Virtual work

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Classical mechanics

Second law of motion

 History
 Timeline

Branches[show]

Fundamentals[show]

Formulations[show]

Core topics[show]

Rotation[show]

Scientists[show]

 V

 T

 E

Virtual work arises in the application of the principle of least action to the study of forces and
movement of amechanical system. The work of a force acting on a particle as it moves along a
displacement will be different for different displacements. Among all of the possible displacements
that a particle may follow, called virtual displacements, one will minimize the action, and, therefore, is
the one followed by the particle by the principle of least action. The work of a force on a particle
along a virtual displacement is known as the virtual work.
Historically, virtual work and the associated calculus of variations were formulated to analyze
systems of rigid bodies,[1]but they have also been developed for the study of the mechanics of
deformable bodies.[2]

Contents
[hide]

 1 History

 2 Overview

 3 Introduction

 4 Static equilibrium
 o 4.1 Constraint forces

 5 Law of the Lever

 6 Gear train

 7 Dynamic equilibrium for rigid bodies

o 7.1 Generalized inertia forces

o 7.2 D'Alembert's form of the principle of virtual work

 8 Virtual work principle for a deformable body

o 8.1 Proof of Equivalence between the Principle of Virtual Work and the Equilibrium
Equation

o 8.2 Principle of virtual displacements

o 8.3 Principle of virtual forces

 9 Alternative forms

 10 See also

 11 References

 12 Bibliography

History[edit]
The introduction of virtual work and the principle of least action was guided by the view that the
actual movement of a body is the one in a set of "tentative" realities that minimizes a particular
quantity. This idea that nature minimizes is a version of the "simplicity hypothesis" that can be traced
to Aristotle.[3] Another form of this hypothesis is Occam's razor which states that "it is futile to employ
many principles when it is possible to employ fewer." These ideas illustrate a view of physics that
nature optimizes in some way.
Gottfried Leibniz formulated Newton's laws of motion in terms of work and kinetic energy, or vis
viva (living force), which are minimized as a system moves.[1][3]Maupertuis adapted Leibniz's ideas as
the principle of least action that nature minimizes action. But it was Euler and Lagrange who
provided the mathematical foundation of the calculus of variations and applied it to the study of the
statics and dynamics of mechanical systems.
Hamilton's reformulation of the principle of least action and Lagrange's equations yielded a theory of
dynamics that is the foundation for modern physics and quantum mechanics.

Overview[edit]
If a force acts on a particle as it moves from point A to point B, then, for each possible trajectory that
the particle may take, it is possible to compute the total work done by the force along the path.
The principle of virtual work, which is the form of the principle of least action applied to these
systems, states that the path actually followed by the particle is the one for which the difference
between the work along this path and other nearby paths is zero (to first order). The formal
procedure for computing the difference of functions evaluated on nearby paths is a generalization of
the derivative known from differential calculus, and is termed the calculus of variations.
Consider a point particle that moves along a path which is described by a function r(t) from point A,
where r(t = t0), to point B, where r(t = t1). It is possible that the particle moves from A to B along a
nearby path described by r(t) + δr(t), where δr(t) is called the variation of r(t). The variation δr(t)
satisfies the requirement δr(t0) = δr(t1) = 0. The components of the variation, δr1(t), δr2(t) and δr3(t),
are called virtual displacements. This can be generalized to an arbitrary mechanical system defined
by the generalized coordinates qi , i = 1, ..., n. In which case, the variation of the trajectory qi (t) is
defined by the virtual displacements δqi , i = 1, ..., n.
Virtual work is the total work done by the applied forces and the inertial forces of a mechanical
system as it moves through a set of virtual displacements. When considering forces applied to a
body in static equilibrium, the principle of least action requires the virtual work of these forces to be
zero.

Introduction[edit]
Consider a particle P that moves from a point A to a point B along a trajectory r(t), while a
force F(r(t)) is applied to it. The work done by the force F is given by the integral

where dr is the differential element along the curve that is the trajectory of P, and v is its velocity.
It is important to notice that the value of the work W depends on the trajectory r(t).
Now consider particle P that moves from point A to point B again, but this time it moves along
the nearby trajectory that differs from r(t) by the variation δr(t)=εh(t), where ε is a scaling
constant that can be made as small as desired and h(t) is an arbitrary function that satisfies h(t0)
= h(t1) = 0. Suppose the force F(r(t)+εh(t)) is the same as F(r(t)). The work done by the force is
given by the integral

The variation of the work δW associated with this nearby path, known as the virtual work,
can be computed to be

If there is no constraint force, then 6 parameters are need to completely describe the
motion of P. If there is k (k ≤ 6) constraint forces, then n = (6 - k) parameters are
needed. Hence, we can define n generalized coordinates qi (t) (i = 1, 2, ..., n), and
express r(t) and δr=εh(t) in terms of the generalized coordinates. That is,

,
.
Then, the derivative of the variation δr=εh(t) is given by

then we have

The requirement that the virtual work be zero for an arbitrary

variation δr(t)=εh(t) is equivalent to the set of requirements

The terms Qi are called the generalized forces associated with the
virtual displacement δr.

