6 Silvopasture

Interestingly enough, the animals have found their wetlands and healthy, maturing hardwood forests that
way into almost every inch of the landscape, and thus might be best left to their own process of succession.
the practice of silvopasture is both throughout the Given that silvopasture has an experimental aspect to
landscape and intertwined with the other agroforestry it, working first on more marginal lands is the best way
systems on the farm. In this way, while silvopasture is to begin, offering the opportunity to learn with lower
a specific practice, it often works well as part of other stakes. In ecological approaches to farming, it’s good
practices, depending on the timing and season. For to practice precaution, easing into the development of
instance, we rotate our ducks through the maple grove novel systems, all while carefully monitoring for any
three to four times a season to reduce slug pressure adverse impacts.
on the mushrooms. Our sheep rotate through ripar-
ian buffer zones during dry times, which minimizes 2. Animals are matched to land
harm to the more sensitive ecosystem while provid- type and successional stage.
ing good forage during the hotter summer months. It’s critically important from the outset that the
So much of what we have found at the farm is that appropriate animal is chosen for a given site in order
paying attention and being flexible are key. Nature to reduce the potential of inflicting damage on the
often offers small windows of opportunity for the landscape. Animals are incredible at what they do, but
right conditions to play out, and we need to be ready it cannot be overstated that they have just as much
as farmers to take advantage of all that is occurring at potential to do harm as they do good. While we will
a given point in time. cover considerations for animals in depth in chapter 3,
here is a short list of potential risks for given species:
The Main Components
of Silvopasture Cows. Excessive stocking/duration with their weight
could damage soil and tree roots, as well as cause
Since this is a book primarily about the practice of erosion; also, they can easily destroy young trees.
silvopasture, it is useful at the outset to offer an over- Pigs could root and trample desired vegetation and
view of the key principles and approaches that are part make a moonscape of your woods or pasture in a
of the system, regardless of the specific species or site very short period of time. Pigs are the most challeng-
context at play. Whether you choose to graze sheep in ing animals to incorporate into silvopasture.
a Christmas tree farm, move cows through a walnut Sheep and goats. Depending on forage type, sheep and
plantation, or graze chickens through an apple orchard, goats could overgraze the landscape and/or strip the
these elements are universal for successful silvopasture. bark off young trees, killing them.
Poultry could scratch or root down to bare soil and
1. Silvopasture can be established damage roots and plantings.
in existing woodlands, or trees
can be brought into pasture. You can see from the above list that most of the
One of the nice aspects of silvopasture is that you can problems can be avoided by doing proper assessment
establish a system on almost any type of land. Of course, of the land and engaging with the animals to ensure
establishing it in existing forest is in many ways a very they are moved before they do harm. The key elements
different process than bringing the trees into open pas- of stocking rate, density, and duration in a paddock
ture. The similarities and differences of establishment come into play here; they must be well designed, and
in such different contexts will be discussed in detail in redesigned each year, to optimize the system.
chapters 4 and 5. In addition to choosing the right type of animal for
The only land types on which we might consider the system, careful selection of the specific breed is an
avoiding silvopasture are very sensitive areas such as essential task. Some breeds are able to utilize a wider
 What Is Silvopasture? 7

Figure 1.4. Silvopasture can be designed from either existing forest or pasture. On the left, cattle graze in an existing woodlot thinned
for silvopasture. On the right, cattle graze among established orchard trees. Photos courtesy of Eric Toensmeier (left) and USDA-SARE (right).

range of forage and conditions, whereas others are not as

willing to be as flexible. Chapter 3 discusses the role ani-
mals play in silvopasture systems in much greater detail.

3. Animals are always on a rotation.

Grasses evolved alongside grazing herbivores, and while
it might be surprising, they arguably benefit from being
grazed so long as they have a rest period. For wild graz-
ing animals, such rest is achieved when grazing animals
need to move on to new places because of the threats
predators pose or from seasonal changes to weather
and climate. In the context of modern grazing systems,
designated paddocks, the farmer, and electric fencing
act as the “predator.”
When the animal consumes the top of a plant, a
proportion of the roots are sloughed off or deposited
into the soil, which contributes organic matter content.
After plants are grazed, a rest period is critical to their
recovery, where the shoots grow back. Overgrazing
means these plants take a longer time to recover, while
severe overgrazing means the plant might die alto-
gether. Moving animals is also good for them, as they
have reduced exposure to disease risks and receive the
Figure 1.5. Many sheep and goats will eagerly strip the bark of highest-quality food possible during the season.
young trees such as this black locust, which can set the trees back
or even kill them if the damage is too severe. Still, in many cases
The rotational process also benefits the farmer’s bot-
such as this, the trees recover even after severe damage so long tom line, as it’s been shown to improve the quality and
as the entire bark layer isn’t severed. quantity of forage on the pasture.4 More intensively
8 Silvopasture

Figure 1.6. Cows on a rotational grazing system on a farm in Virginia. Fencing, whether it’s permanent (like this) or temporary, is used to
keep livestock off forage until the timing is right. Perhaps this is where “the grass is always greener” comes from? Photo by Jeff Vanuga
and courtesy of NRCS/USDA.

