Introduction

The first electric power system was a dc system built by Edison in 1882. The subsequent power
systems that were constructed in the late 19th century were all dc systems. However despite the initial
popularity of dc systems by the turn of the 20th century ac systems started to outnumber them. The ac
systems were though to be superior as ac machines were cheaper than their dc counterparts and more
importantly ac voltages are easily transformable from one level to other using transformers. The early
stability problems of ac systems were experienced in 1920 when insufficient damping caused
spontaneous oscillations or hunting. These problems were solved using generator damper winding and
the use of turbine-type prime movers.

The stability of a system refers to the ability of a system to return back to its steady state when
subjected to a disturbance. As mentioned before, power is generated by synchronous generators that
operate in synchronism with the rest of the system. A generator is synchronized with a bus when both
of them have same frequency, voltage and phase sequence. We can thus define the power system
stability as the ability of the power system to return to steady state without losing synchronism. Usually
power system stability is categorized into Steady State, Transient and Dynamic Stability.

Steady State Stability studies are restricted to small and gradual changes in the system operating
conditions. In this we basically concentrate on restricting the bus voltages close to their nominal values.
We also ensure that phase angles between two buses are not too large and check for the overloading
of the power equipment and transmission lines. These checks are usually done using power flow
studies.

Transient Stability involves the study of the power system following a major disturbance. Following a
large disturbance the synchronous alternator the machine power (load) angle changes due to sudden
acceleration of the rotor shaft. The objective of the transient stability study is to ascertain whether the
load angle returns to a steady value following the clearance of the disturbance.

The ability of a power system to maintain stability under continuous small disturbances is investigated
under the name of Dynamic Stability (also known as small-signal stability). These small disturbances
occur due random fluctuations in loads and generation levels. In an interconnected power system,
these random variations can lead catastrophic failure as this may force the rotor angle to increase
steadily.

In this chapter we shall discuss the transient stability aspect of a power system.
Section I: Power-Angle Relationship

The power-angle relationship has been discussed in Section 2.4.3. In this section we shall consider this
relation for a lumped parameter lossless transmission line. Consider the single-machine-infinite-
bus (SMIB) system shown in Fig. 9.1. In this the reactance X includes the reactance of the
transmission line and the synchronous reactance or the transient reactance of the generator. The
sending end voltage is then the internal emf of the generator. Let the sending and receiving end
voltages be given by

(9.1)

Fig. 9.1 An SMIB system.

We then have

(9.2)

The sending end real power and reactive power are then given by

This is simplified to
 (9.3)

Since the line is loss less, the real power dispatched from the sending end is equal to the real power
received at the receiving end. We can therefore write

(9.4)

where Pmax = V1 V2 / X is the maximum power that can be transmitted over the transmission line. The
power-angle curve is shown in Fig. 9.2. From this figure we can see that for a given power P0 . There
are two possible values of the angle δ - δ0 and δmax . The angles are given by

(9.5)

Example 9.1
Section II: Swing Equation
Let us consider a three-phase synchronous alternator that is driven by a prime mover. The equation of

(9.6)

motion of the machine rotor is given by

where

J is the total moment of inertia of the rotor mass in kgm 2

Tm is the mechanical torque supplied by the prime mover in N-m
Te is the electrical torque output of the alternator in N-m
θ is the angular position of the rotor in rad

Neglecting the losses, the difference between the mechanical and electrical torque gives the net
accelerating torque Ta . In the steady state, the electrical torque is equal to the mechanical torque, and
hence the accelerating power will be zero. During this period the rotor will move at synchronous
speed ωs in rad/s.

The angular position θ is measured with a stationary reference frame. To represent it with respect to the

(9.7)
synchronously rotating frame, we define

where δ is the angular position in rad with respect to the synchronously rotating reference frame. Taking
the time derivative of the above equation we get
 (9.8)

Defining the angular speed of the rotor as

we can write (9.8) as

(9.9)

We can therefore conclude that the rotor angular speed is equal to the synchronous speed only when dδ /
dt is equal to zero. We can therefore term dδ / dt as the error in speed. Taking derivative of (9.8), we can

(9.10)

then rewrite (9.6) as

(9.11)

Multiplying both side of (9.11) by ωm we get

where Pm , Pe and Pa respectively are the mechanical, electrical and accelerating power in MW.

