known as the “0.2% offset.”
The yield point is then taken as the point where the line DC intersects the stress–strain diagram,
or point C. The stress at point C is the proof stress, which is then taken as the yield stress and is
referred to as the “yield stress at 0.2% offset.” This is useful when dealing with all ductile metals
and alloys and most plastics which do not have well defined elastic limit. It is perfect substitute
for yield strength which is of more importance to design-engineers than maximum strength
attained during plastic flow.

Ultimate tensile stress (UTS) is the maximum stress that a material can be subjected to prior to
fracture given by point U in Figure 18.

Malleability refers to the extent to which a material can undergo deformation in compression
before failure occurs.
Ductility is a material property that enables it to be drawn out without rupture. It is the degree of
extension which takes place before failure of a material in tension. It may be measured in
percentage elongation.

e
elongation %= 100%
L

The ductile materials such as metals have a distinct yield point (Y), after which plastic flow
begins, and the process of cross-sectional area reduction known as necking occurs.

When we compute the stress of a material using a material initial cross-sectional area, we obtain
engineering stress, however as the material is loaded a deformation occurs and cross-sectional
area changes. If we compute the stress using a modified cross-sectional area, we obtain true
stress. Applying the same rationale to strain we obtain the engineering strain and true strain
respectively. Consequently we can plot the engineering stress-strain curve or the true stress-
strain curve as shown in Figure 19 below.

Figure 19: Comparison of engineering stress-engineering strain and true stress–true strain plots.
Toughness of a material is the resistance to fracture offered by repeated bending, twisting under
impact load. It can be defined as the amount of energy which a material can absorb before it
fractures. However strength of a material is measured in terms of stress required to break a
standard test piece. In fact hardened and strengthened materials lack toughness whereas the
softest and most ductile are extremely tough. The area under stress/strain diagram is related
directly to the energy necessary to break a material (its toughness).

Brittleness is the property of breaking or shuttering without much deformation. Little or no

plastic deformation precedes fracture e.g. glass. Brittle materials exhibit primarily an elastic
response, with little or no strain beyond the elastic limit prior to fracture.

The following are important properties from design point of view:

(a) Elasticity- This is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation
when the external forces are removed. All materials are plastic to some extent but the
degree varies, for example, both mild steel and rubber are elastic materials but steel is
more elastic than rubber.
(b) Plasticity- This is associated with the permanent deformation of material when the stress
level exceeds the yield point. Under plastic conditions materials ideally deform without
any increase in stress.

Figure 20 Stress-strain diagram of an elastic-perfectly plastic material

(c) Hardness-Property of the material that enables it to resist permanent deformation,
penetration, indentation etc. Size of indentations by various types of indenters are the
measure of hardness e.g. Brinnel hardness test, Rockwell hardness test, Vickers hardness
(diamond pyramid) test. These tests give hardness numbers which are related to yield
pressure (MPa).
(d) Ductility- This is the property of the material that enables it to be drawn out or elongated
to an appreciable extent before rupture occurs. The percentage elongation or percentage
reduction in area before rupture of a test specimen is the measure of ductility. Normally if
percentage elongation exceeds 15% the material is ductile and if it is less than 5% the
material is brittle. Lead, copper, aluminium, mild steel are typical ductile materials.
 (e) Malleability- It is a special case of ductility where it can be rolled into thin sheets but it
is not necessary to be so strong. Lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium are
some materials in order of diminishing malleability.
(f) Brittleness- This is opposite to ductility. Brittle materials show little deformation before
fracture and failure occur suddenly without any warning. Normally if the elongation is
less than 5% the material is considered to be brittle. E.g. cast iron, glass, ceramics are
typical brittle materials.
(g) Resilience- This is the property of the material that enables it to resist shock and impact
by storing energy. The measure of resilience is the strain energy absorbed per unit
volume. For a rod of length L subjected to tensile load P, a linear load-deflection plot is
shown in Figure 21
1 1 P L 1
Strain energy stored  P L  AL  V
2 2A L 2
1
Strain energy/unit volume  
2

Figure 21 A linear load-deflection plot.