Static equilibrium[edit]
Static equilibrium is a state in which the net force and net torque
acted upon the system is zero. In other words, both linear
momentum and angular momentum of the system are conserved.
The principle of virtual work states that the virtual work of the
applied forces is zero for all virtual movements of the system
from static equilibrium. This principle can be generalised such that
three dimensional rotations are included: the virtual work of the
applied forces and applied moments is zero for all virtual
movements of the system from static equilibrium. That is

where Fi , i = 1, 2, ..., m and Mj , j = 1, 2, ..., n are the applied

forces and applied moments, respectively, and δri , i = 1,
2, ..., m and δφj , j = 1, 2, ..., n are the virtual
displacements and virtual rotations, respectively.
Suppose the system consists of N particles, and it has f (f ≤
6N) degrees of freedom. It is sufficient to use only f coordinates
to give a complete description of the motion of the system,
so f generalised coordinates qk , k = 1, 2, ..., f are defined such
that the virtual movements can be expressed in terms of
these generalised coordinates. That is,

The virtual work can then be reparametrised by

the generalised coordinates:
where the generalised forces Qk are defined as

Kane[4] shows that these generalised

forces can also be formulated in terms of the
ratio of time derivatives. That is,

The principle of virtual work requires that

the virtual work done on a system by the
forces Fi and moments Mj vanishes if it is
in equilibrium. Therefore, the generalized
forces Qk are zero, that is

Constraint forces[edit]
An important benefit of the principle of
virtual work is that only forces that do
work as the system moves through
a virtual displacement are needed to
determine the mechanics of the
system. There are many forces in a
mechanical system that do no work
during a virtual displacement, which
means that they need not be
considered in this analysis. The two
important examples are (i) the internal
forces in a rigid body, and (ii) the
constraint forces at an ideal joint.
Lanczos[1] presents this as the
postulate: "The virtual work of the
forces of reaction is always zero for
any virtual displacement which is in
harmony with the given kinematic
constraints." The argument is as
follows. The principle of virtual work
states that in equilibrium the virtual
work of the forces applied to a system
is zero.Newton's laws state that
at equilibrium the applied forces are
equal and opposite to the reaction, or
constraint forces. This means the
virtual work of the constraint forces
must be zero as well.

Law of the Lever[edit]

A lever is modeled as a rigid bar
connected to a ground frame by a
hinged joint called a fulcrum. The lever
is operated by applying an input
force FA at a point Alocated by the
coordinate vector rA on the bar. The
lever then exerts an output force FB at
the point B located by rB. The rotation
of the lever about the fulcrum P is
defined by the rotation angle θ.

This is an engraving from Mechanics

Magazinepublished in London in 1824.

Let the coordinate vector of the

point P that defines the fulcrum be rP,
and introduce the lengths

which are the distances from the

fulcrum to the input point A and to
the output point B, respectively.
Now introduce the unit
vectors eA and eB from the fulcrum
to the point A and B, so

This notation allows us to

define the velocity of the
points A and B as
where eA⊥ and eB⊥ are unit
vectors perpendicular
to eA and eB, respectively.
The angle θ is the
generalized coordinate
that defines the
configuration of the lever,
therefore using the
formula above for forces
applied to a one degree-
of-freedom mechanism,
the generalized force is
given by

Now, denote
as FA and FB the
components of the
forces that are
perpendicular to the
radial
segments PA and PB.
These forces are
given by

This notation and

the principle of
virtual work yield
the formula for
the generalized
force as

The ratio of
the output
force FB to
the input
force FA is
the mechanic
al
advantage of
the lever, and
is obtained
from the
principle of
virtual work
as
This
equation
shows
that if the
distance
a from
the
fulcrum
to the
point A w
here the
input
force is
applied is
greater
than the
distance
b from
fulcrum
to the
point Bw
here the
output
force is
applied,
then the
lever
amplifies
the input
force. If
the
opposite
is true
that the
distance
from the
fulcrum
to the
input
point A is
less than
from the
fulcrum
to the
output
point B,
then the
lever
reduces
the
magnitud
e of the
input
force.
This is
the law
of the
lever,
which
was
proven
by Archi
medes us
ing
geometri
c
reasonin
g.[5]

Gear
train[e
dit]
A gear
train is
formed
by
mounting
gears on
a frame
so that
the teeth
of the
gears
engage.
Gear
teeth are
designed
to ensure
the pitch
circles of
engaging
gears roll
on each
other
without
slipping,
this
provides
a smooth
transmiss
ion of
rotation
from one
gear to
the next.
For this
analysis,
we
consider
a gear
train that
has one
degree-
of-
freedom,
which
means
the
angular
rotation
of all the
gears in
the gear
train are
defined
by the
angle of
the input
gear.

