Inferential Statistics

UNIT 4 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Arrangement of Data
4.2.1 Simple Array
4.2.2 Discrete Frequency Distribution
4.2.3 Grouped Frequency Distribution
4.2.4 Types of Grouped Frequency Distributions
4.3 Tabulation of Data
4.3.1 Components of a Statistical Table
4.3.2 General Rules for Preparing Table
4.3.3 Importance of Tabulation
4.4 Graphical Presentation of Data
4.4.1 Histogram
4.4.2 Frequency Polygon
4.4.3 Frequency Curves
4.4.4 Cumulative Frequency Curves or Ogives
4.4.5 Misuse of Graphical Presentations
4.5 Diagrammatic Presentation of Data
4.5.1 Bar Diagram
4.5.2 Sub-divided Bar Diagram
4.5.3 Multiple Bar Diagram
4.5.4 Pie Diagram
4.5.5 Pictograms
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Unit End Questions
4.8 Glossary
4.9 Suggested Readings

4.0 INTRODUCTION
Data collected either from Primary or Secondary source need to be systemetically
presented as these are invariably in unsystematic or rudimentary form. Such raw
data fail to reveal any meaningful information. The data should be rearranged
and classified in a suitable manner to understand the trend and message of the
collected information. This unit therefore, deals with the method of getting the
data organised in all respects in a tabular form or in graphical presentation.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the methods of organising and condensing statistical data;
43
Introduction to Statistics  Define the concepts of frequency distribution and state its various types;
 Analyse the different methods of presenting the statistical data;
 Explain how to draw tables and graphs diagrams, pictograms etc; and
 describe the uses and misuses of graphical techniques.

4.2 ARRANGEMENT OF DATA

After data collection, you may face the problem of arranging them into a format
from which you will be able to draw some conclusions. The arrangement of
these data in different groups on the basis of some similarities is known as
classification. According to Tuttle, “ A classification is a scheme for breaking a
category into a set of parts, called classes, according to some precisely defined
differing characteristics possessed by all the elements of the category”
Thus classification, is the process of grouping data into sequences according to
their common characteristics, which separate them into different but related parts.
Such classification facilitates analysis of the data and consequently prepares a
foundation for absolute interpretation of the obtained scores. The prime objective
of the classification of data is concerned with reducing complexities with raw
scores by grouping them into some classes. This will provides a comprehensive
insight into the data.
The classification procedure in statistics enables the investigators to manage the
raw scores in such a way that they can proceed with ease in a systematic and
scientific manner. There are different ways of organising and presenting the raw
data. Let us discuss one by one.

4.2.1 Simple Array

The simple array is one of the simplest ways to present data. It is an arrangement
of given raw data in ascending or descending order. In ascending order the scores
are arranged in increasing order of their magnitude. For example, numbers
2,4,7,8,9,12, are arranged in ascending order. In descending order the scores are
arranged in decreasing order of their magnitude. For example, numbers 12, 9, 8,
7, 4,2, are arranged in descending order. Simple array has several advantages as
well as disadvantages over raw data. Using Simple array, we can easily point out
the lowest and highest values in the data and the entire data can be easily divided
into different sections. Repetition of the values can be easily checked, and distance
between succeeding values in the data can be observed on the first look. But
sometimes a data array is not very helpful because it lists every observation in
the array. It is cumbersome for displaying large quantities of data.

4.2.2 Discrete Frequency Distribution

Here different observations are not written as in simple array. Here we count the
number of times any observation appears which is known as frequency. The
literary meaning of frequency is the number or occurrence of a particular event/
score in a set of sample. According to Chaplin (1975) “frequency distribution
shows the number of cases falling within a given class interval or range of scores.”
A frequency distribution is a table that organises data into classes, i.e., into groups
of values describing one characteristic of the data. It shows the number of
observations from the data set that fall into each of the classes. An example is
44 presented in the table below.
Table 4.1: Frequency distribution of persons in small scale industry Frequency Distribution and
Graphical Presentation
according to their wages per month.
Wages per month (Rs.) 500 550 700 750
No. of Persons 21 25 18 20
When the number of observations is large , the counting of frequency is often
done with the help of tally bars vertical strokes (I). A bunch of four marks is
crossed by fifth to make counting simpler (IIII)
Table 4.2: Frequency distribution of number of persons and their wages per
month
Wages per month (Rs.) Tally Sheet Frequency
500 IIII IIII IIII IIII I 21
550 IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII 25
700 IIII IIII IIII III 18
750 IIII IIII IIII IIII 20
Total 84

4.2.3 Grouped Frequency Distribution

The quantitative phenomena under study is termed as Variable. Variables are of
two kinds : (i) continuous variable, and (ii) discrete variable. Those variables
which can take all the possible values in a given specified range are termed as
Continuous variable. For example, age ( it can be measured in years, months,
days, hours, minutes , seconds etc.) , weight (lbs), height(in cms), etc.

On the other hand, those variables which cannot take all the possible values
within the given specified range, are termed as discrete variables. For example,
number of children, marks obtained in an examination ( out of 200), etc.

To prepare a grouped frequency distribution, first we decide the range of the

given data, i.e., the difference between the highest and lowest scores. This will
tell about the range of the scores. Prior to the construction of any grouped
frequency distribution, it is important to decide following things:
1) What would be the number of class intervals ?
2) What would be the limits of each class interval ?
3) How would the class limits be designated ?
1) What would be the number of class intervals? There is no specific rules
regarding the number of classes into which data should be grouped.
If there are very few scores, it is useless to have a large number of class-
intervals. Ordinarily, the number of classes should be between 5 to 30. The
number of classes would also depend on the number of observations. The
larger the number of observations, the more will be the classes. With less
number of classes accuracy is lost and with more number, the computation
becomes tiresome.
Usually the formula to determine the number of classes is given by
Number of classes = 1 + 3.322 × log10 N
45
Introduction to Statistics Where N is the total number of observations.
In this example scores of 30 students are given below. Let us prepare the
frequency distribution by using exclusive method of classification.
3, 30, 14, 30, 27, 11, 25, 16, 18, 33, 49, 35, 18, 10, 25, 20, 14, 18, 9, 39, 14,
29, 20, 25, 29, 15, 22, 20, 29, 29
In above example of raw data of 30 students, the number of classes can be
calculated as under :
Number of Classes = 1+ 3.322× log10 (30) = 1+3.322× 1.4771= 1+4.9069262
1+ 5 = 6

2) What would be the limits of each class interval ? Another factor used in
determining the number of classes is the size/ width or range of the class
which is known as ‘class interval’ and is denoted by ‘i’. Class interval should
be of uniform width resulting in the same-size classes of frequency
distribution. The width of the class should be a whole number and
conveniently divisible by 2, 3, 5, 10, or 20.
The width of a class interval (i) = Largest Observation(OL – OS) / I (class interval)
After deciding the class interval, the range of scores should be decided by
subtracting the highest value to the lowest value of the data array.
Now, the next step is to decide from where the class should be started. There are
three methods for describing the class limits for distribution
 Exclusive method
 Inclusive method
 True or actual class method
Exclusive method: In this method of class formation, the classes are so formed
that the upper limit of one class also becomes the lower limit of the next class.
Exclusive method of classification ensures continuity between two successive
classes. In this classification, it is presumed that score equal to the upper limit of
the class is exclusive, i.e., a score of 40 will be included in the class of 40 to 50
and not in a class of 30 to 40.
Finally we count the number of scores falling in each class and record the
appropriate number in frequency column. The number of scores falling in each
class is termed as class frequency. Tally bar is used to count these frequencies.
Example: Scores of 30 students are given below. Prepare the frequency
distribution by using exclusive method of classification.
3, 30, 14, 30, 27, 11, 25, 16, 18, 33, 49, 35, 18, 10, 25, 20, 14, 18, 9, 39, 14, 29,
20, 25, 29, 15, 22, 20, 29, 29
The above ungrouped data do not provide any useful information about
observations rather it is difficult to understand.
Solution:
Step 1: First of all arrange the raw scores in ascending order of their magnitude.
3,9,10,11,14,14,14,15,16,18,18,18,20,20,20,22,25,25,25,27,29,29,29,29,30,30,33,35,39,49
Step 2: Determine the range of scores by adding 1 to the difference between
46
 largest and smallest scores in the data array. For above array of data it Frequency Distribution and
Graphical Presentation
is 49–3 = 46+1= 47.
Step 3: Decide the number of classes. Say 5 for present array of data.
Step 4: To decide the approximate size of class interval, divide the range with
the decided number of classes (5 for this example) . If the quotient is in
fraction, accept the next integer. For examples, 47/5 = 9.4. Take it as
10
Step 5: Find the lower class-limit of the lowest class interval and add the width
of the class interval to get the upper class-limit. (e.g. 3 – 12)
Step 6: Find the class-limits for the remaining classes.(13-22), (23-32), (33-
42), (43-52)
Step 7: Pick up each item from the data array and put the tally mark (I) against
the class to which it belongs. Tallies are to mark in bunch of five, four
times in vertical and fifth in cross-tally on the first four. Count the
number of observations, i.e., frequency in each class. (an example is
given)
Table 4.3: Representation of preparing class-interval by marking the tallies
for data frequencies in the exclusive method.
Class Interval Tallies Frequency
40-50 I 1
30-40 IIII I 6
20-30 IIII IIII I 11
10-20 IIII IIII 10
0-10 II 2
30
Note: The tallying of the observations in frequency distribution may be checked
out for any omitted or duplicated one that the sum of the frequencies should
equal to the total number of scores in the array.

Inclusive method: In this method classification includes scores, which are equal
to the upper limit of the class. Inclusive method is preferred when measurements
are given in the whole numbers. Above example may be presented in the following
form by using inclusive method of classification.(Refer to table below)

Table 4.4: An illustration of preparing the class interval by marking the

tallies for data frequencies in an inclusive method.
Class Interval Tallies Frequency
40-49 I 1
30-39 IIII I 6
20-29 IIII IIII I 11
10-19 IIII IIII 10
0-9 II 2
30 47
Introduction to Statistics True or Actual class method: In inclusive method upper class limit is not equal
to lower class limit of the next class. Therefore, there is no continuity between
the classes. However, in many statistical measures continuous classes are required.
To have continuous classes, it is assumed that an observation or score does not
just represent a point on a continuous scale but an internal of unit length of
which the given score is the middle point. Thus, mathematically, a score is internal
when it extends from 0.5 units below to 0.5 units above the face value of the
score on a continuum. These class limits are known as true or actual class limits.

Table 4.5: A representation of preparing the class interval in an exact method.

Exclusive Method Inclusive Method True or Exact Method
70-80 70-79 69.5-79.5
60-70 60-69 59.5-69.5
50-60 50-59 49.5-59.5
40-50 40-49 39.5-49.5
30-40 30-39 29.5-39.5
20-30 20-29 19.5-29.5

4.2.4 Types of Grouped Frequency Distributions

There are various ways to arrange frequencies of a data array based on the
requirement of the statistical analysis or the study. A few of them are discussed
below.
i) Open End Frequency Distribution: Open end frequency distribution is
one which has at least one of its ends open. Either the lower limit of the first
class or upper limit of the last class or both are not specified. Example of
such frequency distribution is given in Table below.
Table 4.6: Open end class frequency
Class Frequency
Below 10 5
10- 20 7
20-30 10
30 -40 9
40-50 4

ii) Relative frequency distribution: A relative frequency distribution is a

distribution that indicates the proportion of the total number of cases observed
at each score value or internal of score values.
iii) Cumulative frequency distribution: Sometimes investigator is interested
to know the number of observations less than a particular value. This is
possible by computing the cumulative frequency. A cumulative frequency
corresponding to a class-interval is the sum of frequencies for that class and
of all classes prior to that class.
iv) Cumulative relative frequency distribution: A cumulative relative
frequency distribution is one in which the entry of any score of class-interval
48
 expresses that score’s cumulative frequency as a proportion of the total Frequency Distribution and
Graphical Presentation
number of cases. The following table 4.7 shows frequency distributions for
ability scores of 100 students.
Table 4.7: A representation of different kinds of frequency distributions
Class Frequency Relative Cumulative Cum. Relative
Interval Frequency Frequency Frequency
95-99 5 .05 100 1.00
90-94 3 .03 95 .95
85-89 7 .07 92 .92
80-84 4 .04 85 .85
75-79 4 .04 81 .81
70-74 7 .07 77 .77
65-69 9 .09 70 .70
60-64 8 .08 61 .61
55-59 4 .04 53 .53
50-54 9 .09 49 .49
45-49 13 .13 40 .40
40-44 12 .12 27 .27
35-39 5 .05 15 .15
30-34 10 .10 10 .10
100 1.00

Self Assessment Questions

1) In exclusive series
i) both the class limits are considered
ii) the lower limit is excluded
iii) both the limits are excluded
iv) the upper limit is excluded
2) For discrete variable, more appropriate class intervals are:
i) Exclusive ii) Inclusive iii) both
3) When both the lower and upper limits are considered , such classes are
called:
i) exclusive ii) inclusive iii) cumulative
4) In “less than” cumulative frequency distribution, the omitted limit is
i) lower ii) upper iii) last iv) none of these

4.3 TABULATION OF DATA

Tabulation is the process of presenting the classified data in the form of a table.
A tabular presentation of data becomes more intelligible and fit for further 49
Introduction to Statistics statistical analysis. A table is a systematic arrangement of classified data in row
and columns with appropriate headings and sub-headings.

4.3.1 Components of a Statistical Table

The main components of a table are given below:

Table number: When there are more than one tables in a particular analysis, a
table should be marked with a number for their reference and identification. The
number should be written in the center at the top of the table.

Title of the table: Every table should have an appropriate title, which describes
the content of the table. The title should be clear, brief, and self-explanatory.
Title of the table should be placed either centrally on the top of the table or just
below or after the table number.

Caption: Captions are brief and self-explanatory headings for columns. Captions
may involve headings and sub-headings. The captions should be placed in the
middle of the columns. For example, we can divide students of a class into males
and females, rural and urban, high SES and Low SES etc.

Stub: Stubs stand for brief and self-explanatory headings for rows. A relatively
more important classification is given in rows. Stub consist of two parts : (i)
Stub head : It describes the nature of stub entry (ii) Stub entry : It is the description
of row entries.

Body of the table: This is the real table and contains numerical information or
data in different cells. This arrangement of data remains according to the
description of captions and stubs.

Head note: This is written at the extreme right hand below the title and explains
the unit of the measurements used in the body of the tables.

Footnote: This is a qualifying statement which is to be written below the table

explaining certain points related to the data which have not been covered in title,
caption, and stubs.

Source of data : The source from which data have been taken is to be mentioned
at the end of the table. Reference of the source must be complete so that if the
potential reader wants to consult the original source they may do so.

4.3.2 General Rules for Preparing a Table

There are no hardcore rules for preparing a table. But tabulation requires a lot of
skills and common sense of the researcher. Though specific rules have not been
provided for tabulation, some general rules are in fashion/ tradition. They are as
follows:
– Table should be compact and readily comprehensible being complete and
self-explanatory.
– It should be free from confusion.
– It should be arranged in a given space. It should neither be too small or too
large.

50
– Items in the table should be placed logically and related items should be Frequency Distribution and
Graphical Presentation
placed nearby.
– All items should be clearly stated.
– If item is repeated in the table, its full form should be written.
– The unit of measurement should be explicitly mentioned preferably in the
form of a head note.
– The rules of forming a table is diagrammatically presented in the table below.
TITLE
Stub Head Caption
Stub Entries Column Head I Column Head II
Sub Head Sub Head Sub Head Sub Head

MAIN BODY OF THE TABLE

Total
Footnote(s) :
Source :

4.3.3 Importance of Tabulation

Tabulation is the process of condensation of data for convenience in statistical
processing, presentation and interpretation of the information combined therein.
Importance of tabulation is given below.

It simplifies complex data: If data are presented in tabular form, these can be
readily understood. Confusions are avoided while going through the data for
further analysis or drawing the conclusions about the observation.

It facilitates comparison: Data in the statistical table are arranged in rows and
columns very systematically. Such an arrangement enables you to compare the
information in an easy and comprehensive manner.

Tabulation presents the data in true perspective: With the help of tabulation, the
repetitions can be dropped out and data can be presented in true perspective
highlighting the relevant information.

Figures can be worked-out more easily: Tabulation also facilitates further analysis
and finalization of figures for understanding the data.
Self Assessment Questions
1) What points are to be kept in mind while taking decision for preparing
a frequency distribution in respect of (a) the number of classes and (b)
width of class interval.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
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Introduction to Statistics
2) Differentiate between following pairs of statistical terms
i) Column and row entry
ii) Caption and stub head
iii) Head note and foot note
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3) State briefly the importance of tabulation in statistical analysis.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

4.4 GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

The frequency distribution in itself again provides a somewhat rough picture of
observations. The viewers remain unable to locate the contour of the actual spread
of score distributed among different classes. Through frequency distribution it is
not possible to have a physical image of the scores of a sample and it merely
reflects the counts among the classes. To elaborate the data array after constructing
the frequency distribution, it is scientific tradition to plot the frequencies on a
pictorial platform formed of horizontal and vertical lines, known as ‘graph’. The
graphs are also known as polygon, chart or diagram. A graph is created on two
mutually perpendicular lines called the X and Y–axes on which appropriate scales
are indicated. The horizontal line is called abscissa and the vertical ordinate.
Like different kinds of frequency distributions, there are many kinds of graph
too, which enhance the scientific understanding to the reader. The commonly
used among these are bar graphs, line graphs, pie, pictographs, etc. Here we will
discuss some of the important types of graphical patterns used in statistics.

4.4.1 Histogram
It is one of the most popular method for presenting continuous frequency
distribution in a form of graph. In this type of distribution the upper limit of a
class is the lower limit of the following class. The histogram consists of series of
rectangles, with its width equal to the class interval of the variable on horizontal
axis and the corresponding frequency on the vertical axis as its heights. The
steps in constructing a histogram are as follows:
Step 1: Construct a frequency distribution in table form.
Step2: Before drawing axes, decide on a suitable scale for horizontal axis
then determine the number of squares ( on the graph paper) required
for the width of the graph.
52
Step 3: Draw bars equal width for each class interval. The height of a bar Frequency Distribution and
Graphical Presentation
corresponds to the frequency in that particular interval . The edge of a
bar represents both the upper real limit for one interval and the lower
real limit for the next higher interval.
Step 4: Identify class intervals along the horizontal axis by using either real
limit or midpoint of class interval. In case of real limits, these will be
placed under the edge of each bar. On the other hand , if you use midpoint
of class interval, it will be placed under the middle of each bar.
Step 5: Label both axes and decide appropriate title to the histogram.
Table 4.8: Results of 200 students on Academic achievement test.
Class Interval Frequency
10- 20 12
20- 30 10
30- 40 35
40- 50 55
50- 60 45
60- 70 25
70- 80 18
Let us take a simple example to demonstrate the construction of histogram based
on the above data.