(h) Toughness- This is the property which enables a material to be twisted, bent or stretched
under impact load or high stress before rupture. It may be considered to be the ability of
the material to absorb energy in the plastic zone. The measure of toughness is the amount
of energy absorbed after being stressed upto the point of fracture.
(i) Creep- When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long period of time it
undergoes a slow permanent deformation and this is termed as “creep”. This is dependent
on temperature. Usually at elevated temperatures creep is high.

MECHANICAL TESTS

Mechanical tests of a material are carried out to obtain data on material properties to aid in
design process and to establish if the material meets certain design criteria (acceptance work).

Mechanical tests of a material fall into two categories:

a) Static tests
 b) Dynamic tests

Static tests utilize steadily applied loads while dynamic tests subject the material to cyclic
loads.

The most common mechanical tests are as follows:

1. Tensile test.
2. Compression test.
3. Hardness test.
4. Ductility.
5. Impact test.
6. Fatigue.
7. Bending.

Additional information is obtained from the following tests.

8. Transverse test.
9. Torsion test.
10. Shearing test.
11. Cupping test.
12. Crushing test.
13. Creep test.
14. Endurance limit.
15. Ductile-brittle transition.

In all this test international standards are available that define the:

 Sample size
 Sample preparation.
 Mode of loading.
 Measurements of results.

ALLOY THEORY AND EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS

An alloy is a solution of two or more elements at least one of which is a metal or a mixture of
metallic crystals resulting from solidification or cooling of a solution. The specific area of
interest is binary alloys which contain two elements.

Elements may combine in different ways to form alloys. The components of the alloys are
usually completely soluble in the liquid state.

In the solid state they may form;

a) Mechanical mixtures.
 b) Solid solutions.
c) Intermediate phases.

The element present in the largest proportion is called the base metal and the other elements are
known as alloying elements.

a) Mechanical mixtures

They are formed when the two elements are completely insoluble in the solid state e.g. lead is
insoluble in iron ( Pb  Fe ) and an intimate mixture of the two components is formed where each
components retains its own identity properties and crystal structure.

b) Solid solutions

Solid solutions are formed when two or more elements dissolve in the solid state forming a phase
called a solid solution.

If element A dissolves 2% of element B (by weight) then B is said to have solubility of 2% in A.

A is a solvent and B is a solute. The solid solution may be substitution (involves substitution of
solute atoms for solvent atoms in the crystal structure) or interstitial solid solution.

The formation of substitution solid solution is determined by certain factors known as Hume
Rothery Rule. These are:

1. Relative size factor; if the size of the atom of the two elements differ by less than 15%
then they are said to have favourable size factor for solid solution formation. If the
difference is larger, then no solubility or limited solubility is expected.
2. Chemical affinity factor (electronegativity); the greater is the chemical affinity of the
two elements (more electronegative solute and more electropositive solvent) the greater is
the tendency to form compounds (ionic bonds) and the less is the tendency to form a solid
solution. Hence elements with similar electronegativity tend to alloy.
3. Relative valency factor; in a metallic solution, metal with higher a higher valency is
more likely to be soluble in a metal of a lower valency i.e. metal of lower valency is more
likely to dissolve one of higher valence than vice versa. e.g. Fe  Mn
3+ 2+

The solute contributes an excess valency electron to the electron cloud. The converse would
mean a deficiency in valence electrons which will be unsatisfactory.

4. Crystal structure factor; metals having the same crystal structure will have greater solid
solubility e.g. BCC, FCC and HCP. Although there are some elements which have
multiple crystal structures at different temperature which can affect stability of the alloy.
Many exceptions are found on the Hume Rothery rule although the rule gives a good guide to
solute solubility amongst metals. The lattice structure of a solid solution is basically that of the
solvent with slight changes with the lattice parameter.

Interstitial solid solution are formed when atoms of small atomic radii fits in the empty spaces
on intersties of the lattice structure. Examples of such atoms are: Hydrogen 0.46A, oxygen 0.6A,
nitrogen 0.71A, carbon 0.77A and boron 0.97A where A-angstrom=10-10m.

Interstitial solid solutions therefore have limited solute solubility e.g. carbon in iron (mild,
medium and high carbon steel)

PHASE

It is a substance or a portion of matter which is homogenous, physically distinct and

mechanically separable. It can also be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system that has
uniform physical and chemical characteristics.

Homogenous; its smallest parts cannot be distinguished from one another. They form a random
and microscopically uniform distribution of atoms or molecules of one kind throughout those of
another.

