6

Conclusion: Machine Feed

Drives—An Integral Part of a
Machine Control System

6.1 ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY

In the post–World War II years, machine and control builders were still
provincially minded in building controls and machines as separate entities,
believing that a control could be ‘‘hung’’ on a machine with few problems.
Advances in technology have shown that the separate elements of control,
drive, and machine must be integrated into the total system concept. Each of
these elements is dependent on the others.
It is the purpose of this discussion to illustrate how feed drives serve
the purpose of system interface and prime mover through three areas,
namely, selection of the drive, sizing the drive, and finally, evaluating the
performance of the drive and total system.
In selecting the feed drive, it is appropriate to ask the question, which
drive—electrical or hydraulic? In the process of selecting a drive, it is
worthwhile to classify the various types of feed drives. Electric drives can be
classified into three main types, namely, the DC drive, the pulse-width
modulation (PWM) DC drive, and the brushless DC drive. One of the most
popular drives has been the hydraulic drive. The greatest share of these
drives have been the servo-valve drives, because of the minimal trapped oil
volume and lower hydraulic resonance than in hydraulic servo pump drives.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 The electric and hydraulic drives have the greatest application for
servo drives. A natural question might be, why a servo drive at all? Some of
the reasons are:
1. A servo drive will be required for numerical control applications.
2. The servo drive will result in improved drive resolution.
3. Improved drive stiffness will be realized with servo drives,
eliminating the need for auxiliary clamps.
4. Positioning time will be greatly reduced.
5. Acceleration can be controlled with the servo drive.
6. The servo drive is easier to apply in different applications because
of its modular design.
Some historical background would be appropriate prior to discussing
specific comparisons in the selection process. In the post World War II era
machine feed servo drives were motor-generator electric drives such as the
Amplidyne, Rototrol, and Metadyne. On large machines, these drives were
limited in performance.
Advanced hydraulic drives using high torque-to-inertia ratio servo
motors and high-response servo valves quickly overshadowed the rotary
electric servo drive. The outstanding advantage of the hydraulic drive was its
higher performance, although it had other advantages such as a large motor
torque capacity in a small package. As the state of the art of numerical
control advanced, with its ever-increasing demands for feed drive
performance and accuracy, hydraulic drives seemed to fit the specifications
best. Improved hydraulic motors were developed, with less breakaway
torque and more uniform low-speed characteristics. In addition, servo
valves showed improved reliability in industrial environments. However, the
machine user was becoming dissatisfied with fluid maintenance and with the
noise problems associated with hydraulic drives.
One of the most frequent complaints from the user of hydraulic drives
was the noise problem. It grew to such magnitude that enforcement
standards were imposed on suppliers to reduce the noise level of hydraulic
servo systems. The Walsh–Healy Public Contracts Act, which became
effective May 20, 1969, established an upper limit on noise level as a
stimulus to noise abatement efforts. The noise problem was probably the
greatest deterrent to the use of hydraulic drives.
Despite these problems with hydraulic drives, the electric drives’
apparent lack of performance capability made them take a back seat for a
considerable time. With the appearance in the 1960s of the low-inertia
slotless-armature DC electric drive, however, it looked like electric drives
might be due for a revival. These motors had high torque, excellent low-
speed characteristics, and high performance. However, their high torque was