Illustra
tion
from
Army
Servic
e
Corps
Trainin
g on
Mecha
nical
Trans
port,
(1911)
, Fig.
112
Trans
missio
 n of
motion
and
force
by
gear
wheel
s,
compo
und
train

The size
of the
gears
and the
sequence
in which
they
engage
define
the ratio
of the
angular
velocity
ωA of the
input
gear to
the
angular
velocity
ωB of the
output
gear,
known as
the
speed
ratio,
or gear
ratio, of
the gear
train.
Let R be
the
speed
ratio,
then
The
input
torqu
e TA
actin
g on
the
input
gear
GA is
transf
orme
d by
the
gear
train
into
the
outpu
t
torqu
e TBe
xerte
d by
the
outpu
t
gear
GB. If
we
assu
me,
that
the
gears
are
rigid
and
that
there
are
no
losse
s in
the
enga
geme
nt of
the
gear
teeth,
then
the
princi
ple of
virtua
l
work
can
be
used
to
analy
ze
the
static
equili
brium
of the
gear
train.
Let
the
angle
θ of
the
input
gear
be
the
gene
ralize
d
coord
inate
of the
gear
train,
then
the
spee
d
ratio
R of
the
gear
train
defin
es
the
angul
ar
veloc
ity of
the
outpu
t
gear
in
terms
of the
input
gear,
that
is

T
h
e
f
o
r
m
u
l
a
a
b
o
v
e
f
o
r
t
h
e
p
ri
n
c
i
p
l
e
o
f
v
ir
t
u
a
l
w
o
r
k
w
it
h
a
p
p
li
e
d
t
o
r
q
u
e
s
y
i
e
l
d
s
t
h
e
g
e
n
e
r
a
li
z
e
d
f
o
r
c
e

Th
e
m
ec
ha
nic
al
ad
va
nt
ag
e
of
th
e
ge
ar
tra
in
is
th
e
rat
io
of
th
e
ou
tp
ut
tor
qu
e
TB
to
th
e
inp
ut
tor
qu
e
TA,
an
d
th
e
ab
ov
e
eq
ua
tio
n
yie
lds
Thus,
the
speed
ratio of
a gear
train
also
define
s its
mecha
nical
advant
age.
This
shows
that if
the
input
gear
rotates
faster
than
the
output
gear,
then
the
gear
train
amplifi
es the
input
torque.
And, if
the
input
gear
rotates
slower
than
the
output
gear,
then
the
gear
train
reduce
s the
input
torque.
Dyn
ami
c
equi
libri
um
for
rigid
bodi
es[ed
it]
If the
principl
e of
virtual
work
for
applie
d
forces
is used
on
individ
ual
particl
es of
a rigid
body,
the
principl
e can
be
genera
lized
for a
rigid
body:
When
a rigid
body
that is
in
equilib
rium is
subjec
t to
virtual
compa
tible
displa
cemen
ts, the
total
virtual
work
of all
extern
al
forces
is
zero;
and
conver
sely, if
the
total
virtual
work
of all
extern
al
forces
acting
on a
rigid
body
is zero
then
the
body
is in
equilib
rium.
If a
system
is not
in
static
equilib
rium,
D'Ale
mbert
showe
d that
by
introdu
cing
the
accele
ration
terms
of
Newto
n's
laws
as
inertia
forces,
this
approa
ch is
genera
lized to
define
dynam
ic
equilib
rium.
The
result
is
D'Ale
mbert'
s form
of the
principl
e of
virtual
work,
which
is used
to
derive
the
equati
ons of
motion
for a
mecha
nical
system
of rigid
bodies
.
The
expres
sion c
ompati
ble
displa
cemen
ts mea
ns that
the
particl
es
remain
in
contac
t and
displac
e
togeth
er so
that
the
work
done
by
pairs
of
action/
reactio
n inter-
particl
e
forces
cancel
out.
Variou
s
forms
of this
principl
e have
been
credite
d
to Joh
ann
(Jean)
Berno
ulli (16
67–
1748)
and D
aniel
Berno
ulli (17
00–
1782).