Mechanically separable; will have a distinct boundary surface.

A phase can exist as solid, liquid or gas. Example of phases; water as liquid is a phase, water as
solid another phase and water as gas another one.

Phase rule

William Gibbs showed that the number of phases that can be in equilibrium in a system is given
by the relations.

P+F=C+N

Where: P-no of phases, F-no of degrees of freedom and C-no of components and N are
independent non-composition variables (e.g.temperature and pressure).

Degrees of freedom are the number of variables such as temperature, pressure or

concentration/composition that can be changed independently without changing the number of
phases present e.g. salt dissolved in water.

Equilibrium Diagram (Phase Diagram)

The existence of different phases in an alloy can be represented on a map known as an

equilibrium diagram. These diagrams show phase relations and equilibrium conditions which
are achieved by extremely slow heating and cooling to allow sufficient time for phase changes to
occur. Hence temperature and composition are variable parameters and pressure is held
constant—normally 1 atm. Consequently with no pressure effects we can modify the Gibbs rule
to read:

P+F=C+1

Phase Diagrams are used for the following

1. They show the limits of solubility of each component in each phase over the entire
temperature range while the phase is stable.
2. To determine the number, type and composition of the phases present in given alloy at
specific temperature.
3. To predict the temperature at which freezing or melting will begin or end for each
specific alloy composition.
4. To calculate the relative amount of alloy present for a two phase alloy.
5. To predict the microstructure of an alloy at a given temperature.

Types of Phase Diagrams

i. Isomorphous system -complete solubility in solid and liquid state

ii. Eutectic system -complete solubility in the liquid and either partial or complete
solubility in the solid state.
iii. Peritectic system-liquid and solid combine to form another solid
iv. Monotectic system- partial miscibility of the liquid state over a particular range
(concentration).
v. Eutectoid system-solid change to another solid i.e. solid to solid transformation.

One Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams

This the simplest phase diagram in which composition is held constant (phase diagram for pure
substance) therefore pressure and temperature are variables. Unary phase diagrams are normally
called Pressure-Temperature (or P-T) phase diagram. Phase diagram for water is used as an
example as shown in Figure 22. It consists of three phases -solid, liquid and gas delineated.
Figure 22: Pressure–temperature phase diagram for H2O. Intersection of the dashed horizontal
line at 1 atm pressure with the solid–liquid phase boundary (point 2) corresponds to the melting
point at this pressure (T = 0oC). Similarly, point 3, the intersection with the liquid–vapour
boundary, represents the boiling point (T = 100oC) [2].
Each of the phases exists under equilibrium conditions over temperature-pressure ranges of its
corresponding area. The three curves shown on the plot (labelled aO, bO, and cO) are phase
boundaries; at any point on one of these curves, the two phases on either side of the curve are in
equilibrium (or coexist) with one another. Equilibrium between solid and vapour phases is along
curve aO—likewise for the solid–liquid boundary, curve bO, and the liquid–vapour boundary,
curve cO. Upon crossing a boundary (as temperature and/or pressure is altered), one phase
transforms into another e.g. point 2 is melting point while point 3 is boiling point.

All three of the phase boundary curves intersect at a common point O (for this H2O system, at a
temperature of 273.16 K and a pressure of 6.04 x 10-3 atm). This means that at this point only, all
of the solid, liquid, and vapour phases are simultaneously in equilibrium with one another. This
point is called triple point or invariant point.

Binary isomorphous systems

Binary isomorphous phase diagram is the easiest type of binary phase diagram to understand and
interpret as characterized by Copper-Nickel systems. Temperature is plotted against composition
of alloy in % weight Ni as shown in Figure 23 below. The composition ranges from 0 wt. % Ni
(100 wt. % Cu) from left horizontal extremity to 100 wt. % Ni (0 wt. % Cu) on the right. It has
three phase regions or fields an alpha (  ) field, a liquid (L) field, and a two-phase (   L ) field.
Each region is defined by the phase or phases that exist over the range of temperatures and
compositions delineated by the phase boundary lines.