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 thermally limited to a 1-sec rating. Performance of the low-inertia drive
motors was comparative with their hydraulic counterparts.
After several years of evaluation throughout industry, it appeared that
the low-inertia DC motor had advantages for machine feed drive
applications that require high-performance situations, where many rapid
accelerations of low mass loads are the mode of operation. These motors
were used briefly on medium-size machines.
For the large machine, however, the low-inertia DC servo drives did
not provide sufficient feed thrust. The low-inertia DC motor also provided a
peak torque at high acceleration rates, which, if not compensated for, could
destroy the mechanical components of the feed drive. Therefore, controlled
acceleration had to be provided with these drives. Accordingly, it appeared
that a DC electric drive with ample torque capacity and less performance
than the low-inertia slotless-armature DC electric drive would better suit the
machine feed drive market. These motors were referred to as high-torque,
low-speed DC motors. Subsequently, during the 1970s and to the present,
the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) DC drive, the PWM DC drive, and the
brushless DC drive were introduced to the machine drive market.
With this revival of electric drives, making the proper choice for a
specific application required detailed knowledge about some of the more
important requisites of feed drives and about some of the significant
advances in drive motors, amplifiers, and control techniques. Such knowl-
edge can be obtained from a comparative study of a number of the newer
types of drive motors. They are compared here for rated torque, maximum
torque, inertia, acceleration characteristics, drive stiffness, and thrust
requirements.

6.2 PARAMETERS FOR MAKING APPLICATION

CHOICES
Rated torques for the drive motors are compared in Figure 1, which shows
the difference between several high-torque, low-speed DC and brushless DC
electric motors, and several hydraulic motors. The hydraulic motor torque
rating is limited by the hydraulic pressure, and these ratings are also
continuous. Electric motors have a continuous rating and a higher thermally
limited rating. In addition, the electric motors have an absolute maximum
rating, which is available for short-duration forcing torques needed in
acceleration and deceleration.
Relative inertias are compared in Figure 2. The low inertia is directly
related to the performances capabilities of drive motors. It is important to
note in Figure 3 that performance capabilities are modified as a load inertia

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Fig. 1 Torque characteristics comparison.

is connected to the drive motor. There is a varying reduction in performance

capability for a given load, as illustrated. The electric motors have two
performance limitations, electrical and mechanical, with the latter being
reduced with increased inertia load. Hydraulic drives also have a
performance limitation related to load inertia, which is referred to as the

Fig. 2 Inertia characteristics comparison.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Fig. 3 Loading effects.

hydraulic resonance. The reduction in performance with load, however, is

much more pronounced with the hydraulic motors. Therefore, the
advantage of high performance with the low-inertia drive motor can only
be realized if the motor does not see large reflected inertias at the rotor.
As performance improves, the acceleration capacity also increases.
Maximum motor acceleration is directly related to the performance and the
maximum velocity. Acceptable acceleration rates vary with the application.
Some machine builders limit the acceleration to 0.1 G (gravity) or 0.2 G,
which is equivalent to a rate of 2320 ipm/sec and 4640 ipm/sec, respectively.
If a large machine has a 100,000-lb load, for example, that is being
accelerated at 0.1 G or at the rate of 2320 ipm in 1 sec, it is not too difficult
to imagine the excessive forces involved. Therefore, feed drives must have
some form of controlled acceleration. For the soft servo with low gain and
extended error-control features, acceleration is limited. With the high-
performance, high-gain feed drives referred to as hard servos, the
acceleration must be limited through programming or control techniques.
A further requirement is that machine feed drives should have
sufficient static stiffness to be insensitive to load disturbances. In addition, a
feed drive in a numerical control system must remain stationary or clamped
when not in motion. Also, during the standstill period, the axis at rest must
resist the load disturbances caused by the reaction forces of the other axes.
Relative feed drive stiffnesses are compared in Figure 4, which represents
the relative amount of torque that will be developed at the machine drive

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Fig. 4 Drive stiffness comparison.