Gene
ralize
d
inerti
a
force
s[edit]
Let a
mecha
nical
system
be
constr
ucted
from n
rigid
bodies
, Bi,
i=1,...,
n, and
let the
resulta
nt of
the
applie
d
forces
on
each
body
be the
force-
torque
pairs,
Fi and
Ti,
i=1,...,
n.
Notice
that
these
applie
d
forces
do not
include
the
reactio
n
forces
where
the
bodies
are
conne
cted.
Finally,
assum
e that
the
velocit
y Vi an
d
angula
r
velociti
es ωi,
i=,1...,
n, for
each
rigid
body,
are
define
d by a
single
genera
lized
coordi
nate q.
Such a
system
of rigid
bodies
is said
to
have
one de
gree of
freedo
m.
Consid
er a
single
rigid
body
which
moves
under
the
action
of a
resulta
nt
for F a
nd
torque
T, with
one
degree
of
freedo
m
define
d by
the
genera
lized
coordi
nate q.
Assum
e the
referen
ce
point
for the
resulta
nt
force
and
torque
is the
center
of
mass
of the
body,
then
the
genera
lized
inertia
force
Q*
associ
ated
with
the
genera
lized
coordi
nate q
is
given
by

This inertia
force can
be
computed
from the
kinetic
energy of
the rigid
body,

by using the
formula

A system of n rig
bodies with m
generalized
coordinates has
the kinetic energ

which can be us
calculate the m
generalized iner
forces[6]

D'Alembert's
the principle
virtual work[
D'Alembert's for
principle of virtu
states that a sys
bodies is in dyna
equilibrium when
work of the sum
applied forces a
inertial forces is
any virtual displa
the system. Thu
equilibrium of a
rigid bodies with
generalized coo
requires that
for any set of vir
displacements δ
condition yields

which can also b

The result is a s
motion that defin
rigid body system
If the generalize
derivable from a
V(q1,...,qm), then
motion take the

In this case, intr

V, so these equa

These are know

motion.

Virtual wo
deformable
Consider now th
a deformable bo
infinite number o
two unrelated st

 The -Stat
surface force
stresses

 The -State
displacemen
.
The superscript
states are unrela
stated condition
any of the states
 Imagine now tha
the -State und
the displacemen
State: We can c
(imaginary) work
the faces of all

 First, by sum
such as
common fac
experiences
work cancel
work done b
are equal to
equilibrium).

 Second, by
stresses or f
act on an ind
dimensional

where the equilibrium relation has been used and the second order term
has been neglected.
Integrating over the whole body gives:

– Work done by the body forces f.

Equating the two
a deformable bo

where the total e

The right-hand-s
principle of virtu
internal virtual w
unrelated but co
principle of virtu
internal virtual w
Proof of Equ
Work and the
We start by look
going through th

Applying diverge

Now switch to in

To continue our

equation

The first term on

part as follows:

where is the s
equality comes f
matrix and a sym
Now recap. We

Move the 2nd te

The physical inte
virtual work whe
and strains.
For practical app

 In order to im
and strains i

 In order to im
forces in the
These two gene
irrespective of m
Principle of v
Depending on th
principle of virtu

 Virtual displa
variational n

 Virtual displa
thus the wor
part that
The virtual work

This relation is e
deformable body
can be reached,
the stress bound
Since virtual dis
of continuous, s
and displaceme
would then be w
Principle of v
Here, we specify

 Virtual force

 Virtual force
(reaction) fo
The virtual work

This relation is e
conditions on th

Alternative
A specialization
computing displa
as additional bo
principles can be

 allowing var

 using Lagran
two states.
These are descr
Among the man
due to its genera
element method

See also[ed
 Flexibility me

 Unit dummy

 Finite eleme

 Calculus of v

 Lagrangian

 Müller-Bresl

References
1. ^ Jump up to:

2. Jump up^ Dy

3. ^ Jump up to:
General Publ

4. Jump up^ T.
5. Jump up^ Us
Publications 1

6. Jump up^ T.

Bibliograp
 Bathe, K.J. "

 Charlton, T.M
714102-1

 Dym, C. L. a

 Greenwood,

 Hu, H. Varia
31330-6

 Langhaar, H

 Reddy, J.N.
471-17985-X

 Shames, I. H
Francis, 199

 Tauchert, T.R

 Washizu, K.

 Wunderlich,
8493-0700-7
Categories:
 Mechanics
 Dynamical s
 Structural an
 Mechanical
 Machines
 Kinematics
 Mechanisms
 Linkages (m