The liquid L is a homogeneous liquid solution composed of both copper and nickel. The 
phase is a substitutional solid solution consisting of both Cu and Ni atoms and has an FCC
crystal structure. This complete solubility is explained by the fact that both Cu and Ni have the
same crystal structure (FCC), nearly identical atomic radii and electronegativities, and similar
valences. The copper–nickel system is termed isomorphous because it has complete liquid and
solid solubility of the two components.

Definition of terms:

Liquidus the point at which solid first begins to form when a melt of constant composition is
cooled under equilibrium conditions. It is the uppermost boundary between the liquid (L) and
liquid + solid (L+α) phase regions.

Solidus is the point at which solidification is complete upon further equilibrium cooling at a
fixed composition. It is the lower phase boundary between the solid (α) and liquid + solid (L+α)
phase regions.

Figure 23: The Cu-Ni binary isomorphous phase diagram showing the temperature against %
composition by weight and illustrating the use of lever rule [2].
Lever Rule
The relationship between composition of two phases in a binary system and the relative amount
of each phase in a phase diagram is given by the lever rule.

If we consider the initial alloy composition C0 = 53 wt% Ni, 47 wt% Cu shown by the vertical
arrow and dashed line in Figure 23. At 1300◦C, this composition will exist as both liquid and
solid ( L   ) phase. Let W and WL be the fractional amounts by weight of solid and liquid
respectively such that;

W  W  1 (1.1)

Also, the mass of each component, in this case Ni and Cu, distributed between the two phases
must equal their masses in the original composition

W CS  W CL  Co (1.2)

Solutions of equation(1.1) and equation(1.2) give the weight fraction of liquid in terms of
compositions as

CS  C0
W  (1.3)
CS  C L

And the weight fraction of solid in terms of compositions is

C0  CL
W  (1.4)
CS  C L

Therefore equation(1.3) and equation(1.4) gives the lever rule and can be used to determine the
relative amounts of each phase in any two-phase region of a binary component phase diagram.

For example liquid composition is:

CS  C0 63  53
W    0.625
CS  CL 63  47

Therefore 62.5% by weight of the alloy is present as liquid and 37.5% as solid.

Procedure for Applying the Lever Rule:

i) The tie line is constructed by extending horizontal line to phase boundaries at the
temperature of the alloy (EF in Figure 23) and reading the compositions of these
phases off the abscissa. The liquid phase has a composition of 47 wt% Ni/53 wt% Cu
(point E), and the solid phase is 63 wt% Ni/37% Cu (point F).
ii) The overall alloy composition is located in the tie line C0.
 iii) Line segments CS  C0 and C0  CL are measured using a ruler say in millimeters
and applying equation(1.3) and equation(1.4) to determine the fraction of each phase.
NB: This computation is possible only when concentrations are expressed in terms of
weight percentages.

Eutectic system
A Eutectic phase diagram is obtained when two metals are completely soluble in the solid state
but either partially soluble or completely insoluble in the solid state. Such diagrams show the
existences of the Eutectic reactions in which a liquid phase decomposes into different solids.

decomposes
Liquid A  solid B + solid C

An example of binary eutectic phase diagram is copper-silver system shown in Figure 24. It has
three single-phase regions  ,  and liquid (L) and three two-phase regions   L ,   L and
   . The  phase is a solid solution rich in copper; it has silver as the solute component and an
FCC crystal structure. The  -phase solid solution also has an FCC structure, but copper is the
solute. Pure copper and pure silver are also considered to be  and  phases, respectively.
Therefore solubility in each of these solid phases is limited.

Figure 24: The copper-silver Eutectic phase diagram [2].

Solvus line is the solid solubility limit line separating the  and    phase regions while the
boundary AB between the  and   L fields is the solidus line.

Examples

a) Tin-Zinc systems.
b) Cadnium-Bismark Cd-Bi
c) Silver-Lead system Ag-Pb

Peritectic system

When the melting points of two metals differ considerably then the reactions occurs in which one
liquid and a solid combines to form a new solid. In this reaction, upon cooling, a liquid phase
and another solid phase
transforms into one
cooling
Liquid + solid A   solid B solid phase a reaction
cooling called peritectic

 +L  
heating reaction.