managing pasture also allows you to feed more animals adopting the practice, especially by graziers who have been
on the same amount of land. The clear promise of man- practicing continuous grazing for some time. Fortunately,
aged grazing comes in your ability to have more control advances in our knowledge and technology have made
over food for your animals, on-site, with the potential rotational grazing easier than ever before. Farmers new to
to increase the value of their feed and thus the number livestock are almost always convinced from the start that
of animals and/or the amount of land and duration of rotating their animals is a good thing, though there are
the season that land can be grazed. many details as to what a rotation can look like, including
How long the organic matter remains in the soil, the size of paddocks, the duration of stay animals have
known as sequestration, is another matter altogether. in a given paddock, and so on. These considerations are
Many rotational grazing proponents laud any practice discussed in chapters 3 and 6 in great detail.
of rotational grazing as an important way to address cli- Regardless of the specifics, it is the universal opinion
mate change. But as always, the details matter. The soil of silvopasture advocates that animals should not be
type, climate, and bioregion, along with the variables of placed in tree-based systems if they will not be man-
management, make it hard to be conclusive, and it’s an aged through rotational grazing.
open debate among scientists.5 Some studies show net
positive effects, while others show that all animal graz- 4. Trees should match the soil
ing systems are emitters of greenhouse gases, no matter type and microclimate
the style or approach.6 and have multiple functions.
Regardless of the climate impacts, rotational grazing is You could arguably plant trees for the sole purpose of
essential to a healthy pasture system. This aspect of silvo- shading the livestock, but why not aim a bit higher?
pasture is non-negotiable, and is often the biggest hurdle for There are so many choices in the temperate climate for
 What Is Silvopasture? 9

offer both a potential food value to animals and poten-

FORAGE VOCABULARY tial wood and timber products down the road.
The goals of the farmer or landowner also come into
Here are a few key phrases we will use throughout
play, as there is no use planting apple trees, for instance,
this book when referring to grazing practices:
if you don’t want to harvest apples. Some farmers want
Forage/fodder. Both of these terms are generally to establish the lowest-maintenance trees possible.
all-encompassing for any type of plant an ani- Some want a yield of fruit in 3 to 5 years or of nuts in
mal is consuming in the pasture, though fodder 5 to 10. And some are happy to plant timber species
usually refers to tree leaves. and wait 50 or more years to harvest. We will discuss
Grasses are monocots and belong to the family options for tree species and weigh the pros and cons of
Poaceae (formerly Gramineae). Leaves of these each in chapter 5.
herbaceous plants generally appear as blades,
with parallel veins. Within grasses there are two 5. Forage and fodder should be
distinct types:
Cool-season grasses (C4) thrive during the
diverse and support a resilient
cooler times of year (spring and late sum- food supply for animals.
mer/fall), when temps are between 40 and One of the largest opportunities in silvopasture is
75 degrees F (4–24 degrees C). the creation of a wide range of ecotypes, which can
Warm-season grasses (C3) grow best during the support a wider range of grasses, forbs, herbaceous
heat of the summer, when temps are between plants, and trees for animal feed. This gives animals
70 and 95 degrees F (21–35 degrees C).
a more diverse and healthy diet that is not only
Forbs. The general term forb refers to any herba-
ceous, broadleaf plant (non-grasses) without nutritious but also medicinal. In essence, the design
regard to family classification, and would include of a diverse silvopasture offers animals a habitat that
legumes, flowers, and other forage plants. might resemble or even exceed their original experi-
Legumes. Pod-forming plants in the family Faba- ence grazing in the wild.
ceae (or Leguminosae) valued for their ability to Modern farming has greatly oversimplified the ani-
fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. mals’ experience of seeking food; in some operations
Browse. Plants other than grasses and forbs; these animals only visit the feed bin for grain or hay. This not
are usually taller and often woody plants, such
only offers animals a limited diet in terms of nutrition,
as trees, shrubs, and vines. This word overlaps
with some definitions of fodder. but also starves their innate desire to seek out food in
the landscape. Behavior specialists argue that this creates
boredom in animals, which can lead to disease and to a
lower quality in the final product. Ethics and markets
also come into play, as animals have an innate right to live
trees that will do well in even the worst of soils, that a good-quality life, and more and more consumers are
provide not only shade but also a number of other pos- lining up with their dollars to support farming practices
sible yields. Of course, the yields will depend on how that promote animal welfare. More on this in chapter 3.
the trees are managed and are often easier to “control” In addition to supporting the overall health and
when you’re establishing a silvopasture in open field well-being of the animals, a focus on diverse forage also
conditions versus an existing forest. provides an economic incentive for the farmer. More
While you could choose any number of trees to plant diversity in feeds should reduce the feed bill, and also
into a silvopasture, there is a shorter list of trees that offer provide food in lean times, because tree-based systems
specific benefits in the context of silvopasture systems can often buffer better against long-term drought and
(see chapter 5). These trees are generally fast growing, even excessive rain. Grasses grow on a bell curve, often
hardy, and resilient to weather and climate. They often peaking in early summer with lower production in July
10 Silvopasture

Figure 1.7. This sheep paddock at Wellspring Forest Farm includes access to willow and black locust fodder, as well as a clover- and orchard-
grass-rich pasture. This allows each animal to explore and meet its specific individual dietary needs, which are diverse, like those of people.

and August—unless the forages are shaded and can a mild shade, allowing the space underneath to be cool
thus remain better quality for a longer period of time. and somewhat shady but not to the point where grasses
The invitation to include trees into grazing systems is would be stressed for light. More on forage and fodder
ultimately one to create more dynamic ecosystems for considerations in chapter 5.
our animals to explore.
Careful matching of forages to the micro-envi- 6. The system is ideally optimized
ronments on the farm is the challenge. For example, to stack inputs and outputs
for most silvopasture in the eastern United States, in both space and time.
cool-season grasses are utilized, as they excel in part- The beauty in silvopasture systems is not in the parts
sun environments. Warm-season grasses are best for but in the complex whole created by bringing all the
overly sunny or dry areas, or warmer climates. The parts together. Yet with complexity comes a challenge
trees effectively help retain optimal conditions for in management—this is indeed why agriculture in
cool-season grasses throughout the summer months. the United States and other industrialized nations
This, coupled with the careful selection of trees that has been on a general trend toward more straight
leaf out at various times and provide a range of shade rows, single-species monoculture, and rationed feeds.
conditions, can optimize production. For instance, It’s easier to do the math. But as we will discuss, the
black locust is a great silvopasture species, as it leafs benefits of creating a more complex ecology outweigh
out late in the spring, and when fully leafed out casts the time it takes to design, establish, and manage such
 What Is Silvopasture? 11

a system. Each chapter in this book walks readers categories: those that support the farm, and those that
through the process, and helps make more sense of support the larger world community. Here, we will
the complexities. flesh out these benefits in order to get the big picture of
Be patient with yourself. Few of us are raised in silvopasture as one of the more remarkable agricultural
cultures where we understand a more natural way of systems available to us.
farming. Many are interested in the concept of a more
complex ecology, yet find themselves overwhelmed and Benefits to the Farmer and Land
frustrated as they try to comprehend things. It’s wise, Most important to getting more silvopasture practiced
then, to start small and slow, especially if you are new on the ground are the opportunities it provides to
to one or more of the two main aspects of this prac- farmers and land managers. The following can be seen
tice: grazing and forestry. Draw upon the knowledge as the foundation of an argument for silvopasture,
of others, and recognize that you’re in for a lifetime of while many of the secondary benefits are positive
learning. Get the foundations of grazing right from the effects on the regional and global scale, described in
start, then bring in the forestry aspects. The content of the next section.
this book, along with the case studies of farms actively
practicing silvopasture, will help paint a picture of how 1. Increased use of farmland for production.
this can be done. Whether or not it produces, land costs money to own.
There are many acres of land that are in farms, but not
The Benefits of Silvopasture used. These are often edges, hedgerows, and forest-
land. In New York State, for example, 21 percent of
Usually, farmers and landowners get into silvopasture farmland is forest, much of which is only periodically
to take advantage of one or more of its benefits. In 2014 visited and used for activities such as hunting, fire-
forestry professor and agroforestry advocate Joe Orefice wood harvesting, and a periodic timber harvest. Much
interviewed 20 farmers in the Northeast who were of this forested land is not pristine woods but a mix
intentionally practicing silvopasture on their land.7 His of young trees, thorny shrubs, and thickets that don’t
research found that the top four reasons these farmers allow easy passage.
were using this system were: Silvopasture presents an opportunity to use these
more marginal stands of forest. Animals can benefit
1. Shade for livestock. from the protective aspects the forest has to offer, while
2. Expanding pasture acreage and diversity. the farmer benefits from better utilization of his or her
3. Increased utilization of existing farm woodland. land, as well as a diverse ecology of habitats to work
4. Increased forage availability during midsummer from in a dynamic and ever-changing climate.
and droughts. On our small farm, we were amazed at just how
much land we were missing out on using on our own
Other less important reasons mentioned by respondents property and the acreage we lease. Using Google Earth,
included diversifying livestock diet, overall animal we quickly realized that by getting into the acres that
welfare, the management of undesired vegetation, tree were “scrubby” and marginal we could increase grazable
health/fertilization, and increased farm aesthetics. land that we both own and lease from 22 to 30 acres, a
Each landowner will have to determine for him- or significant increase.
herself what the main motivations are for engaging in
silvopasture. While we can promote myriad benefits to 2. Increased carrying capacity and stocking rate.
farms and the land, in the end the ability to manage While one aspect of being able to raise more animals is the
a system comes down to economics: Can we pay the ability to utilize more acres of land, as addressed above,
bills or not? So think about arranging benefits in two a second is the ability to increase both the quantity and