Water Activity in Foods Page 1

Safefood 360° is the provider of food

safety management software for
industry leading businesses.

W H I T E PA P E R

Water Activity (aw) in Foods

CONTENTS SUMMARY

1. Introduction

2. The Structure of Water

3. Water In Foods

3.1 Water and Food Safety

3.2 Water Activity (aw)
3.3 Effects of Reduced aw on Food Safety
Water is the most abundant
3.4 To Reduce aw
constituent of food and in
terms of food safety the
4. Measure of Water Content and aw most significant. Its pres-
ence, quantity and nature
4.1 Relationship of Water Activity and Water determines many chemical
4.2 Analysis of Water Content and biochemical processes
important for the control of
4.3 Analysis of Water Activity
product safety and quality.
4.4 Water Activity as a CCP
A better understanding of
water activity aw can assist
in developing robust and
scientifically supported food
safety plans.

Safefood 360, Inc. 2014 Part of Our Professional Whitepapers Series

Water Activity in Foods Page 2

1. Introduction At standard temperature and pressure

water is a liquid. It is also tasteless and
Water is the most abundant constituent odorless. The molecule itself is non-linear
of food and in terms of food safety the and polar with an electrical dipole
most significant. Its presence, quantity movement. It is a good polar solvent and
and nature determines many chemical and is typically referred to as the universal
biochemical processes important for the solvent.
control of product safety and quality.
Hydrophilic (water-loving) substances
In many HACCP plans, water is frequently dissolve readily while hydrophobic (water-
referred to as an intrinsic parameter fearing) substances are immiscible. At
required in product safety and while most standard temperature and pressure the
of us understand its importance we often boiling point of water is 100 °C (212 °F).
fail to understand the reasons why. A
better understanding of water, and in The density of liquid water is 1,000 kg/m3
particular water activity (aw), can assist (62.43 lb/cu ft) at 4 °C. Ice has a density of
in developing robust and scientifically 917 kg/m3 (57.25 lb/cu ft).
supported food safety plans.
3. Water In Foods
Water in food is an important parameter
2. The Structure of Water
in the field of food science and safety. Due
The chemical structure of water is H2O. It to its unique role in various chemical and
does not exist in an absolutely pure form biochemical reactions in a food matrix an
in nature due to its chemical properties. understanding of water is crucial.
One molecule of water is composed of two
3.1 Water and Food Safety
hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a
single oxygen atom. It commonly occurs
One of the oldest forms of preserving foods
in all three states, i.e. liquid, solid and gas.
is drying or desiccation. When first applied
there was little understanding of why
removing moisture from food had the effect
of extending its shelf life.

The table on the following page shows

the typical water content of certain food
product and categories:

Safefood 360, Inc. 2014 Part of Our Professional Whitepapers Series

Water Activity in Foods Page 3

Food % Water Food % Water

Lettuce, tomatoes 95 Cabbage, broccoli 92
Carrots, potatoes 90 Citrus fruit 87
Apples, cherries 85 Raw poultry 72
Raw lean meat 60 Cheese 37
White bread 35 Salami 30
Preserves 28 Honey 20
Dried fruit 18 Butter 18
Wheat flour 12 Dried pasta 12
Milk powder 4 Beer 90
Fruit juices 87 Milk 87

Over time, an understanding emerged and To understand this more fully, we must
today we have a solid scientific recognise that much of the water in food
understanding of how water impacts on is bound water, i.e. bound to ions as water
product quality and safety. We now know of hydration, or bound to surfaces of large
that the water content is less important molecule or cell structures. This water is
than the specific behaviour of the water or not free to support microbial growth, or
Water Activity. Water activity is related to to participate in or support chemical or
water content in a non-linear relationship enzyme reactions and spoilage processes.
which is represented using as a moisture The total amount of bound water in a food
sorption isotherm curve. has no relation to food stability.

3.2 Water Activity (aw) The free or available water in a food

supports microbial growth, and
This is the most important parameter participates in and supports chemical and
of water in terms of food safety. Water enzymatic reactions and spoilage processes.
activity or aw is the partial vapor pressure It is this amount of free water which is
of water in a substance divided by the called water activity, aw, and it is more
standard state partial vapor pressure of important for food stability, chemical and
water. microbial, than total water content.

In the field of food science, the standard The factors that reduce the mobility of
state is most often defined as the partial water in a food also reduce its tendency
vapor pressure of pure water at the to evaporate and its vapour pressure and
same temperature. Using this particular this provides a means of defining and
definition, pure distilled water has a water measuring it.
activity of exactly one.

Safefood 360, Inc. 2014 Part of Our Professional Whitepapers Series

Water Activity in Foods Page 4

Therefore, we can generally define Water Another chemical reaction effect is

Activity (aw) as an indication of the amount Maillard Browning which is maximum at
of Free Water in a food. 0.6-0.7. Most enzymes are inactivated at
<0.85. At less than 0.75 bacterial growth
Specifically Water Activity (aw) is: is inhibited but some yeast and moulds
may grow. At less than 0.6 all growth is
= Actual Equilibrium v.p. of air-space
inhibited. In terms of nutrients, reduced
over the food
aw reduces losses of Vitamins C, E, B1.
The following table indicates the aw of
Equilibrium v.p. of pure water at
certain foods.
same temperature
Food Typical aw
Alternatively we can define it using Fresh meat 0.98
Relative Humidity (RH): Cheese 0.97
Preserves 0.88
= Actual v.p. water vapour in air x 100 Salami 0.83
Dried fruit 0.76
Equilibrium v.p. of Pure Water at
Honey 0.75
Same Temperature
Pasta 0.50

Water Activity
Table: Water activity values of foods
= Relative Humidity of Airspace
In general, bacteria require higher
Over the Food / 100
values of aw for growth than fungi, with
The ideal solution may be written as : gram-negative bacteria having higher
requirements than gram-positive.
Aw = P = %ERH
Organism group aw
Po 100
Most spoilage bacteria 0.90
Most spoilage yeasts 0.88

3.3 Effects of Reduced aw Most spoilage moulds 0.80

on Food Safety Halophilic bacteria 0.75

Xerophilic moulds 0.61
The rate of certain chemical and Osmophilic yeasts 0.61
biochemical processes are effected by the
amount of available water. One of the
effects of reducing the aw in a food product Table (above): Minimum aw values for
is to reduce the rate of these reactions. The growth of microorganism groups in food
exception is the oxidation of fats where
Table: Minimum aw values for growth of
the rate decreases down to 0.4 to 0.5, then
specific microorganisms in food
increases.

Safefood 360, Inc. 2014 Part of Our Professional Whitepapers Series

Water Activity in Foods Page 5

Organism aw Organism aw
Clostridium botulinum, type E 0.97 Candida scottii 0.92
Pseudomonas spp. 0.97 Trichosporon pullulans 0.91
Acinetobacter spp. 0.96 Candida zaylanoides 0.90
Escherichia coli 0.96 Staphylococcus aureus 0.86
Enterobacter aerogenes 0.95 Alternaria citri 0.84
Bacillus subtilis 0.95 Penicillium patulum 0.81
Clostridium botulinum, types A and B 0.94 Aspergillus conicus 0.70
Candida utilis 0.94 Aspergillus echinulatus 0.64
Vibro parahaemolyticus 0.94 Zygosaccharomyces rouxii 0.62
Botrytis stolonifer 0.93
Rhizopus stolonifer 0.93
Mucor spinosus 0.93

3.4 To Reduce aw For example, where a product is sold by

weight, controlling its water content may
Reducing the aw of a food product may be be important to meet legal and commercial
achieved through a number of methods. requirements. Water activity is more
The most obvious is by partial removal of significant for qualitative considerations
water in the food product using a variety such as product stability, shelf life (e.g.
of unit operations or processes. The microbiological & enzymatic stability,
concentration of water can also be reduced aroma retention), handling characteristics,
by the addition of other substances physical properties and chemical stability.
including salt and sugar. Many of these
methods have been used long before the Water activity and water content can
concept of water activity was understood. be related by a graph called a Sorption
Isotherm (see diagram), so if the user
has the ability to measure both
4. Measure of Water Content parameters, the relationship can be
and aw defined and each parameter derived
from the other (interpolation).
4.1 Relationship between Water
Activity and Water In practice, the sorption isotherm may be
impractical to use because, not only does
There is often confusion between water the relationship between Aw and moisture
activity and water content measurements. content change with temperature of
In many sectors, water content is used to measurement, but also any variations in
control the amount of water present in a the material composition has a modifying
product for quantitative reasons. effect.

Safefood 360, Inc. 2014 Part of Our Professional Whitepapers Series

Water Activity in Foods Page 6

The company should therefore decide that show erratic results when heated or
which parameter of measurement is best subjected to vacuum, e.g., low moisture
suited to their products and processes. For foods such as dried fruits and vegetables,
quality control purposes, moisture content candies, chocolates, roasted coffee, oils and
limits are easily converted to water activity fats or any low moisture foods rich in sugar
limits by very simple comparative tests. or protein. The method is based on the
Water activity measurement offers a non- fundamental reaction described by Bunsen
destructive, easy-to-use measurement in a in 1853 involving the reduction of Iodine
wide range of convenient configurations for by SO2 in the presence of water.
both laboratory and on-site use.
2H2O + SO2 + I2 → C5H2SO4 + 2HI
Picture: Sorption Isotherm
This was modified to include methanol and
pyridine in a four component system to
dissolve the Iodine and SO2. For each
mole of water, 1 mole of iodine, 1 mole of
SO2, 3 moles of pyridine, and 1 mole of
methanol are used.

In the titration, if a sample containing

water is titrated with a KF reagent, iodine
4.2 Analysis of Water Content is consumed while there is water in the
system. When no water remains then free
Gravimetric Method iodine appears and can be detected using
two platinum electrodes immersed in the
Water content may be measured in food solution being titrated.
using a number of methods. The most basic
of these are gravimetric methods. This As water is titrated, the voltage of the
involves drying a known quantity of the electrodes approaches virtually zero. And
food product in an oven until all moisture where there is an excess of iodine (all the
has been evaporated. By measuring the dry water has been consumed) a current can be
matter content remaining, the water measured.
content can be determined. A vacuum oven
can be used for heat sensitive foods. 4.3 Analysis of Water Activity

Karl Fisher Titration A number of methods can be employed to

measure the water activity including a
A more sophisticated method for the resistive electrolytic, a capacitance or a dew
analysis of water content is the Karl Fisher point hygrometer.
Titration. The Karl Fisher titration is
particularly adaptable to food products

Safefood 360, Inc. 2014 Part of Our Professional Whitepapers Series

Water Activity in Foods Page 7

Resistive electrolytic hygrometers Capacitance hygrometers

Resistive electrolytic hygrometers Capacitance hygrometers consist of two

use a sensing element in the form of a charged plates separated by a polymer
liquid electrolyte held between two small membrane dielectric. As the membrane
glass rods by capillary force. The adsorbs water, its ability to hold a charge
electrolyte changes resistance if it absorbs increases and the capacitance is measured.
or loses water vapor.
This value is roughly proportional to
The resistance is directly proportional to the water activity as determined by a
relative air humidity, and also to the sensor-specific calibration. Capacitance
water activity of the sample (once vapor– hygrometers are not affected by most
liquid equilibrium is established). This volatile chemicals and can be much smaller
relationship can be checked by either a than other alternative sensors.
verification or calibration using salt-
water mixtures, which provide a well- They do not require cleaning, but are less
defined and reproducible air humidity in accurate than dew point hygrometers
the measurement chamber. (+/- 0.015 aw). They should have regular
calibration checks and can be affected by
The sensor does not have any physically residual water in the polymer membrane
given hysteresis as it is known from (hysteresis).
capacitance hygrometers and sensors,
and does not require regular cleaning as Dew point hygrometers
its surface is not the effectively sensing
The temperature at which dew forms on a
element.
clean surface is directly related to the vapor
Volatiles, in principle, influence the pressure of the air. Dew point hygrometers
measurement performance—especially work by placing a mirror over a closed
those that dissociate in the electrolyte sample chamber.
and thereby change its resistance. Such
The mirror is cooled until the dew point
influences can easily be avoided by using
temperature is measured by means of an
chemical protection filters that absorb the
optical sensor. This temperature is then
volatile compound before arriving at the
used to find the relative humidity of the
sensor.
chamber using psychrometrics charts.

This method is theoretically the most

accurate (+/- 0.003 aw) and often the
fastest. The sensor requires cleaning if
debris accumulates on the mirror.

Safefood 360, Inc. 2014 Part of Our Professional Whitepapers Series

Water Activity in Foods Page 8

4.4 Water Activity as a CCP In some cases it may be a legal

requirement e.g. FDA Regulations.
Water activity is frequently used as a However, it is important to know that
critical control point for Hazard Analysis lowering of the water activity of a food
and Critical Control Points (HACCP) product is not in itself a lethal kill step
programs. Samples of the food product can since some pathogens can survive.
be tested to ensure water activity values
are within a specified range for food quality Where it is used as a CCP or a specific
and safety. control point it should be based on full
validation of the product and process with
Measurements can be made in as little as clear limits.
five minutes, and are made regularly in
most major food production facilities.

Have you thought about updating your

food safety management system?

Safefood 360° contains all Our software offers you full

elements of a robust food safety alignment with the following
management system in one, standards and regulations among
intuitive solution others

• HACCP-planning • SQF

• Management tools • BRC Series

• PRP control • IFS Series

• Supply chain management • ISO / FSSC 22 000

• Monitoring programs • GlobalGAP

• Document control • FSMA

• Reporting • USDA Regulations

• EU Legislations

Safefood 360, Inc. 2014 Part of Our Professional Whitepapers Series

Water Activity in Foods Page 9

Safefood 360° Brings It All Together™

www.safefood360.com

Safefood 360, Inc. 2014 Part of Our Professional Whitepapers Series