screw for a load disturbance on the drive screw resulting in an angular

deflection of 1 radian (rad). The presence of a high-gain tachometer minor
loop adds greatly to the drive stiffness, since the static stiffness is the
product of the position loop gain, the velocity loop gain, and the square of
the gear ratio when a gearbox is used.
A very important part of sizing a feed drive properly is selecting a
motor rating large enough to provide the required feed force. For drilling
applications, feed forces of 10,000 lb-force are not uncommon. With a
surface feed per minute (sfm) of 30, the suggested feed force should be
1000 lb per usable cutting horsepower.
The most frequent questions asked by the machine builder concerning
drives relate to the choice between hydraulic, DC SCR, DC PWM, or
brushless DC electric drives. With the new electric drive motors (DC or
brushless DC) it is possible to meet all the requirements of performance and
load with electric drives, provided sufficient engineering expertise is brought
to bear on the problem.
The important criteria in selecting the type of drive is the application
of the drive. There are a number of factors the system designer should
consider in selecting a drive. Drive motor size may be important. The
machine designer may object to the larger physical space requirements of the
electric motor. Weight can also play an important role in the selection of a
drive motor. Heavy drive motors could be a detrimental factor in the area of
machine structural dynamics. Hydraulic motors can operate at a maximum

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 torque continuously, whereas DC electric motors operated from SCR
amplifiers must be derated. In general, DC motors must be derated 60% of
their rating when used with full-wave, single SCR amplifiers, and 80% of
their rating with three-phase, half-wave SCR amplifiers. Brushless DC
motors can operate at their rated torque continuously. The DC SCR drive
has a 400% rating for forcing or acceleration, while the brushless DC drive
has an equivalent 200% rating.
Another consideration in selecting a drive is the effects of noise. There
are two kinds of noise to consider. While audible noise is generally
associated with hydraulic drives, electric noise is an important consideration
with PWM DC and brushless DC electric drives. Government regulations
have initiated an attack on audible noise pollution, and to meet and surpass
these requirements, quiet hydraulic power supplies are available. Electrical
noise can cause loss of operation and possible catastrophic failures with
digital control systems. Next to diathermy machines, the PWM DC and the
brushless DC amplifier are electrical noise generators of the worst kind, and
special isolation practices must be incorporated. Standards for the
installation of electrical control systems are available from the Institute of
Electrical and Electronic engineers (IEEE Std. 518-1982).
In addition to the power duration requirements for electric drives,
both types of drives have performance limitations. Hydraulic drive
performance is usually limited by the hydraulic resonance where the
resonance is a function of motor inertial load, motor size, and oil under
compression.
Electric drives using SCR amplifiers have an on–off timing function.
With SCR switching on and off, dead time exists in each cycle of AC power
where no power will be applied to the motor from each of the silicon
controlled rectifiers. The on–off switching function of the SCR amplifier is
referred to as the transport lag of the amplifier and adds phase shift to the
servo drive. In addition to the inertial time constant limitation of the DC
motor, the transport lag of the SCR amplifier will also limit the performance
of the DC drive to about 10 Hz on large machines. The brushless DC drive is
not limited by current switching and therefore has performance bandwidths
of about 30 Hz on large machines.
The DC SCR drive has a current and torque rating of about 400% for
the purpose of forcing (acceleration). The brushless DC drive and the
PWM-DC drive have an amplifier with transistors, which limits the overall
drive to about 200% of rated torque.
The second area under consideration is the sizing of the drive. Once
the drive has been selected, it is necessary to size the drive properly, and
criteria for sizing are based on the proper performance and feed thrust.
Sizing a drive requires the expertise of a system analyst; however, the

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 technology involved has been reduced to simple computerized programs to
be used by design engineers.
In summarizing, it would be appropriate to recap some of the more
significant points discussed. Today’s industrial machines should be
considered as a machine system comprised of a control, drive, and machine.
The selection of the type of servo drive should be based on the application.
Evaluation of the low-inertia slotless-armature DC motors proved
inadequate for industrial servo machine applications. Low-inertia brushless
DC motors (e.g., neodymium iron boron or samarium cobolt armatures)
have many industrial applications for high-performance applications where
it is recommended that the motor armature be matched to the reflected load
inertia through a ratio. For an inertia mismatch of up to about four to one
(reflected load inertia to motor armature), ceramic magnet armature motors
are recommended. Advances in the area of electric drives continue with
improvements in amplifiers and motors. The introduction of the insulated-
gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) to brushless DC drives and vector-controlled
AC drives has increased the torque capacity of these drives by about 50%.
New innovations will continue unabated.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved