Chapter 5: Flow of Liquids 59

CHAPTER
4
FLOW OF LIQUIDS :

Flow of ideal liquids or liquids of small or negligible viscosity 59

The equation of continuity 59
Bernoulli’s equation 61
Flow meter 64
Flow of incompressible viscous liquid 67
Turbulent flow 68
Flow resistance 70
Blood flow in blood vessels 72
Questions 76

The flow of liquids in human, animal and plant circulatory

systems is very important. Because of their flow, food could be
transported inside these organisms and the metabolite wastes are
rejected outside.
As a matter of fact the flow of liquids is affected by their
physical properties such as the viscosity. Accordingly and based on
the liquids viscosity behaviour the study of their flow is divided into
two main categories :
1) Ideal liquids or incompressible liquids of very small viscosity.
2) Incompressible liquids of moderate viscosity.
Flow of ideal liquids or liquids of small or negligible viscosity:
The flow of ideal liquids or liquids of small viscosity is usually
governed by what is called the equation of continuity and Bernoulli’s
equation. The flow of liquids in this case is usually in the form of
streamline or laminar layers having approximately the same velocity.
The equation of continuity:
Consider the situation where an incompressible fluid flowing in a
certain vessel. Then if more fluid enters one end of this vessel, an
60 Chapter 5 : Flow of Liquids

equal amount must leave the other end. This principle is called the
equation of continuity. That is when a liquid is entering a certain tube
with a rate of flow Q1, then it should leave with the same flow rate
Q2. Thus the equation of continuity is :
Q1 = Q2 (1)
Now let us apply the equation of continuity on the flow of liquid
through two connecting tubes of different cross-sectional areas A1
and A2 as shown in Fig. (1).
A1 v1 A2 v2

Q2
Q1

Δ L1 Δ L2

Fig. (1). Flow of an ideal liquid through tubes of different radii

Since the rate of flow of liquid Q is the volume of liquid flowing past
a point in a tube or channel per unit time:
ΔV 3 −1
Q= ms (2)
Δt
Then

ΔV1 ΔL
Q1 = = A1 1 = A1v1
Δt Δt
where ΔL is the change in the stream of the liquid moving with an
average velocity v1 during a period of time Δt.
Similarly the rate of flow in the other tube is :

ΔV2 ΔL 2
Q2 = = A2 = A2v2
Δt Δt
Thus according to the equation of continuity.
Q1 =Q2 that is A1v1 = A2v2 (3)
This means that the product of the cross-sectional area and the
velocity of the liquid streaming in a vessels of different cross-sections
is constant.
Chapter 5: Flow of Liquids 61

Example (1):
Water flows through a tube, of radius 1 cm ended with a hose of
radius 0.5 cm, at rate of 3 liters per minute. Calculate the velocity in
both the tube and hose.
Solution:
ΔV 3000cm 3 × 10 −6 m
Q= = = 5×10−5 m3s−1
Δt 60s
Since Q = A1v1 = A2v2 and A1 = πr12 and A2 = πr22
Where r1 and r2 are the radii of the tube and hose respectively, then
the velocity v1 in the tube is
Q Q 5 × 10 −5 m3s −1
v1 = = 2 = = 0.637 ms−1
A1 πr2 3.14(1) 2 cm × 10 −4 m
Similarly the velocity v2 in the hose is
Q Q 5 × 10−5 m3s −1
v2 = = 2 = −
= 0.159 ms−1
A 2 πr2 3.14(0.5) cm × 10 m
2 4

By comparing the values of v1 and v2, it is clear that the velocity v2 of

the water in the hose of the smaller radius, r2, is greater than its
velocity v1 in the tube of greater radius, r2. Accordingly we can
rewrite equation (3) to be in the form:
A1 πr 2 r
v2 = v1 = v1 12 = v1 ( 1 ) 2 (4)
A2 πr1 r2
That is the water flows faster in the narrow channel or tube.

Bernoulli’s Equation:
It was found by Bernoulli in the 1930s that the work done on a fluid
as it flows from one place to another is equal to the change in its
mechanical energy. This means that the energy per unit volume at any
point in the flowing fluid should be constant. Bernoulli’s equation can
be used under the following conditions:
1. The fluid is incompressible; its density remains constant.
2. The fluid does not have appreciable frictional effect, it is non-
viscous. Consequently, no mechanical energy is lost due to
friction.
3. The flow is streamline, not turbulent.
62 Chapter 5 : Flow of Liquids

4. The velocity of the fluid at any point does not change during
the period of observation.
Using the law of conservation of energy, it is easy to get the sum of
energies per unit volume at the inlet and outlet of the tubes shown in
Fig. (2). By equating these sum we get Bernoulli’s equation in the
form
P1 + ½ ρ v12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ½ ρ v 22 + ρgh2 (5)

V A2

A1 h2
v1
h1

Base line

Fig. (2). Flow of liquid through a tube of different diameters and heights from a
certain base line.
where P1 & P2 and v1 & v2 are the pressures and velocities of the
liquid of density ρ, at the inlet and outlet of tubes of cross-sectional
areas A1 and A2 respectively. h1 and h2 are the tube heights above the
base line.
If the tubes are horizontally located, that is at the same heights,
h1=h2, then equation (5) becomes :

P1 + ½ ρ v12 = P2 + ½ρ v 22 (6)
While if the liquid in the tubes of Fig (2) is at rest, that is v1 = v2, then
according to equation (5) the difference in pressures at the inlet and
outlet of the tube system is :
P1 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρgh2 that is
P1 – P2 = ρg(h2 – h1) (7)

If P2 is at atmospheric pressure, Patom, and h = h2 – h1, then

P1 = Patm + ρgh
This equation is the same as that given before in chapter (4), Eq. (2).
Chapter 5: Flow of Liquids 63

Example (2):
The pressure 1 m above a floor is measured to be normal atmospheric
pressure, 1.03×105 Pa. How much greater is the pressure at the floor
if the temperature is 0oC?
[The density of air at atmospheric pressure and 0oC is 1.29 Kgm-3].

Solution:
The pressure at the floor PF = Patm + ρ g h, then
PF = 1.013×105 Pa + (1.29 Kgm−3)(9.8 ms−2) (1 m)
= (1.013×105 + 12.6) Pa

Example (3):
A liquid of density 850 Kgm−3 flows through a horizontal tube of
radius 0.03 m at an absolute pressure of 1.6×105 Pa. At a certain
section the tube is constricted so that its radius becomes a 0.02 m,
consequently the pressure is changed to 1.1×105 Pa. Calculate the
velocity and the rate of flow of liquid in the constricted tube section.
Solution:
Since the tube is in the horizontal position, then
P1+½ρ v12 = P2 + ½ ρ v 22 that is
P1 − P2 1 2 (1.6 − 1.1) × 105 0.5 × 105 2 -2
= ( v 2 − v12 ) = = m s (i)
ρ 2 850 850
From the equation of continuity
A1v1 = A2v2, then

2 2 (0.03) 2
(0.03) v1 = (0.02) v2 , v2 = v1
(0.02) 2
v2 = 2.25 v1 (ii)
Apply from (ii) to (i) then
v1 = 5.9 ms−1 , v2 = 13.275 ms−1
The rate of flow Q = A1v1 or A2v2
= π r12 v1 = 3.14×(0.03 m)2 (5.9 ms-1) = 16.6×10−3m3s−1
64 Chapter 5 : Flow of Liquids

Example (4):
Calculate the percentage ratio of decrease in the blood pressure of the
aorta due to atheroscleratic plaque and the consequences decrease in
its cross-sectional area of 1/5 from the original (neglect the viscosity of
the blood, at this small section, and the effect of height). Note that the
average blood pressure and the density are 100 mmHg and 1000
Kgm−3 respectively and its velocity before blockage is 0.12 ms−1.

Solution:

Since the effect of height is neglected, then

ρ
P1 – P2 = ( v 22 − v12 ) (i)
2
Since, A1v1 = A2v2 then v1 = 1/5 v2 or v2 = 5v1

Applying in (i) then

ΔP = P1 − P2 =
ρ
2
(25v12 − v12 ) =
1000
2
[ 1
]
24 × (0.12ms − ) 2 = 172.8Pa

To get the blood percentage decrease, we have to convert the normal

blood pressure, 100 mmHg, to Pascal unit
Pblood = hρg = 100 mmHg× 10−3 m × 13600 Kgm−3×9.8 ms−2

≅ 1.36×104 Pa
The percentage decrease in blood pressure

ΔP 172.8
×100 = ×100 ≅ 1.27%
P 13600

This means that the decrease in the aorta blood pressure at a certain
section, due to partial block, leads to a corresponding increase of its
velocity in that section.

Flow meter:
The concepts of Bernoulli equation is applied to measure the
flow in blood vessels, the airspeed of planes, and many other flow
rates.
Chapter 5: Flow of Liquids 65

The horizontal constricted pipe illustrated in Fig. (3), known as a

venture tube, can be used to measure flow velocities in an
incompressible fluid. If the pressure difference, P1-P2, between the
tube ends is measured then the flow velocity, v2, could be calculated
according to the following treatment.
Since the pipe is horizontal, then Bernoulli’s equation is:

P1 + ½ ρ v12 = P2 + ½ ρ v 22
A2
From the equation of continuity we get A1v1 = A2v2 or v1= v2
A1
where A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas of the tube parts as
shown in Fig. (3).

P1
P2
Fig. (3): Schematic diagram
of a venture tube.
The pressure P1 is v1
greater than P2, v2
since v1 < v2. A21
A1

Substituting the value of v1 in the previous Bernoulli Eq.

gives
2
⎛A ⎞
P1 + ½ ρ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ v 22 = P2 + ½ ρ v 22
⎝ A1 ⎠
2(P1 − P2 )
v2 = A1 (8)
ρ(A12 − A 22 )

Note that since A2 < A1, it follows that P1 is greater than P2. In other
words, the pressure is reduced in the constricted part of the pipe.
Bernoulli’s equation has many applications in our life as an example
in the operation of airplane. The shapes of airplane wings are
designed such that the upper surface has a smaller radius of curvature
than the lower surface, Fig. (4). Air flowing over the upper surface
follows more of a curved path than the air flowing over the lower
66 Chapter 5 : Flow of Liquids

surface. Such difference in air flow over the upper and lower surfaces
creates a difference in pressure and consequently a net upward force
F on the wing, called the dynamic lift, depends on several factors
such as the speed of the airplane, the area of the wing, its curvature,
and the angle between the wing and the horizontal.
F
Fig. (4). Streamline flow around an airplane
wing. The pressure above is less than
that below, and hence there is a
dynamic upward lift force, F.

Also a number of devices operates in a manner described in Fig. (5).

A stream of air passing over an open tube reduces the pressure above
the tube. This reduction in pressure causes the liquid to rise into the
air stream. The liquid is then dispersed into a fine spray of droplets.
This is the atomizer action which is the same as the action of car
carburetor.

Fig. (5). Schematic representation of the

atomizer.

If a person has advanced arteriosclerosis, the Bernoulli principle

produces a sign called vascular flutter. In this situation, the artery is
constricted as a result of an accumulation of plaque on its inner walls.
In order to maintain a constant flow rate through such a constricted
artery, the driving pressure must increase. Such an increase requires a
greater demand on the heart muscles. If the blood velocity is
sufficiently high in the constricted region, the artery may collapse
under external pressure, causing a momentary interruption in blood
flow. At this point, there is no Bernoulli principle and the vessel
reopens under arterial pressure. As the blood rushes through the
constricted artery, the internal pressure drops and again the artery
closes. Such variations in blood flow can be heard with a stethoscope.
Chapter 5: Flow of Liquids 67

If the plaque becomes dislodged and ends up in a smaller vessel that

delivers blood to the heart, the person can suffer a heart attack.

Flow of incompressible viscous liquid:

Since the viscosity of a certain liquid causes a loss in energy during
its flow. Accordingly the total energy per unit volume, Bernoulli’s
principle, is not constant along the path of such viscous fluid. This
means that we can not apply Bernoulli’s equation to describe the flow
of a viscous fluid.
In the nineteen century the French scientist Poiseulle noticed that the
rate of laminar flow, Q, of a viscous liquid through a cylindrical tube,
Fig. (6), is directly proportional to the difference in pressure, ΔP,
along the length of the tube L, that is the pressure gradient ΔP/L) and
also to the fourth power of the tube radius, r. Then the rate of flow Q,
Poiseulle’s law, can be written as
πΔPr 4
Q= (9)
8ηL
where η is the viscosity of the liquid.
Poiseuille’s law indicates that high viscosity leads to low flow rates,
which is reasonable. It also shows that the flow rate is proportional to
r4. That is the rate is extremely dependent on the radius of the tube.
This implies, for example, that in blood vessels moderate adjustments
in the radius can produce large changes in the flow rates. This gives
the body a very effective way of adjusting the blood flow and
responding to changing requirements.

Example (5):
A large artery in a dog has an inner radius of 4×10-3m. If the blood
flows through this artery at the rate of 10-6m3s-1.
Find: (a) The average and maximum velocities of the blood.
(b) the pressure drop in a 0.1 m long segment of the artery.
Given that the viscosity of the blood is 2.084×10−3 Pas.

Solution:
The average velocity is :
68 Chapter 5 : Flow of Liquids

Q Q 10 −6 m 3s −1
v= = 2 = = 1.99 × 10 −2 m −1
A πr π(4 × 10 −3 m) 2
vmax = 2 v = 2(1.99×10-2ms-1) = 3.98×10-2ms-1
8ηLv
ΔP =
r2

= 2.07 Pa

Fig. (6). Laminar flow of a viscous

liquid. The maximum velocity
vmax occurs at the center. Vmax

Turbulent flow:
If a gradual increase in the velocity of a viscous fluid flowing in a
tube, due to the gradual reduction in its radius, the velocity of this
fluid will reach a critical velocity, vc , above which the laminar flow
changes into turbulent flow as shown in Fig. (7).

Fig. (7). The conversion of liquid flow from laminar to turbulent due to the
increase in the liquid velocity.
In order to determine whether the flow is laminar and thus whether
Poissouille’s law can be applied, we can make use of one of an
empirical rule. It states that the value of a dimensionless quantity
called Reynolds number NR determines whether the flow is turbulent
or laminar.
Consider a fluid of viscosity η and density ρ. If it is flowing in a
tube of radius, r, and has an average velocity, v , then the Reynolds
number is defined by
2ρvr
NR = (10)
η
In tubes, it is found experimentally that if,
NR < 2000 flow is laminar.
Chapter 5: Flow of Liquids 69

NR > 3000 flow is turbulent.

2000 < NR < 3000 flow is unstable (may change from laminar to
turbulent or vice versa).
Laminar flow is more efficient than turbulent flow. This is clearly
illustrated in Fig. (8a) in which the slope of the curve in the laminar
flow region is greater than that in the turbulent flow region. That is, a
given increase in pressure causes a greater increase in the laminar
flow rate than in the turbulent flow rate. The reduction in efficiency is
apparent in the blood flow through an artery with an obstruction as
shown in Fig. (8b).

Turbulent
Flow ΔP1
Flow rate
Laminar Normal
rate artery
QB
Q
QA
ΔP2 Obstructed
artery

Pc Pressure Pressure

(a) (b)
Fig (8). (a) The relation between the rate of flow of blood and the pressure.
The increase in the blood pressure and consequently the velocity to a
value greater than the critical value Pc leads to change the rate of
flow from laminar to turbulent. (b) If an artery is obstructed then it
needs more pressure ΔP2 to give the same rate of flow (QB-QA) as in
case of normal, ΔP1 (ΔP2 > ΔP1).

It is clear that if both arteries are required to deliver the same flow
rate, Q = QB-QA, the change in pressure ΔP2 in the obstructed artery
will be much greater than that of normal artery, ΔP1, because the flow
in the obstructed case is turbulent.

Example (6):
Calculate the Reynolds number and the type of blood flow streaming
through an artery, of radius 4×10−3 m, with average velocity
1.99×10−2 ms−1.Given that the viscosity and density of blood are
2.084×10−3 Pas and 1.0595×103 Kgm−3 respectively.

Solution:
70 Chapter 5 : Flow of Liquids

2ρvr 2(1.059 × 103 Kgm −3 )(1.99 × 10− 2 ms−1 )(4 × 10− m)

3

NR = =
η 2.08 × 10−3 Pas
= 80.9
This value is much less than 2000, so the flow is laminar .
In turbulent flow, some energy is dissipated as sound and some as
heat. The noise associated with turbulent flow in arteries facilitates
blood pressure measurements, as described in chapter four, in
addition, it makes possible the detection of some heart abnormalities
by the use of stethoscope.

Flow resistance:
The flow resistance Rf is defined, in general, as the ratio of pressure
drop to the flow rate of any kinds. That is,
ΔP
Rf = (11)
Q
When the flow is laminar, we can compare this with the Poiseuille’s
law. Then we get:
8ηL
Rf = (12)
πr 4
From definition the units of flow resistance is Pascal-second per cubic
−3 −3
meter, Pa s m . We will use (KPa s m ). In physiology texts the unit
of flow resistance is
-3 5 −3
1 torr s cm = 1.33×10 KPa s m
The flow resistance in a large artery is smaller than that in the small
one. This explains why the pressure drop in large areteries is small.
The following example will clarify this fact.

Example (7):
−2
The aorta of an average adult human has a radius 1.3×10 m. What
are the resistance and pressure drop over a 0.2m distance, assuming a
flow rate of 10−4m3s-1 and η for blood is 2.0844×10 Pas.
-3

Solution:
Chapter 5: Flow of Liquids 71

8ηL 8 (2.08 × 10−3 Pas)(0.2m)

Rf = =
πr 4 π (1.3 × 10− 2 m) 4
= 3.72×104 Pasm−3 = 37.2 KPasm−3
ΔP = RfQ

= (37.2 KPasm−3)(10-4 m3 s-1 )= 0.00372 K Pa

This is very small compared to the total pressure drop in the whole
body system which is about 13.3 Kpa. Most of the flow resistance and
pressure drops occur in the smaller arteries and vascular beds of the
body.
The flow resistance of a collection of arteries, such as the mesenteric
bed of the dog, can be measured or calculated. The calculation can be
done by considering, for example, that all arteries of a given size are
in parallel. Also each artery carries its equal share of the total flow. If
the flow through one aretery of resistance Rf1 is Q1, then from Eq.
(11).
ΔP
Q1 =
R f1
Where ΔP is the pressure across all arteries. If there are N identical
arteries, the total flow Q = Q1 + Q2 + …. Qn or
NΔP
Q=
R f1
If we define the equivalent flow resistance Rp of this arrangement by
ΔP
Q= , then
Rp

R f1
Rp = (13)
N

Example (8):
If the radius of a single capillary is 4×10-6 m and its length is 10-3 m,
then calculate the net resistance of the 4.73×107 capillaries in the
mesenteric vascular bed of a dog if they are assumed to be in parallel.
(ηblood = 2.084×10−3 Pas).
Solution:
72 Chapter 5 : Flow of Liquids

8ηL 8(2.084 × 10 −3 Pas)(10 −3 m)

R f1 = =
πr 4 π(4 × 10 −6 m) 4
= 2.073×1016 Pa sm-3 = 2.073×1013 KPasm-3
Since there are N = 4.73×107 capillaries in parallel, so their effective
resistance is
R f1 2.073 × 1013 KPasm −3 5 -3
Rf = = = 4.38×10 KPasm
N 4.73 × 10 7

Blood flow in blood vessels

Blood is a viscous liquid contains many different constituents,
including red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and proteins.
Accordingly, its flow through the body blood vessel is laminar but in
special conditions are turbulent. This turbulent flow generally
occurred at the heart valve edges, during high body activity and in
case of the presence of certain obstruction inside the arteries.
As the blood goes from the aorta into the smaller areteries and
areterioles with greater total corss-sectional areas the velocity of the
blood decreases as shown in Fig. (9).

0.3 ms−1 600cm2

Area
velocity 0.05 ms−1

Area

2
3 cm

Aorta Capillaries Vena

cava
Fig. (9). The change in velocity (solid lines) and the cross-sectional area (dashed
curve) during the flow of blood in the circulatory system.
It shows how the velocity of the blood is related in an inverse way to
the total cross-sectional area of the vessels carrying the blood. Thus if
a certain artery is branched into, n, arterioles of equal cross-sectional
Chapter 5: Flow of Liquids 73

area, then according to Poiseuille’s law and in order to keep the

pressure gradient constant, the area of the artery should be n . To
clarify this information, let us consider the following example.

Example (9):
A blood artery of radius r1 is branched to n arterioles each of equal
radius r2. What is the relation between the areas and velocity of the
artery and arterioles.

Solution:

The relation between the areas;

Since A1v1 = nA2v2 then from Poiseuile’s law

πr14ΔP nπr24ΔP
= that is
8ηL 8ηL

π r 14 = nπ r 42 , r 12 = n r 22 that is A1 = n A2 (14)
The relation between velocities

Since Q1 = Q2 and A1 = n A2, Eq. 14, then

A1v1 = nA2v2 , n A2v1 = nA2v2,

v1
that is v2 = (15)
n
Eq. 15 indicates that the velocity in the arterioles is much less than
that in the artery. For example if the velocity in the aorta is about 0.3
ms−1, then by the use of Eq. 15, the velocity in the ten equal branched
arterioles will be 0.094 m s-1.
In summary the gradual decrease in the velocity of blood when
streaming in the circulatory system is due to the blood viscosity and
the increase in the total cross-sectional areas. Such decrease
represents a dissipation in power and hence energy. This fact could be
clarified, if we rewrite the expression of power as
74 Chapter 5 : Flow of Liquids

work Δx
P= = F. = Fv (16)
time Δt
Where Δx is the change in the blood flow distance under the force F.
v is the resultant average velocity of blood flow. Since F equals the
difference in pressure ΔP time the cross-section A, then Eq. (16)
becomes
P = F v = ΔPA v = ΔP πr2 v = ΔPQ (17)
where Q is the rate of flow.
Equation 17 indicates that the power dissipation in the circulatory
system leads also to the gradual decrease of pressure in the blood
vessels as shown in Fig. 10. It shows the gradual decrease in blood
pressure streaming through arteries, arterioles, capillaries, and veins
during a certain period of time.

Arteries
Arterioles
Pressure
(mmHg)
Capillaries

veins

Time

Fig. (10). The variation of pressure throughout the circulatory system at a certain
period of time where the pressure gradient is constant.
Example (10)−1
1.
b)
8ηLv 8(2.08 × 10 −3 Pas)(0.1m)(1.99 × 10 −3 ms −1 )
ΔP = =
r2 (4 × 10 − 3 ) 2

=2.07 Pa = 0.00207 KPa

Chapter 5: Flow of Liquids 75

2. a liquid, and then define the Reynold’s number.

3. Use the relation between the blood pressure and its rate of
flow for normal aorta and obstructed one to compare between
their behaviors.
4. Define the flow resistance of a certain liquid flowing in a
vessel.
5. A stream of fluid has its cross-sectional area halved in a
certain region. What its average velocity ?
6. The radius of water pipe decreases from 0.2 to 0.1 m. If the
average velocity in the wider portion is 3 ms−1, find the
average velocity in the narrower region.
7. A blood vessel of radius r splits into four vessels, each with
radius r/3. If the average velocity in larger vessel is v, find the
average velocity in each of the smaller vessels.
8. Bernoulli’s equation implies that the work done on the fluid
flowing in a tube must equal its change in potential and
kinetic energy.
a) If dissipative forces are present, how does that affect the
pressure changes as a fluid moves along the tube?
b) Are dissipative forces more or less significant as the flow
velocity increases? Explain.
9. During a whole-blood transfusion, the needle is inserted in a
vein where the pressure is 2000 Pa. At what height must be
the blood container be placed, relative to the vein, so that the
blood just enters the vein?
10. A venture tube has a radius of 1 cm in its narrower portion
and 2 cm in its wider sections. The velocity of water in the
wider sections is 0.1 ms−1. Find (a) the pressure drop; (b) the
velocity in the narrow portion.
11. Two arteries have the same flow rate, but one has twice the
radius of the other. What is the ratio of the pressure drops over
a given distance.
12. A blood vessel of radius 10−3 m has a pressure gradient ΔP/L
of 600 Pa m−1 (Assume laminar flow). (a) What is the flow
o
rate of blood at 37 C in the vessel? (b) What is the maximum
velocity of the blood in the vessel?
13. The pressure drop along a length of a horizontal artery is 100
Pa. The radius of the artery is 0.01 m, and the flow is laminar.
(a) What is the net force on the blood in this portion of the
76 Chapter 5 : Flow of Liquids

artery? (b) If the average velocity of the blood is 1.5×10-

2
ms−1, find the power expended in maintaining the flow.
14. The radius of an artery is increased by a factor of 1.5. (a) If
the pressure drop remains the same, what happens to the flow
rate? (b) If the flow rate stays the same, what happens to the
pressure drop? (Assume laminar flow).
15. Define the type of flow of a liquid has a Reynolds number less
than 2000.
16. A blood vessel of radius R branches into several vessels of
smaller radius r. If the average fluid viscosity in the smaller
vessel is half that in the large vessel, how many vessels of
radius r must be there.
17. A small artery has a length of 1.1×10−3 m and a radius of
−5
2.5×10 m.
a) Calculate its resistance.
b) If the pressure drop across the artery is 1.3 KPa,
what is the flow rate?
18. A glass tube has a radius of 10−3 m and a length of 0.1 m.
a) What is the resistance to the flow of a liquid with a viscosity
of 10−3 Pas?
b) If the pressure drop along the tube is 103 Pa, what is the flow
rate?
19. A glass plate 0.25 m2 in area is pulled at 0.1 ms-1 across a
large glass plate that is at rest. What force is necessary to pull
the upper plate if the space between them is 0.03 m thick and
filled with (a) Water with η = 1.005×10-3 Pas.
(b)oil with η = 0.01 Pas?
(c) why might oil be preferred to water as a lubricant?
20. The average flow rate of blood in the aorta is 4.2×10−6 m3s-1.
The aorta is 1.3×10−2 m in radius
(a) What is the average blood velocity in the aorta?
(b) What is the pressure drop along 0.1m of the aorta?
(c) What is the power required to pump blood through this
portion of the aorta?
21. When a calf is at rest, its heart pumps blood at rate of
6×10-5m3s−1. The pressure drop from the arterial to venous
system is 12 KPa. (a) What is the flow resistance of its
circulatory system? (b) How much work does the heart do in
pumping the blood? (c) An experimental artificial heart
Chapter 5: Flow of Liquids 77

powered by an electrical pump is implanted in place of

animal’s heart. If the pump has an efficiency of 50 percent,
how much electrical power does it require?
22. a) Calculate the flow resistance of a typical human capillary
2×10−6 m in radius and 10-3 m long.
b) Estimate the number of capillaries in a human using this result,
given that the net flow rate through aorta is 9.7×10−5m3s-1 and that
the pressure drop from the arterial system to the venous system is
11.6 KPa. Assume that all the capillaries are in parallel and that
9% of the pressure drop occurs in the capillaries.