The new solid formed is usually an intermetallic compounds but in some cases may be a solid
solution. A peritectic exists for the copper–zinc system (Figure 25, point P) at 598oC and
78.6wt% Zn–21.4wt% Cu.
Figure 25: A section of the copper–zinc phase diagram that has been enlarged to show eutectoid
and peritectic invariant points, labelled E (560oC, 74wt% Zn) and P (598oC, 78.6wt% Zn),
respectively.
Examples:

Nickel-Zinc Ni-Zn

Copper-Tin system Cu-Sn

Nickel-Molybdenum Ni-Mo

Iron-Nb

Monotectic systems

This occurs when there is partial solubility between two liquids. Liquid A gives you liquid B +
solid.

cooling
Liquid A 
 Liquid B + solid
Examples

Copper-lead system Cu-Pb

Aluminium – Lead system Al-Pb

Copper – chromium system Cu- Cr

Zinc-lead system Zn-Pb

Eutectoid System

This occurs when a solid to solid transformation takes place. It occurs when a cooling solid
transforms into two solid phases at the same time and temperature. Copper–zinc system (Figure
25) at 560oC and 74wt% Zn–26wt% Cu illustrates eutectoid system.

Solid A  Solid B + solid C

cooling
  
heating

Invariant point E and horizontal tie line at 560oC (Figure 25) are eutectoid point and eutectoid
isotherm respectively.

Examples:

Iron- Carbon system Fe-C

Copper- zinc system Cu-Zn

Copper- Tin system Cu-Sn

Aluminium-Manganese system Al-Mn

NB: The three-phase transformations systems described above are defined for equilibrium
cooling processes, not heating or non-equilibrium conditions.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

CORROSION

Corrosion may be defined as destructive chemical or electro-chemical destruction of the

material with its environment.

a) Direct Chemical Attack

When metals come in contact with liquid solution or with other corrosive elements, corrosion
takes place. Corrosion is considered direct if the immediate products of the corrosion are
deposited in the metal. If these products are insoluble in the solutions their deposits provide a
protective insulating film thereby diminishing the corrosive reaction.

b) Electrochemical attack

In this attack, the surrounding region/region surrounding a metal to be corroded fulfils three
conditions:

i) Two areas of the surface acts as electrodes alloying electrons to flow to and fro in the
metal.
ii) The metal and the solution around it must be capable of conducting some electrons.
iii) A driving force or some electric potential to cause the electrons to flow.

The ionization of the metal and its subsequent reaction with solute element occurs in a redox
reaction and where the products do not adhere to the metal surface, corrosion may propagate.

Factors that affect the rate of corrosion

They are grouped into two:

1. Those dependent on the metal.

2. Those dependent on the environment.

Factors dependent on the metal

a) The effective electro-potential of a metal in solution.

When a metal is in contact with a suitable solvent, it dissolve in the solvent going into the
solution as an ion (positive ion) the greater the metal’s electron potential the greater is its
tendency to dissolve.

b) Formation of hydrogen on the metal

This tends to inhibits further corrosion on the metal e.g.

M+2H 2O  M(OH) 2 +H 2

c) Chemical and physical homogeneity of the metal surface

The rate of corrosion increases with increase in chemical and physical homogeneity.

d) Ability to form protective film e.g. aluminium oxide formed on aluminium articles.
e) Rate of flow of solution in contact with the metal; the flow replaces the solvent around
the metal which replaces corrosion.
f) Presence of oxygen or oxidizing agent in contact with the metal aids corrosion.

Protection against corrosion

It is achieved by the following;

a) Coating the surface with protective film e.g. painting and galvanizing.
b) Treating the surface so that the surface composition of the metal is changed-Chromizing.
c) By cathode protection; metal is placed in contact with another metal with a higher
electro-potential e.g. protection of pipelines using zinc (pipes made of lead). The
secondary metal is then preferentially corroded.
d) By the changing the environment surrounding the metal e.g. dehydration of the area
surrounding the environment like dehydrating (small bags) agents in electrical gadgets.
e) Use of corrosion resistant materials e.g. stainless steel in food processing equipment.

Other Physical properties

a) Electrical conductivity.
b) Thermal behaviour.
c) Optical properties.
d) Magnetism.
 Bibliography

[1] S. M. Brian, AN INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE

FOR CHEMICAL AND MATERIALS ENGINEERS. NEW JERSY: John Wiley & Sons,
2004.
[2] D. C. J. William and G. R. David, Materials science, 9th ed. United States of America,
2014.