(9.12)

We now define a normalized inertia constant as

(9.13)

Substituting (9.12) in (9.10) we get

In steady state, the machine angular speed is equal to the synchronous speed and hence we can
replace ωr in the above equation by ωs. Note that in (9.13) Pm , Pe and Paare given in MW. Therefore
dividing them by the generator MVA rating Srated we can get these quantities in per unit. Hence dividing

(9.14)
per unit
both sides of (9.13) by Srated we get

Equation (7.14) describes the behaviour of the rotor dynamics and hence is known as the swing equation.
The angle δ is the angle of the internal emf of the generator and it dictates the amount of power that can
be transferred. This angle is therefore called the load angle .

Example 9.2
Section III: Equal Area Criterion
The real power transmitted over a lossless line is given by (9.4). Now consider the situation in which the
synchronous machine is operating in steady state delivering a power Pe equal to Pm when there is a fault
occurs in the system. Opening up of the circuit breakers in the faulted section subsequently clears the
fault. The circuit breakers take about 5/6 cycles to open and the subsequent post-fault transient last for
another few cycles. The input power, on the other hand, is supplied by a prime mover that is usually
driven by a steam turbine. The time constant of the turbine mass system is of the order of few seconds,
while the electrical system time constant is in milliseconds. Therefore, for all practical purpose, the
mechanical power is remains constant during this period when the electrical transients occur. The
transient stability study therefore concentrates on the ability of the power system to recover from the fault
and deliver the constant power Pm with a possible new load angle δ .

Consider the power angle curve shown in Fig. 9.3. Suppose the system of Fig. 9.1 is operating in the
steady state delivering a power of Pm at an angle of δ0 when due to malfunction of the line, circuit
breakers open reducing the real power transferred to zero. Since Pm remains constant, the accelerating
power Pa becomes equal to Pm . The difference in the power gives rise to the rate of change of stored
kinetic energy in the rotor masses. Thus the rotor will accelerate under the constant influence of non-zero
accelerating power and hence the load angle will increase. Now suppose the circuit breaker re-closes at
an angle δc. The power will then revert back to the normal operating curve. At that point, the electrical
power will be more than the mechanical power and the accelerating power will be negative. This will
cause the machine decelerate. However, due to the inertia of the rotor masses, the load angle will still
keep on increasing. The increase in this angle may eventually stop and the rotor may start decelerating,
otherwise the system will lose synchronism.

Note that

Fig. 9.3 Power-angle curve for equal area criterion.

Hence multiplying both sides of (9.14) by and rearranging we get

Multiplying both sides of the above equation by dt and then integrating between two arbitrary

(9.15)

angles δ0 and δc we get

Now suppose the generator is at rest at δ0. We then have dδ / dt = 0. Once a fault occurs, the machine
starts accelerating. Once the fault is cleared, the machine keeps on accelerating before it reaches its

(9.16)

peak at δc , at which point we again have dδ / dt = 0. Thus the area of accelerating is given from (9.15) as

In a similar way, we can define the area of deceleration. In Fig. 9.3, the area of acceleration is given

(9.17)

by A1 while the area of deceleration is given by A2 . This is given by

.Contd... Equal Area Criterion
Now consider the case when the line is reclosed at δc such that the area of acceleration is larger than the
area of deceleration, i.e., A1 > A2 . The generator load angle will then cross the point δm , beyond which
the electrical power will be less than the mechanical power forcing the accelerating power to be positive.
The generator will therefore start accelerating before is slows down completely and will eventually
become unstable. If, on the other hand, A1 < A2 , i.e., the decelerating area is larger than the accelerating
area, the machine will decelerate completely before accelerating again. The rotor inertia will force the
subsequent acceleration and deceleration areas to be smaller than the first ones and the machine will
eventually attain the steady state. If the two areas are equal, i.e., A1 = A2 , then the accelerating area is
equal to decelerating area and this is defines the boundary of the stability limit. The clearing
angle δc for this mode is called the Critical Clearing Angle and is denoted by δcr. We then get from Fig.

(9.18)

9.3 by substituting δc = δcr

We can calculate the critical clearing angle from the ab move equation. Since the critical clearing angle
depends on the equality of the areas, this is called the equal area criterion.

Example 9.3:

Consider the system of Example 9.1. Let us assume that the system is operating with Pm = Pe = 0.9 per
unit when a circuit breaker opens inadvertently isolating the generator from the infinite bus. During this
period the real power transferred becomes zero. From Example 9.1 we have calculated δ0 = 23.96 ° =
0.4182 rad and the maximum power transferred as

per unit

We have to find the critical clearing angle.

From (9.15) the accelerating area is computed as by note that Pe = 0 during this time. This is then given
by
To calculate the decelerating area we note that δm = π - 0.4182 = 2.7234 rad. This area is computed by
noting that Pe = 2.2164 sin(δ ) during this time. Therefore

Equating A1 = A2 and rearranging we get

Now a frequently asked question is what does the critical clearing angle mean?

Since we are interested in finding out the maximum time that the circuit breakers may take for opening,
we should be more concerned about the critical clearing time rather than clearing angle. Furthermore,
notice that the clearing angle is independent of the generalized inertia constant H . Hence we can
comment that the critical clearing angle in this case is true for any generator that has a d-axis transient
reactance of 0.20 per unit. The critical clearing time, however, is dependent on H and will vary as this
parameter varies.

To obtain a description for the critical clearing time, let us consider the period during which the fault

(9.19)

occurs. We then have Pe = 0. We can therefore write from

Integrating the above equation with the initial acceleration being zero we get
Further integration will lead to

(9.20)

Replacing δ by δcr and t by tcr in the above equation, we get the critical clearing time as

Example 9.4:

In Example 9.2, let us choose the system frequency as 50 Hz such that ωs is 100π. Also let us
choose H as 4 MJ/MVA. Then with δcr being 1.5486 rad, δ0 being 0.4182 rad and Pm being 0.9 per unit,
we get the following critical clearing time from (9.20)

To illustrate the response of the load angle δ , the swing equation is simulated in MATLAB. The swing

(9.21)

equation of (9.14) is then expressed as

where Δωr is the deviation for the rotor speed from the synchronous speed ωs . It is to be noted that the
swing equation of (9.21) does not contain any damping. Usually a damping term, that is proportional to
the machine speed Δωr, is added with the accelerating power. Without the damping the load angle will
exhibit a sustained oscillation even when the system remains stable when the fault cleared within the
critical clearing time.

Fig. 9.4 Stable and unstable system response as a function of clearing time.

Fig. 9.4 depicts the response of the load angle δ for two different values of load angle. It is assumed that
the fault occurs at 0.5 s when the system is operating in the steady state delivering 0.9 per unit power.
The load angle during this time is constant at 23.96° . The load angle remains stable, albeit the sustained
oscillation when the clearing time tcl is 0.253 s. The clearing angle during this time is 88.72° . The system
however becomes unstable when the clearing time 0.2531s and the load angle increases asymptotically.
The clearing time in this case is 88.77° . This is called the Loss of Synchronism. It is to be noted that
such increase in the load angle is not permissible and the protection device will isolate the generator from
the system.

The clearing time of (8.20) is derived based on the assumption that the electrical power Pe becomes zero
during the fault as in (8.19). This need not be the case always. In that even we have to resort to finding
the clearing time using the numerical integration of the swing equation. See example 9.5 to illustrates the
point.

Example 9.5
Section IV: Multimachine Stability
 Oscillations in s Two Area System

Consider Fig. 9.10, which depicts a number of weights that are suspended by elastic strings. The weights
represent generators and the electric transmission lines being represented by the strings. Note that in a
transmission system, each transmission line is loaded below its static stability limit. Similarly, when the
mechanical system is in static steady state, each string is loaded below its break point. At this point one
of the strings is suddenly cut. This will result in transient oscillations in the coupled strings and all the
weights will wobble. In the best possible case, this may result in the coupled system settling down to a
new steady state. On the other hand, in the worst possible scenario this may result in the breaking of one
more additional string, resulting in a chain reaction in which more strings may break forcing a system
collapse. In a similar way, in an interconnected electric power network, the tripping of a transmission line
may cause a catastrophic failure in which a large number of generators are lost forcing a blackout in a
large area.

Modern power systems are interconnected and operate close to their transient and steady state stability
limits. In large interconnected systems, it is common to find a natural response of a group of closely
coupled machines oscillating against other groups of machines. These oscillations have a frequency
range of 0.1 Hz to 0.8 Hz. The lowest frequency mode involves all generators of the system. This
oscillation groups the system into two parts - with generators in one part oscillating against those of the
the other part. The higher frequency modes are usually localized with small groups oscillating against
each other. Unfortunately, the inter-area oscillation can be initiated by a small disturbance in any part of
the system. These small frequency oscillations fall under the category of dynamic stability and are
analysed in linear domain through the liberalisation of the entire interconnected systems model.