60.00

50.00

40.00
Frequency

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Achievement Scores
Fig. 4.1: Histogram
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Introduction to Statistics
4.4.2 Frequency Polygon
Prepare an abscissa originating from ‘O’ and ending to ‘X’. Again construct the
ordinate starting from ‘O’ and ending at ‘Y’. Now label the class-intervals on
abscissa stating the exact limits or midpoints of the class-intervals. There is also
a fashion to add one extra limit keeping zero frequency on both side of the class-
interval range. The size of measurement of small squares on graph paper depends
upon the number of classes to be plotted. Next step is to plot the frequencies on
ordinate using the most comfortable measurement of small squares depending
on the range of whole distribution. To obtain an impressive visual figure it is
recommended to use the 3:4 ratio of ordinate and abscissa though there is no
tough rules in this regard. To plot a frequency polygon you have to mark each
frequency against its concerned class on the height of its respective ordinate.
After putting all frequency marks a draw a line joining. This is the polygon. A
polygon is a multi-sided figure and various considerations are to be maintained
to get a smooth polygon in case of smaller N or random frequency distribution.
The very common way is to compute the smoothed frequencies of the classes by
having the average of frequencies of that particular class along with upper and
lower classes’ frequencies. For instance, the frequency 4 of class-interval 75-79
might be smoothed as 6+4+5 /3 = 5.

The frequency polygon of data given in Table 4.8 in graph

60 

50 

40
Frequency

30 
 
20

10

0  
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Achievement Scores

Fig.4.2: Frequency polygon

4.4.3 Frequency Curve

A frequency curve is a smooth free hand curve drawn through frequency polygon.
The objective of smoothing of the frequency polygon is to eliminate as far as
possible the random or erratic fluctuations present in the data.

Frequency curve is shown in Fig.4.2 based on data presented in Table 4.8

54
4.4.4 Cumulative Frequency Curve or Ogive Frequency Distribution and
Graphical Presentation
The graph of a cumulative frequency distribution is known as cumulative
frequency curve or ogive. Since there are two types of cumulative frequency
distribution e.g., “ less than” and “ more than” cumulative frequencies, we can
have two types of ogives.
i) ‘Less than’ Ogive: In ‘less than’ ogive , the less than cumulative frequencies
are plotted against the upper class boundaries of the respective classes. It is
an increasing curve having slopes upwards from left to right.
ii) ‘More than’ Ogive: In more than ogive , the more than cumulative frequencies
are plotted against the lower class boundaries of the respective classes. It is
decreasing curve and slopes downwards from left to right.
Example of ‘Less than’ and ‘more than’ cumulative frequencies based on data
reported in table
Class Interval Frequency Less than c.f. More than c.f.
10-20 12 12 200
20- 30 10 22 188
30- 40 35 57 178
40- 50 55 112 143
50- 60 45 157 88
60- 70 25 182 43
70- 80 18 200 18
The ogives for the cumulative frequency distributions given in above table are
drawn in Fig. 4.3

200 More than

Cumulative Frequency

175
150
Less than
125
100
75
50
25
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Achievement Score

Fig. 4.3: ‘Less than’ and ‘more than’ type ogives

55
Introduction to Statistics 4.4.5 Misuse of Graphical Presentations
It is possible to mislead the observer or reader in a pictorial data presentation by
manipulating the vertical (ordinate or Y-axis) and horizontal (abscissa or X-axis)
lines of a graph. Elimination of zero frequency on ordinate difference among
bars or ups and downs in a curve line can be highlighted in a desired way distorting
the real findings of the study. Hence, utmost care should be taken while presenting
the findings graphically.

4.5 DIAGRAMMATIC PRESENTATIONS OF DATA

A diagram is a visual form for the presentation of statistical data. They present the
data in simple , readily comprehensible form. Diagrammatic presentation is used
only for presentation of the data in visual form, whereas graphic presentation of the
data can be used for further analysis. There are different forms of diagram e.g., Bar
diagram, Sub-divided bar diagram, Multiple bar diagram, Pie diagram and Pictogram.