Inter-area oscillations manifest wherever the power system is heavily interconnected. The oscillations,
unless damped, can lead to grid failure and total system collapse. Low frequency oscillations in the range
of 0.04 Hz to 0.06 Hz were observed in the Pacific North West region as early as 1950. Improper speed
governor control of hydro units created these oscillations. The Northern and Southern regions of WSCC
were interconnected by a 230 kV line in 1964. Immediately the system experienced a 0.1 Hz oscillation
resulting in over 100 instances of opening of the tie line in the first nine months of operation. Some
system damping was provided through the modification in the hydro turbine governors.
A 500 kV pacific intertie and another ± 400 kV HVDC system was commissioned in 1968. This raised the
frequency of oscillation from 0.1 Hz to 0.33 Hz and these oscillations could no longer be controlled
through governor action alone. In late 1980's a new intertie joined the WSCC system to Alberta and
British Columbia in Canada . As a result of this interconnection, the two different oscillation frequencies
manifested - one at 0.29 Hz and the other at 0.45 Hz.

Ontario Hydro is one of the largest utilities in North America . Due to the vast and sparsely populated
topology of Canada , the operating span of Ontario hydro is over 1000 km from East to West and from
North to South. The Ontario Hydro system is connected to the neighbouring Canadian provinces and the
North Western region of the United States . In 1959 Ontario Hydro was connected to Michigan in the
South and Quebec Hydro in the East. As a result of this connection, a 0.25 Hz oscillation was observed
and a result of this it was decided to remove the tie with Quebec and retain the tie to Michigan . The
Western portion of Ontario was connected to neighbouring Manitoba in 1956 and then Manitoba was
connected to its neighbour Saskatchewan in 1960. This resulted in oscillation in the frequency range 0.35
Hz to 0.45 Hz often tripping the tie. As a result of this, Ontario Hydro decided to commission power
system stabilizers for all their generating units since early 1960's. It has also sponsored extensive
research in this area.

Through research it was established that the action of automatic voltage regulators caused these
oscillations. An automatic voltage regulator (AVR) regulates the generator terminal voltage and also helps
in the enhancement of transient stability by reducing the peak of the first swing following any disturbance.
However, its high gain contributed to negative damping to the system. The knowledge of this relation
resulted in the commissioning of power system stabilizers. It was observed that these oscillations were
results of the periodic interchange of kinetic energy between the generator rotors. A power system
stabilizer (PSS) provides a negative feedback of the changes in rotor kinetic energy when it is connected
to the excitation system thereby providing damping to these small oscillations. The PSS has been a
subject of extensive research. The team of Dr. P. Kundur, then with Ontario Hydro, and his co-workers
has done extensive research in the area of PSS tuning and its characteristics. Through their vast
experience and extensive research, they reported the enhancement of inter-area and local modes
through PSS reported in. Since a power system is piece-wise linear, its system characteristics changes
with operating point. Therefore an adaptive controller that can tune with the changes in the system has
been developed and reported in. It was shown that the adaptive PSS is effective in damping large as well
as small disturbances.

The power flow between generators, as evident from (9.4), is dependent on the angle between those
generators. The stable operating point of the power system is where the generated power at each station
is matched by the electrical power sent out from that station. When there is a mismatch between electrical
power out and the generated mechanical shaft power, the generator will accelerate at a rate determined
by the power mismatch and the machine inertia as given in (9.14).
Oscillations in s Two Area System

Consider the simple power system shown in Fig. 9.11 in which two machines are operating. Let us
assume that starting with the initial angles δ1 and δ2 with respect to some reference at nominal
frequency, machine 1 accelerates while machine 2 decelerates from this nominal frequency. We then
have

(9.25)

where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to machines 1 and 2 respectively. Let us assume that the
transmission line is loss less. Then in the simple case where the power from machine 1 flows to
machine 2, we get

(9.26)

where δ12 = δ1 - δ2 .

Fig. 9.11 Single-line diagram of a two-machine power system.

Now since the system is lossless, (9.26) will also imply that Pm1 = - Pm2 . This means that in the
steady state, the power generated at machine 1 is absorbed through machine 2. Combining (9.25)
and (9.26) we get
 (9.27)

Let us now assume that H1 = H2 = H , V1 = V2 = 1.0 per unit and Pm1 = 0. We then get from (9.27)

(9.28)

where the oscillation frequency ω is given by

(9.29)

Thus the weighted difference of angles will approximate simple harmonic motion for small changes
in δ12 and the frequency will decrease for an increase in inertia H or impedance X . Another aspect
can be seen by adding the system to give

(9.30)

Thus the overall acceleration of the machine group will depend on the overall balance between power
generated and consumed. Usually there are governors on the generators to reduce generated power
if the system frequency increases.