4.5.1 Bar Diagram

This is known as dimensional diagram also. Bar diagram is most useful for
categorical data. A bar is defined as a thick line. Bar diagram is drawn from the
frequency distribution table representing the variable on the horizontal axis and
the frequency on the vertical axis. The height of each bar will be corresponding
to the frequency or value of the variable. However , width of the rectangles is
immaterial but proper and uniform spacing should be between different bars. It
is different from the histogram when both the height and width of tha bar are
important and even bars are placed adjacent to one another without any gap.
Example: In a study on causes of strikes in mills. Hypothetical data are given below.
Causes of strikes : Economic Personal Political Rivalry Others
Occurrence of strikes: 45 13 25 7 10
Let us take the above example to demonstrate the construction of a bar diagram.
Occurrences

56 Fig. 4.4: Bar diagram

4.5.2 Sub- divided Bar Diagram Frequency Distribution and
Graphical Presentation
Study of sub classification of a phenomenon can be done by using sub-divided
bar digram. Corresponding to each sub-category of the data, the bar is divided
and shaded. There will be as many shades as there will sub portion in a group of
data. The portion of the bar occupied by each sub-class reflect its proportion in
the total .

Table 4.9: Hypothetical data on sales of mobile set ( in thousand) in four

metropolitan city.
Metropolitan City Year
2006 2007 2008
Chennai 11 15 24
Delhi 15 22 30
Kolkatta 10 12 18
Mumbai 09 17 22

A sub-divided bar diagram for the hypothetical data given in above Table 4.9 is
drawn in Fig. 4.5
Frequency

Metropolitan City
Fig. 4.5: Subdivided Bar diagram

4.5.3 Multiple Bar Diagram

This diagram is used when comparison are to be shown between two or more
sets of interrelated phenomena or variables. A set of bars for person, place or 57
Introduction to Statistics related phenomena are drawn side by side without any gap. To distinguish between
the different bars in a set, different colours, shades are used.

Table 4.10: A group of three students were assessed on three different

psychological parameters like, anxiety, adjustment, and stress.

Students Anxiety Adjustment Stress

X 20 15 30
Y 12 25 16
Z 18 13 25
Multiple bar diagram for the hypothetical data given in table 4.10 is drawn in
Fig. 4.6.
Anxiety
Adjustment
Stress
Psychological Parameters

Psychological Parameters

Fig. 4.6: Multiple Bar diagram

4.5.4 Pie Diagram

It is also known as angular diagram. A pie chart or diagram is a circle divided
into component sectors corresponding to the frequencies of the variables in the
distribution. Each sector will be proportional to the frequency of the variable in
the group. A circle represent 3600. So 360 angle is divided in proportion to
percentages. The degrees represented by the various component parts of given
magnitude can be obtained by using this formula.

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 Component Value Frequency Distribution and
Degree of any component part = ——————————— ×360° Graphical Presentation
Total Value

After the calculation of the angles for each component, segments are drawn in
the circle in succession corresponding to the angles at the center for each segment.
Different segments are shaded with different colour, shades or numbers.

Table 4.11: 1000 software engineers pass out from a institute X and they
were placed in four different company in 2009.
Company Placement
A 400
B 200
C 300
D 100
Pie Diagram Representing Placement in four different company.

Fig.4.7: Pie diagram representing placement in four companies

4.5.5 Pictograms
It is known as cartographs also. In pictogram we used appropriate picture to
represent the data. The number of picture or the size of the picture being
proportional to the values of the different magnitudes to be presented. For showing
population of human beings, human figures are used. We may represent 1 Lakh
people by one human figure. Pictograms present only approximate values.

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Introduction to Statistics
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain the following terms:
i) Frequency polygon
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ii) Bar diagram
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iii) Subdivided bar diagram
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iv) Multiple bar diagram
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v) Pie diagram
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4.6 LET US SUM UP

Data collected from primary sources are always in rudimentary form. These
unsystematic raw data would fail to reveal any meaningful information to us. To
draw conclusions these data must be arranged or organise in a standard way.
This can be done with the help of classification. There are various types of
frequency distributions e.g., relative frequency distribution, cumulative frequency
distribution, cumulative relative frequency distribution.
After classifying the raw data, its good presentation is also equally important. A
good presentation enables us to highlight important features of the data and make
fit for comparison and further statistical analysis. This can be achieved through
statistical table, histogram, frequency polygon, cumulative frequency curve. Bar
diagram, sub-divided bar diagram, multiple bar diagram, and pie diagram are
also used for diagrammatic presentation of statistical data.

4.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What do you mean by classification? Discuss its various methods with
suitable examples.
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2) Following are the marks obtained by 30 students of psychology in their Frequency Distribution and
Graphical Presentation
annual examination. Classify them in a frequency table.
30, 35, 36, 35, 19, 25, 63, 50, 32, 58, 55, 28, 43, 19, 40, 51,
56, 15, 14, 31, 56, 62, 22, 46, 52, 17, 54, 37, 16, 50.
3) Construct a “less than” cumulative and “ more than” cumulative frequency
distribution from the following data.
Class Interval 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
Frequency 7 9 12 8 13 5
4) State different parts of of a statistical table.
5) Distinguish between classification and tabulation.
6) Prepare histogram and frequency polygon from the following table
Class Interval : 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Frequency 5 9 16 14 6
7) Differentiate between the following pairs of terms
i) Histogram and bar diagram
ii) Frequency polygon and cumulative frequency curve
iii) Sub-divided bar diagram and multiple bar diagram.

4.8 GLOSSARY
Abscissa (X-axis) : The horizontal axis of a graph.
Array : A rough grouping of data.
Bar diagram : It is thick vertical lines corresponding to
values of variables.
Body of the Table : This is the real table and contains numerical
information or data in different cells
Caption : It is part of table, which labels data presented
in the column of table.
Classification : A systematic grouping of data.
Continuous : When data are in regular in a classification.
Cumulative frequency : A classification, which shows the cumulative
distribution frequency below, the upper real limit of the
corresponding class interval.
Data : Any sort of information that can be analysed.
Discrete : When data are counted in a classification.
Exclusive classification : The classification system in which the upper
limit of the class becomes the lower limit of
next class.
Histogram : It is a set of adjacent rectangles presented
vertically with areas proportional to the
frequencies.

61
Introduction to Statistics Frequency distribution : Arrangement of data values according to their
magnitude.
Frequency Polygon : It is a broken line graph to represent frequency
distribution.
Inclusive classification : When the lower limit of a class differs the
upper limit of its successive class.
Ogive : It is the graph of cumulative frequency
Open-end distributions : Classification having no lower or upper
endpoints.
Ordinate (Y-axis) : The vertical axis of a graph.
Pictogram : In pictogram data are presented in the form
of pictures.
Pie diagram : It is a circle sub-divided into components to
present proportion of different constituent
parts of a total
Primary data : The information gathered direct from the
variable.
Qualitative classification : When data are classified on the basis of
attributes.
Quantitative classification : When data are classified on the basis of
number or frequency
Relative frequency : It is a frequency distribution where the
distribution frequency of each value is expressed as a
fraction or percentage of the total number of
observations.
Secondary data : Informatio n gathered t hrough already
maintained records about a variable.
Stub : It is a part of table. It stands for brief and self
explanatory headings of rows.
Tabulation : It is a systematic presentation of classified data
in rows and columns with appropriate
headings and sub headings.

4.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Asthana, H. S. and Bhushan, B. (2007). Statistics for Social Sciences (with SPSS
Application). Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.

Yale, G. U., and M.G. Kendall (1991). An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics.
Universal Books, Delhi.

Garret, H. E. (2005). Statistics in Psychology and Education. Jain publishing,

India.
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Nagar, A. L., and Das, R. K. (1983). Basic Statistics. Oxford University Press, Frequency Distribution and
Graphical Presentation
Delhi.

Elhance, D. N., and Elhance, V. (1988). Fundamentals of Statistics. Kitab Mahal,

Allahabad.

Sani, F., and Todman, J. (2006). Experimental Design and Statistics for
Psychology. A first course book. Blackwell Publishing.

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